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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gwynedd_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Gwynedd in the Early Middle Ages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gwynedd_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Gwynedd in the Early Middle Ages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Gwynedd_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cunedda_and_his_sons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cunedda_and_his_sons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Cunedda and his sons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cunedda_and_his_sons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Cadwallon ap Cadfan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhodri_the_Great_and_Aberffraw_primacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhodri_the_Great_and_Aberffraw_primacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Rhodri the Great and Aberffraw primacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhodri_the_Great_and_Aberffraw_primacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gwynedd_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gwynedd_in_the_High_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Gwynedd in the High Middle Ages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gwynedd_in_the_High_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Gwynedd in the High Middle Ages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Gwynedd_in_the_High_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gruffudd_ap_Cynan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gruffudd_ap_Cynan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Gruffudd ap Cynan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gruffudd_ap_Cynan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Expansion_of_Gwynedd" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Expansion_of_Gwynedd"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 The Expansion of Gwynedd </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Expansion_of_Gwynedd-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Owain_Gwynedd" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Owain_Gwynedd"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Owain Gwynedd </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Owain_Gwynedd-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_war,_usurpation_1170_–_1195,_and_the_Prince_of_Wales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_war,_usurpation_1170_–_1195,_and_the_Prince_of_Wales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Civil war, usurpation 1170 – 1195, and the Prince of Wales </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_war,_usurpation_1170_–_1195,_and_the_Prince_of_Wales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prince_of_Wales_(de_facto)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prince_of_Wales_(de_facto)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Prince of Wales (de facto) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prince_of_Wales_(de_facto)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prince of Wales (de facto) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prince_of_Wales_(de_facto)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Llywelyn_I,_the_Great" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Llywelyn_I,_the_Great"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Llywelyn I, the Great </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Llywelyn_I,_the_Great-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prince_Dafydd_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prince_Dafydd_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Prince Dafydd II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prince_Dafydd_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prince_Llywelyn_II,_the_Last" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prince_Llywelyn_II,_the_Last"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Prince Llywelyn II, the Last </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prince_Llywelyn_II,_the_Last-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prince_Dafydd_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prince_Dafydd_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Prince Dafydd III </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prince_Dafydd_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_Independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_Independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 End of Independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_Independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Administration </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Administration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Administration subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anglesey_(Welsh:_Ynys_Môn)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anglesey_(Welsh:_Ynys_Môn)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Anglesey (Welsh: Ynys Môn) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anglesey_(Welsh:_Ynys_Môn)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upper_Gwynedd,_Conwy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upper_Gwynedd,_Conwy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Upper Gwynedd, Conwy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upper_Gwynedd,_Conwy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lower_Gwynedd,_Conwy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lower_Gwynedd,_Conwy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Lower Gwynedd, Conwy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lower_Gwynedd,_Conwy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 General sources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle General sources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1.1 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1.2 Secondary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dictionary_of_Welsh_biography_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionary_of_Welsh_biography_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Dictionary of Welsh biography sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionary_of_Welsh_biography_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wiki_source_–_Dictionary_of_National_Biography_and_Encyclopædia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wiki_source_–_Dictionary_of_National_Biography_and_Encyclopædia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Wiki source – Dictionary of National Biography and Encyclopædia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wiki_source_–_Dictionary_of_National_Biography_and_Encyclopædia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Kingdom of Gwynedd</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" > 36 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="مملكة غوينيد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مملكة غوينيد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinu_de_Gwynedd" title="Reinu de Gwynedd – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reinu de Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4" title="Каралеўства Гвінед – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каралеўства Гвінед" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouantelezh_Gwynedd" title="Rouantelezh Gwynedd – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Rouantelezh Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regne_de_Gwynedd" title="Regne de Gwynedd – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Regne de Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwynedd_(kr%C3%A1lovstv%C3%AD)" title="Gwynedd (království) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Gwynedd (království)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teyrnas_Gwynedd" title="Teyrnas Gwynedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Teyrnas Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongeriget_Gwynedd" title="Kongeriget Gwynedd – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kongeriget Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigreich_Gwynedd" title="Königreich Gwynedd – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Königreich Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kralojstwo_Gwynedd" title="Kralojstwo Gwynedd – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Kralojstwo Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B8" title="Βασίλειο του Γκουίνεθ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βασίλειο του Γκουίνεθ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Gwynedd" title="Reino de Gwynedd – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reino de Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwyneddeko_Erresuma" title="Gwyneddeko Erresuma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gwyneddeko Erresuma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%DA%AF%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B2" title="پادشاهی گوینز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پادشاهی گوینز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royaume_de_Gwynedd" title="Royaume de Gwynedd – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Royaume de Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keninkryk_Gwynedd" title="Keninkryk Gwynedd – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Keninkryk Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teyrnas_Gwynedd" title="Teyrnas Gwynedd – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teyrnas Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Gwynedd" title="Reino de Gwynedd – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reino de Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%80%EB%84%A4%EB%93%9C_%EC%99%95%EA%B5%AD" title="귀네드 왕국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="귀네드 왕국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevstvo_Gwynedd" title="Kraljevstvo Gwynedd – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kraljevstvo Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Gwynedd" title="Kerajaan Gwynedd – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kerajaan Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_di_Gwynedd" title="Regno di Gwynedd – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Regno di Gwynedd" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%93%27" title="ממלכת גוויניד' – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ממלכת גוויניד'" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venedotia" title="Venedotia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Venedotia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gvinedo_karalyst%C4%97" title="Gvinedo karalystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gvinedo karalystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Kingdom in northwest Wales, 401–1283</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of Gwynedd</div><div class="ib-country-names">Teyrnas Gwynedd (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">401–1283</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Gwynedd_(3-2).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Gwynedd"><img alt="Flag of Gwynedd" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Gwynedd_%283-2%29.svg/130px-Flag_of_Gwynedd_%283-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Gwynedd_%283-2%29.svg/195px-Flag_of_Gwynedd_%283-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Gwynedd_%283-2%29.svg/260px-Flag_of_Gwynedd_%283-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div>Flag of Gwynedd (<a href="/wiki/House_of_Aberffraw" title="House of Aberffraw">Aberffraw</a>)</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="of Gwynedd"><img alt="of Gwynedd" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg/75px-Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg/113px-Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg/150px-Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="422" data-file-height="508" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Prince_of_Wales" title="Coat of arms of the Prince of Wales"> Coat of arms</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: <a href="/wiki/Unbennaeth_Prydain" title="Unbennaeth Prydain">Unbennaeth Prydain</a> The Monarchy of Britain<a href="#cite_note-wade-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Kingdom_of_Gwynedd#Dubious" title="Talk:Kingdom of Gwynedd">discuss</a>]</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Wales.medieval.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Medieval kingdoms of Wales"><img alt="Medieval kingdoms of Wales" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Wales.medieval.jpg/220px-Wales.medieval.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Wales.medieval.jpg/330px-Wales.medieval.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Wales.medieval.jpg/440px-Wales.medieval.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1716" data-file-height="1794" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Medieval kingdoms of Wales</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a> (?) <a href="/wiki/Deganwy" title="Deganwy">Deganwy</a> (6th century)<a href="#cite_note-deganwy-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Llanfaes" title="Llanfaes">Llanfaes</a> (9th century)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd2004232-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aberffraw" title="Aberffraw">Aberffraw</a>(9–13th century)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELlwyd1832112–113-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rhuddlan" title="Rhuddlan">Rhuddlan</a> (11th century)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd2004-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abergwyngregyn" title="Abergwyngregyn">Abergwyngregyn</a> (12–13th century)<a href="#cite_note-woodbury-8">[8]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a><a href="#cite_note-Bell-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[b]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic Christianity</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 401–440 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cunedda" title="Cunedda">Cunedda</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 520–547 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Maelgwn_Gwynedd" title="Maelgwn Gwynedd">Maelgwn Gwynedd</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 625–634 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan" title="Cadwallon ap Cadfan">Cadwallon ap Cadfan</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 844 – 878 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Rhodri_Mawr" title="Rhodri Mawr">Rhodri Mawr</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1081–1137 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Cynan" title="Gruffudd ap Cynan">Gruffudd ap Cynan</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1137–1170 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Owain_Gwynedd" title="Owain Gwynedd">Owain Gwynedd</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1195–1240 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Llywelyn the Great">Llywelyn the Great</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1253–1282 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Gruffudd" title="Llywelyn ap Gruffudd">Llywelyn II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1282–1283 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd" class="mw-redirect" title="Dafydd ap Gruffydd">Dafydd III</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">401</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Declaration of the Principality of Wales </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3 October 1283</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1271 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">200,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994151-13">[11]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ceiniog" title="Ceiniog">ceiniog</a> cyfreith ceiniog cwta<a href="#cite_note-wade-1">[1]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>]</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/20px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/30px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/40px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="343" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Banner_of_Llywelyn_%28Square%29.svg/20px-Banner_of_Llywelyn_%28Square%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Banner_of_Llywelyn_%28Square%29.svg/30px-Banner_of_Llywelyn_%28Square%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Banner_of_Llywelyn_%28Square%29.svg/40px-Banner_of_Llywelyn_%28Square%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="312" data-file-height="312" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li> ∟<a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#ref_1">^</a> In Latin, Gwynedd was often referred to in official medieval charters and acts of the 13th century as Principatus Norwallia (Principality of North Wales).</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output 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3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Wales" title="Category:History of Wales">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">History of Wales</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:Welsh_Dragon_(Y_Ddraig_Goch).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Red Dragon of Wales"><img alt="Red Dragon of Wales" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg/40px-Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg/60px-Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg/80px-Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="219" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="WALLIA PRINCIPATUS Vulgo WALES"><img alt="WALLIA PRINCIPATUS Vulgo WALES" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg/150px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg/225px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg/300px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="4325" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Chronology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Welsh_history" title="Timeline of Welsh history">Timeline</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_British_history" title="Timeline of British history">British</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Welsh_history" title="Bibliography of Welsh history">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Wales" title="Archaeology of Wales">archaeology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Anglesey" title="Roman conquest of Anglesey">of Anglesey</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">In the Roman era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Welsh_wars" title="List of Anglo-Welsh wars">Anglo-Welsh wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_rebellions_against_English_rule" title="Welsh rebellions against English rule">rebellions</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">In the Middle Ages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the early Middle Ages">early</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">high</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the late Middle Ages">late</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cambro-Normans" title="Cambro-Normans">settlement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Edwardian conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glynd%C5%B5r_rebellion" title="Glyndŵr rebellion">Glyndŵr rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_settlement_in_the_Americas" title="Welsh settlement in the Americas">Settlement in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period_in_Wales" title="Early modern period in Wales">Early modern period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_early_modern_Wales" title="Witchcraft in early modern Wales">witchcraft</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Wales" title="Industrial Revolution in Wales">Industrial revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Wales" title="Modern history of Wales">Modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">World Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Devolution</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Template:Welsh_kingdoms" title="Template:Welsh kingdoms">Medieval kingdoms</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brycheiniog" title="Brycheiniog">Brycheiniog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dyfed" title="Kingdom of Dyfed">Dyfed</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gwynedd</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Gwynedd_during_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages">history</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Gwynedd_during_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages">culture</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Morgannwg" title="Kingdom of Morgannwg">Morgannwg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a> (<a href="/wiki/Powys_Wenwynwyn" title="Powys Wenwynwyn">Wenwynwyn</a> • <a href="/wiki/Powys_Fadog" title="Powys Fadog">Fadog</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhwng_Gwy_a_Hafren" title="Rhwng Gwy a Hafren">Rhwng Gwy a Hafren</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Rulers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Britons" title="King of the Britons">King of the Britons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Welsh_royal_houses" title="Category:Welsh royal houses">Royal houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Wales" title="King of Wales">King of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_in_Wales" title="List of rulers in Wales">List of rulers in Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Gwynedd" title="List of rulers of Gwynedd">Rulers of Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Powys" title="List of monarchs of Powys">Rulers of Powys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Tribes_of_Wales" title="Fifteen Tribes of Wales">Fifteen Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_the_Welsh_Court" title="Titles of the Welsh Court">Titles of the Welsh Court</a><hr /><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">English monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">British monarchs</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_peers_and_baronets" title="Welsh peers and baronets">Peers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Law</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Medieval Welsh law</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Cyfraith_Hywel_manuscripts" title="List of Cyfraith Hywel manuscripts">manuscripts</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Treaties_of_Wales" title="Category:Treaties of Wales">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Constitutional_laws_of_Wales" title="Category:Constitutional laws of Wales">Constitutional laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_laws_against_the_Welsh" title="Penal laws against the Welsh">Penal laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Welsh_Poor_Laws" title="Category:Welsh Poor Laws">Poor laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_policy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Language policy in the United Kingdom">Language laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a> (<a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> • <a href="/wiki/March_law_(Anglo-Welsh_border)" title="March law (Anglo-Welsh border)">former march law</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">contemporary Welsh law</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales-only_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales-only laws">Wales-only laws</a> • <a href="/wiki/Category:Acts_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom_concerning_Wales" title="Category:Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom concerning Wales">Wales-only acts</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="History of the courts of England and Wales">History of the courts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Polities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh Marches</a><hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Council_of_Wales_and_the_Marches" title="Council of Wales and the Marches">Council of Wales and the Marches</a>)<hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a><hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom (1801–1922)</a><hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Council_for_Wales_and_Monmouthshire" title="Council for Wales and Monmouthshire">Council for Wales and Monmouthshire</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Office" title="Welsh Office">Welsh Office</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales_Office" title="Wales Office">Wales Office</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Devolution</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Local history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff" title="History of Cardiff">Cardiff</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capital_of_Wales" title="Capital of Wales">as capital</a> • <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cardiff_history" title="Timeline of Cardiff history">timeline</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Llanelli_history" title="Timeline of Llanelli history">Llanelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Milford_Haven" title="History of Milford Haven">Milford Haven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Monmouth,_Wales" title="Category:History of Monmouth, Wales">Monmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Newport,_Wales" title="Category:History of Newport, Wales">Newport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Swansea" title="History of Swansea">Swansea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wrexham" title="History of Wrexham">Wrexham</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Welsh_language" title="History of the Welsh language">Welsh language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature" title="Welsh literature">Welsh literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medieval_Welsh_literature" title="Medieval Welsh literature">medieval</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">in Welsh</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">in English</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_historical_documents" title="List of Welsh historical documents">Historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Wales" title="Archaeology of Wales">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Wales" title="History of local government in Wales">Local government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_Wales" title="Historic counties of Wales">historic counties</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Music history</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_harp_in_Wales" title="History of the harp in Wales">harp</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Wales" title="History of the Jews in Wales">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Britain#Wales" title="History of Christianity in Britain">Christian history</a> (<a href="/wiki/1904%E2%80%931905_Welsh_revival" title="1904–1905 Welsh revival">1904–1905 Welsh revival</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Wales" title="Economic history of Wales">Economic history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slate_industry_in_Wales" title="Slate industry in Wales">slate</a> • <a href="/wiki/Woollen_industry_in_Wales" title="Woollen industry in Wales">woollen industry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Wales" title="History of education in Wales">Education</a> (<a href="/wiki/Teaching_of_Welsh_history" title="Teaching of Welsh history">history-specific</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_NHS_Wales" title="History of NHS Wales">Health service</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_National_Health_Service" title="History of the National Health Service">UK-wide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Plaid_Cymru" title="History of Plaid Cymru">Plaid Cymru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Wales" title="Geology of Wales">Geological history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of Wales">Genetic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_football_team" title="History of the Wales national football team">Football team</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_football_team_(1876%E2%80%931976)" title="History of the Wales national football team (1876–1976)">1876–1976</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_football_team_(1977%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Wales national football team (1977–present)">1977–present</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rugby_union_in_Wales" title="History of rugby union in Wales">Rugby union</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_rugby_union_team_(2004%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Wales national rugby union team (2004–present)">team since 2004</a> • <a href="/wiki/Category:Wales_national_rugby_union_team_matches" title="Category:Wales national rugby union team matches">with other teams</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff_City_F.C." title="History of Cardiff City F.C.">History of Cardiff City F.C.</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff_City_F.C._(1899%E2%80%931962)" title="History of Cardiff City F.C. (1899–1962)">1899–1962</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff_City_F.C._(1962%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Cardiff City F.C. (1962–present)">1962–present</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Britain" title="Military history of Britain">British military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rent_control_in_England_and_Wales" title="History of rent control in England and Wales">Rent control</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rent_regulation_in_England_and_Wales" title="Rent regulation in England and Wales">regulation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_early_modern_Wales" title="Witchcraft in early modern Wales">Early modern Witchcraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/16px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/24px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Wales" title="Template:History of Wales"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Wales" title="Template talk:History of Wales"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Wales" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Wales"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Kingdom of Gwynedd (<a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a>: Venedotia / Norwallia / Guenedota; <a href="/wiki/Middle_Welsh" title="Middle Welsh">Middle Welsh</a>: Guynet)<a class="external autonumber" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd#endnote_1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Early Middle Ages">Welsh kingdom</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_states" title="Succession of states">successor state</a> that emerged in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">sub-Roman Britain</a> in the 5th century during the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wales_online-15">[13]</a> Based in northwest <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Gwynedd" title="List of rulers of Gwynedd">rulers of Gwynedd</a> repeatedly rose to dominance and were acclaimed as "<a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Britons" title="King of the Britons">King of the Britons</a>" before losing their power in civil wars or invasions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund2006-16">[14]</a> The kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Llywelyn" title="Gruffydd ap Llywelyn">Gruffydd ap Llywelyn</a>—the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Wales" title="King of Wales">King of Wales</a> from 1055 to 1063—was shattered by a <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_conflict_in_Anglo-Saxon_Britain" title="Timeline of conflict in Anglo-Saxon Britain">Saxon invasion in 1063</a> just prior to the <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion of Wales</a>, but the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aberffraw" title="House of Aberffraw">House of Aberffraw</a> restored by <a href="/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Cynan" title="Gruffudd ap Cynan">Gruffudd ap Cynan</a> slowly recovered and <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Llywelyn the Great">Llywelyn the Great</a> of Gwynedd was able to proclaim the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Aberdyfi" title="Aberdyfi">Aberdyfi</a> gathering of Welsh princes in 1216.<a href="#cite_note-Cynan-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iorwerth-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gruffudd_ab-19">[17]</a> In 1277, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aberconwy" title="Treaty of Aberconwy">Treaty of Aberconwy</a> between <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I of England</a> and Llywelyn's grandson <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Gruffudd" title="Llywelyn ap Gruffudd">Llywelyn ap Gruffudd</a> granted peace between the two but would also guarantee that Welsh self-rule would end upon Llywelyn's death, and so it represented the completion of the first stage of the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I of England">conquest of Wales by Edward I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[c]</a> Welsh tradition credited the founding of Gwynedd to the Brittonic polity of <a href="/wiki/Gododdin" title="Gododdin">Gododdin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a> Guotodin, earlier <a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Brittonic</a> form Votadini) from <a href="/wiki/Lothian" title="Lothian">Lothian</a> invading the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Brittonic</a> polities of the <a href="/wiki/Deceangli" title="Deceangli">Deceangli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ordovices" title="Ordovices">Ordovices</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gangani" title="Gangani">Gangani</a> in the 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a> The sons of their leader, <a href="/wiki/Cunedda" title="Cunedda">Cunedda</a>, were said to have possessed the land between the rivers <a href="/wiki/River_Dee,_Wales" title="River Dee, Wales">Dee</a> and <a href="/wiki/River_Teifi" title="River Teifi">Teifi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a> The true borders of the realm varied over time, but Gwynedd proper was generally thought to comprise the <a href="/wiki/Cantref" title="Cantref">cantrefs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aberffraw_cantref" class="mw-redirect" title="Aberffraw cantref">Aberffraw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cemais_(Anglesey)" title="Cemais (Anglesey)">Cemais</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rhosyr_(cantref)" title="Rhosyr (cantref)">Cantref Rhosyr</a> on <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arllechwedd" title="Arllechwedd">Arllechwedd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cantref_Arfon" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantref Arfon">Arfon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunoding" title="Dunoding">Dunoding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dyffryn_Clwyd" title="Dyffryn Clwyd">Dyffryn Clwyd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cantref_Ll%C5%B7n" title="Cantref Llŷn">Llŷn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhos_(North_Wales)" title="Rhos (North Wales)">Rhos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhufoniog" title="Rhufoniog">Rhufoniog</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tegeingl" title="Tegeingl">Tegeingl</a> at the mountainous mainland region of <a href="/wiki/Snowdonia" title="Snowdonia">Snowdonia</a> opposite.<a href="#cite_note-jones_us-24">[21]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The name Gwynedd is believed to be a borrowing from early Irish (reflective of Irish settlement in the area in antiquity), either cognate with the <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> ethnic name Féni, "Irish People", from <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a> *weidh-n- "Forest People"/"Wild People" (from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h%E2%82%81weyd%CA%B0h%E2%82%81-" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁weydʰh₁-">*weydʰ-</a> "wood, wilderness"), or (alternatively) Old Irish fían "war band", from Proto-Irish *wēnā (from Proto-Indo-European <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/weyh%E2%82%81-" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/weyh₁-">*weyh₁-</a> "chase, pursue, suppress").<a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> in the 1st century marked the <a href="/wiki/Ll%C5%B7n_Peninsula" title="Llŷn Peninsula">Llŷn Peninsula</a> as the "Promontory of the <a href="/wiki/Gangani" title="Gangani">Gangani</a>",<a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a> which is also a name he recorded in Ireland. It is theorised in the 1st century BC some of the Gangani tribe may have landed in what is now the Llŷn Peninsula and had driven out the Deceangli or the Ordovices tribe from that area either peacefully or by force. In the late and post-Roman eras, Irish from <a href="/wiki/Leinster" title="Leinster">Leinster</a><a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a> may have arrived in <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a> and elsewhere in northwest Wales with the name Llŷn derived from Laigin, an Old Irish form that means "Leinstermen, or simply Leinster."<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> The 5th-century <a href="/wiki/Cantiorix_Inscription" title="Cantiorix Inscription">Cantiorix Inscription</a> now in <a href="/wiki/Penmachno" title="Penmachno">Penmachno</a> church seems to be the earliest record of the name.<a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a> It is in memory of a man named Cantiorix, and the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> inscription is Cantiorix hic iacit/Venedotis cives fuit/consobrinos Magli magistrati: "Cantiorix lies here. He was a citizen of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the magistrate".<a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a> The use of terms such as "citizen" and "magistrate" may be cited as evidence that <a href="/wiki/Romano-British_culture" title="Romano-British culture">Romano-British culture</a> and institutions continued in Gwynedd long after the legions had withdrawn.<a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History,_background_and_familial_descent">History, background and familial descent</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History, background and familial descent">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">History of Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Gwynedd" title="List of rulers of Gwynedd">list of rulers of Gwynedd</a></div> The background involving the Kingdom of Gwynedd starts with the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">history of Wales</a>. After the last ice age, Wales was settled during the <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">prehistoric</a> times.<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> sites have been discovered with <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">tools</a> made from <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a>, such as near <a href="/wiki/Llanfaethlu" title="Llanfaethlu">Llanfaethlu</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a> excavated from 6000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> Further examples of human activity in Gwynedd and Anglesey are involved in places such as <a href="/wiki/Bryn_Celli_Ddu" title="Bryn Celli Ddu">Bryn Celli Ddu</a> on Anglesey, which was built in phases starting 5000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Archeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeological">Archeological</a> findings from the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, millennia ago, include findings such as the <a href="/wiki/Nannau,_Wales#The_Nannau_bucket_hoard" title="Nannau, Wales">Arthog cauldron</a>, a bronze cauldron from 1100 BC found near the Merioneth border, also named 'The <a href="/wiki/Nannau,_Wales" title="Nannau, Wales">Nannau</a> Bucket' (similar to the <a href="/wiki/Dowris_Hoard" title="Dowris Hoard">Dowris bucket</a>). And the <a href="/wiki/Moel_Hebog" title="Moel Hebog">Moel Hebog</a> shield which is also 3,000 years old (similar to the <a href="/wiki/Rhyd-y-gors" title="Rhyd-y-gors">Rhyd-y-gors</a> example), and more recently the <a href="/wiki/Trawsfynydd" title="Trawsfynydd">Trawsfynydd</a> tankard, which was used to drink mead and beer between 100 BC and 75 AD.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bryn_Eryr_Farmstead,_St_Fagans_National_History_Museum_(geograph_5111620).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Bryn_Eryr_Farmstead%2C_St_Fagans_National_History_Museum_%28geograph_5111620%29.jpg/220px-Bryn_Eryr_Farmstead%2C_St_Fagans_National_History_Museum_%28geograph_5111620%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Bryn_Eryr_Farmstead%2C_St_Fagans_National_History_Museum_%28geograph_5111620%29.jpg/330px-Bryn_Eryr_Farmstead%2C_St_Fagans_National_History_Museum_%28geograph_5111620%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Bryn_Eryr_Farmstead%2C_St_Fagans_National_History_Museum_%28geograph_5111620%29.jpg/440px-Bryn_Eryr_Farmstead%2C_St_Fagans_National_History_Museum_%28geograph_5111620%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5179" data-file-height="3451" /></a><figcaption>Bryn Eryr, recreation of pre Roman roundhouse, it's a 2,000-year-old Celtic Iron Age home.<a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a></figcaption></figure> Examples of early settlement in Gwynedd are <a href="/wiki/Bryn_Eryr" title="Bryn Eryr">Bryn Eryr</a> near <a href="/wiki/Llansadwrn,_Anglesey" title="Llansadwrn, Anglesey">Llansadwrn, Anglesey</a>, now found at the <a href="/wiki/St_Fagans_National_Museum_of_History" title="St Fagans National Museum of History">St Fagans National Museum of History</a>,<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Garn_Boduan" title="Garn Boduan">Garn Boduan</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> <a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">hillfort</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Ll%C5%B7n_Peninsula" title="Llŷn Peninsula">Llŷn Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> Iron Age forts were being adapted until after the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a>, 'Castle of Buan' (Garn Boduan) in Llŷn was recorded as being fortified until the 7th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELowe191212–123,_65-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> During the Roman period, new roads and forts were constructed throughout the Roman empire and for centuries in Wales and England, Welsh examples include <a href="/wiki/Caer_Gybi_(fort)" title="Caer Gybi (fort)">Caer Gybi (fort)</a> on <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Segontium" title="Segontium">Segontium</a> in <a href="/wiki/Caernarfon" title="Caernarfon">Caernarfon</a>, Gwynedd.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> The establishment of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Wales" title="Christianity in Wales">Christianity in Wales</a> also gave rise to a new era; the Romans founded towns with churches and installed <a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">governors</a>. During the centuries of <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">sub-Roman Britain</a>, new political structures were established.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> The Brythonic Kingdom of Gwynedd was established in the 5th century, and it proved to be the most durable of these Brythonic states, surviving until the late 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-Wales_online-15">[13]</a> Boundaries and names emerging from the 1st millennium AD onwards are still being used today to define towns and counties of the region.<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> Noteworthy descendants from the Kingdom of Gwynedd include royalty such as <a href="/wiki/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r" title="Owain Glyndŵr">Owain Glyndŵr</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Owain2-46">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> and the titular <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a>,<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-bbc-49">[46]</a> also the <a href="/wiki/Salusbury_family" title="Salusbury family">Salusbury family</a> via <a href="/wiki/Katheryn_of_Berain" title="Katheryn of Berain">Katheryn of Berain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> The people mentioned can be associated with the Anglesey based <a href="/wiki/Tudors_of_Penmynydd" title="Tudors of Penmynydd">Tudors of Penmynydd</a> family. The Tudors were ancestors and namesake to the former English Royal <a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">House of Tudor</a>, they were descended from the Welshman <a href="/wiki/Maredudd_ap_Tudur" title="Maredudd ap Tudur">Maredudd ap Tudur</a>,<a href="#cite_note-bbc-49">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ednyfed_Fychan" title="Ednyfed Fychan">Ednyfed Fychan</a> being his famous ancestor, his family were <a href="/wiki/Seneschal" title="Seneschal">seneschals</a> to the Kings of Gwynedd.<a href="#cite_note-Ednyfed-51">[48]</a> The Tudor dynasty became ancestors to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a>, and the Stuarts formed the European <a href="/wiki/Jacobite_succession" title="Jacobite succession">Jacobite family</a>, they include direct descendants in <a href="/wiki/Mountbatten-Windsor" title="Mountbatten-Windsor">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Bavaria">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Modena" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Modena">Italy</a> and other countries on the continent of Europe, and all around the world.<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gwynedd_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages">Gwynedd in the Early Middle Ages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Gwynedd in the Early Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cunedda_and_his_sons">Cunedda and his sons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cunedda and his sons">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Gwynedd#House_of_Cunedda" title="List of rulers of Gwynedd">List of rulers of Gwynedd § House of Cunedda</a></div> The region became known as Venedotia in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. The name was initially attributed to a specific Irish colony on Anglesey but broadened to refer to Irish settlers as a whole in North Wales by the 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-54">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoch2005738-55">[52]</a> According to the 9th-century monk and chronicler <a href="/wiki/Nennius" title="Nennius">Nennius</a>, North Wales was left defenceless by the Roman withdrawal and subject to increasing raids by marauders from the Isle of Man and Ireland, a situation which led <a href="/wiki/Cunedda" title="Cunedda">Cunedda</a>,<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> his sons and their entourage, to migrate in the mid-5th century from <a href="/wiki/Manaw_Gododdin" title="Manaw Gododdin">Manaw Gododdin</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Clackmannanshire" title="Clackmannanshire">Clackmannanshire</a>) to settle and defend North Wales against the raiders and bring the region within <a href="/wiki/Romano-British" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-British">Romano-British</a> control. Whether they were invited to keep out the invaders or were raiders themselves, however, is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-E-Lloyd-57">[54]</a> According to traditional pedigrees, Cunedda's grandfather was <a href="/wiki/Padarn_Beisrudd" title="Padarn Beisrudd">Padarn Beisrudd</a>, Paternus of the red cloak, "an epithet which suggests that he wore the cloak of a Roman officer",<a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a> and perhaps it was evidence of a high-ranking officer.<a href="#cite_note-E-Lloyd-57">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[d]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cunedda" title="Cunedda">Cunedda</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr> 5th century) brought order to <a href="/wiki/North_Wales" title="North Wales">North Wales</a> and after his death, Gwynedd was divided among his sons: Dynod was awarded <a href="/wiki/Dunoding" title="Dunoding">Dunoding</a>, another son <a href="/wiki/Ceredig" title="Ceredig">Ceredig</a> received <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a>," Afloeg by Aflogion in <a href="/wiki/Ll%C5%B7n_Peninsula" title="Llŷn Peninsula">Lleyn</a>, Dogfael by <a href="/wiki/Dogfeiling" title="Dogfeiling">Dogfeiling</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dyffryn_Clwyd" title="Dyffryn Clwyd">Dyffryn Clwyd</a>, and Edern by <a href="/wiki/Edeirnion" title="Edeirnion">Edeirnion</a> ... Osfeilion of Osfael has not yet been located; Tybion, the eldest son, is said to have died in Manaw Gododdin, but his son Meirion (Marianus) comes into the picture as lord of <a href="/wiki/Meirionydd" class="mw-redirect" title="Meirionydd">Meirionydd</a>. <a href="/wiki/Einion_Yrth_ap_Cunedda" title="Einion Yrth ap Cunedda">Einion Yrth</a> completes the number". <a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_Lawhir_ap_Einion" title="Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion">Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion</a> one of his grandsons, was the final leader to defeat the Irish on Anglesey.<a href="#cite_note-E-Lloyd-57">[54]</a> However, this overly neat origin myth has been met with skepticism,<a href="#cite_note-60">[e]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">"Early Welsh literature contains a wealth of stories seeking to explain place-names, and doubtless, the story is propaganda aimed at justifying the right of Cunedda and his descendants to territories beyond the borders of the original Kingdom of Gwynedd. That kingdom probably consisted of the two banks of the Menai Straits and the coast over towards the estuary of the River Conwy, the foundations upon which Cunedda's descendants created a more extensive realm."<a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a></blockquote> The inhabitants of Gwynedd remained conscious of their <a href="/wiki/Romano-British" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-British">Romano-British</a> heritage, and an affinity with Rome survived long after the Empire retreated from Britain, particularly with the use of Latin in writing and sustaining the Christian religion. The ruling classes continued to emphasise Roman ancestors within their pedigrees as a way to link their rule with the old imperial Roman order, suggesting stability and continuity with that old order.<a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roman_tradition-61">[56]</a> According to Professor <a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">John Davies</a>, "[T]here is a determinedly Brythonic, and indeed Roman, air to early Gwynedd."<a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a> So palpable was the Roman heritage felt that Professor <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Ward-Perkins" title="Bryan Ward-Perkins">Bryan Ward-Perkins</a> of <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Oxford" title="Trinity College, Oxford">Trinity College, Oxford</a>, wrote, "it took until 1282, when <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a>, for the last part of Roman Britain to fall [and] a strong case can be made for Gwynedd as the very last part of the entire Roman Empire, east and west, to fall to the <a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">barbarians</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Roman_tradition-61">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[f]</a> Nevertheless, there was generally quick abandonment of Roman political, social, and ecclesiastical practices and institutions within Gwynedd and elsewhere in Wales. Roman knowledge was lost as the Romano-Britons shifted towards a streamlined militaristic near-tribal society that no longer included the use of coinage and other complex industries dependent on a money economy, architectural techniques using brick and mortar, and even more basic knowledge such as the use of the wheel in pottery production.<a href="#cite_note-Roman_tradition-61">[56]</a> Ward-Perkins suggests the Welsh had to abandon those Roman ways that proved insufficient, or indeed superfluous, to meet the challenge of survival they faced: "Militarized tribal societies, despite their political fragmentation and internecine strife, seem to have offered better protection against Germanic invasion than exclusive dependence on a professional Roman army (that in the troubled years of the fifth century was all too prone to melt away or mutiny)."<a href="#cite_note-Roman_tradition-61">[56]</a> Reverting to a more militaristic tribal society allowed the Welsh of Gwynedd to concentrate on those martial skills necessary for their very survival, and the Romano-Britons of western Britain did offer stiffer and ultimately successful resistance.<a href="#cite_note-Roman_tradition-61">[56]</a> The region of Venedotia, however, had been under Roman military administration and included established <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaelic</a> settlements, and the civilian element there was less extensive, perhaps facilitating technological loss.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gwynedd.620.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Gwynedd.620.jpg/220px-Gwynedd.620.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Gwynedd.620.jpg/330px-Gwynedd.620.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Gwynedd.620.jpg/440px-Gwynedd.620.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2262" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Kingdom of Gwynedd <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 620</figcaption></figure> In the post-Roman period, the earliest rulers of Wales and Gwynedd may have exerted authority over regions no larger than the <a href="/wiki/Cantref" title="Cantref">cantrefi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hundred_(county_division)" title="Hundred (county division)">hundreds</a>) described in <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a> codified centuries later, with their size somewhat comparable in size to the Irish <a href="/wiki/Tuath" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuath">tuath</a>. These early petty kings or princelings (Lloyd[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] uses the term chieftain) adopted the title rhi in Welsh (akin to the Irish Gaelic <a href="/wiki/R%C3%AD" title="Rí">rí</a>), later replaced by brenin, a title used to "denote a less archaic form of <a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">kingship</a>," according to Professor John Davies. Genealogical lists compiled around 960 bear out that a number of these early rulers claimed degrees of association with the old Roman order, but do not appear in the official royal lineages. "It may be assumed that the stronger kings annexed the territories of their weaker neighbours and that the lineages of the victors are the only lineages to have survived," according to Davies. Smaller and weaker chieftains coalesced around more powerful princelings, sometimes through voluntary vassalage or inheritance, though at other times through conquest, and the lesser princelings coalesced around still greater princelings until a regional prince could claim authority over the whole of north Wales from the <a href="/wiki/River_Dovey" class="mw-redirect" title="River Dovey">River Dyfi</a> in the south to the Dee in the east, and incorporating Anglesey.<a href="#cite_note-Foundation-22">[19]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Other evidence supports <a href="/wiki/Nennius" title="Nennius">Nennius</a>'s claim that a leader came to <a href="/wiki/North_Wales" title="North Wales">North Wales</a> and brought the region a measure of stability <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKingsford1894217–221-64">[58]</a> although an Irish Gaelic element remained until the mid-5th century. Cunedda's heir <a href="/wiki/Einion_Yrth_ap_Cunedda" title="Einion Yrth ap Cunedda">Einion Yrth ap Cunedda</a> defeated the remaining Gaelic Irish on Anglesey by 470, while his son, <a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_Lawhir_ap_Einion" title="Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion">Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion</a>, appears to have consolidated the realm during the time of relative peace following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Badon" title="Battle of Badon">Battle of Badon</a>, where the Anglo-Saxons were defeated. During that peace, he established a mighty kingdom. After Cadwallon, Gwynedd appears to have held a pre-eminent position among the petty Cambrian states in the post-Roman period.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The great-grandson of Cunedda, <a href="/wiki/Maelgwn_Gwynedd" title="Maelgwn Gwynedd">Maelgwn Hir</a> (Maelgwn the Tall),<a href="#cite_note-E-Lloyd-57">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[60]</a> was regarded as an able military leader, impetuous and generous.<a href="#cite_note-H-Davies-67">[61]</a> There are several legends about his life concerning either his own trickery and craftiness<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1893a306-68">[62]</a> or, on the other hand, miracles performed against him by Christian saints.<a href="#cite_note-69">[63]</a> He is attributed in some old stories as hosting the first <a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a>,<a href="#cite_note-70">[64]</a> and he is also one of five Celtic British kings castigated for their sins by the contemporary Christian writer <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a> (who referred to him as Maglocunus, meaning 'Prince-Hound' in Brittonic),<a href="#cite_note-71">[65]</a> written in the <a href="/wiki/De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae" title="De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae">De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae</a>. Maelgwn was curiously described as "the dragon of the island" by Gildas which was possibly a title, but explicitly as the most powerful of the five named British kings. "[Y]ou the last I write of but the first and greatest in evil, more than many in ability but also in malice, more generous in giving but also more liberal in sin, strong in war but stronger to destroy your soul."<a href="#cite_note-72">[66]</a> Maelgwn eventually died from the plague in 547,<a href="#cite_note-H-Davies-67">[61]</a> leaving a succession crisis in his wake. His son-in-law, Elidyr Mwynfawr of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde" title="Kingdom of Strathclyde">Kingdom of Strathclyde</a>, claimed the throne and invaded Gwynedd to displace Maelgwn's son, <a href="/wiki/Rhun_Hir_ap_Maelgwn" title="Rhun Hir ap Maelgwn">Rhun Hir ap Maelgwn</a>. Elidyr was killed in the attempt,<a href="#cite_note-73">[67]</a> but his death was then avenged by his relatives, who ravaged the coast of <a href="/wiki/District_of_Arfon" title="District of Arfon">Arfon</a>. Rhun counter-attacked and exacted the same penalty on the lands of his foes in what is now South and Central <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rhun1-74">[68]</a> The long distances these armies travelled suggests they were moving across the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Sea" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a>, but, because almost all of what is now northern England was at this point (c. 550) under Brittonic rule, it is possible that his army marched to Strathclyde overland. Rhun returned to Gwynedd, and the rest of his reign was for the majority uneventful until the relatives of Elidir renewed their aggressions against Rhun who was killed in the conflict.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] He was succeeded by his son or in some accounts nephew <a href="/wiki/Beli_ap_Rhun" title="Beli ap Rhun">Beli ap Rhun</a> in c. 586.<a href="#cite_note-Rhun-75">[69]</a> On the accession of Beli's son <a href="/wiki/Iago_ap_Beli" title="Iago ap Beli">Iago ap Beli</a> in c. 599, the situation in Britain had deteriorated significantly. Most of northern England had been overrun by the invading <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a> of <a href="/wiki/Deira" title="Deira">Deira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a>, who were in the process of forming the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Kingdom of Northumbria</a>. In a rare show of common interest, it appears that Gwynedd and the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Kingdom of Powys</a> acted in concert to rebuff the Anglian advance but were defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chester" title="Battle of Chester">Battle of Chester</a> in 613. Following this catastrophe, the approximate borders of northern Wales were set with the city of Caerlleon (now called <a href="/wiki/Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a>) and the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Cheshire_Plain" title="Cheshire Plain">Cheshire Plain</a> falling under the control of the Anglo-Saxons.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Beli's grandson was <a href="/wiki/Cadfan_ap_Iago" title="Cadfan ap Iago">Cadfan ap Iago</a> from the line of Maelgwn, his tombstone in Gwynedd wrote in <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: "Catamanus rex sapientisimus opinatisimus" (most renowned), he was an ancestor of the future Kings of Gwynedd.<a href="#cite_note-Cad-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cad1-77">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan">Cadwallon ap Cadfan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cadwallon ap Cadfan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cadfan.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cadfan.JPG/200px-Cadfan.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cadfan.JPG/300px-Cadfan.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cadfan.JPG/400px-Cadfan.JPG 2x" data-file-width="706" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption>Gravestone of <a href="/wiki/Cadfan_ap_Iago" title="Cadfan ap Iago">Cadfan ap Iago</a>, father of <a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan" title="Cadwallon ap Cadfan">Cadwallon ap Cadfan</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chester" title="Battle of Chester">Battle of Chester</a> did not end the ability of the Welsh to seriously threaten the Anglo-Saxon polities.<a href="#cite_note-78">[72]</a> Among the most powerful of the early kings was <a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan" title="Cadwallon ap Cadfan">Cadwallon ap Cadfan</a> (c. 624 – 634),<a href="#cite_note-wallo-79">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[74]</a> grandson of <a href="/wiki/Iago_ap_Beli" title="Iago ap Beli">Iago ap Beli</a>. He became engaged in an initially disastrous campaign against <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Northumbria</a> where following a series of epic defeats he was confined first to Anglesey,<a href="#cite_note-Cadwallon-81">[75]</a> and then just to <a href="/wiki/Puffin_Island_(Anglesey)" title="Puffin Island (Anglesey)">Puffin Island</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] before being forced into exile across the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Sea" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a> to <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, – a place which would come to host many royal refugees from Gwynedd. All must have seemed lost but Cadwallon (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: Meigen) raised an enormous army and after a brief time in <a href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a> he invaded <a href="/wiki/Dumnonia" title="Dumnonia">Dumnonia</a>, relieved the <a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">West Welsh</a> who were suffering a Mercian invasion and forced the pagan <a href="/wiki/Penda_of_Mercia" title="Penda of Mercia">Penda of Mercia</a> into an alliance against Northumbria.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] With new vigour Cadwallon returned to his Northumbrian foes, defeated their armies and slew a series of their kings. In this furious campaign, his armies devastated <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a>, captured and sacked <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> in 633 and briefly controlled the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-Cadwallon-81">[75]</a> At this time, according to <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>, many Northumbrians were slaughtered, "with savage cruelty", by Cadwallon.<a href="#cite_note-82">[76]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[H]e neither spared the female sex, nor the innocent age of children, but with savage cruelty put them to tormenting deaths, ravaging all their country for a long time, and resolving to cut off all the race of the English within the borders of Britain.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_History_of_the_English_People" title="Ecclesiastical History of the English People">Ecclesiastical History of the English People</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[77]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Despite the war and 14 battles undertaken by the allied forces of Gwynedd and Mercia against Northumbria, of which the chief one was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cefn_Digoll" title="Battle of Cefn Digoll">Battle of Cefn Digoll</a> in 632, an alliance was concluded when Cadwallon married Alcfritha, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Pybba_of_Mercia" title="Pybba of Mercia">Pybba of Mercia</a>. However, the effect of these tumultuous events would come to be short-lived, for he died in battle in 634 close to <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Heavenfield" title="Battle of Heavenfield">Battle of Heavenfield</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cadwallon-81">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-wallo-79">[73]</a> On account of these deeds, he and his son <a href="/wiki/Cadwaladr" title="Cadwaladr">Cadwaladr</a>, (who fought at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Winwaed" title="Battle of the Winwaed">Battle of the Winwaed</a><a href="#cite_note-Cadwa-84">[78]</a>) appear to have been considered the last two <a href="/wiki/List_of_legendary_kings_of_Britain" title="List of legendary kings of Britain">High Kings of Britain</a>. Cadwaladr presided over a period of consolidation and devoted much time to the Church, earning the title "Bendigaid" for "Blessed". As a monk in later life, he was involved with <a href="/wiki/Clynnog_fawr" class="mw-redirect" title="Clynnog fawr">Clynnog's abbey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/St_Cadwaladr%27s_Church,_Llangadwaladr" title="St Cadwaladr's Church, Llangadwaladr">St Cadwaladr's Church, Llangadwaladr</a> on Anglesey.<a href="#cite_note-85">[79]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tudors_of_Penmynydd" title="Tudors of Penmynydd">Tudors of Penmynydd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a> in particular claimed descent from Cadwaladr in the "twenty-second degree".<a href="#cite_note-Old_English-86">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cadwa-84">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cae-87">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[g]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rhodri_the_Great_and_Aberffraw_primacy">Rhodri the Great and Aberffraw primacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Rhodri the Great and Aberffraw primacy">edit</a>]</div> During the later part of the 9th and 10th centuries, the coastal areas of Gwynedd, particularly Anglesey, were coming under increasing attack by the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a>. Wales had also been at war with the neighbouring English Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a> who were assisted by <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Danes" title="Danes">Danes</a> (Vikings). But it was the kings of Welsh kingdoms who were protected by the <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_York" title="Scandinavian York">Scandinavian York</a> mercenaries.<a href="#cite_note-89">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-viking-90">[83]</a> These raids no doubt had a seriously debilitating effect on the country but fortunately for Gwynedd, the victims of the Vikings were not confined to Wales. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Gwynedd#House_of_Cunedda" title="List of rulers of Gwynedd">House of Cunedda</a> – as the direct descendants of <a href="/wiki/Cunedda" title="Cunedda">Cunedda</a> are known – eventually expired in the male line in 825 upon the death of <a href="/wiki/Hywel_ap_Rhodri_Molwynog" class="mw-redirect" title="Hywel ap Rhodri Molwynog">Hywel ap Rhodri Molwynog</a> and, as <a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">John Edward Lloyd</a> put it, "a stranger possessed the throne of Gwynedd."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd2004323-91">[84]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gwynedd.830.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Gwynedd.830.jpg/220px-Gwynedd.830.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Gwynedd.830.jpg/330px-Gwynedd.830.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Gwynedd.830.jpg/440px-Gwynedd.830.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1962" data-file-height="1788" /></a><figcaption>Kingdom of Gwynedd <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 830</figcaption></figure> This "stranger" who became the next King of Gwynedd was <a href="/wiki/Merfyn_Frych" title="Merfyn Frych">Merfyn "Frych"</a> (Merfyn "the Freckled").<a href="#cite_note-Merfyn-92">[85]</a> When, however, Merfyn Frych's pedigree is examined – and to the Welsh pedigree meant everything – he seems not a stranger but a direct descendant of the ancient ruling line. He was the son of Gwriad, the contemporaneous <a href="/wiki/King_of_Mann" title="King of Mann">King of Mann</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> and depending on the source either son or husband of Essyllt daughter of Cynan Dindaethwy a former King of Gwynedd. The most ancient genealogical sources agree that Merfyn was the son of Essyllt,<a href="#cite_note-Frych-93">[86]</a> heiress and cousin of the aforementioned Hywel ap Caradog, last of the ruling House of Cunedda in Gwynedd, and that Merfyn's male line went back to the Hen Ogledd to <a href="/wiki/Llywarch_Hen" title="Llywarch Hen">Llywarch Hen</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Merfyn-92">[85]</a> a first cousin of <a href="/wiki/Urien" title="Urien">Urien</a> and thus a direct descendant of <a href="/wiki/Coel_Hen" title="Coel Hen">Coel Hen</a>. Thus the House of Cunedda and the new House of Aberffraw, as Merfyn's descendants came to be known, shared Coel Hen as a common ancestor, although the House of Cunedda traced their line through <a href="/wiki/Gwawl" title="Gwawl">Gwawl</a> his daughter and wife of Cunedda.<a href="#cite_note-94">[87]</a> Merfyn married <a href="/wiki/Nest_ferch_Cadell" title="Nest ferch Cadell">Nest ferch Cadell</a>, the sister or daughter of <a href="/wiki/Cyngen_ap_Cadell" title="Cyngen ap Cadell">Cyngen ap Cadell</a>, the King of Powys of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Wales#House_of_Gwertherion" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Wales">Gwertherion dynasty</a>, and founded the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aberffraw" title="House of Aberffraw">House of Aberffraw</a>, named after his principal court on Anglesey.<a href="#cite_note-95">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[89]</a> No written records are preserved from the Britons of southern <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and northern England and it is very likely that Merfyn Frych brought many of these legends as well as his pedigree with him when he came to north Wales. It appears most probable that it was at Merfyn's court that all the lore of the north was collected and written down during his reign and that of his son.<a href="#cite_note-97">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rhodri_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodri the Great">Rhodri the Great</a> (844–878), son of Merfyn Frych and Nest ferch Cadell,<a href="#cite_note-98">[91]</a> was able to add the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a> to his realm after its king (his maternal uncle) died on a pilgrimage to <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in 855. Later, he married <a href="/wiki/Angharad_ferch_Meurig" title="Angharad ferch Meurig">Angharad ferch Meurig</a>, the sister of King <a href="/wiki/Gwgon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwgon">Gwgon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Seisyllwg" title="Seisyllwg">Seisyllwg</a>. When Gwgon drowned without an heir in 872, Rhodri became a steward over the kingdom and was able to install his son, <a href="/wiki/Cadell_ap_Rhodri" title="Cadell ap Rhodri">Cadell ap Rhodri</a>, as a subject king. Thus, he became the first ruler since the days of Cunedda to control the greater part of Wales.<a href="#cite_note-Rhod-99">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mawr-100">[93]</a> When Rhodri died in 878 <a href="/wiki/AD" class="mw-redirect" title="AD">AD</a> (battle against <a href="/wiki/Ceolwulf_I_of_Mercia" title="Ceolwulf I of Mercia">Ceolwulf I of Mercia</a><a href="#cite_note-viking-90">[83]</a>) the relative unity of Wales ended and it was once again divided into its component parts each ruled by one of his sons. Rhodri's eldest son <a href="/wiki/Anarawd_ap_Rhodri" title="Anarawd ap Rhodri">Anarawd ap Rhodri</a> inherited Gwynedd and would firmly establish the princely <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aberffraw" title="House of Aberffraw">House of Aberffraw</a>. His son <a href="/wiki/Merfyn_ap_Rhodri" title="Merfyn ap Rhodri">Merfyn ap Rhodri</a> was given the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Kingdom of Powys</a> to rule and Cadell founded the medieval Welsh Royal <a href="/wiki/House_of_Dinefwr" title="House of Dinefwr">House of Dinefwr</a> in <a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a>, this divided Wales into <a href="/wiki/North_Wales" title="North Wales">North Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mid_Wales" title="Mid Wales">Mid Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a> respectively. Gwynedd and the Aberffraw <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</a> thrived with but a few interruptions until 1283.<a href="#cite_note-Rhod-99">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mawr-100">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[94]</a> From the successes of Rhodri and the seniority of Anarawd among his sons the Aberffraw family claimed primacy over all other Welsh lords including the powerful kings of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Aberffraw_dynasty-102">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Aberffraw_family-103">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[h]</a> In The History of Gruffudd ap Cynan, written in the late 12th century,<a href="#cite_note-105">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[98]</a> the family asserted its rights as the senior line of descendants from Rhodri the Great who had conquered most of Wales during his lifetime. <a href="/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Cynan" title="Gruffudd ap Cynan">Gruffudd ap Cynan</a>'s biography was first written in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and intended for a wider audience outside Wales. The significance of this claim was that the Aberffraw family owed nothing to the English king for its position in Wales and that they held authority in Wales "by absolute right through descent," wrote historian <a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">John Davies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Aberffraw_dynasty-102">[95]</a> The House of Aberffraw was displaced in 942 by <a href="/wiki/Hywel_Dda" title="Hywel Dda">Hywel Dda</a>, a King of <a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a> from a junior line of descent from Rhodri Mawr.<a href="#cite_note-Hywel-107">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hywel1-108">[100]</a> This occurred because <a href="/wiki/Idwal_Foel" title="Idwal Foel">Idwal Foel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Idwal-109">[101]</a> the King of Gwynedd, was determined to cast off English overlordship and took up arms against the new English king, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_I" title="Edmund I">Edmund I</a>. Idwal and his brother Elisedd were both killed in battle against Edmund's forces.<a href="#cite_note-Idwal1-110">[102]</a> By normal custom Idwal's crown should have passed to his sons, <a href="/wiki/Ieuaf" title="Ieuaf">Ieuaf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iago_ab_Idwal" title="Iago ab Idwal">Iago ab Idwal</a>, but Hywel Dda intervened and sent Iago and Ieuaf into exile in Ireland and established himself as ruler over Gwynedd until his death in 950 when the House of Aberffraw was restored. Nonetheless, surviving manuscripts of <a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Cyfraith Hywel</a> recognise the importance of the lords of Aberffraw as overlords of Wales along with the <a href="/wiki/Rulers_of_Deheubarth" class="mw-redirect" title="Rulers of Deheubarth">rulers of Deheubarth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hywel_ab-111">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[i]</a> Between 986 and 1081 the throne of Gwynedd was often in contention with the rightful kings frequently displaced by rivals within and outside the realm. One of these, <a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Llywelyn" title="Gruffydd ap Llywelyn">Gruffydd ap Llywelyn</a>, originally from Powys, displaced the Aberffraw line from Gwynedd making himself ruler there, and by 1055 was able to make himself king of most of Wales.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson1959-113">[104]</a> He became powerful enough to present a real menace to England and annexed some neighbouring parts after several victories over English armies. Eventually, he was defeated by <a href="/wiki/Harold_Godwinson" title="Harold Godwinson">Harold Godwinson</a> in 1063 and later killed by his own men in a deal to secure peace with England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETout1890a305–307-114">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn" title="Bleddyn ap Cynfyn">Bleddyn ap Cynfyn</a> and his brother Rhiwallon of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Mathrafal" title="House of Mathrafal">Mathrafal</a> dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a>, Gruffudd's maternal half-brothers, came to terms with Harold and took over the rule of Gwynedd and Powys.<a href="#cite_note-Bledd-115">[106]</a> Shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</a> in 1066 the Normans began to exert pressure on the eastern border of Gwynedd. They were helped by internal strife following the killing of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn in 1075 by his second cousin Rhys ap Owain King of Deheubarth.<a href="#cite_note-Bledd-115">[106]</a> Another relative of Bleddyn's <a href="/wiki/Trahaearn_ap_Caradog" title="Trahaearn ap Caradog">Trahaearn ap Caradog</a> seized the throne but was soon challenged by <a href="/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Cynan" title="Gruffudd ap Cynan">Gruffudd ap Cynan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Tra-116">[107]</a> the exiled grandson of <a href="/wiki/Iago_ab_Idwal_ap_Meurig" title="Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig">Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig</a> who had been living in the <a href="/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels" title="Norse–Gaels">Norse–Gael</a> stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Iago-117">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iago1-118">[109]</a> In 1081 Trahaearn was killed by Gruffudd in battle and the ancient line of Rhodri Mawr was restored.<a href="#cite_note-Tra-116">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gwynedd_in_the_High_Middle_Ages">Gwynedd in the High Middle Ages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Gwynedd in the High Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Gwynedd_during_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages">Culture of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Gwynedd_during_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages">History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gruffudd_ap_Cynan">Gruffudd ap Cynan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gruffudd ap Cynan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CymruMap1093.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CymruMap1093.PNG/220px-CymruMap1093.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CymruMap1093.PNG/330px-CymruMap1093.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CymruMap1093.PNG/440px-CymruMap1093.PNG 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>Wales <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1063 – 1081</figcaption></figure> The Aberffraw dynasty suffered various <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition (politics)">depositions</a> by rivals in Deheubarth, Powys, and England in the 10th and 11th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Cynan" title="Gruffudd ap Cynan">Gruffudd ap Cynan</a> (c. 1055–1137),<a href="#cite_note-Cynan-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cynan1-119">[110]</a> who grew up in exile in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Dublin#Late_medieval_Dublin" title="History of Dublin">Norse–Gael Dublin</a>, regained his inheritance following his victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mynydd_Carn" title="Battle of Mynydd Carn">Battle of Mynydd Carn</a> in 1081 over his <a href="/wiki/House_of_Mathrafal" title="House of Mathrafal">Mathrafal</a> rivals then in control of Gwynedd.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gruffydd_ap_Cynan-121">[112]</a> However, Gruffudd's victory was short-lived as the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a> launched an invasion of Wales following the Saxon revolt in <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">northern England</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Harrying_of_the_North" title="Harrying of the North">Harrowing of the North</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[113]</a> Shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mynydd_Carn" title="Battle of Mynydd Carn">Battle of Mynydd Carn</a> in 1081, Gruffudd was lured into a trap with the promise of an alliance but seized by <a href="/wiki/Hugh_d%27Avranches,_Earl_of_Chester" title="Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester">Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester</a>, in an ambush near <a href="/wiki/Corwen" title="Corwen">Corwen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gruffydd_ap_Cynan-121">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Norman_Invasion-123">[114]</a> Earl Hugh claimed the Perfeddwlad up to the <a href="/wiki/River_Clwyd" title="River Clwyd">River Clwyd</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Commote" title="Commote">commotes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tegeingl" title="Tegeingl">Tegeingl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhufoniog" title="Rhufoniog">Rhufoniog</a>; the modern counties of <a href="/wiki/Denbighshire" title="Denbighshire">Denbighshire</a>, Flintshire, and <a href="/wiki/Wrexham" title="Wrexham">Wrexham</a>) as part of Chester, and viewed the restoration of the Aberffraw family in Gwynedd as a threat to his own expansion into Wales. The lands west of the Clwyd were intended for his cousin <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Rhuddlan" title="Robert of Rhuddlan">Robert of Rhuddlan</a>, and their advance extended to the <a href="/wiki/Ll%C5%B7n_Peninsula" title="Llŷn Peninsula">Llŷn Peninsula</a> by 1090. By 1094 almost the whole of Wales was <a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">occupied</a> by Norman forces. However, although they erected many castles, Norman control in most regions of Wales was tenuous at best. Motivated by local anger over the "gratuitously cruel" invaders, and led by the historic ruling houses, Welsh control over the greater part of Wales was restored by 1100.<a href="#cite_note-Gruffydd_ap_Cynan-121">[112]</a> In an effort to further consolidate his control over Gwynedd, Earl Hugh of Chester had <a href="/wiki/Hervey_le_Breton" title="Hervey le Breton">Hervey le Breton</a> elected as <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Bangor" title="Bishop of Bangor">Bishop of Bangor</a> in 1092, and <a href="/wiki/Consecrated" class="mw-redirect" title="Consecrated">consecrated</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_of_Bayeux" title="Thomas of Bayeux">Thomas of Bayeux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_York" title="Archbishop of York">Archbishop of York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow2000320–324-124">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[j]</a> However, the Welsh <a href="/wiki/Parishioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Parishioner">parishioners</a> remained hostile to Hervey's appointment, and the bishop was forced to carry a sword with him and rely on a contingent of Norman knights for his protection.<a href="#cite_note-Herve_and_sword-127">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[118]</a> Additionally, Hervey routinely <a href="/wiki/Excommunicated" class="mw-redirect" title="Excommunicated">excommunicated</a> parishioners who he perceived as challenging his spiritual and temporal authority.<a href="#cite_note-Herve_and_sword-127">[117]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gruffydd_ap_Cynan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Gruffydd_ap_Cynan.jpg/220px-Gruffydd_ap_Cynan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Gruffydd_ap_Cynan.jpg/330px-Gruffydd_ap_Cynan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Gruffydd_ap_Cynan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Gruffudd ap Cynan escapes from Chester. Illustration by T. Prytherch in 1900</figcaption></figure> Gruffudd escaped imprisonment in Chester and slew Robert of Rhuddlan in a beachside battle at Deganwy on 3 July 1093.<a href="#cite_note-Norman_Invasion-123">[114]</a> Gruffudd recovered Gwynedd by 1095, and by 1098 Gruffudd allied with <a href="/wiki/Cadwgan_ap_Bleddyn" title="Cadwgan ap Bleddyn">Cadwgan ap Bleddyn</a> of the Mathrafal house of Powys, their traditional dynastic rivalry notwithstanding. Gruffudd and Cadwgan led the Welsh resistance to the Norman occupation in the north and mid-Wales. However, by 1098 Earl Hugh of Chester and <a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Montgomery,_2nd_Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury">Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury</a> advanced their army to the <a href="/wiki/Menai_Strait" title="Menai Strait">Menai Strait</a>, with Gruffudd and Cadwgan regrouping on defensible <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>, where they planned to make <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">retaliatory strikes</a> from their island fortress. Gruffudd hired a Norse fleet from a settlement in Ireland to patrol the Menai and prevent the Norman army from crossing; however, the Normans were able to pay off the fleet to instead ferry them to Môn. Betrayed, Gruffudd and Cadwgan were forced to flee to Ireland in a <a href="/wiki/Skiff" title="Skiff">skiff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gruffydd_ap_Cynan-121">[112]</a> The Normans landed on Anglesey, and their furious 'victory celebrations' which followed were exceptionally violent, with rape and carnage committed by the Norman army left unchecked. The earl of Shrewsbury had an elderly priest mutilated and made the church of <a href="/wiki/Llandyfrydog" title="Llandyfrydog">Llandyfrydog</a> a kennel for his dogs.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a> During the 'celebrations' a Norse fleet led by <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Barefoot" title="Magnus Barefoot">Magnus Barefoot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Norway" title="Monarchy of Norway">King of Norway</a>,<a href="#cite_note-130">[k]</a> appeared off the coast at Puffin Island, and in the battle that followed, known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anglesey_Sound" title="Battle of Anglesey Sound">Battle of Anglesey Sound</a>, Magnus shot dead the earl of Shrewsbury with an arrow to the eye. The Norse left as suddenly and as mysteriously as they had arrived, leaving the Norman army weakened and demoralized.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a> The Norman army retired to England, leaving a Welshman, <a href="/wiki/Owain_ab_Edwin_of_Tegeingl" title="Owain ab Edwin of Tegeingl">Owain ab Edwin of Tegeingl</a>, in command of a token force to control Ynys Môn (now Anglesey) and upper Gwynedd, and ultimately abandoning any <a href="/wiki/Colonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonisation">colonisation</a> plans there.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tegeingl-131">[120]</a> Owain ap Edwin transferred his allegiance to Chester following <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mynydd_Carn" title="Battle of Mynydd Carn">the defeat</a> of his ally Trahaearn ap Caradog in 1081, a move which earned him the epithet Bradwr "the Traitor" (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: Owain Fradwr), among the Welsh.<a href="#cite_note-Tegeingl-131">[120]</a> In late 1098 Gruffudd and Cadwgan landed in Wales and recovered Anglesey without much difficulty, with Hervé the Breton fleeing Bangor for safety in England. Over the course of the next three years, Gruffudd was able to recover upper Gwynedd to the <a href="/wiki/Conwy" title="Conwy">Conwy</a>, defeating Hugh, Earl of Chester. In 1101, after Earl Hugh's death, Gruffudd and Cadwgan came to terms with England's new king, <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I</a>, who was consolidating his own authority and also eager to come to terms. In the negotiations which followed Henry I recognised Gruffudd's ancestral claims of Anglesey, Llŷn, <a href="/wiki/Dunoding" title="Dunoding">Dunoding</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eifionydd" title="Eifionydd">Eifionydd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ardudwy" title="Ardudwy">Ardudwy</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Arllechwedd" title="Arllechwedd">Arllechwedd</a>, being the lands of upper Gwynedd to the Conwy which were already firmly in Gruffudd's control. Cadwgan regained <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a>, and his share of the family inheritance in Powys, from the new earl of Shrewsbury, <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Bell%C3%AAme,_3rd_Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="Robert of Bellême, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury">Robert of Bellême</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a> With the settlement reached between Henry I and Gruffudd, and other Welsh lords, the dividing of Wales between <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pura_Wallia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pura Wallia (page does not exist)">Pura Wallia</a>, the lands under Welsh control; and <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Marchia Wallie</a>, Welsh lands under Norman control, came into existence. Author and historian <a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">John Davies</a> notes that the border shifted on occasion, "in one direction and in the other", but remained more or less stable for almost the next two hundred years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994109,_127–130,_137,_141,_149,_166,_176.-132">[121]</a> After generations of incessant warfare, Gruffudd began the reconstruction of Gwynedd, intent on bringing stability to his country. According to Davies, Gruffudd sought to give his people the peace to "plant their crops in the full confidence that they would be able to harvest them".<a href="#cite_note-Gruffydd_ap_Cynan-121">[112]</a> Gruffudd consolidated royal authority in north Wales, and offered sanctuary to displaced Welsh from the Perfeddwlad, particularly from <a href="/wiki/Rhos_(north_Wales)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhos (north Wales)">Rhos</a>, at the time harassed by <a href="/wiki/Richard_d%27Avranches,_2nd_Earl_of_Chester" title="Richard d'Avranches, 2nd Earl of Chester">Richard, 2nd Earl of Chester</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OwainGwynedd-133">[122]</a> Alarmed by Gruffudd's growing influence and authority in north Wales, and on pretext that Gruffudd sheltered rebels from Rhos against Chester, Henry I launched a campaign against Gwynedd and Powys in 1116, which included a <a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">vanguard</a> commanded by King <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Scotland" title="Alexander I of Scotland">Alexander I of Scotland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gruffydd_ap_Cynan-121">[112]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Owain_ap_Cadwgan" title="Owain ap Cadwgan">Owain ap Cadwgan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a> sought refuge in Gwynedd's mountains, <a href="/wiki/Maredudd_ap_Bleddyn" title="Maredudd ap Bleddyn">Maredudd ap Bleddyn</a> of Powys made peace with the English king as the Norman army advanced.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a> There were no battles or skirmishes fought in the face of the vast <a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">host</a> brought into Wales; rather, Owain and Gruffudd entered into truce negotiations. Owain ap Cadwgan regained royal favour relatively easily. However, Gruffudd was forced to render <a href="/wiki/Homage_(feudal)" title="Homage (feudal)">homage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fealty" title="Fealty">fealty</a> and pay a heavy fine, though he lost no land or prestige.<a href="#cite_note-OwainGwynedd-133">[122]</a> The invasion left a lasting impact on Gruffudd, who by 1116 was in his 60s and with failing eyesight. For the remainder of his life, while Gruffudd continued to rule in Gwynedd, his sons <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cadwallon_ap_Gruffydd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cadwallon ap Gruffydd (page does not exist)">Cadwallon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Owain_Gwynedd" title="Owain Gwynedd">Owain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cadwaladr_ap_Gruffydd" title="Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd">Cadwaladr</a>, would lead Gwynedd's army after 1120.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a> Gruffudd's policy, which his sons would execute and later rulers of Gwynedd adopted, was to recover Gwynedd's primacy without blatantly antagonising the English crown.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-OwainGwynedd-133">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Expansion_of_Gwynedd">The Expansion of Gwynedd</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The Expansion of Gwynedd">edit</a>]</div> In 1120 a minor border war between <a href="/w/index.php?title=Llywarch_ab_Owain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Llywarch ab Owain (page does not exist)">Llywarch ab Owain</a>, lord of a commote in the <a href="/wiki/Dyffryn_Clwyd" title="Dyffryn Clwyd">Dyffryn Clwyd</a> cantref, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hywel_ab_Ithel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hywel ab Ithel (page does not exist)">Hywel ab Ithel</a>, lord of <a href="/wiki/Rhufoniog" title="Rhufoniog">Rhufoniog</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhos_(north_Wales)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhos (north Wales)">Rhos</a>, brought Powys and Chester into conflict in the Perfeddwlad. Powys brought a force of 400 warriors to the aid of its ally Rhufoniog, while Chester sent Norman knights from Rhuddlan to the aid of Dyffryn Clwyd. The bloody <a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Maes_Maen_Cymro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Maes Maen Cymro (page does not exist)">Battle of Maes Maen Cymro</a>, fought 1 mile (1.5 kilometres) northwest of Ruthin, ended with Llywarch ab Owain slain and the defeat of Dyffryn Clwyd. However, it was a <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_victory" title="Pyrrhic victory">pyrrhic victory</a> as the battle left Hywel ab Ithel mortally wounded. In the last of his line, when Hywel ab Ithel died six weeks later, he left Rhufoniog and Rhos bereft. Powys, however, was not strong enough to garrison Rhufoniog and Rhos, nor was Chester able to exert influence inland from its coastal holdings of Rhuddlan and Degannwy. With Rhufoniog and Rhos abandoned, Gruffudd annexed the <a href="/wiki/Cantref" title="Cantref">cantrefs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OwainGwynedd-133">[122]</a> On the death of Einion ap Cadwgan, lord of <a href="/wiki/Meirionnydd" title="Meirionnydd">Meirionnydd</a>, a quarrel engulfed his kinsmen on who should succeed him. Meirionnydd was then a vassal cantref of <a href="/wiki/Powys" title="Powys">Powys</a>, and the family there a <a href="/wiki/Cadet" title="Cadet">cadet</a> of the Mathrafal house of Powys. Gruffudd gave licence to his sons Cadwallon and Owain to press the opportunity the dynastic strife in Meirionnydd presented. The brothers raided Meirionnydd with the Lord of Powys as important there as he was in the Perfeddwlad. However, it would not be until 1136 that the cantref was firmly within Gwynedd's control. Perhaps because of their support of Earl Hugh of Chester, Gwynedd's rival, in 1124, Cadwallon slew the three rulers of Dyffryn Clwyd, his maternal uncles, bringing the cantref firmly under Gwynedd's <a href="/wiki/Vassalage" class="mw-redirect" title="Vassalage">vassalage</a> that year.<a href="#cite_note-OwainGwynedd-133">[122]</a> And in 1125 Cadwallon slew the grandsons of <a href="/wiki/Edwin_of_Tegeingl" title="Edwin of Tegeingl">Edwin ap Goronwy of Tegeingl</a>, leaving Tegeingl bereft of lordship.<a href="#cite_note-Tegeingl-131">[120]</a> However, in 1132 while on campaign in the commote of <a href="/wiki/Nanheudwy" title="Nanheudwy">Nanheudwy</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Llangollen" title="Llangollen">Llangollen</a>, 'victorious' Cadwallon was defeated in battle and slain by an army from Powys. The defeat checked Gwynedd's expansion for a time, "much to the relief of the men of Powys", wrote historian Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">John Edward Lloyd</a> (J.E Lloyd).<a href="#cite_note-OwainGwynedd-133">[122]</a> In 1136 a campaign against the Normans was launched from Gwynedd in revenge for the execution of <a href="/wiki/Gwenllian_ferch_Gruffudd" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwenllian ferch Gruffudd">Gwenllian ferch Gruffudd ap Cynan</a>, the wife of the King of Deheubarth and the daughter of Gruffudd. When word reached Gwynedd of Gwenllian's death and the revolt in Gwent, Gruffudd's sons Owain and Cadwaladr invaded Norman controlled Ceredigion, taking <a href="/wiki/Llanfihangel_y_Creuddyn" title="Llanfihangel y Creuddyn">Llanfihangle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aberystwyth" title="Aberystwyth">Aberystwyth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Llanbadarn_Fawr,_Ceredigion" title="Llanbadarn Fawr, Ceredigion">Llanbadarn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Great_Revolt-134">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Battles_of_Owain_Gwynedd-135">[124]</a> Liberating Llanbadarn, one local chronicler hailed Owain and Cadwaladr both as "bold lions, virtuous, fearless and wise, who guard the churches and their indwellers, defenders of the poor [who] overcome their enemies, affording a safest retreat to all those who seek their protection".<a href="#cite_note-The_Great_Revolt-134">[123]</a> The brothers restored the Welsh monks of Llanbadarn, who had been displaced by monks from Gloucester brought there by the Normans who had controlled Ceredigion. By late September 1136, a vast Welsh host gathered in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a>, which included the combined forces of Gwynedd, Deheubarth, and Powys, and met the Norman army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crug_Mawr" title="Battle of Crug Mawr">Battle of Crug Mawr</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cardigan_Castle" title="Cardigan Castle">Cardigan Castle</a>. The battle turned into a rout, and then into a resounding defeat of the Normans.<a href="#cite_note-The_Great_Revolt-134">[123]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bangor_Cathedral_from_Bangor_Mountain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bangor_Cathedral_from_Bangor_Mountain.jpg/220px-Bangor_Cathedral_from_Bangor_Mountain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bangor_Cathedral_from_Bangor_Mountain.jpg/330px-Bangor_Cathedral_from_Bangor_Mountain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bangor_Cathedral_from_Bangor_Mountain.jpg/440px-Bangor_Cathedral_from_Bangor_Mountain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1087" data-file-height="774" /></a><figcaption>Gruffudd's remains were <a href="/wiki/Interment" class="mw-redirect" title="Interment">interred</a> in a tomb in the <a href="/wiki/Presbytery_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbytery (architecture)">presbytery</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bangor_Cathedral" title="Bangor Cathedral">Bangor Cathedral</a></figcaption></figure> When their father Gruffudd died in 1137, the brothers Owain and Cadwaladr were on a second campaign in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a> and took the castles of <a href="/wiki/Ystrad_Meurig" title="Ystrad Meurig">Ystrad Meurig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lampeter" title="Lampeter">Lampeter</a> (Stephen's Castle), and Castell Hywell (Humphries Castle)<a href="#cite_note-The_Great_Revolt-134">[123]</a> Gruffudd ap Cynan left a more stable realm than had hitherto existed in Gwynedd for more than 100 years. No foreign army was able to cross the Conwy into upper Gwynedd. The stability of Gruffudd's long reign allowed Gwynedd's Welsh to plan for the future without fear that home and harvest would "go to the flames" from invaders.<a href="#cite_note-Gruffydd's_legacy-136">[125]</a> Settlements became more permanent, with buildings of stone replacing timber structures. Stone churches, in particular, were built across Gwynedd, with so many <a href="/wiki/Whitewash#Use_as_paint" title="Whitewash">limewashed</a> that "Gwynedd was bespangled with them as is the <a href="/wiki/Firmament" title="Firmament">firmament</a> with stars". Gruffudd had built stone churches at his royal manors, and Lloyd suggests Gruffudd's example led to the rebuilding of churches with stone in <a href="/wiki/Penmon" title="Penmon">Penmon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aberdaron" title="Aberdaron">Aberdaron</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Towyn" title="Towyn">Towyn</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Norman_architecture" title="Norman architecture">Norman fashion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gruffydd's_legacy-136">[125]</a> Gruffudd promoted the primacy of the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_See" class="mw-redirect" title="Episcopal See">Episcopal See</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bangor,_Gwynedd" title="Bangor, Gwynedd">Bangor</a> in Gwynedd, and funded the building of <a href="/wiki/Bangor_Cathedral" title="Bangor Cathedral">Bangor Cathedral</a> during the episcopate of <a href="/wiki/David_the_Scot" class="mw-redirect" title="David the Scot">David the Scot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Bangor" title="Bishop of Bangor">Bishop of Bangor</a>, between 1120 and 1139. Gruffudd's remains were <a href="/wiki/Interment" class="mw-redirect" title="Interment">interred</a> in a tomb in the <a href="/wiki/Presbytery_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbytery (architecture)">presbytery</a> of Bangor Cathedral.<a href="#cite_note-Gruffydd's_legacy-136">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Owain_Gwynedd">Owain Gwynedd</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Owain Gwynedd">edit</a>]</div> Owain ap Gruffudd (<a href="/wiki/Owain_Gwynedd" title="Owain Gwynedd">Owain Gwynedd</a> c. 1100 – 23 or 28 November 1170<a href="#cite_note-Owain-137">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Owain1-138">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[128]</a>) succeeded his father to the greater portion of Gwynedd in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a>, the Cyfraith Hywel, the Laws of Hywel; and became known as Owain Gwynedd to differentiate him from another Owain ap Gruffudd, the Mathrafal ruler of Powys, known as <a href="/wiki/Owain_Cyfeiliog" title="Owain Cyfeiliog">Owain Cyfeiliog</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd200493-140">[129]</a> Cadwaladr, Gruffudd's youngest son, inherited the commote of Aberffraw on Ynys Môn (now Anglesey), and the recently conquered Meirionydd and northern Ceredigion--i.e., Ceredigion between the rivers Aeron and the Dyfi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd200485,_93,_104-141">[130]</a> By 1141 Cadwaladr and Madog ap Maredudd of Powys led a Welsh vanguard as an ally of the Earl of Chester in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lincoln_(1141)" title="Battle of Lincoln (1141)">Battle of Lincoln</a>, and joined in the rout which made Stephen of England a prisoner of Empress Matilda for a year Owain, however, did not participate in the battle, keeping the majority of Gwynedd's army at home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd200494–95-142">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[l]</a> Owain and Cadwaladr came to blows in 1143 when Cadwaladr was implicated in the murder of King Anarawd ap Gruffudd of Deheubarth, Owain's ally and future son-in-law, on the eve of Anarawd's wedding to Owain's daughter.<a href="#cite_note-Cadwaladr's_betrayal-144">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Owain_Gwynedd,_Battles_of-145">[133]</a> Owain followed a diplomatic policy of binding other Welsh rulers to Gwynedd through dynastic marriages, and Cadwaladr's border dispute and murder of Anarawd threatened Owain's efforts and credibility.<a href="#cite_note-Battles_of_Owain_Gwynedd-135">[124]</a> As ruler of Gwynedd, Owain stripped Cadwaladr of his lands, with Owain's son <a href="/wiki/Hywel_ab_Owain_Gwynedd" title="Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd">Hywel</a> dispatched to Ceredigion, where he burned Cadwaladr's castle at Aberystwyth. Cadwaladr fled to Ireland and hired a Norse fleet from Dublin, bringing the fleet to Abermenai to compel Owain to reinstate him.<a href="#cite_note-Cadwaladr's_betrayal-144">[132]</a> This same fleet of ships would be considered a sizeable one to be able to face the fleet of <a href="/wiki/Stephen,_King_of_England" title="Stephen, King of England">Stephen, King of England</a>, as well as The Irish and Scottish at <a href="/wiki/Abermenai_Point" title="Abermenai Point">Abermenai Point</a> prior in 1142.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELlwyd183280–81-146">[134]</a> Taking advantage of the brotherly strife, and perhaps with the tacit understanding of Cadwaladr, the marcher lords mounted incursions into Wales.<a href="#cite_note-Owain_Gwynedd,_Battles_of-145">[133]</a> Realizing the wider ramifications of the war before him, Owain and Cadwaladr came to terms and reconciled, with Cadwaladr restored to his lands.<a href="#cite_note-Cadwaladr's_betrayal-144">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Owain_Gwynedd,_Battles_of-145">[133]</a> Peace between the brothers held until 1147, when an unrecorded event occurred which led Owain's sons Hywel and <a href="/wiki/Cynan_ab_Owain_Gwynedd" title="Cynan ab Owain Gwynedd">Cynan</a> to drive Cadwaladr out of Meirionydd and Ceredigion, with Cadwaladr retreating to Môn.<a href="#cite_note-Cadwaladr's_betrayal-144">[132]</a> Again an accord was reached, with Cadwaladr retaining Aberffraw until a more serious breach occurred in 1153 when he was forced into exile in England, where his wife was the sister of <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_Clare,_1st_Earl_of_Hertford" title="Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Hertford">Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Hertford</a> and the niece of <a href="/wiki/Ranulf_de_Gernon,_4th_Earl_of_Chester" title="Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester">Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cadwaladr's_betrayal-144">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Owain_Gwynedd,_Battles_of-145">[133]</a> In 1146 news reached Owain that his favoured eldest son and heir, <a href="/wiki/Rhun_ab_Owain_Gwynedd" title="Rhun ab Owain Gwynedd">Rhun ab Owain Gwynedd</a>, died. Owain was overcome with grief, falling into a deep depression from which none could console him until news reached him that <a href="/wiki/Mold,_Flintshire" title="Mold, Flintshire">Mold Castle</a> in Tegeingl had fallen to Gwynedd, "[reminding Owain] that he had still a country for which to live," wrote historian Sir John Edward Lloyd.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd200496-147">[135]</a> Between 1148 and 1151, Owain I of Gwynedd fought against Madog ap Maredudd of Powys, Owain's son-in-law, and against the Earl of Chester for control of <a href="/wiki/I%C3%A2l" class="mw-redirect" title="Iâl">Iâl (Yale)</a>, with Owain having secured Rhuddlan Castle and all of Tegeingl from Chester.<a href="#cite_note-Owain_takes_Iâl,_Ruddlan,_Tengeingl-148">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Owain-137">[126]</a> "By 1154 Owain had brought his men within sight of the red towers of the great city on the Dee", wrote Lloyd."<a href="#cite_note-Owain_takes_Iâl,_Ruddlan,_Tengeingl-148">[136]</a> Having spent three years consolidating his authority in the vast <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II of England</a> resolved on a strategy against Owain I of Gwynedd by 1157. By now, Owain's enemies had joined Henry II's camp, enemies such as his wayward brother Cadwaladr and in particular the support of Madog of Powys.<a href="#cite_note-149">[m]</a> Henry II raised his feudal host and marched into Wales from Chester. Owain positioned himself and his army at Dinas Basing (<a href="/wiki/Basingwerk_Abbey" title="Basingwerk Abbey">Basingwerk</a>), barring the road to Rhuddlan, setting up a trap in which Henry II would send his army along the direct road on the coast, while he crossed through the woods to out-flank Owain. The King of Gwynedd anticipated this, and dispatched his sons <a href="/wiki/Dafydd_ab_Owain_Gwynedd" title="Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd">Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd</a> and Cynan into the woods with an army, catching Henry II unaware.<a href="#cite_note-Owain_and_Henry_II-150">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[138]</a> In the melee which followed Henry II might have been slain had not <a href="/wiki/Roger_de_Clare,_2nd_Earl_of_Hertford" title="Roger de Clare, 2nd Earl of Hertford">Roger de Clare, 2nd Earl of Hertford</a>, rescued the king. Henry II retreated and made his way back to his main army, by now slowly advancing towards Rhuddlan. Not wishing to engage the Norman army directly, Owain repositioned himself first at St. Asaph, then further west, clearing the road for Henry II to enter into Rhuddlan "ingloriously".<a href="#cite_note-Owain_and_Henry_II-150">[137]</a> Once in Rhuddlan Henry II received word that his naval expedition had failed, as instead of meeting Henry II at Degannwy or Rhuddlan, it had gone to plunder Anglesey, this resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ewloe" title="Battle of Ewloe">Battle of Ewloe</a>, and has since been commemorated with a plaque 850 years after the battle of 1157, during 2007.<a href="#cite_note-152">[139]</a> In a later letter to the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Byzantine emperor</a>, Henry probably recalled these experiences when he wrote, "A people called Welsh, so bold and ferocious that, when unarmed, they do not fear to encounter an armed force, being ready to shed their blood in defence of their country, and to sacrifice their lives for renown."<a href="#cite_note-google-153">[140]</a> The naval expedition was led by Henry II's maternal uncle (Empress Matilda's half-brother), <a href="/wiki/Henry_FitzRoy_(d._1158)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry FitzRoy (d. 1158)">Henry FitzRoy</a>; and when they landed on Môn, Henry FitzRoy had the churches of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Llanbedr_Goch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Llanbedr Goch (page does not exist)">Llanbedr Goch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Llanfair_Mathafarn_Eithaf" class="mw-redirect" title="Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf">Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf</a> torched. During the night the men of Môn gathered together, and the next morning fought and defeated the Norman army, with Henry FitzRoy falling under a shower of lances. The defeat of his navy and his own military difficulties had convinced Henry II that he had "gone as far as was practical that year" in his effort to subject Owain, and the King offered terms.<a href="#cite_note-Owain_and_Henry_II-150">[137]</a> Owain I of Gwynedd, "ever prudent and sagacious", recognised that he needed time to further consolidate power, and agreed to the terms. Owain was to render homage and fealty to the King, and resign Tegeingl and Rhuddlan to Chester, and restore Cadwaladr to his possessions in Gwynedd.<a href="#cite_note-Owain_and_Henry_II-150">[137]</a> The death of Madog ap Meredudd of Powys in 1160 opened an opportunity for Owain I of Gwynedd to further press Gwynedd's influence at the expense of Powys.<a href="#cite_note-Owain_1160-1170-154">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd2004-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[n]</a> However, Owain continued to further Gwynedd's expansion without rousing the English crown, maintaining his 'prudent policy' of Quieta non-movere (translated from Latin - do not move settled things).<a href="#cite_note-156">[o]</a> It was a policy of outward conciliation while masking his own consolidation of authority. To further demonstrate his goodwill, in 1160 Owain handed over to the English crown the fugitive <a href="/w/index.php?title=Einion_Clud&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Einion Clud (page does not exist)">Einion Clud</a>. By 1162 Owain was in possession of the Powys cantref of Cyfeiliog, and its castle, <a href="/wiki/Domen_Fawr,_Tafolwern" title="Domen Fawr, Tafolwern">Tafolwern</a>; and ravaged another Powys cantref, <a href="/wiki/Arwystli" title="Arwystli">Arwystli</a>, slaying its lord, Hywel ab Ieuaf.<a href="#cite_note-Owain_1160-1170-154">[141]</a> Owain's strategy was in sharp contrast to Rhys ap Gruffudd, King of Deheubarth, who in 1162 rose in open revolt against the Normans in south Wales, drawing Henry II back to England from the continent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1896b89-157">[142]</a> In 1163 Henry II quarrelled with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Becket" title="Thomas Becket">Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury</a>, causing growing divisions between the king's supporters and the archbishop's supporters. With discontent mounting in England, Owain of Gwynedd joined with Rhys ap Gruffudd of Deheubarth in a second grand Welsh revolt against Henry II.<a href="#cite_note-Owain_1160-1170-154">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Second_great_revolt-158">[143]</a> England's king, who only the prior year had pardoned Rhys ap Gruffudd for his 1162 revolt, assembled a vast host against the allied Welsh, with troops drawn from all over the Angevin empire assembling in Shrewsbury, and with the Norse of Dublin paid to harass the Welsh coast.<a href="#cite_note-Owain_1160-1170-154">[141]</a> While his army gathered on the Welsh frontier, Henry II left for the continent to negotiate a truce with France and Flanders to not disturb his peace while campaigning in Wales.<a href="#cite_note-1066_Revolt-159">[144]</a> However, when Henry II returned to England he found that the war had already begun, with Owain's son Dafydd raiding Angevin positions in Tegeingl, exposing the castles of Rhuddlan and Basingwerk to "serious dangers", wrote Lloyd. Henry II rushed to north Wales for a few days to shore up defences there, before returning to his main army now gathering in Oswestry.<a href="#cite_note-1066_Revolt-159">[144]</a> The vast host gathered before the allied Welsh principalities represented the largest army yet assembled for their conquest, a circumstance which further drew the Welsh allies into a closer confederacy, wrote Lloyd.<a href="#cite_note-1066_Revolt-159">[144]</a> With Owain I of Gwynedd the overall battle commander, and with his brother Cadwaladr as his second, Owain assembled the Welsh host at Corwen in the vale of Edeyrion where he could best resist Henry II's advance.<a href="#cite_note-1066_Revolt-159">[144]</a> The Angevin army advanced from Oswestry into Wales crossing the mountains towards <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mur_Castell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mur Castell (page does not exist)">Mur Castell</a> and found itself in the thick forest of the <a href="/wiki/Ceiriog_Valley" title="Ceiriog Valley">Ceiriog Valley</a> where they were forced into a narrow thin line. Owain I had positioned a band of skirmishers in the thick woods overlooking the pass, which harassed the exposed army from a secured position. Henry II ordered the clearing of the woods on either side to widen the passage through the valley and to lessen the exposure of his army. The road his army travelled later became known as the Ffordd y Saeson, the English Road, and leads through heath and bog towards the Dee. In a dry summer the moors may have been passable, but "on this occasion the skies put on their most wintry aspect; and the rain fell in torrents [...] flooding the mountain meadows" until the great Angevin encampment became a "<a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">morass</a>," wrote Lloyd. In the face of "<a href="/wiki/Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">hurricane</a>" force of wind and rain, diminishing provisions and an exposed supply line stretching through a hostile country subject to enemy raids, and with a demoralised army, Henry II was forced into a complete retreat without even a semblance of a victory.<a href="#cite_note-1066_Revolt-159">[144]</a> In frustration, Henry II had twenty-two Welsh hostages mutilated; the sons of Owain's supporters and allies, including two of Owain's own sons. In addition to his failed campaign in Wales, Henry's mercenary Norse navy, which he had hired to harass the Welsh coast, turned out to be too few for use and were disbanded without engagement.<a href="#cite_note-1066_Revolt-159">[144]</a> Henry II's Welsh campaign was a complete failure, with the king abandoning all plans for the conquest of Wales, returning to his court in Anjou and not returning to England for another four years.<a href="#cite_note-1066_Revolt-159">[144]</a> Lloyd wrote: <blockquote> It is true that [Henry II] did not cross swords with [Owain I], but the elements had done their work for [the Welsh]; the stars in their courses had fought against the pride of England and humbled it to the very dust. To conquer a land which was defended, not merely by the arms of its valiant and audacious sons, but also by tangled woods and impassable bogs, by piercing winds and pitiless storms of rain, seemed a hopeless task, and Henry resolved to no longer attempt it.<a href="#cite_note-1066_Revolt-159">[144]</a></blockquote> Owain expanded his international diplomatic offensive against Henry II by sending an embassy to <a href="/wiki/Louis_VII_of_France" title="Louis VII of France">Louis VII of France</a> in 1168, led by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arthur_of_Bardsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arthur of Bardsey (page does not exist)">Arthur of Bardsey</a>, Bishop of Bangor (1166–1177), who was charged with negotiating a joint alliance against Henry II. With Henry II distracted by his widening quarrel with Thomas Becket, Owain's army recovered Tegeingl for Gwynedd by 1169.<a href="#cite_note-Second_great_revolt-158">[143]</a> Lloyd quotes:<a href="#cite_note-Owain-137">[126]</a> "The praises so repeatedly accorded to his many personal qualities by contemporary poets, and indeed by several public figures who could not have been predisposed in his favour, have so genuine a tone about them that the progressive trends in all the arts of peace and war discerned in 12th century Wales, it must be concluded, were in large measure due to the fostering genius of ' Owain the Great.'" In his later reign Owain I was styled princeps Wallensium, Latin for the Prince of the Welsh, a title of substance given his leadership of the Welsh and victory against the English king, wrote historian Dr. John Davies.<a href="#cite_note-Prince-160">[145]</a> Additionally, Owain commissioned the Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan, the biography of his father in which Owain firmly asserted his primacy over other Welsh rulers by <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture#Male-preference_primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">"absolute right through descent"</a> from Rhodri the Great, according to Davies.<a href="#cite_note-The_Aberffraw_dynasty-102">[95]</a> Owain I was the eldest male descendant of Rhodri the Great through <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">paternal descent</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The adoption of the title prince (Latin princeps, Welsh tywysog), rather than the king (Latin rex, Welsh brenin), did not mean a <a href="/wiki/Diminution" title="Diminution">diminution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">status</a>, according to Davies. The use of the title prince was a recognition of the ruler of Gwynedd in relation to the wider international feudal world. The princes of Gwynedd exercised greater status and prestige than the earls, counts, and dukes of the Angevin empire, suggesting a similar status as that of the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Scots" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Scots">King of Scots</a>, himself nominally a vassal of the King of England, argued Davies. As Welsh society became further influenced by feudal Europe, the princes of Gwynedd would in turn use feudalism to strengthen their own authority over lesser Welsh lords, a "<a href="/wiki/Sword#Single_and_double-edged" title="Sword">two-edged sword</a>" for the King of England, wrote Davies.<a href="#cite_note-Prince-160">[145]</a> Though Gwynedd's princes recognised the <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> of the King of England, there remained well-established <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a> separate from <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a>, and were independent de facto, wrote Davies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994148-161">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[p]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_war,_usurpation_1170_–_1195,_and_the_Prince_of_Wales">Civil war, usurpation 1170 – 1195, and the Prince of Wales</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Civil war, usurpation 1170 – 1195, and the Prince of Wales">edit</a>]</div> Welsh manuscripts and Annals state the events which unfolded during the end of the 12th century. This story of the Royal court of Gwynedd suffering an uprising stems from the <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion of Wales</a> a century prior to the civil strife of <a href="/wiki/Owain_Gwynedd" title="Owain Gwynedd">Owain Gwynedd</a> and his immediate family. The internal wranglings for the crown of Gwynedd began with two sons, Rhun ab Owain Gwynedd and Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd, who were illegitimate, by Owain's Irish wife Pyfog.<a href="#cite_note-Owain1-138">[127]</a> Owain and his father, Gruffudd ap Cynan, both had a Norse-Irish connection in their immediate family and would have used this allegiance to their advantage, especially Gruffudd who hired and army fleets of ships to invade North Wales himself.<a href="#cite_note-Cynan1-119">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-Owain1-138">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[q]</a> In 1146, Hywel and <a href="/wiki/Cadell_ap_Gruffydd" title="Cadell ap Gruffydd">Cadell ap Gruffydd</a> of Deheubarth had combined their forces to battle against invading Normans who had built castles in west Wales, they took <a href="/wiki/Carmarthen_Castle" title="Carmarthen Castle">Carmarthen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Llansteffan_Castle" title="Llansteffan Castle">Llanstephan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wiston_Castle" title="Wiston Castle">Wiston</a> castles.<a href="#cite_note-Hywel-107">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[r]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hywel_ab_Owain" title="Hywel ab Owain">Hywel ab Owain</a> Gwynedd duly succeeded his father for a short-lived term during 1170.<a href="#cite_note-Hywel-107">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab1-165">[147]</a> Due to the Norman invasion of Wales, the realm was in civil war, <a href="#cite_note-166">[s]</a> Princess-Dowager (wife of Owain Gwynedd) <a href="/wiki/Cristin_verch_Goronwy" title="Cristin verch Goronwy">Cristin verch Goronwy</a> who promoted her own son <a href="/wiki/Dafydd_ab_Owain_Gwynedd" title="Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd">Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd</a> (Dafydd I/ David I) as Prince of Gwynedd ahead of Hywel and any other senior son of Owain Gwynedd. Dafydd I made his move, and within a few months of his succession, Hywel was overthrown and killed at the Battle of <a href="/wiki/Pentraeth" title="Pentraeth">Pentraeth</a> in 1171.<a href="#cite_note-Hywel-107">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab1-165">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarbier1908126-167">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1908128–129-168">[149]</a> Due to splinter factions, the Kingdom's royal family began to move away from Gwynedd, it is <a href="/wiki/Maelgwn_ab_Owain_Gwynedd" title="Maelgwn ab Owain Gwynedd">Maelgwn ab Owain Gwynedd</a> (died after 1174 strife) who appeared to have gained Anglesey,<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab1-165">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maelgwn-169">[150]</a> whilst the sons of Cynan held the cantrefs of <a href="/wiki/Meirionnydd" title="Meirionnydd">Meirionnydd</a>, Eifionydd and Ardudwy between them .<a href="#cite_note-170">[t]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cynan_ab-171">[151]</a> Dayfdd I was of Welsh royal stock, although his parents' union wasn't recognised by the church, and he was deemed illegitimate (his parents Owain and Cristin were first cousins), he would still marry royalty, his wife being the half sister of Henry II. As a Prince, he made the most of his position as a son of Owain Gwynedd, and it was Dafydd I who waged a war on his brothers when he won the Crown at the battle of Pentraeth. Dafydd I, King of Gwynedd was his title, and his merciless rule continued when he used his powers to harass his brothers into leaving Gwynedd, at one stage in 1173 Dafydd I imprisoned all of his siblings except for <a href="/wiki/Madoc" title="Madoc">Madoc</a> and Maelgwn. It was Madoc (also known as Madog ab Owain Gwynedd) who after his father's death is claimed to have set sail across the Atlantic Ocean and <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">discovered America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[u]</a> After 3 years of Maelgwn possessing Anglesey he jailed him too. Eventually, Dafydd I was himself imprisoned by the future Prince of Wales <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Llywelyn the Great">Llywelyn the Great</a>, that was after losing the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aberconwy" title="Battle of Aberconwy">Battle of Aberconwy</a> against an alliance of <a href="/wiki/Rhodri_ab_Owain" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodri ab Owain">Rhodri ab Owain</a>, and the sons of <a href="/wiki/Cynan_ab_Owain_Gwynedd" title="Cynan ab Owain Gwynedd">Cynan ab Owain Gwynedd</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[v]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab1-165">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELlwyd183281–82-175">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab-176">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab2-177">[155]</a> The following year he expelled all his remaining family rivals and made himself master of all Gwynedd and in 1175, Dafydd I imprisoned his brother Rhodri. During a revolt in 1173, Dafydd I adhered to Henry II as an ally, and it was agreed that Dafydd I would marry <a href="/wiki/Emma_of_Anjou" title="Emma of Anjou">Emma of Anjou</a>, who was Henry's half-sister, and would receive the manor of <a href="/wiki/Ellesmere_Castle" title="Ellesmere Castle">Ellesmere</a> as <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab-176">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab1-165">[147]</a> All this was done, as the <a href="/wiki/Brut_y_Tywysogion" title="Brut y Tywysogion">Brut y Tywysogion</a> explained, "because [Dafydd] thought he could hold his territory in peace thereby", but it proved insufficient. Before the end of 1175 Rhodri had escaped from captivity and gathered sufficient support to drive Dafydd I from the Royal household of Aberffraw, there appears to be no activity from Dafydd I for almost 20 years after 1175, until then the final battle at Aberconwy in 1197.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab-176">[154]</a> Dafydd I may not have inherited the leadership abilities of his father but he had sufficient diplomatic qualities remaining to ensure he could live at peace with his neighbours. This appears to be the one quality recognised by his contemporaries as he was described by <a href="/wiki/Giraldus_Cambrensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Giraldus Cambrensis">Giraldus Cambrensis</a> as a man who showed "good faith and credit by observing a strict neutrality between the Welsh and English".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] His brother Rhodri had a more eventful time and fell out with the descendants of Cynan. They acted against Rhodri in 1190 and drove him out of Gwynedd altogether. Rhodri fled to the safety of the Isle of Man only to be briefly reinstated in 1193 with the assistance of <a href="/wiki/R%C7%ABgnvaldr_Gu%C3%B0r%C3%B8%C3%B0arson" title="Rǫgnvaldr Guðrøðarson">Rǫgnvaldr Guðrøðarson</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Isles" class="mw-redirect" title="King of the Isles">King of the Isles</a>, and then driven out once more at the beginning of 1194, sharing the humiliation of his brother Dafydd ab Owain.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodri_ab-178">[156]</a> Dafydd Ist had a nemesis in his nephew <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Iorwerth" class="mw-redirect" title="Llywelyn ap Iorwerth">Llywelyn ap Iorwerth</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Iorwerth-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iorwerth1-180">[158]</a> who was born most likely in the year 1173 and therefore only a child when all these events played out. Llywelyn's father <a href="/wiki/Iorwerth_Drwyndwn" title="Iorwerth Drwyndwn">Iorwerth Drwyndwn</a> had been involved in the early stages of the dynastic struggles and most likely died sometime around 1174, during the same time as the usurpation of Dafydd I.<a href="#cite_note-Drwyndwn-181">[159]</a> As the century drew to a close Llywelyn became a young man and decided to stake his claim to power in Gwynedd. He conspired with his cousins Gruffudd and Maredudd and his uncle Rhodri and in the year 1194 they all united against Dafydd I.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab-176">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iorwerth-18">[16]</a> Llywelyn fought battles throughout Wales, giving him the moniker 'The great' as his ancestor Owain Gwynedd had attained.<a href="#cite_note-Owain-137">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iorwerth-18">[16]</a> Having made alliances in his birth county of Powys and the county of the origins of his family Gwynedd, in <a href="/wiki/North_Wales" title="North Wales">north Wales</a>, the stage was set for Llywelyn to dominate in battle and make alliances with the Crown of England, similar to his predecessor Dafydd I. Llywelyn married <a href="/wiki/Joan,_Lady_of_Wales" title="Joan, Lady of Wales">Joan, Lady of Wales</a>, the daughter of <a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">John, King of England</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Iorwerth-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prince_of_Wales_(de_facto)">Prince of Wales (de facto)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Prince of Wales (de facto)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Llywelyn_I,_the_Great">Llywelyn I, the Great</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Llywelyn I, the Great">edit</a>]</div> See also <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Iorwerth" class="mw-redirect" title="Llywelyn ap Iorwerth">Llywelyn ap Iorwerth</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg/150px-Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg/225px-Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg/300px-Arms_of_Llywelyn.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="422" data-file-height="508" /></a><figcaption>The coat of arms of Llywelyn were:Quarterly Or and Gules, four lions passant guardant counter charged, armed and langued Azur, later the arms of his son, Dafydd ap Llywelyn, and grandson, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, and subsequently of the Gwynedd realm.</figcaption></figure> Llywelyn ab Iorwerth (1173 – 11 April 1240), later known as Llywelyn the Great (Llywelyn I),<a href="#cite_note-Iorwerth-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iorwerth1-180">[158]</a> was sole ruler of Gwynedd by 1200, and made a treaty with <a href="/wiki/King_John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King John of England">King John of England</a> the same year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1987294-182">[160]</a> Llywelyn's relations with John remained good for the next ten years. He married John's illegitimate daughter Joan, also known as Joanna, in 1205, and when John arrested <a href="/wiki/Gwenwynwyn_ab_Owain" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwenwynwyn ab Owain">Gwenwynwyn ab Owain</a> of Powys in 1208 Llywelyn took the opportunity to annex southern Powys, Ceredigion and also he built <a href="/wiki/Aberystwyth_Castle" title="Aberystwyth Castle">Aberystwyth Castle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1987229,_241-183">[161]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Kingdom_of_Gwynedd#Aberystwyth_Castle" title="Talk:Kingdom of Gwynedd">discuss</a>] In 1210 relations deteriorated and John invaded Gwynedd in 1211. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1860154-184">[162]</a> Llywelyn was forced to seek terms and to give up all his lands east of the River Conwy,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund2006193-185">[163]</a> but was able to recover these lands the following year in alliance with the other Welsh princes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1860158–159-186">[164]</a> He later allied himself with the barons who forced John to sign Magna Carta in 1215. By 1216 he was the dominant power in Wales, holding a council at <a href="/wiki/Aberdyfi" title="Aberdyfi">Aberdyfi</a> that year to apportion lands to the other princes. Llywelyn concluded the Treaty of Worcester with the next King of England, Henry III in 1218. The treaty formally recognised Llywelyn I as Prince of Wales.<a href="#cite_note-Iorwerth-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurvey201086-187">[165]</a> During 1220 – 1230, Llywelyn bolstered his claim to the Kingship of Gwynedd by reinforcing his borders with castles being built around the Kingdom of Gwynedd, <a href="/wiki/Criccieth_Castle" title="Criccieth Castle">Criccieth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deganwy_Castle" title="Deganwy Castle">Deganwy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dolbadarn_Castle" title="Dolbadarn Castle">Dolbadarn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dolwyddelan_Castle" title="Dolwyddelan Castle">Dolwyddelan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Castell_y_Bere" title="Castell y Bere">Castell y Bere</a> are among the best examples.<a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1995135-188">[166]</a> The Peace of Middle treaty in 1234 marked the beginning of the end of his military exploits and virtually established peace for the rest of Llywelyn's life.<a href="#cite_note-Iorwerth-18">[16]</a> Having been on terms with his neighbouring compatriots, Llywelyn had taken to his wife's style of fashioning <a href="/wiki/Royal_court" title="Royal court">royal court</a> similar to that of the English Crown and also the same rules of court devised in 914 at the Aberffraw <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palace</a>. The Prince convened a court with 35 household members, and 12 Royal mounted guards. In 1317, the llys was dismantled after 4 centuries and the wood taken to <a href="/wiki/Caernarfon_castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Caernarfon castle">Caernarfon castle</a> for repairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELlwyd183283–90-189">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[170]</a> The Royal palace consisted of positions similar to <a href="/wiki/Royal_Households_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Royal Households of the United Kingdom">Royal Households of the United Kingdom</a> used today in England.<a href="#cite_note-193">[171]</a> Llywelyn followed the <a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">laws of Hywel Dda</a> and attempted a succession process using the Welsh <a href="/wiki/Gavelkind" title="Gavelkind">gavelkind</a> custom of choosing an heir.<a href="#cite_note-194">[172]</a> Llywelyn promoted his younger son Dafydd II,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd2004297-195">[173]</a> and he customised the process of designating an heir to his own fruition by giving his eldest son Gruffudd lands to rule.<a href="#cite_note-196">[174]</a> Dafydd II was named heir with the support of <a href="/wiki/King_Henry_III_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King Henry III of England">King Henry III of England</a>, during 1238 a Welsh Royal council of Princes was held at <a href="/wiki/Strata_Florida_Abbey" title="Strata Florida Abbey">Strata Florida Abbey</a> in honour of the heir of Gwynedd.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1987249-197">[175]</a> Llywelyn in 1239 suffered a stroke and retired from active work in the Welsh government, he died only a year later in 1240.<a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1860198-198">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prince_Dafydd_II">Prince Dafydd II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Prince Dafydd II">edit</a>]</div> Prince Dafydd II (<a href="/wiki/Dafydd_ap_Llywelyn" title="Dafydd ap Llywelyn">Dafydd ap Llywelyn</a> / David II, March 1212 – 25 February 1246),<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab2-177">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-DafyddII-199">[177]</a> the son of Llywelyn the Great was installed as heir of Gwynedd by the Prince of Wales.<a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn1-200">[178]</a> While King Henry III of England had accepted Dafydd II and his Royal claims to Gwynedd and Wales, Henry invaded Gwynedd, and Dafydd II was forced to negotiate peace near <a href="/wiki/St._Asaph" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Asaph">St. Asaph</a>, on 29 August 1241, under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gwerneigron" title="Treaty of Gwerneigron">Treaty of Gwerneigron</a>, Dafydd II gave up all his lands outside Gwynedd.<a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn1-200">[178]</a> Dafydd II was ruthless with his power, like his predecessors he'd imprisoned his own brother, once for 6 years, and again in Criccieth and then in the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a>. It was the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Bangor" title="Bishop of Bangor">Bishop of Bangor</a> who negotiated letting Prince Gruffudd move to a better location in London. Gruffudd fell to his death in March 1244 while trying to escape from the Tower of London by climbing down a knotted sheet.<a href="#cite_note-Gruffudd_ab-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gruffudd_ab1-201">[179]</a> With his main rival dead, Dafydd formed an alliance with other Welsh rulers and began a campaign against the English occupation of parts of Wales, all the while communicating with <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_IV" title="Pope Innocent IV">Pope Innocent IV</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City, Rome</a>, talking about the powers bestowed on him by his predecessors as the ruler of Gwynedd.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] After savage fighting, the campaign was successful, however, Llywelyn's former seneschal <a href="/wiki/Sir_Tudur_ap_Ednyfed_Fychan" title="Sir Tudur ap Ednyfed Fychan">Sir Tudur ap Ednyfed Fychan</a> was captured by Henry III's forces in September 1245 in the battle against Dafydd II, yet Tudur was released in 1247 after swearing fealty to the King of England.<a href="#cite_note-Ednyfed-51">[48]</a> Dafydd II died a sudden and natural death on 25 February 1246, this brought a halt to the succession crisis which was fuelling the wars, his widow <a href="/wiki/Isabella_de_Braose" title="Isabella de Braose">Isabella de Braose</a> returned to England, living in Haverford, she died 2 years later.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab2-177">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn1-200">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prince_Llywelyn_II,_the_Last">Prince Llywelyn II, the Last</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Prince Llywelyn II, the Last">edit</a>]</div> Prince Llywelyn II (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Llywelyn, Our Last Leader', <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Gruffudd" title="Llywelyn ap Gruffudd">Llywelyn ap Gruffudd</a>, 1223 – 11 December 1282) was living in Gwynedd at the time of his succession to the throne and had fought alongside his uncle Dafydd II during the last campaign of his reign.<a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a> This gave him an advantage over his elder brother Owain who had been imprisoned in England with his father since 1242. Owain returned to Gwynedd from England, immediately after the news of the death of Prince Dafydd the IInd.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Llywelyn and Owain were able to come to an agreement during an arranged peace accord by King Henry III of England, the <a href="/wiki/Woodstock_Palace" title="Woodstock Palace">Treaty of Woodstock</a>, they were to share a realm west of Conwy, the treaty only lasted 8 years.<a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Owain_Goch-202">[180]</a> The younger brother of Llywelyn II was Dafydd III, who had come of age by 14 and was invited by Henry III to pay homage in 1253. But in the spirit of his ancestors, he went to battle with his brother by forming an alliance with their other brother Owain and fought at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bryn_Derwin" title="Battle of Bryn Derwin">Battle of Bryn Derwin</a> where they met with respective armies.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III-203">[181]</a> Llywelyn II in victory imprisoned his brothers Owain (until 1277), and Dafydd III for around a years time, Dafydd III eventually gained favour by 1277 working in conjunction with the Crown of England by gaining land on the northern border of England and Wales, Dafydd III married <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Ferrers" title="Elizabeth Ferrers">Elizabeth Ferrers</a> and had offspring, while Owain was given the title Lord of Llŷn. Llywelyn was seen as a figurehead for the new state of Wales but had to coordinate with the newly formed Norman dynasty neighbouring to the east of Gwynedd, this was formalised with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Montgomery" title="Treaty of Montgomery">Treaty of Montgomery</a> later in 1267.<a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Owain_Goch-202">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III-203">[181]</a> With his brothers out of contention, Llyewlyn II was the sole ruler and this allowed for over a decade of unbroken military success, aided by the weakness of the Crown of England and the support of his seneschal <a href="/wiki/Goronwy_ab_Ednyfed" title="Goronwy ab Ednyfed">Goronwy ab Ednyfed</a>, he triumphed in battle by reuniting north Wales. Llywelyn II made an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Montfort-l%27Amaury" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Montfort-l'Amaury">Montfort family</a>, marrying <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_de_Montfort,_Princess_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleanor de Montfort, Princess of Wales">Eleanor de Montfort</a> in 1275. Eleanor was the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Simon_de_Montfort,_6th_Earl_of_Leicester" title="Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester">Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester</a>, who had been integral in the English civil war by rebelling during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Barons%27_War" title="Second Barons' War">Second Barons' War</a>. This time it was another Pope, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_IV" title="Pope Clement IV">Clement IV</a> who negotiated peace with the Welsh Prince, insisting to disassociate from the Monforts after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Evesham" title="Battle of Evesham">Battle of Evesham</a>. Llywelyn II and Montfort married twice, once in secret in 1275, and once again after the marriage was given consent by the new brother-in-law of Llywelyn II, Edward I, only after Eleanor herself was placed under house arrest for three years for passing through <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a> with her father's banner on board a ship, their daughter <a href="/wiki/Gwenllian_ferch_Llywelyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwenllian ferch Llywelyn">Gwenllian ferch Llywelyn</a> was orphaned before her first birthday, she was the last of her line.<a href="#cite_note-Ednyfed-51">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[183]</a> Succession would continue with a new <a href="/wiki/King_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King of England">King of England</a>, Edward I would later acquire the title of the <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aberconwy" title="Treaty of Aberconwy">Treaty of Aberconwy</a> was signed in 1277 by Llywelyn II, it was a formal agreement to hand over the power Gwynedd he had accumulated throughout Wales, and the new <a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a> was of French, Norman origins. However Llywelyn's brother Dafydd III still had different ideas, it was he who provoked the incident by attacking <a href="/wiki/Hawarden_Castle_(medieval)" title="Hawarden Castle (medieval)">Hawarden castle</a> on <a href="/wiki/Palm_Sunday" title="Palm Sunday">Palm Sunday</a> in 1282. Later on in November 1282 the Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a>, visited North Wales to mediate any potential conflict between sovereigns. Prince Llywelyn II was offered a financial incentive, and an English estate for his family, only if he were to surrender Gwynedd's territory to Edward. Llywelyn II rejected the offer.<a href="#cite_note-206">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[185]</a> The next month, on 11 December 1282, after not being recognised Llywelyn was killed in an ambush. His head sent to London, his body interred to <a href="/wiki/Abbeycwmhir" title="Abbeycwmhir">Abbeycwmhir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn-179">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prince_Dafydd_III">Prince Dafydd III</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Prince Dafydd III">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Prince_Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Coat_of_arms_of_Prince_Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_Prince_Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Coat_of_arms_of_Prince_Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd.svg/225px-Coat_of_arms_of_Prince_Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Coat_of_arms_of_Prince_Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd.svg/300px-Coat_of_arms_of_Prince_Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>The arms used by Dafydd ap Gruffudd were a variant of the Aberffraw Arms</figcaption></figure> After generations of civil strife in Gwynedd, it was <a href="/wiki/Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd" class="mw-redirect" title="Dafydd ap Gruffydd">Dafydd ap Gruffydd</a> (David III, 11 July – 3 October 1283) named Dafydd III, the grandson of Llywelyn the Great who was next to gain the Prince of Wales title.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_ab2-177">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III-203">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III1-208">[186]</a> From the offset it was Dafydd III who was immersed in Royal life representing the Welsh royal family. During 1253, Dafydd III attended an event and paid homage to the English court with <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Provence" title="Eleanor of Provence">Queen Eleanor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Cornwall" title="Richard of Cornwall">Richard of Cornwall</a>, as Henry III was in <a href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascony</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III1-208">[186]</a> That era however was the starting point for military campaigns against his brother Llywelyn II from 1255, Llywelyn II jailed him for a year after the battle of Bryn Derwin. Dafydd III 1263 revolted against Llywelyn II once more, this time failing badly enough to flee to England, and a year later was offered the lands of the English rebel <a href="/wiki/Baron_Boteler" title="Baron Boteler">Baron Boteler</a> after the battle of Evesham during an English civil war. Dafydd III had joined the English court life with Henry III and was in England until 1267. Again it was another Pope, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Adrian_V" title="Pope Adrian V">Ottobuono, Adrian V</a> who negotiated between the Royal families of England and Wales, peace ensued in Wales for another 6 years when Dafydd III was councillor to his brother, the Prince of Wales. Peace ensues until another coup is formed involving <a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Gwenwynwyn" title="Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn">Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn Prince of Powys</a> (whose father was arrested by King John), and falls apart due to severe storms. Dafydd III was forced to flee to England once more, this time pledging allegiance to King Edward I in 1274, and is decorated a knight and considered a friend. Years later in 1277, Dafydd III returns to haunt Wales accompanying Edward I, and on 16 August an agreement of peace is made as to how to share the spoils of war, by 10 November Llywelyn I submits to the English Crown at the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aberconwy" title="Treaty of Aberconwy">Treaty of Aberconwy</a>. The lands of <a href="/wiki/Snowdonia" title="Snowdonia">Snowdonia</a>, Anglesey, and <a href="/wiki/Penllyn_(cantref)" title="Penllyn (cantref)">Penllyn (cantref)</a> are shared amongst the Princes and a dowry is given to Dafydd III, along with an estate in <a href="/wiki/Cheshire" title="Cheshire">Cheshire</a> and a consented marriage to the daughter of a former adversary, <a href="/wiki/William_de_Ferrers,_5th_Earl_of_Derby" title="William de Ferrers, 5th Earl of Derby">William de Ferrers</a> the <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Derby" title="Earl of Derby">5th Earl of Derby</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III1-208">[186]</a> Later in his life, after returning to Wales, Dafydd III changes alliance once again and continues to fight against the English Crown at risk of being a traitor. The Welsh courts had kept the support of Goronowy ap Heilin, the seneschal of Gwynedd who also supported his brother Llywelyn II, Goronwy was the Lord of <a href="/wiki/Rhos_(north_Wales)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhos (north Wales)">Rhôs</a>. Dafydd III also had the support of Hywel ap Rhys Gryg son of <a href="/wiki/Rhys_Gryg" title="Rhys Gryg">Rhys Gryg</a>, and his brother Rhys Wyndod, the disinherited princes of <a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_577-209">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ednyfed-51">[48]</a> Dafydd III had rekindled his ancestors wish for Welsh Independence, however the involvement in rebellion had been against agreements in place the treaty of Aberconwy. The provocation on 22 March, Palm Sunday in 1282 was an attack on Hawarden castle and was the final conflict of the Kingdom of Gwynedd.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III1-208">[186]</a> Dafydd III, like his brothers had incurred the wrath of the English forces, the Norman army encircled Snowdonia and starved the Welsh people, Dafydd III was soon moving desperately from one fort to another as effective resistance was systematically crushed. <a href="/wiki/Dolwyddelan_Castle" title="Dolwyddelan Castle">Dolwyddelan Castle</a>, which was at risk of becoming encircled and trapped, was the first castle to be abandoned on 18 January 1283. The next was <a href="/wiki/Dolbadarn_Castle" title="Dolbadarn Castle">Dolbadarn Castle</a>, the castle served as a base, but by March of that year, this noble site in the heartland of Snowdonia was also under threat from foreign forces and Dafydd III was forced to retreat once again. Finally, Dafydd III moved his headquarters south to <a href="/wiki/Castell_y_Bere" title="Castell y Bere">Castell y Bere</a> near <a href="/wiki/Llanfihangel-y-pennant" class="mw-redirect" title="Llanfihangel-y-pennant">Llanfihangel-y-pennant</a>. From this point forward the Prince, royal family, and remaining members of the Welsh government were all fugitives on the run, sleeping outdoors whilst being forced to keep moving from place to place to avoid capture. Castell Y Bere's starving garrison would eventually surrender on 25 April and then be given to <a href="/wiki/William_de_Valence,_1st_Earl_of_Pembroke" title="William de Valence, 1st Earl of Pembroke">William de Valence, 1st Earl of Pembroke</a>. After the fall of Y Bere, Dafydd III's movements are speculative but he is recorded in May 1283 as leading raids from the mountains, supported by his seneschal Goronwy ap Heilyn, and Prince's of <a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a>, Hywel ap Rhys and Rhys Wyndod.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III1-208">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001576-210">[188]</a> <blockquote>"The last months saw inward disintegration as well as submission to superior force. Nevertheless, Goronwy ap Heilin had committed himself to the struggle and died in rebellion, alongside the disinherited princes who stood with Dafydd ap Gruffudd in the last springtime of the principality of Wales, diehards who knew that theirs was not the heroism of a new beginning but the ultimate stand of the very last cohort clutching the figment of the political order that they had once been privileged to know."<a href="#cite_note-Smith_577-209">[187]</a></blockquote> On 21 June 1283, Dafydd III was captured in the uplands above Abergwyngregyn close to <a href="/wiki/Bera_Mawr" title="Bera Mawr">Bera Mawr</a> in a secret hiding place recorded as "Nanhysglain".<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III1-208">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[189]</a> King Edward I decreed, in ad querendum filium David primogenitum, and was caught by "men of his own tongue".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The last Royal family of Wales were imprisoned, and Dafydd III was executed by <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hanging</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shrewsbury" title="Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a> for <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a>, his body was dismembered and he suffered same fate as his brother, Llywelyn II with his head put on a pole for display at the Tower of London, the bard <a href="/wiki/Bleddyn_Fardd" title="Bleddyn Fardd">Bleddyn Fardd</a> made his <a href="/wiki/Elegy" title="Elegy">elegy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III1-208">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[190]</a> After the capture of the last true Royal family of Gwynedd, the Princes, including <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Dafydd" title="Llywelyn ap Dafydd">Llywelyn ap Dafydd</a> were imprisoned in <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Castle" title="Bristol Castle">Bristol Castle</a> by the English Crown, and daughters became <a href="/wiki/Nuns" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuns">Nuns</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sempringham" title="Sempringham">Sempringham</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Monasteries">monasteries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III1-208">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_Independence">End of Independence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: End of Independence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Conquest of Wales by Edward I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Wales in the Late Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wales_after_the_Statute_of_Rhuddlan_1284.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Wales_after_the_Statute_of_Rhuddlan_1284.svg/220px-Wales_after_the_Statute_of_Rhuddlan_1284.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Wales_after_the_Statute_of_Rhuddlan_1284.svg/330px-Wales_after_the_Statute_of_Rhuddlan_1284.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Wales_after_the_Statute_of_Rhuddlan_1284.svg/440px-Wales_after_the_Statute_of_Rhuddlan_1284.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>Wales after the Statute of Rhuddlan 1284</figcaption></figure> Following the death of <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Gruffudd" title="Llywelyn ap Gruffudd">Llywelyn II</a> in 1282, and the execution of his brother <a href="/wiki/Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd" class="mw-redirect" title="Dafydd ap Gruffydd">Dafydd III</a> the following year, eight centuries of independent rule by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Gwynedd" title="House of Gwynedd">House of Gwynedd</a> came to an end, and the kingdom, which had long been one of the final holdouts to total English domination of Wales, was annexed to England. The remaining important members of the ruling house were all arrested and imprisoned for the remainder of their lives.<a href="#cite_note-Dafydd_III-203">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-Llywelyn_ap-213">[191]</a> Under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Rhuddlan" title="Statute of Rhuddlan">Statute of Rhuddlan</a> in 1284 Wales was broken up and re-organised into six <a href="/wiki/Shire#Shire_names_in_Wales" title="Shire">shires</a>. The Snowdonia district in Gwynedd was made into three settlements, creating the counties of <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>, Carnarvonshire, <a href="/wiki/Merionethshire" title="Merionethshire">Merionethshire</a>, and the rest of Wales split beyond the Rivers Dee and Conwy, making <a href="/wiki/Denbighshire_(historic)" title="Denbighshire (historic)">Denbighshire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flintshire_(historic)" title="Flintshire (historic)">Flintshire</a> in North Wales, and <a href="/wiki/Cardigan,_Ceredigion" title="Cardigan, Ceredigion">Cardigan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carmarthen" title="Carmarthen">Carmarthen</a> to the south of Wales.<a href="#cite_note-Edwards_1906-214">[192]</a> The Pura Walia was the new definition for the Welsh <a href="/wiki/Marshland" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshland">marshland</a>. Pura Wallia was effectively the new counties which had been Gwynedd, Carmarthenshire and Cardiganshire and Marchia Wallie were defined through division of lands still held by the Welsh people and the Norman castles built in the Marchia Wallie.<a href="#cite_note-215">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[194]</a> The Pura Walia continued to be within a nominal Principality of Wales ruled by the Council of Wales at Ludlow as a part of the English crown.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] There were many Gwynedd-based rebellions after 1284 with varying degrees of success with most being led by peripheral members of the old royal house. In particular the rebellions of <a href="/wiki/Madoc_ap_Llywelyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Madoc ap Llywelyn">Prince Madoc</a> in 1294,<a href="#cite_note-Madog-217">[195]</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Owain_Lawgoch" title="Owain Lawgoch">Owain Lawgoch</a> (the great-nephew of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd) between 1372 and 1378 are most notable.<a href="#cite_note-Lawgoch-218">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005164–166-219">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker1990165–167-220">[198]</a> Because of this the old royal house was purged and any surviving members went into hiding. A final rebellion in 1400 led by <a href="/wiki/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r" title="Owain Glyndŵr">Owain Glyndŵr</a>, a member of the rival royal house of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a>, also drew considerable support from within Gwynedd.<a href="#cite_note-Owain2-46">[43]</a> The title "Prince of Wales" was recreated after Llywelyn II, Prince Edward (later <a href="/wiki/Edward_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward II">Edward II</a>) was conferred in 1301 at <a href="/wiki/Caernarfon_castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Caernarfon castle">Caernarfon castle</a>, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ofwales-221">[199]</a> The Welsh Marches would be merged with the principality in 1534 under the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Wales_and_the_Marches" title="Council of Wales and the Marches">Council of Wales and the Marches</a> until all separate governance for Wales.<a href="#cite_note-222">[200]</a> The penal system was eventually abolished,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994233-223">[201]</a> and as an administrative entity, the administrative entity the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Marches of Wales</a> was abolished by the joint reigns of <a href="/wiki/King_William_III_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King William III of England">King William III of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary II of England">Mary II of England</a> (monarchs of England and Scotland combined) in 1689.<a href="#cite_note-224">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> According to Sir John Edward Lloyd, the challenges of campaigning in Wales were exposed during the 20-year Norman invasion. If a defender could bar any road, control any river-crossing or mountain pass, and control the coastline around Wales, then the risks of extended campaigning in Wales were too great.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a> The Welsh method of warfare during the reign of Henry II is described by <a href="/wiki/Gerald_of_Wales" title="Gerald of Wales">Gerald of Wales</a> in his work <a href="/wiki/Descriptio_Cambriae" title="Descriptio Cambriae">Descriptio Cambriae</a> written c. 1190:<a href="#cite_note-google-153">[140]</a> <blockquote>Their mode of fighting consists in chasing the enemy or in retreating. This light-armed people, relying more on their activity than on their strength, cannot struggle for the field of battle, enter into close engagement, or endure long and severe actions...though defeated and put to flight on one day, they are ready to resume the combat on the next, neither dejected by their loss, nor by their dishonour; and although, perhaps, they do not display great fortitude in open engagements and regular conflicts, yet they harass the enemy by ambuscades and nightly sallies. Hence, neither oppressed by hunger or cold, not fatigued by martial labours, nor despondent in adversity, but ready, after a defeat, to return immediately to action, and again endure the dangers of war. --The Historical Works of Giraldus Cambrensis translated by Sir Richard Colt-Hoare (1894), p.511<a href="#cite_note-google-153">[140]</a></blockquote> The Welsh were revered for the skills of their bowmen. Additionally, the Welsh learned from their Norman rivals. During the generations of warfare and close contact with the Normans, Gruffudd ap Cynan and other Welsh leaders learned the arts of knighthood and adapted them for Wales. By Gruffudd's death in 1137, Gwynedd could field hundreds of heavy well-armed cavalry as well as their traditional bowmen and infantry.<a href="#cite_note-GruffyddapCynan-120">[111]</a> <blockquote>They make use of light arms, which do not impede their agility, small coats of mail, bundles of arrows, and long lances, helmets and shields, and more rarely greaves plated with iron. The higher class go to battle mounted on swift and generous steeds, which their country produces; but the greater part of the people fight on foot, on account of the marshy nature and unevenness of the soil. The horsemen, as their situation or occasion requires, willingly serve as infantry, in attacking or retreating; and they either walk bare-footed, or make use of high shoes, roughly constructed with untanned leather. In time of peace, the young men, by penetrating the deep recesses of the woods, and climbing the tops of mountains, learn by practice to endure fatigue through day and night.. --The Historical Works of Giraldus Cambrensis translated by Sir Richard Colt-Hoare (1894), p.491<a href="#cite_note-google-153">[140]</a></blockquote> In the end, Wales was defeated militarily by the improved ability of the English navy to blockade or seize areas essential for agricultural production such as <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>. With control of the Menai Strait, an invading army could regroup on Anglesey; without control of the Menai an army could be stranded there; and any occupying force on Anglesey could deny the vast harvest of the island to the Welsh.<a href="#cite_note-Gruffydd_ap_Cynan-121">[112]</a> Lack of food would force the disbandment of any large Welsh force besieged within the mountains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001576-210">[188]</a> Following the occupation, Welsh soldiers were conscripted to serve in the English Army. During the revolt of <a href="/wiki/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r" title="Owain Glyndŵr">Owain Glyndŵr</a> the Welsh adapted the new skills they had learnt to <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_tactics" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla tactics">guerrilla tactics</a> and lightning raids. Owain Glyndŵr reputedly used the mountains with such advantage that many of the exasperated English soldieries suspected him of being a magician able to control the natural elements.<a href="#cite_note-225">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Administration">Administration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Administration">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gwynedd_General_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Gwynedd_General_Map.png/300px-Gwynedd_General_Map.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Gwynedd_General_Map.png/450px-Gwynedd_General_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Gwynedd_General_Map.png/600px-Gwynedd_General_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Principal administrative divisions of medieval Gwynedd (traditional territorial extent)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conwy_River_from_Conwy_Castle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Conwy_River_from_Conwy_Castle.jpg/220px-Conwy_River_from_Conwy_Castle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Conwy_River_from_Conwy_Castle.jpg/330px-Conwy_River_from_Conwy_Castle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Conwy_River_from_Conwy_Castle.jpg/440px-Conwy_River_from_Conwy_Castle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/River_Conwy" title="River Conwy">Afon Conwy</a> is the traditional border between upper and lower Gwynedd</figcaption></figure> In early times Gwynedd (or Venedotia) may have been ruled from <a href="/wiki/Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a>, which is shown in the subsidiary title of the current Prince of Wales, <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Chester" title="Earl of Chester">Earl of Chester</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ofwales-221">[199]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chester" title="Battle of Chester">Battle of Chester</a> in 613 when the city fell to the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a> the royal court moved west to the stronghold at <a href="/wiki/Deganwy_Castle" title="Deganwy Castle">Deganwy Castle</a> near modern <a href="/wiki/Conwy" title="Conwy">Conwy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-deganwy-4">[4]</a> This site was destroyed by lightning in 812, rebuilt and destroyed again by Saxons in 822. Afterwards <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aberffraw" title="House of Aberffraw">Aberffraw</a> on Anglesey became the principal power base, with exceptions such as <a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Llywelyn" title="Gruffydd ap Llywelyn">Gruffydd ap Llywelyn</a>'s court at <a href="/wiki/Rhuddlan" title="Rhuddlan">Rhuddlan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994-226">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gruffudd_ab-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[205]</a> However, as the English fleet became more powerful and particularly after the Norman colonisation of Ireland began it became indefensible and from about 1200 until 1283,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] at <a href="/wiki/Pen_y_Bryn" title="Pen y Bryn">Abergwyngregyn</a> or simply called just "Aber" (its anglicised shortened form adopted by the Crown of England after the conquest) was the new family home of the 'Lord of Snowdown' on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Menai_Strait" title="Menai Strait">menai Strait</a>.<a href="#cite_note-woodbury-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[206]</a> Joan, Lady of Wales, died there in 1237; Dafydd ap Llywelyn in 1246; Eleanor de Montfort, Lady of Wales, wife of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales ("Tywysog Cymru" in modern Welsh), on 19 June 1282, giving birth to a daughter, Gwenllian. The royal home was occupied and expropriated by the English Crown in early 1283.<a href="#cite_note-229">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[209]</a> The traditional sphere of Aberffraw's influence in north Wales included the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Anglesey" class="mw-redirect" title="Isle of Anglesey">Isle of Anglesey</a> (Ynys Môn) as their early seat of authority, and <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd_Uwch_Conwy" title="Gwynedd Uwch Conwy">Gwynedd Uwch Conwy</a> (Gwynedd above the Conwy, or upper Gwynedd), and the <a href="/wiki/Perfeddwlad" title="Perfeddwlad">Perfeddwlad</a> (the Middle Country) also known as <a href="/wiki/Perfeddwlad" title="Perfeddwlad">Gwynedd Is Conwy</a> (Gwynedd below the Conwy, or lower Gwynedd). Additional lands were acquired through vassalage or conquest, and by regaining lands lost to <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Marcher lords</a>, particularly that of <a href="/wiki/Ceredigion" title="Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Powys_Fadog" title="Powys Fadog">Powys Fadog</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Powys_Wenwynwyn" title="Powys Wenwynwyn">Powys Wenwynwyn</a>. However, these areas were always considered an addition to Gwynedd, never part of it.<a href="#cite_note-jones_us-24">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Edwards_1906-214">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd2004-7">[7]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Llys_Llewelyn,_St_Fagans_National_Museum_of_History.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Llys_Llewelyn%2C_St_Fagans_National_Museum_of_History.jpg/250px-Llys_Llewelyn%2C_St_Fagans_National_Museum_of_History.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Llys_Llewelyn%2C_St_Fagans_National_Museum_of_History.jpg/375px-Llys_Llewelyn%2C_St_Fagans_National_Museum_of_History.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Llys_Llewelyn%2C_St_Fagans_National_Museum_of_History.jpg/500px-Llys_Llewelyn%2C_St_Fagans_National_Museum_of_History.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of Llys Llywelyn at <a href="/wiki/St_Fagans_National_Museum_of_History" title="St Fagans National Museum of History">St Fagans</a></figcaption></figure> After the Norman conquest, the residents of <a href="/wiki/Llanfaes" title="Llanfaes">Llanfaes</a> were moved to make way for <a href="/wiki/Beaumaris_Castle" title="Beaumaris Castle">Beaumaris Castle</a> on Anglesey. The newly built <a href="/wiki/Llys_Rhosyr" title="Llys Rhosyr">Llys Rhosyr</a> replaced the now abandoned <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aberffraw" title="House of Aberffraw">Llys Aberffraw</a> was one of 3 main courts on Anglesey, only due to a sandstorm in 1332 the Llys also became disused and unattended until excavations in the 20th century. The courts (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: Llysoedd) were administrative centres in the Kingdom, the courts were royal residences, but also were to collect taxes and function the same as a modern government building.<a href="#cite_note-232">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[211]</a> Gwynedd was traditionally divided into using nature as borders, the rivers <a href="/wiki/River_Conwy" title="River Conwy">Conwy</a> and <a href="/wiki/River_Dee,_Wales" title="River Dee, Wales">Dee</a> were used to define lands in relation to the counties.<a href="#cite_note-Edwards_1906-214">[192]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd_Uwch_Conwy" title="Gwynedd Uwch Conwy">Gwynedd Uwch Conwy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd_Is_Conwy" title="Gwynedd Is Conwy">Gwynedd Is Conwy</a> (with the <a href="/wiki/River_Conwy" title="River Conwy">River Conwy</a> forming the border), which included Anglesey (Môn). The kingdom of the Princes of Snowdonia was administered under Welsh custom through thirteen <a href="/wiki/Cantref" title="Cantref">Cantrefi</a> each containing, in theory, one hundred settlements or Trefi. Most cantrefs were also divided into <a href="/wiki/Cwmwd" class="mw-redirect" title="Cwmwd">cymydau</a> (English <a href="/wiki/Commote" title="Commote">commotes</a>). A complete census was created in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Book_of_Hergest" title="Red Book of Hergest">Red Book of Hergest</a> during the end of the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-jones_us-24">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anglesey_(Welsh:_Ynys_Môn)">Anglesey (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: Ynys Môn)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Anglesey (Welsh: Ynys Môn)">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Commote of Anglesey</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Commote" title="Commote">Commote</a></th> <th>Modern local</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Aberffraw&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Aberffraw (page does not exist)">Aberffraw</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aberffraw" title="Aberffraw">Aberffraw</a></td> <td>Historic seat of rulers of Gwynedd </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Cemais&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Cemais (page does not exist)">Cemais</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cemaes" title="Cemaes">Cemaes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Talebolyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Talebolyon (page does not exist)">Talebolyon</a> </td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Llan-faes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Llan-faes (page does not exist)">Llan-faes</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Llan-maes" class="mw-redirect" title="Llan-maes">Llan-maes</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Penrhos,_Anglesey" title="Penrhos, Anglesey">Penrhos</a> </td> <td>Penrhos</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Llys_Rhosyr" title="Llys Rhosyr">Rhosyr</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Newborough,_Anglesey" title="Newborough, Anglesey">Newborough</a>, Niwbro</td> <td>in 1294, refounded to house displaced villagers from Llanfaes </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Upper_Gwynedd,_Conwy">Upper Gwynedd, Conwy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Upper Gwynedd, Conwy">edit</a>]</div> Gwynedd above the Conwy, or upper Gwynedd <a href="/wiki/Cantref_Arllechwedd" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantref Arllechwedd">Commote of Arllechwedd</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Commote" title="Commote">Commote</a></th> <th>Modern local</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arllechwedd_Uchaf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arllechwedd Uchaf (page does not exist)">Arllechwedd Uchaf</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Abergwyngregyn" title="Abergwyngregyn">Abergwyngregyn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conwy_County_Borough" title="Conwy County Borough">Conwy County Borough</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arllechwedd_Isaf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arllechwedd Isaf (page does not exist)">Arllechwedd Isaf</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trefriw" title="Trefriw">Trefriw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conwy_County_Borough" title="Conwy County Borough">Conwy County Borough</a></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Cantref_Arfon" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantref Arfon">Arfon Commote</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Commote" title="Commote">Commote</a></th> <th>Modern local</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arfon_Uwch_Gwyrfai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arfon Uwch Gwyrfai (page does not exist)">Arfon Uwch Gwyrfai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a></td> <td>Arfon above Gwyrfai </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arfon_Is_Gwyrfai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arfon Is Gwyrfai (page does not exist)">Arfon Is Gwyrfai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a></td> <td>Arfon beneath Gwyrfai </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Dunoding" title="Dunoding">Dunoding Commote</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Commote" title="Commote">Commote</a></th> <th>Modern local</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ardudwy" title="Ardudwy">Ardudwy</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gwynedd_Council#Meirionnydd" title="Gwynedd Council">Meirionnydd</a> area within <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd_Council" title="Gwynedd Council">Gwynedd</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eifionydd" title="Eifionydd">Eifionydd</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gwynedd_Council#Dwyfor" title="Gwynedd Council">Dwyfor</a> area within <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd_Council" title="Gwynedd Council">Gwynedd</a></td> <td>Named after Eifion ap Dunod ap Cunedda </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Cantref_Ll%C5%B7n" title="Cantref Llŷn">Commote of Llyn</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Commote" title="Commote">Commote</a></th> <th>Modern local</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dinllaen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dinllaen (page does not exist)">Dinllaen</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gwynedd_Council#Dwyfor" title="Gwynedd Council">Dwyfor</a> council in Gwynedd county</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cymydmaen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cymydmaen (page does not exist)">Cymydmaen</a></td> <td>Dwyfor council in Gwynedd county</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cafflogion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cafflogion (page does not exist)">Cafflogion</a></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Meirionnydd" title="Meirionnydd">Meirionnydd Commote</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Commote" title="Commote">Commote</a></th> <th>Modern local</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Ystumaner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Ystumaner (page does not exist)">Ystumaner</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Merionethshire" title="Merionethshire">Merionethshire</a> council in Gwynedd county</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Tal-y-bont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Tal-y-bont (page does not exist)">Tal-y-bont</a></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lower_Gwynedd,_Conwy">Lower Gwynedd, Conwy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Lower Gwynedd, Conwy">edit</a>]</div> Also known as <a href="/wiki/Perfeddwlad" title="Perfeddwlad">Perfeddwlad</a>, or "the Middle Country" or Gwynedd Is Conwy (Gwynedd below the Conwy, or lower Gwynedd) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tegeingl" title="Tegeingl">Cantref Tegeingl</a>: <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwnsyllt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwnsyllt (page does not exist)">Cwnsyllt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Prestatyn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Prestatyn (page does not exist)">Prestatyn</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Rhuddlan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Rhuddlan (page does not exist)">Rhuddlan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyffryn_Clwyd" title="Dyffryn Clwyd">Dyffryn Clwyd</a>: <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Colion (page does not exist)">Colion</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Llannerch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Llannerch (page does not exist)">Llannerch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogfeiling" title="Dogfeiling">Dogfeiling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhufoniog" title="Rhufoniog">Rhufoniog</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ceinmeirch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ceinmeirch (page does not exist)">Ceinmeirch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Uwch_Aled&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Uwch Aled (page does not exist)">Uwch Aled</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Is_Aled&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Is Aled (page does not exist)">Is Aled</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhos_(north_Wales)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhos (north Wales)">Cantref Rhos</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Uwch_Dulas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Uwch Dulas (page does not exist)">Uwch Dulas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_Is_Dulas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd Is Dulas (page does not exist)">Is Dulas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cwmwd_y_Creuddyn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cwmwd y Creuddyn (page does not exist)">Y Creuddyn</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> Following <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Edward's conquest</a>, the lands of Gwynedd proper were divided among the English <a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_Wales" title="Historic counties of Wales">counties</a> of <a href="/wiki/Anglesey_County,_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglesey County, Wales">Anglesey</a>, Caernarfonshire, <a href="/wiki/Merionethshire" title="Merionethshire">Merionethshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denbighshire_(historic)" title="Denbighshire (historic)">Denbighshire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flintshire_(historic)" title="Flintshire (historic)">Flintshire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Edwards_1906-214">[192]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1972" title="Local Government Act 1972">Local Government Act 1972</a> reformed these, creating a new county (now called a "<a href="/wiki/Preserved_counties_of_Wales" title="Preserved counties of Wales">preserved county</a>") of Gwynedd which comprised Anglesey and Llyn, Arfon, Dunoding, and Meirionydd on the mainland.<a href="#cite_note-237">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[216]</a> The modern <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Wales" title="Local government in Wales">principal area</a> of Gwynedd established by the <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_(Wales)_Act_1994" title="Local Government (Wales) Act 1994">Local Government (Wales) Act 1994</a> no longer includes Anglesey.<a href="#cite_note-239">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Gwynedd" title="List of rulers of Gwynedd">List of rulers of Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_in_Wales" title="List of rulers in Wales">List of rulers in Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Aberffraw" title="House of Aberffraw">House of Aberffraw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Wales" title="King of Wales">King of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Welsh_monarchs" title="Family tree of Welsh monarchs">Family tree of Welsh monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Britons" title="King of the Britons">King of the Britons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legendary_kings_of_Britain" title="List of legendary kings of Britain">List of legendary kings of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-wade-1">^ <a 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Retrieved 1 February 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBradley2013" class="citation web cs1">Bradley, A.G. 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Retrieved 19 February 2021. <q><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=penelope.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=The+Geography+of+Claudius+Penelope&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FGazetteer%2FPeriods%2FRoman%2F_Texts%2FPtolemy%2F2%2F1%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhys1891" class="citation journal cs1">Rhys, John (1891). "The Early Irish Conquests of Wales and Dumnonia". 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Retrieved 15 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Stone+Age+artifacts+discovered+at+Anglesey+water+treatment+works+site&rft.date=2017-06-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailypost.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fnorth-wales-news%2Fancient-stone-age-artefacts-discovered-13169018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cadw.gov.wales/more-about-bryn-celli-ddu">"Bryn Celli Ddu"</a>. cadw.gov.wales. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211211224102/https://cadw.gov.wales/more-about-bryn-celli-ddu">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2021. 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BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211204023636/http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/wales/archive/bbc-north-west-wales-celts.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 December 2021. 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Retrieved 12 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=tudorhistory.org&rft.atitle=DIRECT+DESCENT+OF+QUEEN+ELIZABETH+II+FROM+HENRY+VII+AND+ELIZABETH+OF+YORK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftudorhistory.org%2Ftrees%2Fer2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bbc_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bbc_49-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/periods/tudors_02.shtml">"A royal dynasty"</a>. BBC. 5 August 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181009123640/http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/periods/tudors_02.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+royal+dynasty&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2008-08-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fwales%2Fhistory%2Fsites%2Fthemes%2Fperiods%2Ftudors_02.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-CATR-BER-1534">"KATHERYN of BERAIN (' Catrin o'r Berain ', 1534/5 – 1591), ' Mam Cymru ' ('The mother of Wales')"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=KATHERYN+of+BERAIN+%28%27+Catrin+o%27r+Berain+%27%2C+1534%2F5+%E2%80%93+1591%29%2C+%27+Mam+Cymru+%27+%28%27The+mother+of+Wales%27%29&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-CATR-BER-1534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ednyfed-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ednyfed_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ednyfed_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ednyfed_51-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ednyfed_51-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-EDNY-FYC-1246">"EDNYFED FYCHAN, (EDNYFED ap CYNWRIG) and his descendants, noble family of Gwynedd."</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=EDNYFED+FYCHAN%2C+%28EDNYFED+ap+CYNWRIG%29+and+his+descendants%2C+noble+family+of+Gwynedd.&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-EDNY-FYC-1246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230307151745/http://royalstuartsociety.com/succession.html">"Direct succession"</a>. royalstuartsociety.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royalstuartsociety.com/succession.html">the original</a> on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=royalstuartsociety.com&rft.atitle=Direct+succession&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.royalstuartsociety.com%2Fsuccession.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jacobitestudiestrust.org/index.html">"Jacobite Studies Trust"</a>. jacobitestudiestrust.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220211220849/http://jacobitestudiestrust.org/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jacobitestudiestrust.org&rft.atitle=Jacobite+Studies+Trust&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjacobitestudiestrust.org%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_A._Snyder2003" class="citation book cs1">Christopher A. Snyder (2003). The Britons. 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Retrieved 11 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=geni.com&rft.atitle=Cunedda+Wledig+%22Imperator%22+ab+Edern%2C+Brenin+Lothian+a+Gwenydd&rft.date=385&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.geni.com%2Fpeople%2FCunedda-Wledig-King-of-Gwynedd%2F6000000001994779327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-E-Lloyd-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-E-Lloyd_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-E-Lloyd_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-E-Lloyd_57-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-E-Lloyd_57-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLloyd11959">Lloyd1 1959</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles1841200-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles1841200_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiles1841">Giles 1841</a>, p. 200. </li> <li id="cite_note-Roman_tradition-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_tradition_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_tradition_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_tradition_61-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_tradition_61-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_tradition_61-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard-Perkins2000" class="citation journal cs1">Ward-Perkins, Bryan (1 June 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article/115/462/513/397935">"Why Did the Anglo-Saxons Not Become More British"</a>. The English Historical Review. 115 (462): 513–533. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2F115.462.513">10.1093/ehr/115.462.513</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211211021801/https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article/115/462/513/397935">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021. <q>Issue 462</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Why+Did+the+Anglo-Saxons+Not+Become+More+British&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=462&rft.pages=513-533&rft.date=2000-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2F115.462.513&rft.aulast=Ward-Perkins&rft.aufirst=Bryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fehr%2Farticle%2F115%2F462%2F513%2F397935&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellWormaldJohn1991" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, James; Wormald, Patrick; John, Eric (6 August 1991). The Anglo-Saxons. 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Retrieved 11 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=earlybritishmingdoms.com&rft.atitle=Maelgwn+Gwynedd%2C+King+of+Gwynedd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlybritishkingdoms.com%2Fbios%2Fmaelgggd.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geni.com/people/Maelgwyn-ap-Cadwallon-Brenin-Gwynedd/6000000002577032099">"Maelgwyn ap Cadwallon, Brenin Gwynedd"</a>. geni.com. 480. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211211144447/https://www.geni.com/people/Maelgwyn-ap-Cadwallon-Brenin-Gwynedd/6000000002577032099">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=geni.com&rft.atitle=Maelgwyn+ap+Cadwallon%2C+Brenin+Gwynedd&rft.date=480&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.geni.com%2Fpeople%2FMaelgwyn-ap-Cadwallon-Brenin-Gwynedd%2F6000000002577032099&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-H-Davies-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-H-Davies_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-H-Davies_67-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavies11959">Davies1 1959</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1893a306-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1893a306_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLloyd1893a">Lloyd 1893a</a>, p. 306. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2007" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, David (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QnDtohOe8-QC&dq=Maelgwn+Hir+%22Maelgwn+the+Tall+legends+miracles&pg=PA206">The British Chronicles</a>. 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Retrieved 11 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aberffraw.wales&rft.atitle=About+ABERFFRAW+and+its+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aberffraw.wales%2Fhistoryabout.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Aberffraw_dynasty-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Aberffraw_dynasty_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Aberffraw_dynasty_102-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Aberffraw_dynasty_102-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, pp. 116, 117, 128, 135 </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Aberffraw_family-103"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Aberffraw_family_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLloyd2004">Lloyd 2004</a>, pp. 220 </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur_Jones1910" class="citation book cs1">Arthur Jones (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924028052482/page/n11/mode/2up">The history of Gruffydd ap Cynan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Gruffydd+ap+Cynan&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1910&rft.au=Arthur+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924028052482%2Fpage%2Fn11%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/gruffydd.html">"History of Gruffydd Ap Cynan"</a>. mary.jones.us. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170604194310/http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/gruffydd.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mary.jones.us&rft.atitle=History+of+Gruffydd+Ap+Cynan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maryjones.us%2Fctexts%2Fgruffydd.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hywel-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hywel_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hywel_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hywel_107-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hywel_107-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams1959">Williams 1959</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hywel1-108"><a href="#cite_ref-Hywel1_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLee21891">Lee2 1891</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Idwal-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Idwal_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPierce31959">Pierce3 1959</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Idwal1-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Idwal1_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLee31891">Lee3 1891</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hywel_ab-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Hywel_ab_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoderick">Roderick</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson1959-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHudson1959_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHudson1959">Hudson 1959</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETout1890a305–307-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETout1890a305–307_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTout1890a">Tout 1890a</a>, pp. 305–307. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bledd-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bledd_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bledd_115-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lloyd, J. 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(October 2009) [1970]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/law-of-treason-in-england-in-the-later-middle-ages/B1C92358A94556D254F6EC33DD6B1B6C">The Law of Treason in England in the Later Middle Ages</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511522369">10.1017/CBO9780511522369</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511522369" title="Special:BookSources/9780511522369"><bdi>9780511522369</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211213211504/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/law-of-treason-in-england-in-the-later-middle-ages/B1C92358A94556D254F6EC33DD6B1B6C">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2021. 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Retrieved 14 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+March&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2008-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fwales%2Fhistory%2Fsites%2Fthemes%2Fperiods%2Fmedieval_normans05.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKathryn_Hurlock2012" class="citation book cs1">Kathryn Hurlock (12 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/thirteenth-century-england-xi/power-preaching-and-the-crusades-in-pura-wallia-c1180c1280/82A2D5BBED878CDB6830CD7A8BE14E98">Power, Preaching and the Crusades in Pura Wallia c.1180–c.1280</a>. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 94–108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781846155994" title="Special:BookSources/9781846155994"><bdi>9781846155994</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211214233658/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/thirteenth-century-england-xi/power-preaching-and-the-crusades-in-pura-wallia-c1180c1280/82A2D5BBED878CDB6830CD7A8BE14E98">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2021. 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Retrieved 14 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=princeofwales.gov.uk&rft.atitle=Titles+and+Heraldry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeofwales.gov.uk%2Ftitles-and-heraldry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Glamor. Recovery, reorientation and reformation. pp. 217–226. <q>Wales, C. 1415–1642</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recovery%2C+reorientation+and+reformation&rft.pages=217-226&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Glamor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994233-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994233_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Statutes_of_Wales_(1908)/The_Statutes_of_Wales">"The Statutes of Wales" </a>. <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Statutes_of_Wales_(1908)">The Statutes of Wales (1908) </a>. 1908. p. 191 – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Statutes+of+Wales&rft.btitle=&rft.pages=191&rft.date=1908&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Klehr2021" class="citation web cs1">Alan Klehr (7 October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://britishheritage.com/history/owain-glyndwrs-fight-wales">"Owain Glyndwr's legendary fight for Wales"</a>. britishheritage.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211214183703/https://britishheritage.com/history/owain-glyndwrs-fight-wales">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=britishheritage.com&rft.atitle=Owain+Glyndwr%27s+legendary+fight+for+Wales&rft.date=2021-10-07&rft.au=Alan+Klehr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbritishheritage.com%2Fhistory%2Fowain-glyndwrs-fight-wales&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlcock1968" class="citation journal cs1">Alcock, Leslie (1968). "Excavations at Degannwy Castle, Caernarfonshire, 1961–6". 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Retrieved 14 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=red-dragon-wales.com&rft.atitle=Aberffraw&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.red-dragon-wales.com%2FPlacesofIntrest%2FAberffraw.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.snowdonia.gov.wales/addysg-education/history-of-snowdonia/the-princes-of-snowdonia/llywelyn-ap-gruffudd-llywelyn-ein-llyw-olaf-the-last,-d.1282?name=">"Llywelyn ap Gruffudd [Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf ('The Last')], (d.1282)"</a>. snowdonia.gov.wales. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211214194926/https://www.snowdonia.gov.wales/addysg-education/history-of-snowdonia/the-princes-of-snowdonia/llywelyn-ap-gruffudd-llywelyn-ein-llyw-olaf-the-last,-d.1282?name=">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=snowdonia.gov.wales&rft.atitle=Llywelyn+ap+Gruffudd+%5BLlywelyn+Ein+Llyw+Olaf+%28%27The+Last%27%29%5D%2C+%28d.1282%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.snowdonia.gov.wales%2Faddysg-education%2Fhistory-of-snowdonia%2Fthe-princes-of-snowdonia%2Fllywelyn-ap-gruffudd-llywelyn-ein-llyw-olaf-the-last%2C-d.1282%3Fname%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.snowdonia.gov.wales/addysg-education/history-of-snowdonia/the-princes-of-snowdonia">"The Princes of Snowdonia"</a>. snowdonia.gov.wales. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211214195829/https://www.snowdonia.gov.wales/addysg-education/history-of-snowdonia/the-princes-of-snowdonia">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2021. 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Retrieved 14 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ldbc.gov.wales&rft.atitle=Review+of+Preserved+County+boundaries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fldbc.gov.wales%2Fsites%2Fldbc%2Ffiles%2Freview%2F021115walesfinalen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1972/70/contents">"Local Government Act 1972"</a>. legislation.gov.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190527033314/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1972/70/contents">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=legislation.gov.uk&rft.atitle=Local+Government+Act+1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2F1972%2F70%2Fcontents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1994/19/contents">"Local Government (Wales) Act 1994"</a>. legislation.gov.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211201041836/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1994/19/contents">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=legislation.gov.uk&rft.atitle=Local+Government+%28Wales%29+Act+1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2F1994%2F19%2Fcontents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a> (until 12th century) <a href="/wiki/Middle_Welsh" title="Middle Welsh">Middle Welsh</a> (12th–14th century) </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="/wiki/British_Latin" title="British Latin">British Latin</a> in use until 8th century. <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> used thereafter for legal and liturgical purposes. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Gwynedd_during_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages">History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Nennius translated by <a href="/wiki/John_Allen_Giles" title="John Allen Giles">John Allen Giles</a> who wrote that Cunedda arrived in Gwynedd 146 years before the reign of his great-grandson Maelgwn backdated in the usual Welsh Calendrical calculations from his death date in 547, which makes 401 the year of his arrival.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles1841200-58">[55]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Assessment from Davies novel 1994. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> It took until 1282, when Edward I conquered Gwynedd, for the last part of Roman Britain to fall. Indeed a strong case can be made for Gwynedd as the very last part of the entire Roman Empire, east and west, to fall to the barbarians. (If we take into account the temporary capture of Constantinople by 'Franks' in 1204, and of various Persian, Slav, Avar, and Seljuk invasions of Byzantine territory.)" Ward-Perkins was elaborating on an observation by J. Campbell,<a href="#cite_note-62">[57]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan" title="Cadwallon ap Cadfan">Cadwallon ap Cadfan</a> (CÆDWALLA) was considered one of the <a href="/wiki/Legendary_kings_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Legendary kings of Britain">legendary kings of Britain</a>, like his father and his son being the final ruler from a line dating back to 1100 BC beginning with <a href="/wiki/Brutus_of_Troy" title="Brutus of Troy">Brutus of Troy</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth" title="Geoffrey of Monmouth">Geoffrey of Monmouth</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Historia_Regum_Britanniae" title="Historia Regum Britanniae">Historia Regum Britanniae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Old_English-86">[80]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Recovers Gwynedd, Norman invasion, Battle of Anglesey Sound, pgs 21–22, 36, 39, 40, later years 76–77 </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Of the three surviving groups of manuscripts of the <a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Cyfraith Hywel</a> (all dating from the 12th century or later), one group recognises Gwynedd exclusively, another Deheubarth exclusively, and the last both together. See Wade-Evans, A.W. Welsh Medieval Law. "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Laws_of_Hywel_Dda/Introduction" class="extiw" title="s:The Laws of Hywel Dda/Introduction">Introduction</a>". Oxford Univ., 1909. Retrieved 30 January 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> It was hoped that placing a prelate loyal to the Normans over the traditionally independent Welsh church in Gwynedd would help to pacify the local inhabitants, and Hervé <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow2000-125">[116]</a>recognised the primacy of the Archbishop of Canterbury over the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_see" title="Episcopal see">episcopal see</a> of Bangor, a recognition hitherto rejected by the Welsh church. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Mentioned in the Magnus Barefoot saga.<a href="#cite_note-129">[119]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Speculation about Owain might have shown him of restrained and prudent temperament, may have judged that aiding in Stephen's capture would lead to the restoration of Matilda and a strong royal government in England, a government which would support Marcher lords—support hitherto lacking since Stephen's usurpation. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Lloyd 2004 book, Owain and Henry II page, 99. 1070. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Owain 1160–1170, Lloyd 2004 Book </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Quoting what Lloyd wrote, 2004. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> emerging de facto <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">statehood</a> pg 148 </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> It is, therefore, possible that Owain hoped to maintain this Irish connection by ensuring the succession of one of his sons born of this Irish woman, Pyfog. Furthermore, it seems illogical – given the fact Owain was so set on their succession and the respect he no doubt commanded in Ireland – that the mother of Rhun and Hywel was a mere commoner and that both those children were born out of wedlock. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> What the annals record, is that in 1146 the eldest son and designated heir, Rhun – a man who was acclaimed as a great warrior and the "flower of Celtic chivalry", according to J.E. Lloyd,- "died" mysteriously, and that Hywel, his natural brother, was proclaimed the new edling, or heir. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> and the internal strife appears to have been conflict between two rival factions: a pro-Irish 'legitimists' faction seeking to ensure the succession of Hywel and protect the legacy of Owain Gwynedd and his father, and a second distinctly anti-Irish coalition headed by Owain's widow. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> However little information is available on these occurrences, and the divisions are vaguely unclear </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> The myth of transatlantic travel, pre Columbus era has been questioned yet rebuffed for centuries.<a href="#cite_note-172">[152]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Dafydd appears to have been recognised as pre-eminent amongst them and was regarded in some way as the overall leader. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_sources">General sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: General sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbier1908" class="citation book cs1">Barbier, Paul (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofowaingwyned00barbuoft">The age of Owain Gwynedd</a>. <a href="/wiki/Newport,_Wales" title="Newport, Wales">Newport</a>: London D. Nutt.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+age+of+Owain+Gwynedd&rft.place=Newport&rft.pub=London+D.+Nutt&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Barbier&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fageofowaingwyned00barbuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarlow2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Barlow_(historian)" title="Frank Barlow (historian)">Barlow, Frank</a> (2000). William Rufus. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-08291-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-08291-6"><bdi>0-300-08291-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Rufus&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-300-08291-6&rft.aulast=Barlow&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartlett2000" class="citation book cs1">Bartlett, Robert (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englandundernorm00bart_0">England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings: 1075–1225</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press#Clarendon_Press" title="Oxford University Press"> Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-822741-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-822741-8"><bdi>0-19-822741-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England+Under+the+Norman+and+Angevin+Kings%3A+1075%E2%80%931225&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-822741-8&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenglandundernorm00bart_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1994" class="citation book cs1">Davies, John (1994). A History of Wales. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Group" title="Penguin Group">Penguin Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140284753" title="Special:BookSources/0140284753"><bdi>0140284753</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Wales&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0140284753&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, J. E.</a> (2004) [1911]. A History of Wales; From the Norman Invasion to the Edwardian Conquest. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>: Barnes & Noble Publishing, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7607-5241-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7607-5241-9"><bdi>0-7607-5241-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Wales%3B+From+the+Norman+Invasion+to+the+Edwardian+Conquest&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble+Publishing%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7607-5241-9&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlwyd1832" class="citation book cs1">Llwyd, Angharad (1832). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vHA_AQAAMAAJ">A history of the island of Anglesey</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+island+of+Anglesey&rft.date=1832&rft.aulast=Llwyd&rft.aufirst=Angharad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvHA_AQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowe1912" class="citation book cs1">Lowe, Walter Bezant (1912). The Heart of Northern Wales. Vol. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Heart+of+Northern+Wales&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=Walter+Bezant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=93I_AQAAMAAJ">The Heart of Northern Wales</a> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch1995" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, Frances M. B. (1995). Gwynedd (A Guide to Ancient and Historic Wales). <a href="/wiki/The_Stationery_Office" title="The Stationery Office">The Stationery Office</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-11-701574-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-11-701574-6"><bdi>978-0-11-701574-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gwynedd+%28A+Guide+to+Ancient+and+Historic+Wales%29&rft.pub=The+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-11-701574-6&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=Frances+M.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaund2006" class="citation book cs1">Maund, Kari L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/4502235">The Welsh Kings: Warriors, Warlords, and Princes</a> (3 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Tempus_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Tempus Publishing">Tempus Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2973-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2973-1"><bdi>978-0-7524-2973-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+Kings%3A+Warriors%2C+Warlords%2C+and+Princes&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Tempus+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-2973-1&rft.aulast=Maund&rft.aufirst=Kari+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearchworks.stanford.edu%2Fview%2F4502235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2005" class="citation book cs1">Moore, David (2005). The Welsh Wars of Independence. Tempus Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-3321-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-3321-9"><bdi>978-0-7524-3321-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+Wars+of+Independence&rft.pub=Tempus+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-3321-9&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell1955" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Parry_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Parry (author)">Parry, Thomas</a>; <a href="/wiki/Idris_Bell" title="Idris Bell">Bell, H. Idris</a> (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwelshli0000parr">"A History of Welsh Literature"</a>. archive.org. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.org&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Welsh+Literature&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Bell%2C+H.+Idris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofwelshli0000parr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurvey2010" class="citation book cs1">Turvey, Roger, ed. (2010). Twenty-One Welsh Princes. <a href="/wiki/Gwasg_Carreg_Gwalch" title="Gwasg Carreg Gwalch">Gwasg Carreg Gwalch</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781845272692" title="Special:BookSources/9781845272692"><bdi>9781845272692</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Twenty-One+Welsh+Princes&rft.pub=Gwasg+Carreg+Gwalch&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781845272692&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1990" class="citation book cs1">Walker, David (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lrKKiREQ_kYC">Medieval Wales</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521311533" title="Special:BookSources/9780521311533"><bdi>9780521311533</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Wales&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780521311533&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlrKKiREQ_kYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarner1997" class="citation book cs1">Warner, Philip (1997). Famous Welsh Battles. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Barnes_%26_Noble" title="Barnes & Noble">Barnes & Noble</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7607-0466-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7607-0466-X"><bdi>0-7607-0466-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Famous+Welsh+Battles&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-7607-0466-X&rft.aulast=Warner&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1908" class="citation book cs1">Williams, W. Llewelyn (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/itinerarythrough00giraiala">Giraldus Cambrensis, The Itinerary Through Wales and the Description of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giraldus+Cambrensis%2C+The+Itinerary+Through+Wales+and+the+Description+of+Wales&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=W.+Llewelyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fitinerarythrough00giraiala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Secondary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBown1908" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ivor_Bowen" title="Ivor Bowen">Bown, Ivor</a> (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/statuteswales01bowegoog">Statutes of Wales</a>. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/T._Fisher_Unwin" title="T. Fisher Unwin">T. Fisher Unwin</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Statutes+of+Wales&rft.place=London&rft.pub=T.+Fisher+Unwin&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Bown&rft.aufirst=Ivor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstatuteswales01bowegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">Davies, John</a> (2002). The Celts. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Cassell_(publisher)" title="Cassell (publisher)">Cassell Illustrated</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84188-188-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84188-188-0"><bdi>1-84188-188-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Cassell+Illustrated&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-84188-188-0&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rees_Davies" title="Rees Davies">Davies, Rees R.</a> (1987). Conquest, Coexistence, and Change: Wales 1063–1415. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-821732-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-821732-9"><bdi>978-0-19-821732-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquest%2C+Coexistence%2C+and+Change%3A+Wales+1063%E2%80%931415&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-19-821732-9&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Rees+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gwynfor_Evans" title="Gwynfor Evans">Evans, Gwynfor</a> (2004). Cymru O Hud [Welsh are still here]. <a href="/wiki/Abergwyngregyn" title="Abergwyngregyn">Abergwyngregyn</a>: <a href="/wiki/Y_Lolfa" title="Y Lolfa">Y Lolfa</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86243-545-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-86243-545-5"><bdi>0-86243-545-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cymru+O+Hud&rft.place=Abergwyngregyn&rft.pub=Y+Lolfa&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-86243-545-5&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Gwynfor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1990" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Simon (1990). A Mediaeval Prince of Wales: the Life of Gruffudd Ap Cynan. Llanerch Enterprises. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-947992-58-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-947992-58-8"><bdi>0-947992-58-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Mediaeval+Prince+of+Wales%3A+the+Life+of+Gruffudd+Ap+Cynan&rft.pub=Llanerch+Enterprises&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-947992-58-8&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles1841" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Allen_Giles" title="John Allen Giles">Giles, John Allen</a> (1841). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b29339364">The works of Gildas and Nennius</a>. London: James Bohn.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+works+of+Gildas+and+Nennius&rft.place=London&rft.pub=James+Bohn&rft.date=1841&rft.aulast=Giles&rft.aufirst=John+Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb29339364&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hudson" title="Benjamin Hudson">Hudson, Benjamin T.</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fH0mL0m95fsC">Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion, and Empire in the North Atlantic</a> (Illustrated ed.). <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195162374" title="Special:BookSources/0195162374"><bdi>0195162374</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viking+Pirates+and+Christian+Princes%3A+Dynasty%2C+Religion%2C+and+Empire+in+the+North+Atlantic&rft.place=United+States&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0195162374&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfH0mL0m95fsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesWilliamsPughe1801" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Owen; Williams, Edward; Pughe, William Owen (1801). <a href="/wiki/John_Gwenogvryn_Evans" title="John Gwenogvryn Evans">Evans, John</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/statuteswales01bowegoog">The Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales: collected out of ancient manuscripts</a>. <a href="/wiki/Denbigh" title="Denbigh">Denbigh</a>: Thomas Gee. <q><a href="/wiki/The_Myvyrian_Archaiology" class="mw-redirect" title="The Myvyrian Archaiology">The Myvyrian Archaiology</a></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myvyrian+Archaiology+of+Wales%3A+collected+out+of+ancient+manuscripts&rft.place=Denbigh&rft.pub=Thomas+Gee&rft.date=1801&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Owen&rft.au=Williams%2C+Edward&rft.au=Pughe%2C+William+Owen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstatuteswales01bowegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2005" class="citation book cs1">Koch, John (2005). Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia. <a href="/wiki/Santa_Barbara,_California" title="Santa Barbara, California">Santa Barbara</a>: <a href="/wiki/ABC-Clio" title="ABC-Clio">ABC-Clio</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+a+historical+encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlwyd2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Llwyd" title="Humphrey Llwyd">Llwyd, Humphrey</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I2FnAAAAMAAJ">Cronica Walliae</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wales_Press" title="University of Wales Press">University of Wales Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1638-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1638-2"><bdi>978-0-7083-1638-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cronica+Walliae&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7083-1638-2&rft.aulast=Llwyd&rft.aufirst=Humphrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI2FnAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaund1996" class="citation book cs1">Maund, K. L. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/3443258">Gruffudd ap Cynan: a collaborative biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/Boydell_%26_Brewer" title="Boydell & Brewer">Boydell & Brewer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-389-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-389-5"><bdi>0-85115-389-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gruffudd+ap+Cynan%3A+a+collaborative+biography&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-85115-389-5&rft.aulast=Maund&rft.aufirst=K.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearchworks.stanford.edu%2Fview%2F3443258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1996" class="citation book cs1">Morris, John E. (1996). The Welsh Wars of Edward I. <a href="/wiki/Conshohocken,_Pennsylvania" title="Conshohocken, Pennsylvania">Conshohocken, Pennsylvania</a>: Combined Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-938289-67-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-938289-67-5"><bdi>0-938289-67-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+Wars+of+Edward+I&rft.place=Conshohocken%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Combined+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-938289-67-5&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPargeter1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edith_Pargeter" title="Edith Pargeter">Pargeter, Edith</a> (1989). The Brothers of Gwynedd. <a href="/wiki/Headline_Publishing_Group" title="Headline Publishing Group">Headline Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780747232674" title="Special:BookSources/9780747232674"><bdi>9780747232674</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brothers+of+Gwynedd&rft.pub=Headline+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780747232674&rft.aulast=Pargeter&rft.aufirst=Edith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenman" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sharon_Kay_Penman" title="Sharon Kay Penman">Penman, Sharon Kay</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sharonkaypenman.com/books-by-sharon-kay-penman/welsh-trilogy-books/">The Welsh Trilogy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ballantine_Books" title="Ballantine Books">Ballantine Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+Trilogy&rft.pub=Ballantine+Books&rft.aulast=Penman&rft.aufirst=Sharon+Kay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsharonkaypenman.com%2Fbooks-by-sharon-kay-penman%2Fwelsh-trilogy-books%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPennant" class="citation book cs1">Pennant, Thomas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.library.wales/discover/digital-gallery/pictures/a-tour-in-wales/">A Tour of Wales</a>. Vol. 1–8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Tour+of+Wales&rft.aulast=Pennant&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.wales%2Fdiscover%2Fdigital-gallery%2Fpictures%2Fa-tour-in-wales%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPryceInsley2005" class="citation book cs1">Pryce, Huw; Insley, Charles (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YnNnAAAAMAAJ">The Acts of Welsh Rulers 1120–1283</a>. University of Wales Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0708318975" title="Special:BookSources/0708318975"><bdi>0708318975</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Acts+of+Welsh+Rulers+1120%E2%80%931283&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0708318975&rft.aulast=Pryce&rft.aufirst=Huw&rft.au=Insley%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYnNnAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Beverley J. (2001). Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales. University of Wales Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1474-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1474-6"><bdi>978-0-7083-1474-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Llywelyn+ap+Gruffudd%2C+Prince+of+Wales&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7083-1474-6&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Beverley+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephenson1984" class="citation book cs1">Stephenson, David (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL22379507M/The_governance_of_Gwynedd">The Governance of Gwynedd</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wales_Press" title="University of Wales Press">University of Wales Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-0850-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-0850-9"><bdi>978-0-7083-0850-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL22379507M">22379507M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Governance+of+Gwynedd&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL22379507M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-7083-0850-9&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL22379507M%2FThe_governance_of_Gwynedd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoger_Turvey2002" class="citation book cs1">Roger Turvey (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9781315840802-3/conflict-coexistence-marchia-wallie-pura-wallia-roger-turveywebsite">"Conflict or Coexistence: Marchia Wallie and Pura Wallia"</a>. The Welsh Princes. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 39–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315840802-3">10.4324/9781315840802-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315840802" title="Special:BookSources/9781315840802"><bdi>9781315840802</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conflict+or+Coexistence%3A+Marchia+Wallie+and+Pura+Wallia&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+Princes&rft.pages=39-64&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315840802-3&rft.isbn=9781315840802&rft.au=Roger+Turvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fchapters%2Fmono%2F10.4324%2F9781315840802-3%2Fconflict-coexistence-marchia-wallie-pura-wallia-roger-turveywebsite&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1860" class="citation book cs1">Williams, John (1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brutytywysogiono00cara/page/n9/mode/2up">Brut y Tywysogion; or, The Chronicle of the Princes</a> (reprint ed.). London: Longman Green. <q><a href="/wiki/Caradoc_of_Llancarfan" title="Caradoc of Llancarfan">Caradoc of Llancarfan</a></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brut+y+Tywysogion%3B+or%2C+The+Chronicle+of+the+Princes&rft.place=London&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Longman+Green&rft.date=1860&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrutytywysogiono00cara%2Fpage%2Fn9%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionary_of_Welsh_biography_sources">Dictionary of Welsh biography sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Dictionary of Welsh biography sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd11959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-CUNE-WLE-0380">"Cunedda Wledig, flourished 450, British prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cunedda+Wledig%2C+flourished+450%2C+British+prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-CUNE-WLE-0380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies11959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Davies, William Hopkin (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-MAEL-GWY-0547">"Maelgwn Gwynedd,(died c. 547) king of Gwynedd and monk"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maelgwn+Gwynedd%2C%28died+c.+547%29+king+of+Gwynedd+and+monk&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=William+Hopkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-MAEL-GWY-0547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies21959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Davies, William Hopkin (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-RHUN-APM-0550">"Rhun Ap Maelgwn Gwynedd, (fl. 550), ruler of north-west Wales"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhun+Ap+Maelgwn+Gwynedd%2C+%28fl.+550%29%2C+ruler+of+north-west+Wales&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=William+Hopkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-RHUN-APM-0550&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd21959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-CADF-API-0569">"Cadfan (fl. 620), prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cadfan+%28fl.+620%29%2C+prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-CADF-API-0569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd31959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-CADW-APC-0591">"Cadwallon (died 633), prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cadwallon+%28died+633%29%2C+prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-CADW-APC-0591&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd41959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-CADW-APC-0615?">"Cadwaladr (died 664), prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cadwaladr+%28died+664%29%2C+prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-CADW-APC-0615%3F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-RHOD-MOL-0690">"Rhodri Molwynog (died 754), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhodri+Molwynog+%28died+754%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-RHOD-MOL-0690&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-CYNA-DIN-0740">"Cynan Dindaethwy (died 816) Prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cynan+Dindaethwy+%28died+816%29+Prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-CYNA-DIN-0740&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-HYWE-RHO-0825">"Hywel ap Rhodri Molwynog (died 825), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hywel+ap+Rhodri+Molwynog+%28died+825%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-HYWE-RHO-0825&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce11959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-MERF-FRY-0844">"Merfyn Frych (died 844), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Merfyn+Frych+%28died+844%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-MERF-FRY-0844&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce21959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-RHOD-MAW-0877">"Rhodri Mawr ('the Great') (died 877), king of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhodri+Mawr+%28%27the+Great%27%29+%28died+877%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd%2C+Powys%2C+and+Deheubarth&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-RHOD-MAW-0877&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lloyd, John Edward (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-ANAR-APR-0857">"Anarawd ap Rhodri (died 916), prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anarawd+ap+Rhodri+%28died+916%29%2C+prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-ANAR-APR-0857&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce31959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-IDWA-FOE-0942">"Idwal Foel ('the Bald '; died 942), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Idwal+Foel+%28%27the+Bald+%27%3B+died+942%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-IDWA-FOE-0942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-IAGO-API-0942">"Iago Ab Idwal Foel (fl. 942–979), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iago+Ab+Idwal+Foel+%28fl.+942%E2%80%93979%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-IAGO-API-0942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Williams, Stephan Joseph (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-HYWE-DDA-0950">"Hywel Dda (Hywel the Good) (died 950), king and legislator"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hywel+Dda+%28Hywel+the+Good%29+%28died+950%29%2C+king+and+legislator&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Stephan+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-HYWE-DDA-0950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-HYWE-API-0985">"Hywel ap Ieuaf (died 985), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hywel+ap+Ieuaf+%28died+985%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-HYWE-API-0985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-IEUA-API-098">"Ieuaf (or Idwal) ab Idwal Foel (died 985), joint king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ieuaf+%28or+Idwal%29+ab+Idwal+Foel+%28died+985%29%2C+joint+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-IEUA-API-098&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-MEUR-ABI-0986">"Meurif Ab Idwal Foel (died 986), nobleman of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Meurif+Ab+Idwal+Foel+%28died+986%29%2C+nobleman+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-MEUR-ABI-0986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce41959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-IDWA-APM-0996">"Idwal Ap Meurig (died 996), prince of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Idwal+Ap+Meurig+%28died+996%29%2C+prince+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-IDWA-APM-0996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-MARE-ABO-0999">"Maerdudd ab Owain ap Hywel Dda (died 999)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maerdudd+ab+Owain+ap+Hywel+Dda+%28died+999%29&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-MARE-ABO-0999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-LLYW-APS-1023">"Llywelyn Ap Seisyll (died 1023), king of Deheubarth and Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Llywelyn+Ap+Seisyll+%28died+1023%29%2C+king+of+Deheubarth+and+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-LLYW-APS-1023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-IAGO-ABI-1039">"Iago ab Idwal Foel (died 1039), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iago+ab+Idwal+Foel+%28died+1039%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-IAGO-ABI-1039&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParry1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Parry, Thomas (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-GRUF-APC-1055">"Gruffudd ap Cynan (c. 1055 – 1137), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gruffudd+ap+Cynan+%28c.+1055+%E2%80%93+1137%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-GRUF-APC-1055&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hudson, Benjamin (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s12-GRUF-APL-1063">"Gruffudd ap Llywelyn (died 1064), king of Gwynedd 1039–1064 and overlord of all the Welsh 1055–1064"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gruffudd+ap+Llywelyn+%28died+1064%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd+1039%E2%80%931064+and+overlord+of+all+the+Welsh+1055%E2%80%931064&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs12-GRUF-APL-1063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-BLED-APC-1025">"Bleddyn ap Cynfyn (died 1075) Prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bleddyn+ap+Cynfyn+%28died+1075%29+Prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-BLED-APC-1025&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce71959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-TRAH-APC-1081">"Trahaern Ap Caradog (died 1081), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Trahaern+Ap+Caradog+%28died+1081%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-TRAH-APC-1081&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce10" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-IORW-DRW-1174">"Iorwerth Drwyndwn (The Flat-nosed) (died probably c. 1174), prince of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iorwerth+Drwyndwn+%28The+Flat-nosed%29+%28died+probably+c.+1174%29%2C+prince+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-IORW-DRW-1174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce51959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-OWAI-GWY-1100">"Owain Gwynedd (c. 1100 – 1170), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Owain+Gwynedd+%28c.+1100+%E2%80%93+1170%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-OWAI-GWY-1100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoderick" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Roderick, Arthur James (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-HYWE-ABO-1170">"Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd (died 1170), soldier and poet"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hywel+ab+Owain+Gwynedd+%28died+1170%29%2C+soldier+and+poet&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Roderick&rft.aufirst=Arthur+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-HYWE-ABO-1170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-CADW-APG-1096">"Cadwaladr(died 1172), prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cadwaladr%28died+1172%29%2C+prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-CADW-APG-1096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce6" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-MAEL-ABO-1173">"Maelgwn ab Owain Gwynedd (died after 1173), prince of Anglesey"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maelgwn+ab+Owain+Gwynedd+%28died+after+1173%29%2C+prince+of+Anglesey&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-MAEL-ABO-1173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd6" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lloyd, John Edward (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-CYNA-ABO-1174">"Cynan ab Owain (died 1174), prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cynan+ab+Owain+%28died+1174%29%2C+prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-CYNA-ABO-1174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce8" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-RHOD-ABO-1195">"Rhodri ab Owain (died 1195), a prince of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhodri+ab+Owain+%28died+1195%29%2C+a+prince+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-RHOD-ABO-1195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd5" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-DAFY-ABO-1203">"Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd (David I, died 1203), king of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dafydd+ab+Owain+Gwynedd+%28David+I%2C+died+1203%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-DAFY-ABO-1203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce9" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-LLYW-API-1173">"Llywelyn ap Iorwerth ('Llywelyn the Great', often styled 'Llywelyn I', prince of Gwynedd)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Llywelyn+ap+Iorwerth+%28%27Llywelyn+the+Great%27%2C+often+styled+%27Llywelyn+I%27%2C+prince+of+Gwynedd%29&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-LLYW-API-1173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce111959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s12-GRUF-APL-1063">"Gruffudd ap Llywelyn (died 1064), king of Gwynedd 1039–1064 and overlord of all the Welsh 1055–1064"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gruffudd+ap+Llywelyn+%28died+1064%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd+1039%E2%80%931064+and+overlord+of+all+the+Welsh+1055%E2%80%931064&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs12-GRUF-APL-1063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-GRUF-APL-1244">"Gruffydd ap Llywelyn (died 1244), prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gruffydd+ap+Llywelyn+%28died+1244%29%2C+prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-GRUF-APL-1244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Jones_Pierce1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Thomas Jones Pierce (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-MARE-APC-1212">"Maredudd ap Cynan ab Owain Gwynedd (died 1212), lord of Eifionydd, part of Ardudwy, and Merioneth and co-founder of the Cistercian house of Cymmer"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maredudd+ap+Cynan+ab+Owain+Gwynedd+%28died+1212%29%2C+lord+of+Eifionydd%2C+part+of+Ardudwy%2C+and+Merioneth+and+co-founder+of+the+Cistercian+house+of+Cymmer&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.au=Thomas+Jones+Pierce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-MARE-APC-1212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-LLYW-FAW-1200">"Llywelyn Fawr and Llywelyn Fychan (fl. early 13th century). lords of Merioneth"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Llywelyn+Fawr+and+Llywelyn+Fychan+%28fl.+early+13th+century%29.+lords+of+Merioneth&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-LLYW-FAW-1200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd71959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-DAFY-APL-1246">"Dafydd ap Llywelyn (David II, died 1246), Prince"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dafydd+ap+Llywelyn+%28David+II%2C+died+1246%29%2C+Prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-DAFY-APL-1246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce131959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-OWAI-APG-1260">"Owain ap Gruffydd, or Owain Goch, (fl. 1260), a prince of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Owain+ap+Gruffydd%2C+or+Owain+Goch%2C+%28fl.+1260%29%2C+a+prince+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-OWAI-APG-1260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce121959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-LLYW-APG-1200">"Llywelyn ap Gruffydd ('Llywelyn the Last,' or Llywelyn II), Prince of Wales (died 1282)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Llywelyn+ap+Gruffydd+%28%27Llywelyn+the+Last%2C%27+or+Llywelyn+II%29%2C+Prince+of+Wales+%28died+1282%29&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-LLYW-APG-1200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce141959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-DAFY-APG-1283">"Dafydd ap Gruffydd (David III, died 1283), prince of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dafydd+ap+Gruffydd+%28David+III%2C+died+1283%29%2C+prince+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-DAFY-APG-1283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-RHOD-APG-1315">"Rhodri ap Gruffydd (died c. 1315), prince of Gwynedd"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhodri+ap+Gruffydd+%28died+c.+1315%29%2C+prince+of+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-RHOD-APG-1315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce151959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-MADO-APL-1294">"Madog ap Llywelyn, rebel of 1294"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Madog+ap+Llywelyn%2C+rebel+of+1294&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-MADO-APL-1294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce161959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-OWAI-APT-1378">"Owain ap Thomas ap Rhodri (' Owain Lawgoch '; died 1378), a soldier of fortune and pretender to the principality of Wales"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Owain+ap+Thomas+ap+Rhodri+%28%27+Owain+Lawgoch+%27%3B+died+1378%29%2C+a+soldier+of+fortune+and+pretender+to+the+principality+of+Wales&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-OWAI-APT-1378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce171959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-OWAI-GLY-1354">"Owain Glyndŵr (c. 1354 – 1416), 'Prince of Wales'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Owain+Glynd%C5%B5r+%28c.+1354+%E2%80%93+1416%29%2C+%27Prince+of+Wales%27&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-OWAI-GLY-1354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wiki_source_–_Dictionary_of_National_Biography_and_Encyclopædia">Wiki source – Dictionary of National Biography and Encyclopædia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Wiki source – Dictionary of National Biography and Encyclopædia">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output 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Short History of Wales</a></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingsford1894" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kingsford, Charles Lethbridge (1894). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Nennius">"Nennius" </a>. 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London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 412.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Idwal+ab+Meirig&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=412&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Lleufer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee41891" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Thomas, Daniel Lleufer (1891). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Iago_ab_Idwal_ab_Meirig">"Iago ab Idwal ab Meirig" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 408.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iago+ab+Idwal+ab+Meirig&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=408&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Lleufer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1893a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lloyd, John Edward (1893). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Maelgwn_Gwynedd">"Maelgwn Gwynedd" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 35. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 305–306.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maelgwn+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=305-306&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1893" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lloyd, John Edward (1893). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Maredudd_ab_Owain">"Maredudd ab Owain" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 36. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maredudd+ab+Owain&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTout1893" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tout, Thomas Frederick (1893). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Llywelyn_ab_Gruffydd">"Llywelyn ab Gruffydd" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 34. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 13–21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Llywelyn+ab+Gruffydd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=13-21&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Tout&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee01894" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lloyd, John Edward (1894). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Merfyn_Frych">"Merfyn Frych" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 37. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 277.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Merfyn+Frych&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=277&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1885" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Miller, Arthur (1885). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Anarawd">"Anarawd" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Stephen" title="Leslie Stephen">Stephen, Leslie</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 1. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 370.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anarawd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=370&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1885&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeslie01886" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Stephens, William Richard Wood (1886). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/C%C3%A6dwalla_(d.634)">"Cædwalla (d.634)" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Stephen" title="Leslie Stephen">Stephen, Leslie</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 8. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 201.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=C%C3%A6dwalla+%28d.634%29&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=201&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=William+Richard+Wood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTout1901" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tout, Thomas Frederick (1886). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Cadvan_(d.617%3F_or_634%3F)">"Cadvan (d.617? or 634?)" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Stephen" title="Leslie Stephen">Stephen, Leslie</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 8. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 190.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cadvan+%28d.617%3F+or+634%3F%29&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Tout&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTout1886" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tout, Thomas Frederick (1886). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Cadwaladr_(d.1172)">"Cadwaladr (d.1172)" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Stephen" title="Leslie Stephen">Stephen, Leslie</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 8. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 190–191.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cadwaladr+%28d.1172%29&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=190-191&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Tout&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeslie1" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tout, Thomas Frederick (1888). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Davydd_I">"Davydd I" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Stephen" title="Leslie Stephen">Stephen, Leslie</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 14. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 199–200.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Davydd+I&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=199-200&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1888&rft.aulast=Tout&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeslie21888" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tout, Thomas Frederick (1888). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Davydd_III">"Davydd III" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Stephen" title="Leslie Stephen">Stephen, Leslie</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 14. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 202–205.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Davydd+III&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=202-205&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1888&rft.aulast=Tout&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee6" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tout, Thomas Frederick (1893). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Llywelyn_ab_Iorwerth">"Llywelyn ab Iorwerth" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 34. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 7–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Llywelyn+ab+Iorwerth&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=7-13&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Tout&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTout1893" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tout, Thomas Frederick (1893). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Llywelyn_ab_Seisyll">"Llywelyn ab Seisyll" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 34. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 6–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Llywelyn+ab+Seisyll&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=6-7&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1893&rft.aulast=Tout&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee51895" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tout, Thomas Frederick (1895). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Owain_Gwynedd">"Owain Gwynedd" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 41. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 391–395.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Owain+Gwynedd&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=391-395&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Tout&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1896" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lloyd, John Edward (1896). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Rhun_ap_Maelgwn">"Rhun ap Maelgwn" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 86.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhun+ap+Maelgwn&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee11896" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lloyd, John Edward (1896). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Rhodri_Mawr">"Rhodri Mawr" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhodri+Mawr&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1896" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lloyd, John Edward (1896). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Rhodri_ab_Owain">"Rhodri ab Owain" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 85–86.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhodri+ab+Owain&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=85-86&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1899" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lloyd, John Edward (1899). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Trahaearn_ap_Caradog">"Trahaearn ap Caradog" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lee" title="Sidney Lee">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 57. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 147.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Trahaearn+ap+Caradog&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTout1885-1900" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Frederick_Tout" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Frederick Tout">Tout, Thomas Frederick</a> (1885–1900). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Davydd_II">"Davydd II" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. London: Smith, Elder & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Davydd+II&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1885%2F1900&rft.aulast=Tout&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm01911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/David_(Welsh_princes)">"David (Welsh princes)" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 860.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=David+%28Welsh+princes%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=860&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Llewelyn">"Llewelyn" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 831.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Llewelyn&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=831&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams_Ab_Ithel2012" class="citation book cs1">Williams Ab Ithel, John, ed. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/brut-y-tywysogion/826C6C8FCE5254AD7054D6E65388164A">Brut Y Tywysogion</a>. Cambridge Library Collection - Rolls. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139163484">10.1017/CBO9781139163484</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108043021" title="Special:BookSources/9781108043021"><bdi>9781108043021</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brut+Y+Tywysogion&rft.series=Cambridge+Library+Collection+-+Rolls&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139163484&rft.isbn=9781108043021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fbrut-y-tywysogion%2F826C6C8FCE5254AD7054D6E65388164A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNancy_Edwards" class="citation web cs1">Nancy Edwards. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/files/18962391/2017_Early_Medieval_Wales.pdf">"Early Medieval Wales: material evidence and identity"</a> (PDF). research.bangor.ac.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=research.bangor.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Early+Medieval+Wales%3A+material+evidence+and+identity&rft.au=Nancy+Edwards&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.bangor.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Ffiles%2F18962391%2F2017_Early_Medieval_Wales.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Gwynedd" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wales_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wales_topics" title="Template:Wales topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wales_topics" title="Template talk:Wales topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wales_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wales topics"><abbr title="Edit this 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href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Welsh_wars" title="List of Anglo-Welsh wars">Anglo-Welsh Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kingdom of Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Kingdom of Powys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Medieval Welsh law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Edwardian conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Rhuddlan" title="Statute of Rhuddlan">Statute of Rhuddlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glynd%C5%B5r_rebellion" title="Glyndŵr rebellion">Glyndŵr rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535_and_1542" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_settlement_in_the_Americas" title="Welsh settlement in the Americas">Colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Wales" title="Geography of Wales">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_of_Wales" title="Biodiversity of Wales">Biodiversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Wales" title="Fauna of Wales">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Wales" title="Flora of Wales">Flora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Wales" title="Climate of Wales">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Wales" title="Geology of Wales">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Wales" title="List of islands of Wales">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Wales" title="List of lakes of Wales">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles">Mountains and hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Wales" title="Protected areas of Wales">Protected areas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Wales" title="National parks of Wales">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areas_of_Outstanding_Natural_Beauty_in_Wales" title="Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Wales">AONBs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Wales" title="List of rivers of Wales">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England%E2%80%93Wales_border" title="England–Wales border">Wales–England border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_in_Wales" title="List of waterfalls in Wales">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Wales" title="Elections in Wales">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Wales" title="First Minister of Wales">First Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Wales" title="Local government in Wales">Local government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Wales" title="History of local government in Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Wales" title="List of cities in Wales">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayors_in_Wales" title="Mayors in Wales">Mayors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_in_Wales" title="List of rulers in Wales">Local rulers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Wales" title="List of political parties in Wales">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Wales" title="Secretary of State for Wales">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Senedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unionism_in_Wales" title="Unionism in Wales">Unionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_Office" title="Wales Office">Wales Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counsel_General_for_Wales" title="Counsel General for Wales">Counsel General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="Courts of England and Wales">Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Modern Welsh law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_forces_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Police forces of Wales">Police forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_in_Wales" title="Armed forces in Wales">British Armed Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wales" title="Economy of Wales">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Wales" title="Agriculture in Wales">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_and_finance_in_Wales" title="Banking and finance in Wales">Banking and finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_industry_in_Wales" title="Coal industry in Wales">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Wales" title="List of companies of Wales">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Wales" title="Forestry in Wales">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_and_construction_in_Wales" title="Housing and construction in Wales">Housing and construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Wales" title="List of power stations in Wales">Power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate_industry_in_Wales" title="Slate industry in Wales">Slate quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Wales" title="Tourism in Wales">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Wales" title="Transport in Wales">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Wales" title="Category:Society of Wales">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_art" title="Welsh art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Wales" title="List of castles in Wales">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Wales" title="Education in Wales">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorsedd_Cymru" title="Gorsedd Cymru">Gorsedd Cymru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Literature in Welsh</a> / <a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Wales" title="Media of Wales">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Wales" title="List of museums in Wales">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_scheduled_monuments_in_Wales" title="Lists of scheduled monuments in Wales">Scheduled monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Wales" title="Sport in Wales">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Wales" title="Theatre of Wales">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Wales" title="Demographics of Wales">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wales" title="Languages of Wales">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wales" title="Languages of Wales">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sign_Language" title="British Sign Language">British Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">People</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people" title="List of Welsh people">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people#Actors" title="List of Welsh people">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_Americans" title="List of Welsh Americans">Welsh Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_architects" title="List of Welsh architects">Architects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_artists" title="List of Welsh artists">Artists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_artists_associated_with_Wales" title="List of women artists associated with Wales">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors" title="List of Welsh inventors">Inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_musicians" title="List of Welsh musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh-language_poets_(6th_century_to_c._1600)" title="List of Welsh-language poets (6th century to c. 1600)">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people#Monarchs_and_princes" title="List of Welsh people">Royalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_scientists" title="List of Welsh scientists">Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_women" title="List of Welsh women">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_writers" title="List of Welsh writers">Writers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh-language_authors" title="List of Welsh-language authors">in Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_women_writers" title="List of Welsh women writers">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Wales" title="Health in Wales">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Wales" title="Healthcare in Wales">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NHS_Wales" title="NHS Wales">Healthcare service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_health_board" title="Local health board">Boards</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Wales" title="Christianity in Wales">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_in_Wales" title="Church in Wales">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_in_Wales" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Wales">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_of_Wales" title="Presbyterian Church of Wales">Presbyterianism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Non-Christian belief systems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Wales" title="Baháʼí Faith in Wales">Bahá'ís</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Wales" title="Buddhism in Wales">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Wales" title="Hinduism in Wales">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Wales" title="Islam in Wales">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Wales" title="History of the Jews in Wales">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_Wales" title="Sikhism in Wales">Sikhism</a></li></ul></li> <li>History <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_David" title="Saint David">Saint David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Methodist_revival" title="Welsh Methodist revival">Welsh Methodist revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904%E2%80%931905_Welsh_revival" title="1904–1905 Welsh revival">1904–1905 Welsh revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Church_Act_1914" title="Welsh Church Act 1914">Welsh Church Act 1914</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Wales" title="National symbols of Wales">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hen_Wlad_Fy_Nhadau" title="Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_flags" title="List of Welsh flags">Flags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Wales" title="Flag of Wales">national flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers" title="Prince of Wales's feathers">Prince of Wales's feathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Badge_of_Wales" title="Royal Badge of Wales">Royal Badge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Dragon" title="Welsh Dragon">Welsh Dragon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/48px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/64px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medieval_Welsh_kingdoms" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Welsh_kingdoms" title="Template:Welsh kingdoms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Welsh_kingdoms" title="Template talk:Welsh kingdoms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Welsh_kingdoms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Welsh kingdoms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medieval_Welsh_kingdoms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Medieval <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Welsh</a> kingdoms</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brycheiniog" title="Brycheiniog">Brycheiniog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Seisyllwg" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Seisyllwg">Seisyllwg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ystrad_Tywi" title="Ystrad Tywi">Region–Ystrad Tywi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Dinefwr" title="House of Dinefwr">Dinefwr</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dyfed" title="Kingdom of Dyfed">Dyfed</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gwynedd</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Aberffraw" title="House of Aberffraw">Aberffraw</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Dogfeiling" title="Dogfeiling">Dogfeiling</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Dunoding" title="Dunoding">Dunoding</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Meirionnydd" title="Meirionnydd">Meirionnydd</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Rhos_(North_Wales)" title="Rhos (North Wales)">Rhos</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Rhufoniog" title="Rhufoniog">Rhufoniog</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Tegeingl" title="Tegeingl">Tegeingl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Morgannwg" title="Kingdom of Morgannwg">Morgannwg</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ergyng" title="Ergyng">Ergyng</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ewyas" title="Ewyas">Region–Ewyas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwent" title="Kingdom of Gwent">Gwent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glywysing" title="Glywysing">Glywysing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwynllwg" title="Gwynllwg">Gwynllwg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penychen" title="Penychen">Penychen</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edeirnion" title="Edeirnion">Edeirnion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathrafal" title="Mathrafal">Mathrafal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechain" title="Mechain">Mechain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pengwern" title="Pengwern">Pengwern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powys_Fadog" title="Powys Fadog">Fadog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powys_Wenwynwyn" title="Powys Wenwynwyn">Wenwynwyn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhwng_Gwy_a_Hafren" title="Rhwng Gwy a Hafren">Rhwng Gwy a Hafren</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buellt" title="Buellt">Region–Buellt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elfael" title="Elfael">Elfael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwrtheyrnion" title="Gwrtheyrnion">Gwrtheyrnion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maelienydd" title="Maelienydd">Maelienydd</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/28px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/42px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/56px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="267" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Middle Ages portal</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/48px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/64px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Royal_houses_of_Britain_and_Ireland" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Royal_houses_of_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Template:Royal houses of Britain and Ireland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Royal_houses_of_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Template talk:Royal houses of Britain and Ireland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Royal_houses_of_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Royal houses of Britain and Ireland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Royal_houses_of_Britain_and_Ireland" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_monarchs_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of monarchs in the British Isles">Royal houses of Britain and Ireland</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">England</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Mercia" title="List of monarchs of Mercia">Mercia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuffingas" title="Wuffingas">Wuffing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kent" title="List of monarchs of Kent">Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Sussex" title="List of monarchs of Sussex">Sussex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Essex" title="Kingdom of Essex">Essex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deira" title="Deira">Deira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Northumbria" title="List of monarchs of Northumbria">Northumbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair" title="Uí Ímair">Uí Ímair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wessex" title="House of Wessex">Wessex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kn%C3%BDtlinga" title="House of Knýtlinga">Knýtlinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Godwin" title="House of Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Normandy" title="House of Normandy">Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Blois" title="House of Blois">Blois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">Plantagenet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_kings_of_England" title="Angevin kings of England">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">York</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stuart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_monarchs" title="List of Scottish monarchs">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="List of kings of Dál Riata">Fergus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_%C3%93engus" title="House of Óengus">Óengus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Strathclyde" title="List of kings of Strathclyde">Strathclyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Mann and the Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Alpin" title="House of Alpin">Alpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Northumbria" title="List of monarchs of Northumbria">Northumbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair" title="Uí Ímair">Uí Ímair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_of_Galloway" title="Lord of Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Dunkeld" title="House of Dunkeld">Dunkeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Moray" title="House of Moray">Moray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Sverre" title="House of Sverre">Sverre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Balliol" title="House of Balliol">Balliol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clan_Bruce" title="Clan Bruce">Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clann_Somhairle" title="Clann Somhairle">Somhairle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Wales">Wales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Aberffraw" title="House of Aberffraw">Aberffraw</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cunedda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Dinefwr" title="House of Dinefwr">Dinefwr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Gwynedd" title="House of Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Mathrafal" title="House of Mathrafal">Mathrafal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">Tudor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Irish_kings" title="Lists of Irish kings">Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulaid" title="Ulaid">Ulaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89rainn" class="mw-redirect" title="Érainn">Érainn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corcu_Lo%C3%ADgde" title="Corcu Loígde">Corcu Loígde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laigin" title="Laigin">Laigin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connachta" title="Connachta">Connachta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_N%C3%A9ill" title="Uí Néill">Uí Néill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93_Gallchobhair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ó Gallchobhair">Ó Gallchobhair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93_Domhnail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ó Domhnail">Ó Domhnail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93_N%C3%A9ill" class="mw-redirect" title="Ó Néill">Ó Néill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93_M%C3%A1el_Sechlainn" class="mw-redirect" title="Ó Máel Sechlainn">Ó Máel Sechlainn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mac_Murchada" class="mw-redirect" title="Mac Murchada">Mac Murchada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93_Briain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ó Briain">Ó Briain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mac_Lochlainn" title="Mac Lochlainn">Mac Lochlainn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93_Conchobhair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ó Conchobhair">Ó Conchobhair</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laigin" title="Laigin">Laigin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%ADl_Conairi" title="Síl Conairi">Síl Conairi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Fiatach" title="Dál Fiatach">Ulaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corcu_Lo%C3%ADgde" title="Corcu Loígde">Dáirine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osraige" title="Osraige">Osraige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruthin" title="Cruthin">Cruthin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_nAraidi" title="Dál nAraidi">Dál nAraidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connachta" title="Connachta">Connachta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_Fiachrach" title="Uí Fiachrach">Uí Fiachrach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_Bri%C3%BAin" title="Uí Briúin">Uí Briúin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_N%C3%A9ill" title="Uí Néill">Uí Néill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%ADl_n%C3%81edo_Sl%C3%A1ine" title="Síl nÁedo Sláine">Síl nÁedo Sláine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clann_Cholm%C3%A1in" title="Clann Cholmáin">Clann Cholmáin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E%C3%B3ganachta" title="Eóganachta">Eóganachta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E%C3%B3ganacht_Chaisil" title="Eóganacht Chaisil">Chaisil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E%C3%B3ganacht_Glendamnach" title="Eóganacht Glendamnach">Glendamnach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E%C3%B3ganacht_Raithlind" title="Eóganacht Raithlind">Raithlind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_D%C3%BAnlainge" title="Uí Dúnlainge">Uí Dúnlainge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair" title="Uí Ímair">Uí Ímair</a> (Norse)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_Ceinnselaig" title="Uí Ceinnselaig">Uí Ceinnselaig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalcassians" title="Dalcassians">Dalcassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Brien_dynasty" title="O'Brien dynasty">Ó Briain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacCarthy_dynasty" title="MacCarthy dynasty">Mac Carthaig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Conor_Don" class="mw-redirect" title="O'Conor Don">Ó Conchobhair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Breifne" title="Kingdom of Breifne">Ó Ruairc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Burgh" title="House of Burgh">Burgh</a> (Norman)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FitzGerald_dynasty" title="FitzGerald dynasty">FitzGerald</a> (Norman)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Donnell_dynasty" title="O'Donnell dynasty">Ó Domhnaill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Neill_dynasty" title="O'Neill dynasty">Ó Néill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">Great Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">Orange-Nassau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Hanover" title="House of Hanover">Hanover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Saxe-Coburg and Gotha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Windsor" title="House of Windsor">Windsor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair" title="Uí Ímair">Uí Ímair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crovan_dynasty" title="Crovan dynasty">Crovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clann_Somhairle" title="Clann Somhairle">Somhairle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&oldid=1259208586">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Gwynedd&oldid=1259208586</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" 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1,\n [\"CITEREFChristopher_A._Snyder2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies11959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies21959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzpatrick-Matthews2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiles1841\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamp1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._Beverley_Smith2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesWilliamsPughe1801\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKathryn_Hurlock2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKingsford\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee01894\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee11896\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee21891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee31891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee41891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee51895\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee6\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee71890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeslie01886\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeslie1\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeslie1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeslie21888\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd11959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd1893a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd1896b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd1959\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd21959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd31959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd41959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd5\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd6\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd71959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLlwyd1832\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLlwyd2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowe1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLynch1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatasović2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaund1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaund2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNancy_Edwards\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwen2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPargeter1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParry1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennant\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce10\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce111959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce11959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce121959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce131959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce141959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce151959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce161959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce171959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce1959\"] = 9,\n [\"CITEREFPierce21959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce31959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce41959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce51959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce6\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce71959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce8\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce9\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierre_ChaplaisMichael_JonesMalcolm_Vale1989\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPrestwich2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPryceInsley2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedknap2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhys1891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoderick\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoger_Turvey2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephenson1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_Jones_Pierce1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTout\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFTout1885-1900\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTout1890a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTout1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurvey2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard-Perkins2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarner1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilcott\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1860\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams_Ab_Ithel2012\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"Circa\"] = 5,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite DNB\"] = 31,\n [\"Cite DWB\"] = 52,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite Wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 51,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 68,\n [\"Cite wikisource\"] = 5,\n [\"Coflein\"] = 2,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Gwynedd, Kingdom of\"] = 1,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 2,\n [\"Efn\"] = 22,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 1,\n [\"Fl\"] = 1,\n [\"Google book\"] = 3,\n [\"Google books\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 47,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 67,\n [\"History of Wales\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 9,\n [\"Langx\"] = 6,\n [\"Mdash\"] = 2,\n [\"Native name\"] = 1,\n [\"Ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Note\"] = 1,\n [\"PIE\"] = 2,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Royal houses of Britain and Ireland\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 45,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 7,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Wales topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Welsh kingdoms\"] = 1,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource\"] = 5,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"short\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"short\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","520","22.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","12.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","220","9.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","160","7.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","140","6.1"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","5.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","100","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","80","3.5"],["[others]","500","21.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-sscwj","timestamp":"20241124060051","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Kingdom of Gwynedd","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q816814","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q816814","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-01-22T07:43:06Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:29:28Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/Flag_of_Gwynedd_%283-2%29.svg","headline":"kingdom in northwest Wales, 401\u20131283"}</script> </body> </html>