Austria - Revolutionary France, Napoleonic Wars, 1809

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In addition, evidence indicates that he planned to introduce a measure of popular representation into the Habsburg government that might have given the monarchy greater stability as it encountered the challenges of industrialization, nationalism, liberalism, and democracy that became increasingly compelling in the next century. 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Leopold’s reign (1790–92) was a short one, which many believe was quite unfortunate for the Habsburg monarchy because, had he lived, he might have been able to salvage many of Joseph’s reforms. In addition, evidence indicates that he planned to introduce a measure of popular representation into the Habsburg government that might have given the monarchy greater stability as it encountered the challenges of industrialization, nationalism, liberalism, and democracy that became increasingly compelling in the next century. Prior to his accession, Leopold had gained a considerable reputation as an enlightened prince"/> <meta property="og:type" content="ARTICLE"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Austria - Revolutionary France, Napoleonic Wars, 1809 | Britannica"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Austria - Revolutionary France, Napoleonic Wars, 1809: Joseph was succeeded by his younger brother, Leopold II. Leopold’s reign (1790–92) was a short one, which many believe was quite unfortunate for the Habsburg monarchy because, had he lived, he might have been able to salvage many of Joseph’s reforms. In addition, evidence indicates that he planned to introduce a measure of popular representation into the Habsburg government that might have given the monarchy greater stability as it encountered the challenges of industrialization, nationalism, liberalism, and democracy that became increasingly compelling in the next century. Prior to his accession, Leopold had gained a considerable reputation as an enlightened prince"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopedia Britannica" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/73/6073-050-4D6FDAF6/Flag-Austria.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg" /> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="init opengraph"> Mendel.openGraph = {"type":"ARTICLE","title":"Austria - Revolutionary France, Napoleonic Wars, 1809","description":"Austria - Revolutionary France, Napoleonic Wars, 1809: Joseph was succeeded by his younger brother, Leopold II. Leopold’s reign (1790–92) was a short one, which many believe was quite unfortunate for the Habsburg monarchy because, had he lived, he might have been able to salvage many of Joseph’s reforms. In addition, evidence indicates that he planned to introduce a measure of popular representation into the Habsburg government that might have given the monarchy greater stability as it encountered the challenges of industrialization, nationalism, liberalism, and democracy that became increasingly compelling in the next century. 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data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria">Austria</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Austria">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref33387"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria#ref33387">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33388"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria#ref33388">Relief</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33389"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria#ref33389">Drainage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33390"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Climate">Climate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33391"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Climate#ref33391">Plant and animal life</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref33394"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Climate#ref33394">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33395"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Climate#ref33395">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref274940"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Languages">Languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref274941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Languages#ref274941">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33393"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Languages#ref33393">Settlement patterns</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33396"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Languages#ref33396">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref33397"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Languages#ref33397">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref274936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Agriculture-and-forestry">Agriculture and forestry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33398"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Agriculture-and-forestry#ref33398">Resources and power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Agriculture-and-forestry#ref33399">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33401"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Finance">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33400"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Finance#ref33400">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref274937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Finance#ref274937">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref274938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Finance#ref274938">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33402"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Transportation-and-telecommunications">Transportation and telecommunications</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref33403"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Transportation-and-telecommunications#ref33403">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33404"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Transportation-and-telecommunications#ref33404">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref274939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Transportation-and-telecommunications#ref274939">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33407"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Transportation-and-telecommunications#ref33407">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33406"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Political-process">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33408"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Political-process#ref33408">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33410"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Political-process#ref33410">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Education">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref33413"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Education#ref33413">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33414"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Education#ref33414">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref274933"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Education#ref274933">Daily life and social customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref274934"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/The-arts">The arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref274935"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Cultural-institutions#ref274935">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33416"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Cultural-institutions#ref33416">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref129458"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Cultural-institutions#ref129458">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33330"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Cultural-institutions#ref33330">Prehistory and Roman times</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33331"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Early-Middle-Ages">Early Middle Ages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33332"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Early-Middle-Ages#ref33332">Germanic and Slavic settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33333"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Early-Babenberg-period">Early Babenberg period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33334"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Later-Babenberg-period">Later Babenberg period</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33335"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Late-Middle-Ages">Late Middle Ages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33336"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Late-Middle-Ages#ref33336">Contest for the Babenberg heritage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33337"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Accession-of-the-Habsburgs">Accession of the Habsburgs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33338"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Division-of-the-Habsburg-lands">Division of the Habsburg lands</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33339"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Burgundian-and-Spanish-marriages">Burgundian and Spanish marriages</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33340"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Burgundian-and-Spanish-marriages#ref33340">Reformation and Counter-Reformation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33341"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Burgundian-and-Spanish-marriages#ref33341">Acquisition of Bohemia</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33342"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Advance-of-Protestantism">Advance of Protestantism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33343"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Advance-of-Protestantism#ref33343">Rudolf II and Matthias</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33344"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/The-Bohemian-rising-and-the-victory-of-the-Counter-Reformation">The Bohemian rising and the victory of the Counter-Reformation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33345"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/The-Bohemian-rising-and-the-victory-of-the-Counter-Reformation#ref33345">Struggle with Sweden and France</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33346"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Austria-as-a-great-power">Austria as a great power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33347"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/War-of-the-Spanish-Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33348"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/War-of-the-Spanish-Succession#ref33348">Problem of the Austrian succession</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33349"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/New-conflicts-with-the-Turks-and-the-Bourbons">New conflicts with the Turks and the Bourbons</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33350"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Social-economic-and-cultural-trends-in-the-Baroque-period">Social, economic, and cultural trends in the Baroque period</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33351"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/From-the-accession-of-Maria-Theresa-to-the-Congress-of-Vienna">From the accession of Maria Theresa to the Congress of Vienna</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33352"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/From-the-accession-of-Maria-Theresa-to-the-Congress-of-Vienna#ref33352">War of the Austrian Succession, 1740–48</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33353"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/First-reforms-1748-56">First reforms, 1748–56</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33354"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/First-reforms-1748-56#ref33354">Seven Years’ War, 1756–63</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33355"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Reforms-1763-80">Reforms, 1763–80</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33356"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Reforms-1763-80#ref33356">Foreign affairs, 1763–80</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33357"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Early-reign-of-Joseph-II-1780-85">Early reign of Joseph II, 1780–85</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33358"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Late-reign-of-Joseph-II-1785-90">Late reign of Joseph II, 1785–90</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33359"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Conflicts-with-revolutionary-France-1790-1805">Conflicts with revolutionary France, 1790–1805</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref33360"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Conflicts-with-Napoleonic-France">Conflicts with Napoleonic France</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33361"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/The-Age-of-Metternich-1815-48">The Age of Metternich, 1815–48</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33362"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Revolution-and-counterrevolution-1848-59">Revolution and counterrevolution, 1848–59</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33363"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Neoabsolutist-era-1849-60">Neoabsolutist era, 1849–60</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref33364"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Austria/Constitutional-experimentation-1860-67">Constitutional experimentation, 1860–67</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li 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Author of <i>Schicksaljahre Österreichs </i>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Fritz Fellner</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Reinhold-F-Wagnleitner/4020" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Reinhold F. Wagnleitner</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Associate Professor of History, University of Salzburg, Austria. Author of <i>Coca-colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria After the Second World War.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Reinhold F. Wagnleitner</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-25T00:00:00CST" >Nov 25, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/44183/1779d4c962e41d8ef096c253705bbf4f" rel="nofollow">Shiffrin wins World Cup slalom and takes quest for her 100th victory to North America</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 10:13 AM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/44183/088b14662ba02220369492231c92b5bb" rel="nofollow">Russia's Gazprom stops the flow of natural gas to Austria, OMV utility says</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 16, 2024, 11:20 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/44183/8851d55ac8bb8621a1ee11ae9e476d68" rel="nofollow">Austria says Russia's Gazprom will cut off natural gas supply this weekend</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 15, 2024, 3:42 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3" id="ref33359"> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Joseph was succeeded by his younger brother, <span id="ref408974"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leopold-II-Holy-Roman-emperor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Leopold II</a>. Leopold’s reign (1790–92) was a short one, which many believe was quite unfortunate for the Habsburg monarchy because, had he lived, he might have been able to salvage many of Joseph’s reforms. In addition, evidence indicates that he planned to introduce a measure of popular representation into the Habsburg government that might have given the monarchy greater stability as it encountered the challenges of industrialization, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="nationalism" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nationalism" data-type="MW">nationalism</a>, liberalism, and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="democracy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/democracy" data-type="MW">democracy</a> that became increasingly compelling in the next century.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Prior to his accession, Leopold had gained a considerable reputation as an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="enlightened" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/enlightened" data-type="MW">enlightened</a> prince of the Italian state of Tuscany, a land ruled directly by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maria-Theresa" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Maria Theresa’s</a> husband and then passed to the second Habsburg son (<em>secundogeniture</em>). When he became emperor, Leopold saw as his primary task ending the war with the Turks as quickly as possible. That, he believed, would relieve a great deal of the strain in domestic matters so that he could slowly <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="implement" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/implement" data-type="MW">implement</a> a reform program of his own.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">By the time of Leopold’s accession, the Turkish war had become somewhat complicated—not in a military sense but in a diplomatic one. In 1788 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Prussia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Prussia</a> and Great Britain had formed a coalition to put pressure on Austria and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Russia</a> to conclude the war with little or no compensation. This pressure carried with it the threat of war if the two eastern empires did not comply. In 1789 Joseph had wanted to reach such an agreement, but he could not convince Kaunitz to do so, and Kaunitz still had great influence. Leopold, however, did not hesitate to cast aside the old chancellor’s advice. Two weeks after he reached <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Vienna" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Vienna</a>, Leopold notified the king of Prussia that he sought an accommodation based on the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="status quo" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/status quo" data-type="EB">status quo</a> ante, an accommodation reached in April 1790. The war was effectively over, although peace with the Turks was not concluded until August 1791 (<span id="ref408975"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Treaty-of-Sistova" class="md-crosslink ">Treaty of Sistova</a>). (<em>See also</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Jassy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jassy, Treaty of</a>.)</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Initially Leopold accepted the cancellation of many of Joseph’s reforms and the increasing authority of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/secret-police" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">secret police</a> under the guidance of Johann Anton, Graf (count) Pergen. But soon the new emperor began to twist this apparent reaction into something far more progressive. In 1790 and 1791 there came to him a number of petitions from the lower classes of society demanding redress of various grievances. Leopold welcomed these petitions and began to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="cite" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/cite" data-type="EB">cite</a> them as reasons for introducing some changes in the nature of government, including providing greater representation for the lower orders in the provincial diets and placing the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/police/The-history-of-policing-in-the-West#ref36611" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">police</a> under the rule of the law, a proposal that caused Pergen to resign. In fact, Leopold adopted a proposal of <span id="ref408976"></span>Joseph von Sonnenfels, an official often considered the leading enlightened political theorist in the monarchy, to make the police a service institution rather than an instrument of control. He put them in charge of local health measures and authorized them to settle minor disputes so that people would not have to go to law courts with petty arguments.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Apparently, in early 1792 Leopold was beginning to take steps to extend representation in the provincial diets to virtually all classes in society. Clearly he did not intend to establish a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/constitutional-monarchy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">constitutional monarchy</a>, but he believed that, by drawing the nonprivileged classes into the government, he could check the resistance of the privileged classes and at the same time create a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constituency" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituency" data-type="MW">constituency</a> that would support an improved kind of enlightened absolutism. Whatever he had in mind, however, did not come to pass, for he died prematurely on March 1, 1792.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Succeeding Leopold was his much less able but longer-lived eldest son, <span id="ref408977"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francis-II-Holy-Roman-emperor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Francis II</a> (known as Holy Roman Emperor Francis II until 1806 and as Francis I, emperor of Austria, from 1804 to 1835). Francis’s foremost problem was significantly different from those that had faced his father and uncle. The domestic situation was settled again, but foreign matters had become increasingly perilous owing to events in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/France" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">France</a>. The <span id="ref408978"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/French-Revolution" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">French Revolution</a> had erupted in the summer of 1789, and the initial Austrian policy had been essentially to leave France alone. Indeed, Leopold had at first made some approving remarks about the changes in France, and Kaunitz had noted that at least France would not be a serious force in international affairs for some time. The event that changed these passive responses was the flight to Varennes, when King <span id="ref408979"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-XVI" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Louis XVI</a> and his wife, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marie-Antoinette-queen-of-France" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Marie-Antoinette</a> (the youngest daughter of Maria Theresa and therefore sister of Joseph and Leopold and aunt of Francis), fled Paris in June 1791 for the safety of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Austrian-Netherlands" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Austrian Netherlands</a>. They reached the French border town of Varennes, where they were recognized and placed under arrest; later they were returned to Paris.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The flight to Varennes proved to monarchical <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Europe</a> that, despite protestations to the contrary, the French king did not approve the course of the revolution and in fact had become a prisoner of it. As a result, Leopold and King <span id="ref408980"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-William-II" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Frederick William II</a> of Prussia issued a joint declaration (the <span id="ref408981"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Declaration-of-Pillnitz" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Declaration of Pillnitz</a>, August 1791) expressing concern about the developments in France. The French government, now acting without the king, interpreted this declaration as a threat to its <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="sovereignty" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sovereignty" data-type="MW">sovereignty</a> and responded with a series of provocations—answered in kind by Austria and Prussia—that led to a <span id="ref408982"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/French-revolutionary-wars" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">French</a> declaration of war on Austria in April 1792.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The declaration of war inaugurated a period of 23 years of almost continuous conflict (or preparation for conflict) between Austria and France (<em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/French-revolutionary-wars" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars</a>). During that time Austria and France fought five <span id="ref408983"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Napoleonic-Wars" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">wars</a> for a total of 14 years, and Austria lost all of them but the last. At one time (1809–12), Austria was stripped of all its Italian possessions, the Austrian Netherlands, its western German lands, its access to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Adriatic-Sea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Adriatic Sea</a>, and the portion of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Poland</a> that it had <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="acquired" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/acquired" data-type="EB">acquired</a> in the Third Partition in 1795 (<em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Partitions-of-Poland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Poland, Partitions of</a>). In 1804 Francis added to his titles that of emperor of Austria, but he did so because he anticipated being stripped of his most venerated title of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Holy-Roman-emperor" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Holy Roman emperor</a>, which he indeed was in 1806 at the insistence of <span id="ref408984"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Napoleon-I" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Napoleon I</a> (who had had himself declared emperor of France in 1804). French armies occupied Vienna twice, and in 1810 the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/House-of-Habsburg" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Habsburgs</a> had to endure the indignity of giving the hand of one of Francis’s daughters, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marie-Louise-Austrian-archduchess" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Marie-Louise</a>, to Napoleon in marriage.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">For the first two wars, that of the <span id="ref408985"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/War-of-the-First-Coalition" class="md-crosslink ">First Coalition</a> (1792–97) and that of the <span id="ref408986"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/War-of-the-Second-Coalition" class="md-crosslink ">Second Coalition</a> (1799–1800), Austrian policy was guided by Franz Maria, Freiherr (baron) von <span id="ref408987"></span>Thugut, the only commoner to reach the rank of minister of foreign affairs in the history of the Habsburg monarchy. Thugut was an experienced diplomat and knew France very well, and he was convinced that the French Revolution represented a threat to the traditional European powers less in ideological terms than in terms of pure military might. He believed that the revolution had somehow reinvigorated an almost <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="moribund" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/moribund" data-type="MW">moribund</a> French state and had resurrected its military power to a surprising—and dangerous—degree. Therefore, he looked upon the war against Revolutionary, and later Napoleonic, France as akin to the wars against France in the time of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-XIV-king-of-France" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Louis XIV</a>. In other words, what was required was a coalition of the great and small European powers to resist what was fundamentally French aggression.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Regardless of his interpretation of the France he was fighting, his efforts ended in failure. In the War of the First Coalition, both Prussia and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Spain</a> dropped out in 1795, and for the next two years Austria carried the brunt of the struggle with some help from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Britain</a>. In 1797 serious defeats at the hands of the young Napoleon Bonaparte in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Italy</a> forced Austria to seek peace. By the <span id="ref408988"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Campo-Formio" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Campo Formio</a> (October 1797), Austria gave up the Austrian Netherlands and Lombardy but acquired much of Venice.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Thugut was convinced that war would begin again soon, and for the next one he secured Russia as an ally. The War of the Second Coalition began in 1799 when Bonaparte was in Egypt and the French government was in crisis, and it looked for a time as if the Austro-<span id="ref408989"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Russia" class="md-crosslink ">Russian</a> forces would win. However, a terrible defeat inflicted upon the coalition in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Switzerland" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Switzerland</a>, followed by recrimination and blame heaped upon each ally by the other, resulted in Russia’s leaving the alliance as the campaign of 1799 ended. Thugut convinced Francis to continue the struggle, which ended in significant Austrian defeats at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Marengo" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Marengo</a> in Italy and at Hohenlinden in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Germany</a> in 1800 and in the ouster of Thugut himself in early 1801. Austria sued for peace, which came in the <span id="ref408990"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Treaty-of-Luneville" class="md-crosslink ">Treaty of Lunéville</a> (February 1801), by which Austria agreed to the cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France (originally a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="provision" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/provision" data-type="EB">provision</a> of the Treaty of Campo Formio) and recognized French domination of the Austrian Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">From 1801 to 1805, the Austrian government again focused on internal reform, especially in finances. The ongoing wars had cost a great deal of money, and the debt had risen to an astonishing degree. However, most of the expenses of the wars had been paid for by printing paper money, massive amounts of which were in circulation by 1801. Most merchants had accepted this paper money at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/principal" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">face value</a> during much of the 1790s, and there is evidence that some of it was invested in technology and industry, suggesting that Austria enjoyed at this time its first hint of industrial revolution. Unfortunately, by 1801 <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="merchants" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/merchants" data-type="EB">merchants</a> were doubting the value of the currency they received, and inflation assumed serious proportions. From 1801 to 1805 many proposals were advanced to reduce the debt and curb inflation, but none succeeded in doing so.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The other major area of reform was military, and here hope for success seemed higher because the genuine Austrian military hero of the time, <span id="ref408991"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Archduke-Charles" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Archduke Charles</a>, brother of the emperor, undertook the task of improving the armed forces. He reduced the time of service for all ranks, curbed harsh disciplinary measures, and introduced a number of administrative changes. <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="Yet" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Yet" data-type="EB">Yet</a> he firmly believed that an army of long-serving and well-drilled enlisted men was the key to success, and he did not advocate the introduction of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/conscription" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">draft</a> that had led to such an incredible increase in the size of the French armies since 1794.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":29,"pagesTotal":51,"pageId":44183,"pageLength":1785,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"A","adLeg":"A","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":29,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Austria - Revolutionary France, Napoleonic Wars, 1809 | Britannica