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id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Joseph II" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Joseph II (disambiguation)">Joseph II (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><p><b>Joseph II</b> (13 March 1741 – 20 February 1790) was <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> from 18 August 1765 and sole ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a> from 29 November 1780 until his death. He was the eldest son of <a href="/wiki/Empress_Maria_Theresa" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress Maria Theresa">Empress Maria Theresa</a> and her husband, <a href="/wiki/Francis_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Francis I</a>, and the brother of <a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Carolina_of_Austria" title="Maria Carolina of Austria">Maria Carolina of Austria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maria_Amalia,_Duchess_of_Parma" title="Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma">Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma</a>. He was thus the first ruler in the Austrian dominions of the union of the Houses of <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lorraine" title="House of Lorraine">Lorraine</a>, styled <a href="/wiki/Habsburg-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg-Lorraine">Habsburg-Lorraine</a>. </p><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Joseph II</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Anton_von_Maron_006.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Anton_von_Maron_006.png/220px-Anton_von_Maron_006.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Anton_von_Maron_006.png/330px-Anton_von_Maron_006.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Anton_von_Maron_006.png/440px-Anton_von_Maron_006.png 2x" data-file-width="1138" data-file-height="1609"></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;">Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Anton_von_Maron" title="Anton von Maron">Anton von Maron</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1775</span></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> <div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal" class="noprint">(<a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Regnal_titles">more...</a>) </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">18 August 1765 – <span class="nowrap">20 February 1790</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor#German_royal_coronation" title="Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor">Coronation</a></th><td class="infobox-data">3 April 1764<br><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Cathedral" title="Frankfurt Cathedral">Frankfurt Cathedral</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Francis_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis I</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Austria" title="List of rulers of Austria">Archduke of Austria</a>,</li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hungarian_monarchs" title="List of Hungarian monarchs">King of Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Croatia">Croatia</a></li></ul></div> and <a href="/wiki/King_of_Bohemia" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">18 August 1765 – <span class="nowrap">20 February 1790</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis I</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold VII/II</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Co-ruler</th><td class="infobox-data">Maria Theresa (1765–1780)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">13 March 1741<br><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nbrunn_Palace" title="Schönbrunn Palace">Schönbrunn Palace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria" title="Archduchy of Austria">Archduchy of Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">20 February 1790<span style="display:none">(1790-02-20)</span> (aged 48)<br>Vienna, Austria</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Burial</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="label"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Crypt" title="Imperial Crypt">Imperial Crypt</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Isabella_of_Parma" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella of Parma">Isabella of Parma</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1760; died 1763)<wbr></wbr></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Josepha_of_Bavaria" title="Maria Josepha of Bavaria">Maria Josepha of Bavaria</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1765; died 1767)<wbr></wbr></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archduchess_Maria_Theresa_of_Austria_(1762%E2%80%931770)" title="Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria (1762–1770)">Archduchess Maria Theresa</a></li><li>Archduchess Maria Christina</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left">Names</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data nickname" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Josephus Benedictus Joannes Antonius Michael Adamus</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">House</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Habsburg-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg-Lorraine">Habsburg-Lorraine</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Father</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Francis_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="notpageimage infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Signature_of_Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Joseph II's signature"><img alt="Joseph II's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Signature_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/125px-Signature_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Signature_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/188px-Signature_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Signature_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/250px-Signature_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="173"></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Joseph was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened absolutism</a>; however, his commitment to secularizing, liberalizing and modernizing reforms resulted in significant opposition, which resulted in failure to fully implement his programs. Meanwhile, despite making some territorial gains, his reckless foreign policy badly isolated Austria. He has been ranked with <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> as one of the three great <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> monarchs. False but influential letters depict him as a somewhat more radical <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophe">philosophe</a></i> than he probably was. His policies are now known as <a href="/wiki/Josephinism" title="Josephinism">Josephinism</a>. </p><p>He was a supporter of the arts, particularly of composers such as <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Salieri" title="Antonio Salieri">Antonio Salieri</a>. He died with no known surviving legitimate offspring and was succeeded by his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a>. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_life"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Early life</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Marriages_and_children"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Marriages and children</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Co-ruler"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Co-ruler</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Sole_reign"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Sole reign</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Domestic_policy"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Domestic policy</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Administrative_policies"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Administrative policies</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Legal_reform"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Legal reform</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Education_and_medicine"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Education and medicine</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Religion"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Religion</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Foreign_policy"><span class="tocnumber">4.6</span> <span class="toctext">Foreign policy</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Reaction"><span class="tocnumber">4.7</span> <span class="toctext">Reaction</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Death"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Death</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Memory_and_legacy"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Memory and legacy</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Popular_memory"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Popular memory</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Patron_of_the_arts"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Patron of the arts</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Coat_of_Arms"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Coat of Arms</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Ancestry"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Ancestry</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Works_cited"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">Works cited</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Regnal_titles"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Regnal titles</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>He was baptised under the full name Josephus Benedictus Joannes Antonius Michael Adamus, born an archduke of Austria. Joseph was born in the midst of the early upheavals of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a>. His formal education was provided through the writings of <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></i>, and by the example of his contemporary (and sometimes rival) King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick II of Prussia</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> His practical training was conferred by government officials, who were directed to instruct him in the mechanical details of the administration of the numerous states composing the Austrian dominions and the Holy Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Marriages_and_children">Marriages and children</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Marriages and children" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_van_Meytens_-_Einzug_der_Braut.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Martin_van_Meytens_-_Einzug_der_Braut.jpg/220px-Martin_van_Meytens_-_Einzug_der_Braut.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="533"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 153px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Martin_van_Meytens_-_Einzug_der_Braut.jpg/220px-Martin_van_Meytens_-_Einzug_der_Braut.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="153" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Martin_van_Meytens_-_Einzug_der_Braut.jpg/330px-Martin_van_Meytens_-_Einzug_der_Braut.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Martin_van_Meytens_-_Einzug_der_Braut.jpg/440px-Martin_van_Meytens_-_Einzug_der_Braut.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption><i>The arrival of Isabella of Parma on the occasion of her wedding to Joseph II, 1760</i> (painting by <a href="/wiki/Martin_van_Meytens" title="Martin van Meytens">Martin van Meytens</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Joseph married <a href="/wiki/Princess_Isabella_of_Parma" title="Princess Isabella of Parma">Princess Isabella of Parma</a> in October 1760, <a href="/wiki/Arranged_marriage" title="Arranged marriage">a union fashioned</a> to bolster the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1756)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1756)">1756 defensive pact</a> between France and Austria. (The bride's mother, Princess <a href="/wiki/Louise_%C3%89lisabeth_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louise Élisabeth of France">Louise Élisabeth</a>, was the eldest daughter of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a> of France and his popular wife, Queen <a href="/wiki/Marie_Leszczy%C5%84ska" title="Marie Leszczyńska">Marie Leczinska</a>. Isabella's father was <a href="/wiki/Philip,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Philip, Duke of Parma">Philip, Duke of Parma</a>.) Joseph loved his bride, Isabella, finding her both stimulating and charming, and she sought with special care to cultivate his favor and affection. Isabella also found a best friend and confidant in her husband's sister, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Christina,_Duchess_of_Teschen" title="Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen">Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen</a>. </p><p>The marriage of Joseph and Isabella resulted in the birth of a daughter, <a href="/wiki/Archduchess_Maria_Theresa_of_Austria_(1762%E2%80%931770)" title="Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria (1762–1770)">Maria Theresa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeales198777_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeales198777-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isabella was fearful of pregnancy and early death, largely a result of the early loss of her mother. Her own pregnancy proved especially difficult as she suffered symptoms of pain, illness and melancholy both during and afterward, though Joseph attended to her and tried to comfort her. She remained bedridden for six weeks after their daughter's birth. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johann_Georg_Weikert_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Johann_Georg_Weikert_003.jpg/220px-Johann_Georg_Weikert_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="768"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 334px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Johann_Georg_Weikert_003.jpg/220px-Johann_Georg_Weikert_003.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="334" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Johann_Georg_Weikert_003.jpg/330px-Johann_Georg_Weikert_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Johann_Georg_Weikert_003.jpg/440px-Johann_Georg_Weikert_003.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption><i>Fête organized to celebrate the marriage of Emperor Joseph II to Princess Maria Josepha of Bavaria</i>. The central figures are the three youngest siblings of Joseph, from left to right Archduke <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Breisgau" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand, Duke of Breisgau">Ferdinand</a> as the groom, Archduke <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Franz" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximilian Franz">Maximilian Franz</a> as Cupid and Archduchess <a href="/wiki/Marie-Antoinette" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie-Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a> as the bride</figcaption></figure> <p>Almost immediately on the back of their newfound parenthood, the couple then endured two consecutive miscarriages—an ordeal particularly hard on Isabella—followed quickly by another pregnancy. Pregnancy was again provoking melancholy, fears and dread in Isabella. In November 1763, while six months pregnant, Isabella fell ill with <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and went into premature labor, resulting in the birth of their second child, Archduchess Maria Christina (b.d November 22 1763), who died shortly after being born. </p><p>Progressively ill with smallpox and strained by sudden childbirth and tragedy, Isabella died the following week. The loss of his beloved wife and their newborn child was devastating for Joseph, after which he felt keenly reluctant to remarry, though he dearly loved his daughter and remained a devoted father to Maria Theresa. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_van_Meytens_015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Martin_van_Meytens_015.jpg/220px-Martin_van_Meytens_015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="967" data-file-height="1272"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 289px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Martin_van_Meytens_015.jpg/220px-Martin_van_Meytens_015.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="289" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Martin_van_Meytens_015.jpg/330px-Martin_van_Meytens_015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Martin_van_Meytens_015.jpg/440px-Martin_van_Meytens_015.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Coronation of the Archduke Joseph as <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Romans#Heirs_designate" title="King of the Romans">King of the Romans</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Cathedral_of_Saint_Bartholomew" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Cathedral of Saint Bartholomew">Imperial Cathedral of Saint Bartholomew</a> in Frankfurt, 3<span class="nowrap"> </span>April 1764 (painting by <a href="/wiki/Martin_van_Meytens" title="Martin van Meytens">Martin van Meytens</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>For political reasons, and under constant pressure, in 1765, he relented and <a href="/wiki/Cousin_marriage" title="Cousin marriage">married his second cousin</a>, Princess <a href="/wiki/Maria_Josepha_of_Bavaria" title="Maria Josepha of Bavaria">Maria Josepha of Bavaria</a>, the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Charles_VII,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, and Archduchess <a href="/wiki/Maria_Amalia,_Holy_Roman_Empress" title="Maria Amalia, Holy Roman Empress">Maria Amalia of Austria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This marriage proved extremely unhappy, albeit brief, as it lasted only two years. </p><p>Though Maria Josepha loved her husband, she felt timid and inferior in his company. Lacking common interests or pleasures, the relationship offered little for Joseph, who confessed he felt no love (nor attraction) for her in return. He adapted by distancing himself from his wife to the point of near total avoidance, seeing her only at meals and upon retiring to bed. Maria Josepha, in turn, suffered considerable misery in finding herself locked in a cold, loveless union. </p><p>Four months after the second anniversary of their wedding, Maria Josepha grew ill and died from smallpox. Joseph neither visited her during her illness nor attended her funeral, though he later expressed regret for not having shown her more kindness, respect, or warmth. One thing the union did provide him was the improved possibility of laying claim to a portion of Bavaria, though this would ultimately lead to the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Bavarian_Succession" title="War of the Bavarian Succession">War of the Bavarian Succession</a>. </p><p>Joseph never remarried. In 1770, Joseph's only surviving child, the seven-year-old Maria Theresa, became ill with <a href="/wiki/Pleurisy" title="Pleurisy">pleurisy</a> and died. The loss of his daughter was deeply traumatic for him and left him grief-stricken and scarred. Lacking children, Joseph II was ultimately succeeded by his younger brother, who became <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a>. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Co-ruler">Co-ruler</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Co-ruler" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeo_Batoni_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Pompeo_Batoni_002.jpg/220px-Pompeo_Batoni_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5034" data-file-height="7184"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 314px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Pompeo_Batoni_002.jpg/220px-Pompeo_Batoni_002.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="314" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Pompeo_Batoni_002.jpg/330px-Pompeo_Batoni_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Pompeo_Batoni_002.jpg/440px-Pompeo_Batoni_002.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Joseph II (right) with his brother <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Peter Leopold</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Pompeo_Batoni" title="Pompeo Batoni">Pompeo Batoni</a>, 1769, <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum" title="Kunsthistorisches Museum">Kunsthistorisches Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Joseph was made a member of the constituted council of state (<i>Staatsrat</i>) and began to draw up minutes for his mother to read. These papers contain the germs of his later policy, and of all the disasters that finally overtook him. He was a friend to religious toleration, anxious to reduce the power of the church, to relieve the peasantry of feudal burdens, and to remove restrictions on trade and knowledge. In these, he did not differ from Frederick, or his own brother and successor Leopold II, all enlightened rulers of the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He tried to liberate <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfs</a>, but that did not last after his death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadover1934300_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadover1934300-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Where Joseph differed from great contemporary rulers, and was akin to the <a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobins</a> in the intensity of his belief in the <a href="/wiki/Power_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (sociology)">power</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> when directed by <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>. As an absolutist ruler, however, he was also convinced of his right to speak for the state uncontrolled by laws, and of the wisdom of his own rule. He had also inherited from his mother the belief of the House of Austria in its "August" quality and its claim to acquire whatever it found desirable for its power or profit. He was unable to understand that his philosophical plans for the moulding of humanity could meet with pardonable opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadover1934313_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadover1934313-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseph was documented by contemporaries as being impressive, but not necessarily likable. In 1760, his arranged <a href="/wiki/Queen_consort" title="Queen consort">consort</a>, the well educated Isabella of Parma, was handed over to him. Joseph appears to have been completely in love with her, but Isabella preferred the companionship of Joseph's sister, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Christine_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Christine of Austria">Marie Christine of Austria</a>. The overweening character of the Emperor was obvious to Frederick II of Prussia, who, after their first interview in 1769, described him as ambitious, and as capable of setting the world on fire. The French minister <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gravier,_Comte_de_Vergennes" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes">Vergennes</a>, who met Joseph when he was traveling incognito in 1777, judged him to be "ambitious and despotic".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadover1934146_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadover1934146-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514–515_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514%E2%80%93515-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the death of his father in 1765, he became emperor and was made co-regent by his mother in the Austrian dominions. As emperor, he had little true power, and his mother had resolved that neither her husband nor her son should ever deprive her of sovereign control in her hereditary dominions. Joseph, by threatening to resign his place as co-regent, could induce his mother to abate her dislike for religious toleration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He could and did place a great strain on her patience and temper, as in the case of the <a href="/wiki/First_Partition_of_Poland" title="First Partition of Poland">First Partition of Poland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Bavarian_Succession" title="War of the Bavarian Succession">War of the Bavarian Succession</a> of 1778–1779, but in the last resort the empress spoke the final word. Therefore, until the death of his mother in 1780, Joseph was never quite free to follow his own instincts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During these years, Joseph traveled much. He met Frederick the Great privately at <a href="/wiki/Nysa,_Poland" title="Nysa, Poland">Neisse</a> in 1769 (later painted in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Meeting_of_Frederick_II_and_Joseph_II_in_Neisse_in_1769" title="The Meeting of Frederick II and Joseph II in Neisse in 1769">The Meeting of Frederick II and Joseph II in Neisse in 1769</a></i>), and again at <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A4hrisch-Neustadt" class="mw-redirect" title="Mährisch-Neustadt">Mährisch-Neustadt</a> in 1770; the two rulers initially got along well. On the second occasion, he was accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Wenzel_Anton_Graf_Kaunitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenzel Anton Graf Kaunitz">Prince Kaunitz</a>, whose conversation with Frederick may be said to mark the starting point of the First Partition of Poland. To this and to every other measure which promised to extend the dominions of his house, Joseph gave hearty approval.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, when Frederick fell severely ill in 1775, Joseph assembled an army in Bohemia which, in the event of Frederick's death, was to advance into Prussia and demand Silesia (a territory Frederick had conquered from Maria Theresa in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a>). However, Frederick recovered, and thereafter became wary and mistrustful of Joseph.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseph was also eager to enforce Austria's claim on <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Bavaria" title="Electorate of Bavaria">Bavaria</a> upon the death of the elector <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_III,_Elector_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximilian III, Elector of Bavaria">Maximilian III</a> in 1777. In April of that year, he paid a visit to his sister the queen of France, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Antoinette of Austria">Marie Antoinette of Austria</a>, traveling under the name of "Count Falkenstein". He was well received and much flattered by the Encyclopedists, but his observations led him to predict the approaching downfall of the French monarchy, and he was not impressed favorably by the French army or navy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1778, he commanded the troops collected to oppose Frederick, who supported the rival claimant to Bavaria. This was the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Bavarian_Succession" title="War of the Bavarian Succession">War of the Bavarian Succession</a>. Real fighting was averted by the unwillingness of Frederick to embark on a new war and by Maria Theresa's determination to maintain peace. However, the war cost Joseph most of his influence over the other German princes, who were wary of his potential designs on their lands, and looked to Frederick as their protector. </p><p>As the son of Francis I, Joseph succeeded him as titular Duke of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lorraine" title="Duchy of Lorraine">Lorraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Counts_and_dukes_of_Bar" class="mw-redirect" title="Counts and dukes of Bar">Bar</a>, which had been surrendered to France on his father's marriage, and titular <a href="/wiki/King_of_Jerusalem" title="King of Jerusalem">King of Jerusalem</a> and Duke of Calabria (as a proxy for the <a href="/wiki/Monarchs_of_Naples_and_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Monarchs of Naples and Sicily">Kingdom of Naples</a>). </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Sole_reign">Sole reign</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sole reign" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_policy">Domestic policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Domestic policy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The death of Maria Theresa on 29 November 1780 left Joseph free to pursue his own policy, and he immediately directed his government on a new course, attempting to realize his ideal of <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_despotism" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightened despotism">enlightened despotism</a> acting on a definite system for the good of all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He undertook the spread of education, the secularization of church lands, the reduction of the religious orders and the clergy, in general, to complete submission to the lay state, the issue of the <a href="/wiki/Patent_of_Toleration" title="Patent of Toleration">Patent of Toleration</a> (1781) providing limited guarantee of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of worship</a>, and the promotion of unity by the compulsory use of the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German language</a> (replacing Latin or in some instances local languages)—everything which from the point of view of 18th-century philosophy, the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, appeared "reasonable". He strove for administrative unity with characteristic haste to reach results without preparation. Joseph carried out measures of the emancipation of the <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasantry</a>, which his mother had begun,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and abolished <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> in 1781.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1789, he decreed that peasants must be paid in cash payments rather than labor obligations. These policies were violently rejected by the nobility, clergy, merchants and the peasants,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since their barter economy lacked money. Joseph also abolished the <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a> in 1787, a reform that remained until 1795. </p><p>After the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in 1789, Joseph sought to help the family of his estranged sister Queen <a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a> of France and her husband King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a>. Joseph kept an eye on the development of the revolution, and became actively involved in the planning of a rescue attempt. These plans failed, however, either due to Marie Antoinette's refusal to leave her children behind in favor of a faster carriage or Louis XVI's reluctance to become a fugitive king. </p><p>Joseph died in 1790, making negotiations with Austria about possible rescue attempts more difficult. It was not until 21 June 1791 that an <a href="/wiki/Flight_of_Varennes" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight of Varennes">attempt was made</a>, with the help of <a href="/wiki/Axel_von_Fersen_the_Younger" title="Axel von Fersen the Younger">Count Fersen</a>, a Swedish general who had been favored at the courts of both Marie Antoinette and Joseph. The attempt failed after the King was recognized from the back of a coin. Marie Antoinette became increasingly desperate for help from her homeland, even giving French military secrets to Austria. Nevertheless, even though Austria was at war with France at the time, it refused to directly help the by now completely estranged French Queen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_policies">Administrative policies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Administrative policies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ducat_d%27or_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_de_Joseph_II,_1787.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ducat_d%27or_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_de_Joseph_II%2C_1787.jpg/220px-Ducat_d%27or_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_de_Joseph_II%2C_1787.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="590"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 108px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ducat_d%27or_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_de_Joseph_II%2C_1787.jpg/220px-Ducat_d%27or_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_de_Joseph_II%2C_1787.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="108" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ducat_d%27or_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_de_Joseph_II%2C_1787.jpg/330px-Ducat_d%27or_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_de_Joseph_II%2C_1787.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ducat_d%27or_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_de_Joseph_II%2C_1787.jpg/440px-Ducat_d%27or_%C3%A0_l%27effigie_de_Joseph_II%2C_1787.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Gold <a href="/wiki/Ducat" title="Ducat">ducat</a> of Joseph II, 1787</figcaption></figure> <p>When Maria Theresa died, Joseph started issuing edicts, over 6,000 in all, plus 11,000 new laws designed to regulate and reorder every aspect of the empire. The spirit of <a href="/wiki/Josephinism" title="Josephinism">Josephinism</a> was benevolent and paternal. He intended to make his people happy, but strictly in accordance with his own criteria. </p><p>Joseph set about building a rationalized, centralized, and uniform government for his diverse lands, a hierarchy under himself as a supreme autocrat. The personnel of government was expected to be imbued with the same dedicated spirit of service to the state that he himself had. It was recruited without favor for a class or ethnic origins, and promotion was solely by merit. To further uniformity, the emperor made German the compulsory language of official business throughout the Habsburg Monarchy, which affected especially the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931867)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)">Kingdom of Hungary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Hungary" title="Diet of Hungary">Diet of Hungary</a> was stripped of its prerogatives, and not even called together. </p><p>As privy finance minister, Count <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Zinzendorf" title="Karl von Zinzendorf">Karl von Zinzendorf</a> (1739–1813) introduced a uniform system of accounting for state revenues, expenditures, and debts of the territories of the Austrian crown. Austria was more successful than France in meeting regular expenditures and in gaining credit. However, the events of Joseph II's last years also suggest that the government was financially vulnerable to the European wars that ensued after 1792.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Emperor also attempted to simplify the administration of his dominions, often a patchwork of states united in personal union by the Habsburg monarch. As an example, in 1786 he abolished the separate administration of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mantua" title="Duchy of Mantua">Duchy of Mantua</a>, merging it with the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Duchy of Milan</a>. Local opposition to the change forced his successor Leopold II to reverse this measure and restore the duchy in 1791. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_reform">Legal reform</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Legal reform" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph2pflug_1799.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Joseph2pflug_1799.jpg/220px-Joseph2pflug_1799.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1218" data-file-height="833"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 150px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Joseph2pflug_1799.jpg/220px-Joseph2pflug_1799.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="150" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Joseph2pflug_1799.jpg/330px-Joseph2pflug_1799.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Joseph2pflug_1799.jpg/440px-Joseph2pflug_1799.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Joseph II depicted plowing a field near Slawikowitz in rural southern <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravia</a> on 19 August 1769</figcaption></figure> <p>The busy Joseph inspired a complete reform of the legal system, abolished brutal punishments and the <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a> in most instances, and imposed the principle of complete equality of treatment for all offenders. He lightened censorship of the press and theatre. </p><p>In 1781–1782, he <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_Patent_(1781)" title="Serfdom Patent (1781)">extended full legal freedom to serfs</a>. Rentals paid by peasants were to be regulated by officials of the crown and taxes were levied upon all income derived from land. The landlords, however, found their economic position threatened, and eventually reversed the policy. Indeed, in Hungary and Transylvania, the resistance of the magnates was such that Joseph had to content himself for a while with halfway measures. Of the five million Hungarians, 40,000 were nobles, of whom 4,000 were magnates who owned and ruled the land; most of the remainder were serfs legally tied to particular estates. </p><p>After the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Horea,_Clo%C8%99ca,_and_Cri%C8%99an" title="Revolt of Horea, Cloșca, and Crișan">peasant revolt of Horea</a>, 1784–1785, in which over a hundred nobles were killed, the emperor acted. His Imperial Patent of 1785 abolished serfdom but did not give the peasants ownership of the land or freedom from dues owed to the landowning nobles. It did give them personal freedom. Emancipation of the peasants from the Kingdom of Hungary promoted the growth of a new class of taxable landholders, but it did not abolish the deep-seated ills of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> and the exploitation of the landless squatters. Feudalism in the Habsburg monarchy finally ended in 1848.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadover1934293–300_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadover1934293%E2%80%93300-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To equalize the incidence of taxation, Joseph caused an appraisal of all the lands of the Habsburg monarchy to be made so that he might impose a single and egalitarian tax on land. The goal was to modernize the relationship of dependence between the landowners and peasantry, relieve some of the tax burden on the peasantry, and increase state revenues. Joseph looked on the tax and land reforms as being interconnected and strove to implement them at the same time. </p><p>The various commissions he established to formulate and carry out the reforms met resistance among the nobility, the peasantry, and some officials. Most of the reforms were abrogated shortly before or after Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to failure from the start because they tried to change too much in too short a time,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Opinion" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view/FAQ#Assert_facts,_not_opinions" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view/FAQ"><span title="This statement may be opinion presented as fact. (July 2023)">opinion</span></a></i>]</sup> and tried to radically alter the traditional customs and relationships that the villagers had long depended upon. </p><p>In the cities, the new economic principles of the Enlightenment called for the destruction of the autonomous guilds, already weakened during the age of mercantilism. Joseph II's tax reforms and the institution of Katastralgemeinde (tax districts for the large estates) served this purpose, and new factory privileges ended guild rights while customs laws aimed at economic unity. <a href="/wiki/Physiocrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiocrats">Physiocratic</a> influence also led to the inclusion of agriculture in these reforms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_medicine">Education and medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Education and medicine" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>To produce a literate citizenry, elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls, and higher education on practical lines was offered for a select few. Joseph created scholarships for talented poor students and allowed the establishment of schools for Jews and other religious minorities. In 1784 he ordered that the country change its language of instruction from Latin to German, a highly controversial step in a multilingual empire. </p><p>By the 18th century, centralization was the trend in medicine because more and better-educated doctors were requesting improved facilities. Cities lacked the budgets to fund local hospitals, and the monarchy wanted to end costly epidemics and quarantines. Joseph attempted to centralize medical care in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> through the construction of a single, large hospital, the famous <a href="/wiki/Vienna_General_Hospital" title="Vienna General Hospital">Allgemeines Krankenhaus</a>, which opened in 1784. Centralization worsened sanitation problems, causing epidemics and a 20% death rate in the new hospital; the city nevertheless became preeminent in the medical field in the next century.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Religion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Special:EditPage/Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Joseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor%22">"Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Joseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Joseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Joseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Joseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Joseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Joseph's policy of religious "toleration" was the most aggressive of any state in Europe. Probably the most unpopular of all his reforms was his attempted modernization of the highly traditional <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, which in medieval times had helped establish the Holy Roman Empire beginning with <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>. Calling himself the guardian of Catholicism, Joseph II struck vigorously at <a href="/wiki/Papacy,_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy, history">papal power</a>. He tried to make the Catholic Church in his territories the tool of the state, independent of Rome. Clergymen were deprived of the <a href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">tithe</a> and ordered to study in seminaries under government supervision, while bishops had to take a formal oath of loyalty to the crown. He financed the large increase in bishoprics, parishes, and secular clergy by extensive sales of monastic lands. </p><p>As a man of the Enlightenment he ridiculed the contemplative monastic orders, which he considered unproductive. Accordingly, he suppressed a third of the monasteries (over 700 were closed) and reduced the number of monks and nuns from 65,000 to 27,000. The Church's ecclesiastical tribunals were abolished and marriage was defined as a <a href="/wiki/Civil_marriage" title="Civil marriage">civil contract</a> outside the jurisdiction of the Church. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Josef_II_medal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Josef_II_medal.jpg/300px-Josef_II_medal.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="136" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="237"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 136px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Josef_II_medal.jpg/300px-Josef_II_medal.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="136" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Josef_II_medal.jpg/450px-Josef_II_medal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Josef_II_medal.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>A medal minted during the reign of Joseph II, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Joseph sharply cut the number of holy days to be observed in the Habsburg monarchy and ordered ornamentation in churches to be reduced. He forcibly simplified the manner in which the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Mass">Mass</a> (the central Catholic act of worship) was celebrated. Opponents of the reforms blamed them for revealing Protestant tendencies, with the rise of Enlightenment rationalism and the emergence of a liberal class of bourgeois officials. Anti-clericalism emerged and persisted, while the traditional Catholics were energized in opposition to the emperor. </p><p>Joseph's <a href="/wiki/Patent_of_Toleration" title="Patent of Toleration">Patent of Toleration</a> in 1781 was a major shift away from the inquisitive religious policies of the <a href="/wiki/Counter_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Reformation">Counter Reformation</a> that were previously predominant in the monarchy. Limited religious freedom of worship was given to major non-Catholic Christian sects, although conversion from Catholicism was still restricted. This was followed by the <a href="/wiki/1782_Edict_of_Tolerance" title="1782 Edict of Tolerance">Edict of Tolerance</a> in 1782, removing many restrictions and regulations on Jews. </p><p>The Secularization Decree issued on 12 January 1782 banned several monastic orders not involved in teaching or healing and liquidated 140 monasteries (home to 1484 monks and 190 nuns). The banned monastic orders: Jesuits, <a href="/wiki/Camaldolese" title="Camaldolese">Camaldolese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin" title="Order of Friars Minor Capuchin">Order of Friars Minor Capuchin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carmelites" title="Carmelites">Carmelites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carthusians" title="Carthusians">Carthusians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poor_Clares" title="Poor Clares">Poor Clares</a>, <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of Saint Benedict">Order of Saint Benedict</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican Order</a> (Order of Preachers), <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Paul_the_First_Hermit" title="Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit">Pauline Fathers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Premonstratensians" title="Premonstratensians">Premonstratensians</a>, and their wealth was taken over by the Religious Fund. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%C3%A9onard_Defrance_La_suppression_des_couvents_sous_Joseph_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/L%C3%A9onard_Defrance_La_suppression_des_couvents_sous_Joseph_II.jpg/220px-L%C3%A9onard_Defrance_La_suppression_des_couvents_sous_Joseph_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3994" data-file-height="3221"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 177px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/L%C3%A9onard_Defrance_La_suppression_des_couvents_sous_Joseph_II.jpg/220px-L%C3%A9onard_Defrance_La_suppression_des_couvents_sous_Joseph_II.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="177" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/L%C3%A9onard_Defrance_La_suppression_des_couvents_sous_Joseph_II.jpg/330px-L%C3%A9onard_Defrance_La_suppression_des_couvents_sous_Joseph_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/L%C3%A9onard_Defrance_La_suppression_des_couvents_sous_Joseph_II.jpg/440px-L%C3%A9onard_Defrance_La_suppression_des_couvents_sous_Joseph_II.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Suppression of <a href="/wiki/Convent" title="Convent">convents</a> under Joseph II, 1782</figcaption></figure> <p>His <a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">anticlerical</a> and liberal innovations induced <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" title="Pope Pius VI">Pope Pius VI</a> to pay him a visit in March 1782. Joseph received the Pope politely and showed himself a good Catholic, but refused to be influenced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, Joseph was very friendly to <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a>, as he found it highly compatible with his own Enlightenment philosophy, although he apparently never joined a Lodge himself. Freemasonry attracted many anticlericals and was condemned by the Church. </p><p>Joseph's feelings towards religion are reflected in a witticism he once spoke in Paris. While being given a tour of the <a href="/wiki/Sorbonne_University" title="Sorbonne University">Sorbonne</a>'s library, the archivist took Joseph to a dark room containing religious documents and lamented the lack of light which prevented Joseph from being able to read them. Joseph put the man at rest by saying "Ah, when it comes to theology, there is never much light."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadover193479_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadover193479-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, Joseph was undoubtedly a much laxer Catholic than his mother. </p><p>In 1789 he issued a charter of religious toleration for the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a>, a region with a large Yiddish-speaking traditional Jewish population. The charter abolished communal autonomy whereby the Jews controlled their internal affairs; it promoted Germanization and the wearing of non-Jewish clothing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Foreign policy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:II._Jozsef_es_katonai_1787-ben.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/II._Jozsef_es_katonai_1787-ben.JPG/220px-II._Jozsef_es_katonai_1787-ben.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2044" data-file-height="1286"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 138px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/II._Jozsef_es_katonai_1787-ben.JPG/220px-II._Jozsef_es_katonai_1787-ben.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="138" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/II._Jozsef_es_katonai_1787-ben.JPG/330px-II._Jozsef_es_katonai_1787-ben.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/II._Jozsef_es_katonai_1787-ben.JPG/440px-II._Jozsef_es_katonai_1787-ben.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Joseph II and his soldiers in 1787</figcaption></figure> <p>The Habsburg Empire also had a policy of war, expansion, colonization and trade as well as exporting intellectual influences. While opposing Prussia and Turkey, Austria maintained its defensive <a href="/wiki/Franco-Austrian_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Austrian Alliance">alliance with France</a> and was friendly to Russia though trying to remove the <a href="/wiki/Danubian_Principalities" title="Danubian Principalities">Danubian Principalities</a> from Russian influence. Mayer argues that Joseph was an excessively belligerent, expansionist leader, who sought to make the Habsburg monarchy the greatest of the European powers.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His main goal was to acquire Bavaria, if necessary in exchange for the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a>, but in 1778 and again in 1785 he was thwarted by King Frederick II of Prussia, whom he feared greatly; on the second occasion, a number of other German princes, wary of Joseph's designs on their lands, joined Frederick's side.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseph's travels through Russia in 1780 included a visit with the Russian empress Catherine, which started talks that would later lead to the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Russian_Alliance_(1781)" title="Austro-Russian Alliance (1781)">Austro-Russian Alliance (1781)</a>, including an offensive clause to be used against the Ottomans. This was a significant diplomatic development, as it neutralised the previous Russian-Prussian alliance which had threatened the monarchy into peace during the War of the Bavarian Succession. The agreement with Russia would later lead Austria into the expensive and largely futile <a href="/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931791)" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791)">Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joseph II travelled with only a few servants on horseback as "Count Falkenstein". He preferred to stop at a regular inn—forcing Catherine II to convert a wing of her palace, cajoling her gardener to act as inn-keeper.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calafat_iulie_1790_1305816656828128.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Calafat_iulie_1790_1305816656828128.jpg/220px-Calafat_iulie_1790_1305816656828128.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6528" data-file-height="4832"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 163px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Calafat_iulie_1790_1305816656828128.jpg/220px-Calafat_iulie_1790_1305816656828128.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Calafat_iulie_1790_1305816656828128.jpg/330px-Calafat_iulie_1790_1305816656828128.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Calafat_iulie_1790_1305816656828128.jpg/440px-Calafat_iulie_1790_1305816656828128.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Clash between Austrian and Turkish troops during the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_(1788%E2%80%931791)" title="Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791)">Austro-Turkish War</a>, 1790</figcaption></figure> <p>Joseph's participation in the Ottoman war was reluctant, attributable not to his usual acquisitiveness, but rather to his close ties to Russia, which he saw as the necessary price to be paid for the security of his people.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After initial defeats, the Austrians won a string of victories in 1789, including the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1789)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1789)">capture of Belgrade</a>, a key Turkish fortress in the Balkans. These victories however would not amount to any significant gains for the monarchy. Under the threat of Prussian intervention and with the worrying state of the revolution in France, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Sistova" title="Treaty of Sistova">Treaty of Sistova</a> of 1791 ended the war with only token gains. </p><p>The Balkan policy of both Maria Theresa and Joseph II reflected the <a href="/wiki/Cameralism" title="Cameralism">Cameralism</a> promoted by Prince Kaunitz, stressing consolidation of the borderlands by reorganization and expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Military_Frontier" title="Military Frontier">Military Frontier</a>. <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Transylvania_(1711%E2%80%931867)" title="Principality of Transylvania (1711–1867)">Transylvania</a> was incorporated into the frontier in 1761 and the frontier regiments became the backbone of the military order, with the regimental commander exercising military and civilian power. "Populationistik" was the prevailing theory of colonization, which measured prosperity in terms of labor. Joseph II also stressed economic development. Habsburg influence was an essential factor in Balkan development in the last half of the 18th century, especially for the Serbs and Croats.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction">Reaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Reaction" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_1783-1792_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Europe_1783-1792_en.png/220px-Europe_1783-1792_en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2761"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 157px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Europe_1783-1792_en.png/220px-Europe_1783-1792_en.png" data-width="220" data-height="157" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Europe_1783-1792_en.png/330px-Europe_1783-1792_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Europe_1783-1792_en.png/440px-Europe_1783-1792_en.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Europe at the time of Joseph's death in 1790. The red line marks the borders of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Multiple interferences with old customs began to produce unrest in all parts of his dominions. Meanwhile, Joseph threw himself into a succession of foreign policies, all aimed at aggrandizement, and all equally calculated to offend his neighbors—all taken up with zeal, and dropped in discouragement. He endeavored to get rid of the <a href="/wiki/Barrier_Treaty" title="Barrier Treaty">Barrier Treaty</a>, which debarred his Flemish subjects from the navigation of the <a href="/wiki/Scheldt" title="Scheldt">Scheldt</a>. When he was opposed by France, he turned to other schemes of alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> for the partition of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a>. These plans also had to be given up in the face of the opposition of neighbors, and in particular of France. Then Joseph resumed his attempts to obtain Bavaria—this time by exchanging it for the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a>—and only provoked the formation of the <a href="/wiki/F%C3%BCrstenbund" title="Fürstenbund">Fürstenbund</a>, organized by Frederick II of Prussia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nobility throughout his empire was largely opposed to his policies on taxes and his egalitarian and despotic attitudes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary everyone resented the way he tried to do away with all regional government, and to subordinate everything to his own personal rule in Vienna. The ordinary people were not happy. They loathed the Emperor's interference in every detail of their daily lives. As it seems, Joseph was reforming the policies of the Habsburg empire based on his own criteria and personal inclinations rather than for the good of the people. From many of Joseph's regulations, enforced by the secret police, it looked to the Austrians as though Joseph were trying to reform their characters as well as their institutions. Only a few weeks before Joseph's death, the director of the Imperial Police reported to him: "All classes, and even those who have the greatest respect for the sovereign, are discontented and indignant."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadover1934384–385_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadover1934384%E2%80%93385-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georg_Decker_Joseph_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Georg_Decker_Joseph_II.jpg/200px-Georg_Decker_Joseph_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="246" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1048" data-file-height="1288"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 246px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Georg_Decker_Joseph_II.jpg/200px-Georg_Decker_Joseph_II.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="246" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Georg_Decker_Joseph_II.jpg/300px-Georg_Decker_Joseph_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Georg_Decker_Joseph_II.jpg/400px-Georg_Decker_Joseph_II.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Portrait of Joseph II by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Decker" title="Georg Decker">Georg Decker</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a> (in northern Italy), the cautious reforms of Maria Theresa enjoyed support from local reformers. Joseph II, however, by creating a powerful imperial officialdom directed from Vienna, undercut the dominant position of the <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milanese</a> principate and the traditions of jurisdiction and administration. In the place of provincial autonomy, he established an unlimited centralism, which reduced Lombardy politically and economically to a fringe area of the Empire. As a reaction to these radical changes, the middle-class reformers shifted away from cooperation to strong resistance. From this basis appeared the beginnings of the later Lombard liberalism. </p><p>In 1784, Joseph II attempted to make German an official language in Hungary after he had renamed the <a href="/wiki/Burgtheater" title="Burgtheater">Burgtheater</a> in Vienna the German National Theatre in 1776. <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Sz%C3%A9ch%C3%A9nyi" title="Ferenc Széchényi">Ferenc Széchényi</a> responded by convening of a meeting and said there: "We'll see whether his patriotism also passes to the Crown." Julius <a href="/wiki/House_of_Keglevi%C4%87" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Keglević">Keglević</a> responded with a letter in German to Joseph II: "I write German, not because of the instruction, Your Grace, but because I have to do with a German citizen." The "German citizen" Joseph II let them bring the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Crown_of_Hungary" title="Holy Crown of Hungary">Holy Crown of Hungary</a> to Vienna, where he gave the keys of the chest in which the Crown was locked to the Crown guards Joseph Keglević and Miklos Nádasdy. Joseph refrained from staging a coronation, that later resulted in him earning the nickname "kalapos király" ("King with a hat") in Hungary, and Ferenc Széchényi pulled out of politics. The <a href="/wiki/Allgemeines_b%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch" title="Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch">Austrian Civil Code</a>, also called Joseph's Civil Code, the predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Code">Civil Code</a> of Austria, which applied to all citizens equally, was published on 1 November 1786 after 10 years working on it since 1776. § 1: "Every subject expects from the territorial prince security and protection, so it is the duty of the territorial prince, the rights of subjects to determine clearly and to guide the way of the actions how it is needed by universal and special prosperity."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a clear distinction between the rights of subjects and the duties of the territorial prince and not vice versa. "Territorial prince" (<i>Landesfürst</i>) does not mean "people's prince" (<i>Volksfürst</i>). In Hungary, there was no codified civil code until 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Crown was brought back to Hungary in 1790, on this occasion the people held a mass celebration.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One reason for his refusal to be crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary might have been that <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a> had written in a letter to Charlemagne in 798: "And those people should not be listened to who keep saying the voice of the people is the voice of God, since the riotousness of the crowd is always very close to madness."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1790, rebellions had broken out in protest against Joseph's reforms in the Austrian Netherlands (the <a href="/wiki/Brabant_Revolution" title="Brabant Revolution">Brabant Revolution</a>) and Hungary, and his other dominions were restive under the burdens of his war with the Ottomans. His empire was threatened with dissolution, and he was forced to sacrifice some of his reform projects. On 30 January 1790, he formally withdrew all his reforms in Hungary except for three: the <a href="/wiki/Patent_of_Toleration" title="Patent of Toleration">Patent of Toleration</a> (1781), the abolition of serfdom (1785) and one improving the financial situation of lower-ranking priests.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Death">Death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Death" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <p>In November 1788, Joseph returned to <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> with ruined health and was left abandoned. His minister Kaunitz refused to visit his sick-room and did not see him for two years. His brother Leopold remained in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>. At last, Joseph, worn out and broken-hearted, recognized that his servants could not, or would not, carry out his plans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911515-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseph died on 20 February 1790. He is buried in tomb number 42 in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Crypt" title="Imperial Crypt">Imperial Crypt</a> in Vienna. He asked that his epitaph read: "Here lies a ruler who, despite his best intentions, was unsuccessful in all of his endeavors." (<i>Hier liegt ein Fürst, der trotz der besten Meinung keiner seiner Pläne durchsetzen konnte</i> in German original).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseph was succeeded by his brother Leopold II. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Memory_and_legacy">Memory and legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Memory and legacy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allegorie_auf_das_Toleranzpatent_Kaiser_Josephs_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Allegorie_auf_das_Toleranzpatent_Kaiser_Josephs_II.jpg/220px-Allegorie_auf_das_Toleranzpatent_Kaiser_Josephs_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 158px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Allegorie_auf_das_Toleranzpatent_Kaiser_Josephs_II.jpg/220px-Allegorie_auf_das_Toleranzpatent_Kaiser_Josephs_II.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="158" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Allegorie_auf_das_Toleranzpatent_Kaiser_Josephs_II.jpg/330px-Allegorie_auf_das_Toleranzpatent_Kaiser_Josephs_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Allegorie_auf_das_Toleranzpatent_Kaiser_Josephs_II.jpg/440px-Allegorie_auf_das_Toleranzpatent_Kaiser_Josephs_II.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Joseph II's <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened absolutism</a> included the <a href="/wiki/Patent_of_Toleration" title="Patent of Toleration">Patent of Toleration</a>, enacted in 1781, and the <a href="/wiki/1782_Edict_of_Tolerance" title="1782 Edict of Tolerance">Edict of Tolerance</a> in 1782.</figcaption></figure> <p>Biographer <a href="/wiki/Derek_Beales" title="Derek Beales">Derek Beales</a> ranked Joseph II as one of the three great Enlightenment monarchs with <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> and Frederick the Great of Prussia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeales2009_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeales2009-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The legacy of <a href="/wiki/Josephinism" title="Josephinism">Josephinism</a> would live on through the Austrian Enlightenment. To an extent, Joseph II's enlightenment beliefs were exaggerated by the author of what Beales called the "false Constantinople letters". Long considered genuine writings of Joseph II, these forged works have erroneously augmented the emperor's memory for centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeales198765_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeales198765-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These legendary quotations have created a larger-than-life impression of Joseph II as a Voltaire and <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a>-like <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophe">philosophe</a></i>, more radical than he probably was.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1849, the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Hungarian Declaration of Independence">Hungarian Declaration of Independence</a> declared that Joseph II was not a true King of Hungary as he was never crowned, thus any act from his reign was null and void.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1888, Hungarian historian Henrik Marczali published a three-volume study of Joseph, the first important modern scholarly work on his reign, and the first to make systematic use of archival research. Marczali was Jewish and a product of the bourgeois-liberal school of historiography in Hungary, and he portrayed Joseph as a Liberal hero. The Russian scholar Pavel Pavlovich Mitrofanov published a thorough biography in 1907 that set the standard for a century after it was translated into German in 1910. The Mitrofanov interpretation was highly damaging to Joseph: he was not a populist emperor and his liberalism was a myth; Joseph was not inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment but by pure power politics. He was more despot than his mother. Dogmatism and impatience were the reasons for his failures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011125–127_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011125%E2%80%93127-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medaille_Einnahme_Belgrads_1789.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Medaille_Einnahme_Belgrads_1789.jpg/220px-Medaille_Einnahme_Belgrads_1789.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1443" data-file-height="719"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 110px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Medaille_Einnahme_Belgrads_1789.jpg/220px-Medaille_Einnahme_Belgrads_1789.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="110" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Medaille_Einnahme_Belgrads_1789.jpg/330px-Medaille_Einnahme_Belgrads_1789.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Medaille_Einnahme_Belgrads_1789.jpg/440px-Medaille_Einnahme_Belgrads_1789.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Medal commemorating the Austrian victory over the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1789)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1789)">Siege of Belgrade</a></figcaption></figure> <p>P. G. M. Dickson noted that Joseph II rode roughshod over age-old aristocratic privileges, liberties, and prejudices, thereby creating for himself many enemies, and they triumphed in the end. Joseph's attempt to reform the Hungarian lands illustrates the weakness of absolutism in the face of well-defended feudal liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Behind his numerous reforms lay a comprehensive program influenced by the doctrines of enlightened absolutism, natural law, mercantilism, and physiocracy. With a goal of establishing a uniform legal framework to replace heterogeneous traditional structures, the reforms were guided at least implicitly by the principles of freedom and equality and were based on a conception of the state's central legislative authority. Joseph's accession marks a major break since the preceding reforms under Maria Theresa had not challenged these structures, but there was no similar break at the end of the Josephinian era. The reforms initiated by Joseph II were continued to varying degrees under his successor Leopold and later successors, and given an absolute and comprehensive "Austrian" form in the Allgemeine Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch of 1811. They have been seen as providing a foundation for subsequent reforms extending into the 20th century, handled by much better politicians than Joseph II.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_von_Sales_Bildnis_Joseph_II_posthum_1823.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Carl_von_Sales_Bildnis_Joseph_II_posthum_1823.jpg/220px-Carl_von_Sales_Bildnis_Joseph_II_posthum_1823.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3647" data-file-height="4654"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 281px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Carl_von_Sales_Bildnis_Joseph_II_posthum_1823.jpg/220px-Carl_von_Sales_Bildnis_Joseph_II_posthum_1823.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="281" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Carl_von_Sales_Bildnis_Joseph_II_posthum_1823.jpg/330px-Carl_von_Sales_Bildnis_Joseph_II_posthum_1823.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Carl_von_Sales_Bildnis_Joseph_II_posthum_1823.jpg/440px-Carl_von_Sales_Bildnis_Joseph_II_posthum_1823.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Posthumous portrait of Joseph II, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1823</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The Austrian-born American scholar <a href="/wiki/Saul_K._Padover" title="Saul K. Padover">Saul K. Padover</a> reached a wide American public with his colorful <i>The Revolutionary Emperor: Joseph II of Austria</i> (1934). Padover celebrated Joseph's radicalism, saying his "war against feudal privileges" made him one of the great "liberators of humanity". Joseph's failures were attributed to his impatience and lack of tact, and his unnecessary military adventures, but despite all this Padover claimed the emperor was the greatest of all Enlightenment monarchs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011127_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011127-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Padover depicted a sort of <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> Democrat, <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> historians in the 1930s made Joseph a precursor of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011128_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011128-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Festung_Josefov_(38631333261).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Festung_Josefov_%2838631333261%29.jpg/220px-Festung_Josefov_%2838631333261%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1275"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Festung_Josefov_%2838631333261%29.jpg/220px-Festung_Josefov_%2838631333261%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Festung_Josefov_%2838631333261%29.jpg/330px-Festung_Josefov_%2838631333261%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Festung_Josefov_%2838631333261%29.jpg/440px-Festung_Josefov_%2838631333261%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Statue of Josef II. in <a href="/wiki/Josefov_Fortress" title="Josefov Fortress">Josefov</a>, Czech Republic</figcaption></figure> <p>A new era of historiography began in the 1960s. American Paul Bernard rejected the German national, radical, and anticlerical images of Joseph and instead emphasized long-run continuities. He argued that Joseph's reforms were well suited to the needs of the day. Many failed because of economic backwardness and Joseph's unfortunate foreign policy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011130_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011130-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British historian <a href="/wiki/Tim_Blanning" class="mw-redirect" title="Tim Blanning">Tim Blanning</a> stressed profound contradictions inherent in his policies that made them a failure. For example, Joseph encouraged small-scale peasant holdings, thus retarding economic modernization that only the large estates could handle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011130–131_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011130%E2%80%93131-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French historian <a href="/wiki/Jean_B%C3%A9renger" title="Jean Bérenger">Jean Berenger</a> concludes that despite his many setbacks, Joseph's reign "represented a decisive phase in the process of the modernization of the Austrian Monarchy". The failures came because he "simply wanted to do too much, too fast".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011133_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011133-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szabo concludes that by far the most important scholarship on Joseph is by Derek Beales, appearing over three decades and based on exhaustive searches in many archives. Beales looks at the emperor's personality, with its arbitrary behavior and mixture of affability and irascibility. Beales shows that Joseph genuinely appreciated Mozart's music and greatly admired his operas. Like most other scholars, Beales has a negative view of Joseph's foreign policies. Beales finds that Joseph was despotic in the sense of transgressing established constitutions and rejecting sound advice, but not despotic in the sense of any gross abuse of power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011133–136_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011133%E2%80%93136-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular_memory">Popular memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Popular memory" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Joseph's image in popular memory has been varied. After his death there were many monuments to him built by the central government across his lands. The <a href="/wiki/First_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="First Czechoslovak Republic">first Czechoslovak Republic</a> tore down the monuments when it became independent in 1918. While the Czechs credited Joseph II with educational reforms, religious toleration, and the easing of censorship, they condemned his policies of centralization and Germanization that they blamed for causing a decline in Czech culture.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a> District of <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zsefv%C3%A1ros" title="Józsefváros">Józsefváros</a> was named for the Emperor in 1777 and bears this name up to the present. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patron_of_the_arts">Patron of the arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Patron of the arts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Like many of the "<a href="/wiki/Enlightened_despot" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightened despot">enlightened despots</a>" of his time, Joseph was a lover and patron of the arts and is remembered as such. He was known as the "Musical King" and steered Austrian high culture towards a more Germanic orientation. He commissioned the German-language opera <i><a href="/wiki/Die_Entf%C3%BChrung_aus_dem_Serail" title="Die Entführung aus dem Serail">Die Entführung aus dem Serail</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Mozart</a>. The young <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a> was commissioned to write a <a href="/wiki/Cantata_on_the_Death_of_Emperor_Joseph_II" title="Cantata on the Death of Emperor Joseph II">funeral cantata</a> for him, but it was not performed because of its technical difficulty. </p><p>Joseph is prominently featured in <a href="/wiki/Peter_Shaffer" title="Peter Shaffer">Peter Shaffer</a>'s play <i><a href="/wiki/Amadeus_(play)" title="Amadeus (play)">Amadeus</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Amadeus_(film)" title="Amadeus (film)">movie based upon it</a>. In the film version, he is portrayed by actor <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Jones" title="Jeffrey Jones">Jeffrey Jones</a> as a well-meaning but somewhat befuddled monarch of limited but enthusiastic musical skill, easily manipulated by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Salieri" title="Antonio Salieri">Salieri</a>; however, Shaffer has made it clear his play is fiction in many respects and not intended to portray historical reality. Joseph was portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Danny_Huston" title="Danny Huston">Danny Huston</a> in the 2006 film <i><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette_(2006_film)" title="Marie Antoinette (2006 film)">Marie Antoinette</a></i>. </p><p>Joseph also converted Vienna's defensive <a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">glacis</a> into public park. The <a href="/wiki/Linienwall" title="Linienwall">Linienwall</a> defending Vienna's historic center were surrounded by a ditch and glacis about 500m wide, which were kept clear of vegetation and buildings for defensive purposes. Under Joseph the ditch was filled and carriage drives and walkways were built through the glacis, and the area planted with ornamental trees and provided with lanterns and benches. This green public space persisted until the second half of the 19th century, when the <a href="/wiki/Ringstrasse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ringstrasse">Ringstrasse</a> and its associated buildings were built there.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Coat_of_Arms">Coat of Arms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Coat of Arms" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Middle_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Middle_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/185px-Middle_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="185" height="256" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="919" data-file-height="1271"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 185px;height: 256px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Middle_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/185px-Middle_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png" data-width="185" data-height="256" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Middle_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/278px-Middle_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Middle_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/370px-Middle_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span><br> Middle Coat of arms </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Greater_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/185px-Greater_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="185" height="256" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="919" data-file-height="1271"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 185px;height: 256px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Greater_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/185px-Greater_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png" data-width="185" data-height="256" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Greater_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/278px-Greater_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Greater_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/370px-Greater_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span><br> Greater Coat of arms </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Or_shield_variant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Or_shield_variant.svg/150px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Or_shield_variant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="212" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 212px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Or_shield_variant.svg/150px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Or_shield_variant.svg.png" data-width="150" data-height="212" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Or_shield_variant.svg/225px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Or_shield_variant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Or_shield_variant.svg/300px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Or_shield_variant.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span><br> Greater Coat of arms (Shield variant) </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/250px-Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="193" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1359" data-file-height="1049"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 193px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/250px-Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png" data-width="250" data-height="193" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/375px-Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg/500px-Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span><br> Greater Coat of arms (Shield variant with supporters) </td></tr></tbody></table> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Ancestry">Ancestry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ancestry" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886387087">.mw-parser-output table.ahnentafel{border-collapse:separate;border-spacing:0;line-height:130%}.mw-parser-output .ahnentafel tr{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ahnentafel-t{border-top:#000 solid 1px;border-left:#000 solid 1px}.mw-parser-output .ahnentafel-b{border-bottom:#000 solid 1px;border-left:#000 solid 1px}</style><div class="noresize"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="margin:0.3em auto;clear:none;min-width:60em;width:auto;font-size:88%;border:1px solid #aaa"><tbody><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.3em 0.2em 4.3em;background:none;color:inherit;width:auto">Ancestors of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><table class="ahnentafel" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="28" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="13"> </td><td rowspan="12" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="5"> </td><td rowspan="4" colspan="2"> </td><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">8. <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Duke_of_Lorraine" title="Charles V, Duke of Lorraine">Charles V, Duke of Lorraine</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;">4. <a href="/wiki/Leopold,_Duke_of_Lorraine" title="Leopold, Duke of Lorraine">Leopold, Duke of Lorraine</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">9. <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Austria,_Queen_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleanor of Austria, Queen of Poland">Eleonore of Austria</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #fb9;">2. <a href="/wiki/Francis_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="7"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="15" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="14" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">10. <a href="/wiki/Philippe_I,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Philippe I, Duke of Orléans">Philippe I, Duke of Orléans</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;">5. <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_Charlotte_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" class="mw-redirect" title="Élisabeth Charlotte of Orléans">Élisabeth Charlotte of Orléans</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="7"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">11. <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Charlotte,_Madame_Palatine" title="Elizabeth Charlotte, Madame Palatine">Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #fcc;">1. <b>Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor</b></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="11"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="28" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="15" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="14" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="7"> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">12. <a href="/wiki/Leopold_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;">6. <a href="/wiki/Charles_VI,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">13. <a href="/wiki/Eleonor_Magdalene_of_Neuburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleonor Magdalene of Neuburg">Eleonor Magdalene of Neuburg</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #fb9;">3. <a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa of Austria</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="7"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="13"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="12" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">14. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Rudolph,_Duke_of_Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel">Louis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;">7. <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Christine_of_Brunswick" class="mw-redirect" title="Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick">Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="5"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="4" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">15. <a href="/wiki/Christine_Louise_of_Oettingen-Oettingen" class="mw-redirect" title="Christine Louise of Oettingen-Oettingen">Christine Louise of Oettingen-Oettingen</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict_on_Idle_Institutions" title="Edict on Idle Institutions">Edict on Idle Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_the_German_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of the German monarchs">Family tree of the German monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_of_Toleration" title="Patent of Toleration">Patent of Toleration</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911514_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, p. 514.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeales198777-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeales198777_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeales1987">Beales 1987</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hopkins, p. 63<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. 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New York: HarperPerennial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-097468-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-097468-0"><bdi>0-06-097468-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+a+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperPerennial&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-06-097468-0&rft.au=Norman+Davies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feuropehistory00norm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeales2009-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeales2009_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeales2009">Beales 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeales198765-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeales198765_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeales1987">Beales 1987</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beales, Derek. "The False Joseph II", <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical Journal">Historical Journal</a></i>, 18 (1975), 467–95 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2638606">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadie1996" class="citation book cs1">Sadie, Stanley. (1996). <i>Wolfgang Amadè Mozart : essays on his life and his music</i>. Clarendon Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-816443-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-816443-2"><bdi>0-19-816443-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/231661778">231661778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wolfgang+Amad%C3%A8+Mozart+%3A+essays+on+his+life+and+his+music&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F231661778&rft.isbn=0-19-816443-2&rft.aulast=Sadie&rft.aufirst=Stanley.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/1446/Hung_Independence_1849.pdf;sequence=1">"Hungarian Declaration of Independence"</a>. <i>Habsburg H-Net Discussion Network</i>. 14 April 1849.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Habsburg+H-Net+Discussion+Network&rft.atitle=Hungarian+Declaration+of+Independence&rft.date=1849-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fecommons.cornell.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1813%2F1446%2FHung_Independence_1849.pdf%3Bsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011125–127-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011125%E2%80%93127_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSzabo2011">Szabo 2011</a>, pp. 125–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickson1995" class="citation journal cs1">Dickson, P. G. M. (April 1995). "Monarchy and Bureaucracy in Late Eighteenth-century Austria". <i>English Historical Review</i>. <b>110</b> (436). Oxford University Press: 323–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FCX.436.323">10.1093/ehr/CX.436.323</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-8266">0013-8266</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/576012">576012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Monarchy+and+Bureaucracy+in+Late+Eighteenth-century+Austria&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=436&rft.pages=323-367&rft.date=1995-04&rft.issn=0013-8266&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F576012%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2FCX.436.323&rft.aulast=Dickson&rft.aufirst=P.+G.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011127-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011127_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSzabo2011">Szabo 2011</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011128-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011128_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSzabo2011">Szabo 2011</a>, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011130-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011130_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSzabo2011">Szabo 2011</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011130–131-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011130%E2%80%93131_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSzabo2011">Szabo 2011</a>, pp. 130–131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011133-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011133_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSzabo2011">Szabo 2011</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESzabo2011133–136-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzabo2011133%E2%80%93136_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSzabo2011">Szabo 2011</a>, pp. 133–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWingfield1997" class="citation book cs1">Wingfield, Nancy Meriwether (1997). <i>Conflicting Constructions of Memory: Attacks on Statues of Joseph II in the Bohemian Lands after the Great War</i>. Vol. 28. pp. 147–171.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conflicting+Constructions+of+Memory%3A+Attacks+on+Statues+of+Joseph+II+in+the+Bohemian+Lands+after+the+Great+War&rft.pages=147-171&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Wingfield&rft.aufirst=Nancy+Meriwether&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_J.1986" class="citation book cs1">Donald J., Olsen (1986). <i>The City as a Work of Art</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-04212-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-04212-4"><bdi>0-300-04212-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+City+as+a+Work+of+Art&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-300-04212-4&rft.aulast=Donald+J.&rft.aufirst=Olsen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AINPAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1"><i>Genealogie ascendante jusqu'au quatrieme degre inclusivement de tous les Rois et Princes de maisons souveraines de l'Europe actuellement vivans</i></a> [<i>Genealogy up to the fourth degree inclusive of all the Kings and Princes of sovereign houses of Europe currently living</i>] (in French). Bourdeaux: Frederic Guillaume Birnstiel. 1768. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genealogie+ascendante+jusqu%27au+quatrieme+degre+inclusivement+de+tous+les+Rois+et+Princes+de+maisons+souveraines+de+l%27Europe+actuellement+vivans&rft.place=Bourdeaux&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Frederic+Guillaume+Birnstiel&rft.date=1768&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAINPAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Works cited" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeales1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Beales" title="Derek Beales">Beales, Derek Edward Dawson</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13823416"><i>Joseph II: Volume 1, In the Shadow of Maria Theresa, 1741–1780</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24240-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-24240-1"><bdi>0-521-24240-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13823416">13823416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Joseph+II%3A+Volume+1%2C+In+the+Shadow+of+Maria+Theresa%2C+1741%E2%80%931780&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13823416&rft.isbn=0-521-24240-1&rft.aulast=Beales&rft.aufirst=Derek+Edward+Dawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F13823416&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeales2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Beales" title="Derek Beales">Beales, Derek Edward Dawson</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13823416"><i>Joseph II: Volume 2, Against the World, 1780–1790</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24240-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24240-0"><bdi>978-0-521-24240-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13823416">13823416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Joseph+II%3A+Volume+2%2C+Against+the+World%2C+1780%E2%80%931790&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13823416&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24240-0&rft.aulast=Beales&rft.aufirst=Derek+Edward+Dawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F13823416&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 12px;height: 13px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="12" data-height="13" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Joseph_II" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Joseph II">Joseph II.</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 514–515.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Joseph+II.&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=514-515&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadover1934" class="citation book cs1">Padover, Saul K. (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090801100854/https://www.questia.com/read/9751312"><i>The Revolutionary Emperor, Joseph the Second, 1741–1790</i></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/9751312">the original</a> on 1 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Revolutionary+Emperor%2C+Joseph+the+Second%2C+1741%E2%80%931790&rft.date=1934&rft.aulast=Padover&rft.aufirst=Saul+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Fread%2F9751312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzabo2011" class="citation journal cs1">Szabo, Franz A. J. (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/658104">"Changing Perspectives on the "Revolutionary Emperor": Joseph II Biographies since 1790"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a></i>. <b>83</b> (1): 111–138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F658104">10.1086/658104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2801">0022-2801</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144338172">144338172</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Changing+Perspectives+on+the+%22Revolutionary+Emperor%22%3A+Joseph+II+Biographies+since+1790&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=111-138&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144338172%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-2801&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F658104&rft.aulast=Szabo&rft.aufirst=Franz+A.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F658104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeales2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Beales" title="Derek Beales">Beales, Derek Edward Dawson</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60750917"><i>Enlightenment and reform in eighteenth-century Europe</i></a>. London: I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85771-242-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85771-242-4"><bdi>978-0-85771-242-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60750917">60750917</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enlightenment+and+reform+in+eighteenth-century+Europe&rft.place=London&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60750917&rft.isbn=978-0-85771-242-4&rft.aulast=Beales&rft.aufirst=Derek+Edward+Dawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F60750917&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard1979" class="citation book cs1">Bernard, Paul P. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4857752"><i>The limits of enlightenment : Joseph II and the law</i></a>. Urbana. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-00735-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-00735-2"><bdi>0-252-00735-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4857752">4857752</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+limits+of+enlightenment+%3A+Joseph+II+and+the+law&rft.place=Urbana&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4857752&rft.isbn=0-252-00735-2&rft.aulast=Bernard&rft.aufirst=Paul+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F4857752&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanning,_T._C._W." class="mw-redirect" title="Blanning, T. C. W.">Blanning, T. C. W.</a> <i>Joseph II</i> (1994), 228 pp; a short scholarly biography</li> <li>Blanning, T. C. W. <i>Joseph II and Enlightened Despotism</i> (1984)</li> <li>Bright, James Franck. <i>Joseph II</i> (1897), 222 pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4i82AAAAMAAJ">full text online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronza2010" class="citation book cs1">Bronza, Boro (2010). "The Habsburg Monarchy and the Projects for Division of the Ottoman Balkans, 1771–1788". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cz7pbGvCqhwC"><i>Empires and Peninsulas: Southeastern Europe between Karlowitz and the Peace of Adrianople, 1699–1829</i></a>. Berlin: LIT Verlag. pp. 51–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783643106117" title="Special:BookSources/9783643106117"><bdi>9783643106117</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Habsburg+Monarchy+and+the+Projects+for+Division+of+the+Ottoman+Balkans%2C+1771%E2%80%931788&rft.btitle=Empires+and+Peninsulas%3A+Southeastern+Europe+between+Karlowitz+and+the+Peace+of+Adrianople%2C+1699%E2%80%931829&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=51-62&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9783643106117&rft.aulast=Bronza&rft.aufirst=Boro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCz7pbGvCqhwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickson1993" class="citation journal cs1">Dickson, P. G. M. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639517">"Joseph II's Reshaping of the Austrian Church"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Historical_Journal" title="The Historical Journal">The Historical Journal</a></i>. <b>36</b> (1): 89–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00016125">10.1017/S0018246X00016125</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-246X">0018-246X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639517">2639517</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162762308">162762308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Joseph+II%27s+Reshaping+of+the+Austrian+Church&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=89-114&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0018-246X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162762308%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2639517%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X00016125&rft.aulast=Dickson&rft.aufirst=P.+G.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2639517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Henderson, Nicholas. "Joseph II", <i>History Today</i>, 1991 41 (March): pp. 21–27. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0018-2753">0018-2753</a></li> <li>Macek, Bernhard A. <i>Die Kroenung Josephs II. in Frankfurt am Main. Logistisches Meisterwerk, zeremonielle Glanzleistung und Kulturgueter fuer die Ewigkeit</i> (2010) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-60849-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-631-60849-4">978-3-631-60849-4</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcHugh1995" class="citation journal cs1">McHugh, James T (1 March 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1016/0362-3319%2895%2990020-9">"Last of the enlightened despots: A comparison of President Mikhail Gorbachev and Emperor Joseph II"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Science_Journal" title="The Social Science Journal">The Social Science Journal</a></i>. <b>32</b> (1): 69–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0362-3319%2895%2990020-9">10.1016/0362-3319(95)90020-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-3319">0362-3319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Social+Science+Journal&rft.atitle=Last+of+the+enlightened+despots%3A+A+comparison+of+President+Mikhail+Gorbachev+and+Emperor+Joseph+II&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=69-85&rft.date=1995-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0362-3319%2895%2990020-9&rft.issn=0362-3319&rft.aulast=McHugh&rft.aufirst=James+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1016%2F0362-3319%252895%252990020-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStollberg-Rilinger2017" class="citation book cs1">Stollberg-Rilinger, Barbara (2017). <i>Maria Theresia: Die Kaiserin in ihrer Zeit. Eine Biographie</i>. <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>: C.H. Beck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-69748-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-69748-7"><bdi>978-3-406-69748-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maria+Theresia%3A+Die+Kaiserin+in+ihrer+Zeit.+Eine+Biographie&rft.place=Munich&rft.pub=C.H.+Beck&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-406-69748-7&rft.aulast=Stollberg-Rilinger&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseph+II%2C+Holy+Roman+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Vovk, Justin C. (2010). <i>In Destiny's Hands: Five Tragic Rulers, Children of Maria Theresa</i>. iUniverse: Bloomington, Ind. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4502-0081-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4502-0081-3">978-1-4502-0081-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson,_Peter_H." class="mw-redirect" title="Wilson, Peter H.">Wilson, Peter H.</a> <i>Absolutism in Central Europe</i> (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/102842918#">online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090801102956/https://www.questia.com/read/102842918">Archived</a> 1 August 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 38px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="38" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:<br><b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:Author:Joseph_II" class="extiw" title="s:en:Author:Joseph II">Joseph II</a></i></b></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tmF8caGmyh4C&pg=PA32">The Austrians: A Thousand-Year Odyssey</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalna.kniznica.info/s/Etn4URgrfR"><i>Collectio ordinationum imperatoris Josephi II-i et repraesentationum diversorum regni Hungariae comitatuum Pars 1.</i></a> Dioszeg: Paul Medgyes, 1790. 318 p. – available at <a href="/wiki/University_Library_in_Bratislava_Digital_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="University Library in Bratislava Digital Library">ULB's Digital Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalna.kniznica.info/s/Z9Y2dQJD1B"><i>Constituta regia quae regnante August, Imperatore et rege Apostol. Josepho II. politicorum Pars 1., 2. (1.) De publicorum negotiorum administratione, (2.) De Politia ...</i></a>. Viennae: Kurzbek, 1788. 397 s. – available at <a href="/wiki/University_Library_in_Bratislava_Digital_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="University Library in Bratislava Digital Library">ULB's Digital Library</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regnal_titles">Regnal titles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Regnal titles" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor </div><div><b> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg-Lorraine" title="House of Habsburg-Lorraine">House of Habsburg-Lorraine</a></b></div><div style="font-size:90%">Cadet branch of the <b>House of Lorraine</b></div><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"><b>Born:</b> 13 March 1741</span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"> <b>Died:</b> 20 February 1790</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ACE777;">Regnal titles </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="3">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Francis_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis I</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Teschen" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Teschen">Duke of Teschen</a> </b><br>1765–1766 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Archduchess_Maria_Christina,_Duchess_of_Teschen" class="mw-redirect" title="Archduchess Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen">Maria Christina</a> <br>and <a href="/wiki/Prince_Albert_of_Saxony,_Duke_of_Teschen" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Albert of Saxony, Duke of Teschen">Albert</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Romans" title="King of the Romans">King of the Romans</a> </b><br>1764–1765 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="3">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a>;<br><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Austria" title="List of rulers of Austria">Archduke of Austria</a> </b><br>1765–1790 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/King_of_Hungary" title="King of Hungary">King of Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_of_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Croatia">Croatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_of_Bohemia" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Bohemia">Bohemia</a><br><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ukrainian_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ukrainian rulers">Galicia and Lodomeria</a>;<br><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Brabant" title="Duke of Brabant">Duke of Brabant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Limburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Limburg">Limburg</a>,<br><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Lothier" title="Duke of Lothier">Lothier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>;<br><a href="/wiki/Count_of_Flanders" title="Count of Flanders">Count of Flanders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Hainaut" title="Count of Hainaut">Hainaut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Namur" class="mw-redirect" title="Count of Namur">Namur</a> </b><br>1780–1790 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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</section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&oldid=1259563472">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&oldid=1259563472</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-medium minerva-icon--modified-history"></span> <span class="last-modified-bar__text modified-enhancement" data-user-name="Gryffindor" data-user-gender="unknown" data-timestamp="1732569008"> <span>Last edited on 25 November 2024, at 21:10</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%81_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="يوزف الثاني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="يوزف الثاني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xos%C3%A9_II_del_Sacru_Imperiu_Romanu_Xerm%C3%A1nicu" title="Xosé II del Sacru Imperiu Romanu Xermánicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xosé II del Sacru Imperiu Romanu Xermánicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_%C4%B0osif" title="II İosif – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="II İosif" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%81_(%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1)" title="ایکینجی یوزف (ایمپیراتور) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایکینجی یوزف (ایمپیراتور)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_2-s%C3%A8" title="Joseph 2-sè – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Joseph 2-sè" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_II" title="Иосиф II – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Иосиф II" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D1%84_II_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Іосіф II Габсбург – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іосіф II Габсбург" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%81%D0%B7%D1%8D%D1%84_II_(%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A1%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%96)" title="Ёзэф II (імпэратар Сьвятой Рымскай імпэрыі) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ёзэф II (імпэратар Сьвятой Рымскай імпэрыі)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%84_II" title="Йозеф II – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Йозеф II" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josip_II,_car_Svetog_Rimskog_Carstva" title="Josip II, car Svetog Rimskog Carstva – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Josip II, car Svetog Rimskog Carstva" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II_an_Impalaeriezh_Santel" title="Joseph II an Impalaeriezh Santel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Joseph II an Impalaeriezh Santel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josep_II_del_Sacre_Imperi_Romanogerm%C3%A0nic" title="Josep II del Sacre Imperi Romanogermànic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Josep II del Sacre Imperi Romanogermànic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_II." title="Josef II. – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Josef II." data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseff_II,_Ymerawdwr_Gl%C3%A2n_Rhufeinig" title="Joseff II, Ymerawdwr Glân Rhufeinig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Joseff II, Ymerawdwr Glân Rhufeinig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_2._(Tysk-romerske_rige)" title="Josef 2. (Tysk-romerske rige) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Josef 2. (Tysk-romerske rige)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II." title="Joseph II. – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Joseph II." data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II" title="Joseph II – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Joseph II" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%89%CF%83%CE%AE%CF%86_%CE%92%CE%84_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιωσήφ Β΄ της Αγίας Ρωμαϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιωσήφ Β΄ της Αγίας Ρωμαϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_II_del_Sacro_Imperio_Romano_Germ%C3%A1nico" title="José II del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="José II del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jozefo_la_2-a_(Sankta_Romia_Imperio)" title="Jozefo la 2-a (Sankta Romia Imperio) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Jozefo la 2-a (Sankta Romia Imperio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_II.a_Germaniako_Erromatar_Inperio_Santukoa" title="Josef II.a Germaniako Erromatar Inperio Santukoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Josef II.a Germaniako Erromatar Inperio Santukoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%81_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85%D8%8C_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%B3_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="یوزف دوم، امپراتور مقدس روم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="یوزف دوم، امپراتور مقدس روم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II_(empereur_du_Saint-Empire)" title="Joseph II (empereur du Saint-Empire) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Joseph II (empereur du Saint-Empire)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xos%C3%A9_II_de_Habsburgo" title="Xosé II de Habsburgo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xosé II de Habsburgo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%94%EC%A0%9C%ED%94%84_2%EC%84%B8" title="요제프 2세 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="요제프 2세" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josip_II.,_car_Svetog_Rimskog_Carstva" title="Josip II., car Svetog Rimskog Carstva – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Josip II., car Svetog Rimskog Carstva" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II,_Kaisar_Romawi_Suci" title="Joseph II, Kaisar Romawi Suci – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Joseph II, Kaisar Romawi Suci" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3sef_2._keisari" title="Jósef 2. keisari – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Jósef 2. keisari" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_II_d%27Asburgo-Lorena" title="Giuseppe II d'Asburgo-Lorena – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Giuseppe II d'Asburgo-Lorena" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%95%D7%96%D7%A3_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99,_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%94" title="יוזף השני, קיסר האימפריה הרומית הקדושה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יוזף השני, קיסר האימפריה הרומית הקדושה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4_II_(%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98)" title="იოზეფ II (სრი) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იოზეფ II (სრი)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaizari_Joseph_II" title="Kaizari Joseph II – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kaizari Joseph II" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iosephus_II" title="Iosephus II – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iosephus II" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jozefs_II_H%C4%81bsburgs" title="Jozefs II Hābsburgs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Jozefs II Hābsburgs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II._(HRR)" title="Joseph II. (HRR) – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Joseph II. (HRR)" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperatorius_Juozapas_II" title="Imperatorius Juozapas II – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Imperatorius Juozapas II" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/II._J%C3%B3zsef_magyar_kir%C3%A1ly" title="II. József magyar király – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="II. József magyar király" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_II_(%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE)" title="Јосиф II (Свето Римско Царство) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јосиф II (Свето Римско Царство)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II,_Emperora_Romana_Masina" title="Joseph II, Emperora Romana Masina – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Joseph II, Emperora Romana Masina" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AB_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F)" title="जोसेफ दुसरा (पवित्र रोमन सम्राट) – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जोसेफ दुसरा (पवित्र रोमन सम्राट)" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%81_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="جوزيف التاني – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جوزيف التاني" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keizer_Jozef_II" title="Keizer Jozef II – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Keizer Jozef II" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A8%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BC%E3%83%952%E4%B8%96_(%E7%A5%9E%E8%81%96%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D)" title="ヨーゼフ2世 (神聖ローマ皇帝) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヨーゼフ2世 (神聖ローマ皇帝)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_II_av_Det_tysk-romerske_rike" title="Josef II av Det tysk-romerske rike – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Josef II av Det tysk-romerske rike" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_II_av_Det_tysk-romerske_riket" title="Josef II av Det tysk-romerske riket – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Josef II av Det tysk-romerske riket" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iosif_II" title="Iosif II – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Iosif II" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%81_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85%D8%8C_%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%B3_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B4%DB%81%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81" title="جوزف دوم، مقدس رومی شہنشاہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جوزف دوم، مقدس رومی شہنشاہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%81_%DB%B2" title="یوسيف ۲ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="یوسيف ۲" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II._(HRR)" title="Joseph II. (HRR) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Joseph II. (HRR)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_II_Habsburg" title="Józef II Habsburg – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Józef II Habsburg" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_II_do_Sacro_Imp%C3%A9rio_Romano-Germ%C3%A2nico" title="José II do Sacro Império Romano-Germânico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="José II do Sacro Império Romano-Germânico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iosif_al_II-lea_al_Sf%C3%A2ntului_Imperiu_Roman" title="Iosif al II-lea al Sfântului Imperiu Roman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Iosif al II-lea al Sfântului Imperiu Roman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_II" title="Иосиф II – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Иосиф II" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II,_Haly_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Haly Roman Emperor – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Joseph II, Haly Roman Emperor" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jozef_II._(Sv%C3%A4t%C3%A1_r%C3%ADmska_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a)" title="Jozef II. (Svätá rímska ríša) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jozef II. (Svätá rímska ríša)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C5%BEef_II._Habsbur%C5%A1ko-Lotarin%C5%A1ki" title="Jožef II. Habsburško-Lotarinški – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jožef II. Habsburško-Lotarinški" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%84_II_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Јозеф II Хабзбуршки – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јозеф II Хабзбуршки" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II_od_Svetog_Rimskog_Carstva" title="Joseph II od Svetog Rimskog Carstva – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Joseph II od Svetog Rimskog Carstva" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joosef_II" title="Joosef II – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Joosef II" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_II_(tysk-romersk_kejsare)" title="Josef II (tysk-romersk kejsare) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Josef II (tysk-romersk kejsare)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88_2_%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%8C" title="จักรพรรดิโยเซ็ฟที่ 2 แห่งจักรวรรดิโรมันอันศักดิ์สิทธิ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรพรรดิโยเซ็ฟที่ 2 แห่งจักรวรรดิโรมันอันศักดิ์สิทธิ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/II._Joseph_(Kutsal_Roma_imparatoru)" title="II. Joseph (Kutsal Roma imparatoru) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="II. Joseph (Kutsal Roma imparatoru)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_II" title="Йосиф II – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Йосиф II" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%81_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85%D8%8C_%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%B3_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B4%DB%81%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81" title="جوزف دوم، مقدس رومی شہنشاہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جوزف دوم، مقدس رومی شہنشاہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II_c%E1%BB%A7a_Th%C3%A1nh_ch%E1%BA%BF_La_M%C3%A3" title="Joseph II của Thánh chế La Mã – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Joseph II của Thánh chế La Mã" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dj%C3%B4zef_II_d%27_Otriche" title="Djôzef II d' Otriche – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Djôzef II d' Otriche" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jozef_II_(HRR)" title="Jozef II (HRR) – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Jozef II (HRR)" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%91%9F%E5%A4%AB%E4%BA%8C%E4%B8%96" title="约瑟夫二世 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="约瑟夫二世" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%91%9F%E5%A4%AB%E4%BA%8C%E4%B8%96" title="約瑟夫二世 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="約瑟夫二世" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%91%9F%E5%A4%AB%E4%BA%8C%E4%B8%96_(%E7%A5%9E%E5%9C%A3%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD)" title="约瑟夫二世 (神圣罗马帝国) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="约瑟夫二世 (神圣罗马帝国)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 November 2024, at 21:10<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li 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