[Index: A-E] Index of People Referenced in Stephen Wolfram: A New Kind of Science

<!doctype html> <html lang="en" class="names a-e"> <head>  <meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="ie=edge"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <title>[Index: A-E] Index of People Referenced in Stephen Wolfram: A New Kind of Science | Online</title> <meta name="description" content="People in A New Kind of Science, together with basic biographical data. A-E."> <meta property="og:image" content="http://www.wolframscience.com/share.png"> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.wolframscience.com/nks/index/names/a-e.php"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <meta property="og:title" content="[Index: A-E] Index of People Referenced in Stephen Wolfram: A New Kind of Science | Online"> <meta property="og:description" content="People in A New Kind of Science, together with basic biographical data. 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A-E."> <meta name="twitter:image:src" content="http://www.wolframscience.com/share.png"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.wolframscience.com/nks/index/names/a-e.php"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/common/framework/css/framework.en.css"> <script src="//www.wolframcdn.com/consent/cookie-consent.js"></script> <script src="/common/javascript/wal/latest/walLoad.js"></script> <script defer src="/common/js/announcements/script.js"></script> <script src="/common/framework/js/head.en.js"></script> <script src="/common/js/jquery/3.7.1/jquery.min.js"></script> <script src="/common/js/jquery/plugins/migrate/3.5.2/jquery.migrate.min.js"></script> <script src="/common/javascript/analytics.js"></script>  <link rel="stylesheet" href="//www.wolframcdn.com/fonts/source-sans-pro/1.0/global.css"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="//www.wolframcdn.com/fonts/pt-serif/1.0/all.css"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="//www.wolframcdn.com/fonts/mathematica/1.0/all.css">  <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com" crossorigin> <link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Crimson+Text:ital@0;1&display=swap" rel="stylesheet"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://use.typekit.net/hod7dyh.css">  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/common/js/clipboard/2.0/clipboard.css"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/nks/css/c2c.en.css"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/nks/css/shared.en.css"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/nks/index/names/css/names.en.css"> </head> <body>    <header id="header"> <div class="table width-full height-full"> <div class="heirs-vertical-align-m"> <div class="padding-lr-1"> <h1><a href="/nks/"><img src="/nks/img/a-new-kind-of-science-logo.png" alt="Stephen Wolfram's A New Kind of Science | Online" width="372" height="43" class="fill"></a></h1> </div> <div class="padding-r-1"> <nav id="nav" class="table"> <div class="nav-main heirs-vertical-align-t"> <div class="size-picker"> <ul> <li class="size-auto checked">auto</li> <li class="size-small">small</li> <li class="size-medium">medium</li> <li class="size-large">large</li> <li class="size-x-large">x-large</li> </ul> </div> <div class="search"> <div></div> </div> <div class="toc"> <div><a href="/nks/"></a></div> </div> <div class="breadcrumbs"> <div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="nav-burger"> <div> <div class="hamburger"></div> </div> <div class="burger-nav-l1"> <div id="top-stuff"> <div class="crumb-wrap-supreme"> <div> <a href="/nks/"></a> </div> </div> <div class="size-picker"> <div></div> </div> <ul class="size-pickings"> <li class="size-auto checked">auto</li> <li class="size-small">small</li> <li class="size-medium">medium</li> <li class="size-large">large</li> <li class="size-x-large">x-large</li> </ul> </div> <ul class="chapters"> <li class="chapter preface"> <a href="/nks/pix--preface/"> Preface </a> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-1"> <a href="/nks/chap-1--the-foundations-for-a-new-kind-of-science/"> 1 The Foundations for a New Kind of Science </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p1--an-outline-of-basic-ideas/"> 1 An Outline of Basic Ideas </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p7--relations-to-other-areas/"> 2 Relations to Other Areas </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p12--some-past-initiatives/"> 3 Some Past Initiatives </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p17--the-personal-story-of-the-science-in-this-book/"> 4 The Personal Story of the Science in This Book </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-2"> <a href="/nks/chap-2--the-crucial-experiment/"> 2 The Crucial Experiment </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p23--how-do-simple-programs-behave/"> 1 How Do Simple Programs Behave? </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p39--the-need-for-a-new-intuition/"> 2 The Need for a New Intuition </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p42--why-these-discoveries-were-not-made-before/"> 3 Why These Discoveries Were Not Made Before </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-3"> <a href="/nks/chap-3--the-world-of-simple-programs/"> 3 The World of Simple Programs </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p51--the-search-for-general-features/"> 1 The Search for General Features </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p53--more-cellular-automata/"> 2 More Cellular Automata </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p71--mobile-automata/"> 3 Mobile Automata </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p78--turing-machines/"> 4 Turing Machines </a> </li> <li class="section section-5"> <a href="/nks/p82--substitution-systems/"> 5 Substitution Systems </a> </li> <li class="section section-6"> <a href="/nks/p88--sequential-substitution-systems/"> 6 Sequential Substitution Systems </a> </li> <li class="section section-7"> <a href="/nks/p93--tag-systems/"> 7 Tag Systems </a> </li> <li class="section section-8"> <a href="/nks/p95--cyclic-tag-systems/"> 8 Cyclic Tag Systems </a> </li> <li class="section section-9"> <a href="/nks/p97--register-machines/"> 9 Register Machines </a> </li> <li class="section section-10"> <a href="/nks/p102--symbolic-systems/"> 10 Symbolic Systems </a> </li> <li class="section section-11"> <a href="/nks/p105--some-conclusions/"> 11 Some Conclusions </a> </li> <li class="section section-12"> <a href="/nks/p108--how-the-discoveries-in-this-chapter-were-made/"> 12 How the Discoveries in This Chapter Were Made </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-4"> <a href="/nks/chap-4--systems-based-on-numbers/"> 4 Systems Based on Numbers </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p115--the-notion-of-numbers/"> 1 The Notion of Numbers </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p117--elementary-arithmetic/"> 2 Elementary Arithmetic </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p128--recursive-sequences/"> 3 Recursive Sequences </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p132--the-sequence-of-primes/"> 4 The Sequence of Primes </a> </li> <li class="section section-5"> <a href="/nks/p136--mathematical-constants/"> 5 Mathematical Constants </a> </li> <li class="section section-6"> <a href="/nks/p145--mathematical-functions/"> 6 Mathematical Functions </a> </li> <li class="section section-7"> <a href="/nks/p149--iterated-maps-and-the-chaos-phenomenon/"> 7 Iterated Maps and the Chaos Phenomenon </a> </li> <li class="section section-8"> <a href="/nks/p155--continuous-cellular-automata/"> 8 Continuous Cellular Automata </a> </li> <li class="section section-9"> <a href="/nks/p161--partial-differential-equations/"> 9 Partial Differential Equations </a> </li> <li class="section section-10"> <a href="/nks/p167--continuous-versus-discrete-systems/"> 10 Continuous Versus Discrete Systems </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-5"> <a href="/nks/chap-5--two-dimensions-and-beyond/"> 5 Two Dimensions and Beyond </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p169--introduction/"> 1 Introduction </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p170--cellular-automata/"> 2 Cellular Automata </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p184--turing-machines/"> 3 Turing Machines </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p187--substitution-systems-and-fractals/"> 4 Substitution Systems and Fractals </a> </li> <li class="section section-5"> <a href="/nks/p193--network-systems/"> 5 Network Systems </a> </li> <li class="section section-6"> <a href="/nks/p204--multiway-systems/"> 6 Multiway Systems </a> </li> <li class="section section-7"> <a href="/nks/p210--systems-based-on-constraints/"> 7 Systems Based on Constraints </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-6"> <a href="/nks/chap-6--starting-from-randomness/"> 6 Starting from Randomness </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p223--the-emergence-of-order/"> 1 The Emergence of Order </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p231--four-classes-of-behavior/"> 2 Four Classes of Behavior </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p250--sensitivity-to-initial-conditions/"> 3 Sensitivity to Initial Conditions </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p255--systems-of-limited-size-and-class-2-behavior/"> 4 Systems of Limited Size and Class 2 Behavior </a> </li> <li class="section section-5"> <a href="/nks/p261--randomness-in-class-3-systems/"> 5 Randomness in Class 3 Systems </a> </li> <li class="section section-6"> <a href="/nks/p266--special-initial-conditions/"> 6 Special Initial Conditions </a> </li> <li class="section section-7"> <a href="/nks/p275--the-notion-of-attractors/"> 7 The Notion of Attractors </a> </li> <li class="section section-8"> <a href="/nks/p281--structures-in-class-4-systems/"> 8 Structures in Class 4 Systems </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-7"> <a href="/nks/chap-7--mechanisms-in-programs-and-nature/"> 7 Mechanisms in Programs and Nature </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p297--universality-of-behavior/"> 1 Universality of Behavior </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p299--three-mechanisms-for-randomness/"> 2 Three Mechanisms for Randomness </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p301--randomness-from-the-environment/"> 3 Randomness from the Environment </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p304--chaos-theory-and-randomness-from-initial-conditions/"> 4 Chaos Theory and Randomness from Initial Conditions </a> </li> <li class="section section-5"> <a href="/nks/p315--the-intrinsic-generation-of-randomness/"> 5 The Intrinsic Generation of Randomness </a> </li> <li class="section section-6"> <a href="/nks/p327--the-phenomenon-of-continuity/"> 6 The Phenomenon of Continuity </a> </li> <li class="section section-7"> <a href="/nks/p337--origins-of-discreteness/"> 7 Origins of Discreteness </a> </li> <li class="section section-8"> <a href="/nks/p342--the-problem-of-satisfying-constraints/"> 8 The Problem of Satisfying Constraints </a> </li> <li class="section section-9"> <a href="/nks/p351--origins-of-simple-behavior/"> 9 Origins of Simple Behavior </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-8"> <a href="/nks/chap-8--implications-for-everyday-systems/"> 8 Implications for Everyday Systems </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p363--issues-of-modelling/"> 1 Issues of Modelling </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p369--the-growth-of-crystals/"> 2 The Growth of Crystals </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p374--the-breaking-of-materials/"> 3 The Breaking of Materials </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p376--fluid-flow/"> 4 Fluid Flow </a> </li> <li class="section section-5"> <a href="/nks/p383--fundamental-issues-in-biology/"> 5 Fundamental Issues in Biology </a> </li> <li class="section section-6"> <a href="/nks/p400--growth-of-plants-and-animals/"> 6 Growth of Plants and Animals </a> </li> <li class="section section-7"> <a href="/nks/p422--biological-pigmentation-patterns/"> 7 Biological Pigmentation Patterns </a> </li> <li class="section section-8"> <a href="/nks/p429--financial-systems/"> 8 Financial Systems </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-9"> <a href="/nks/chap-9--fundamental-physics/"> 9 Fundamental Physics </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p433--the-problems-of-physics/"> 1 The Problems of Physics </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p435--the-notion-of-reversibility/"> 2 The Notion of Reversibility </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p441--irreversibility-and-the-second-law-of-thermodynamics/"> 3 Irreversibility and the Second Law of Thermodynamics </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p458--conserved-quantities-and-continuum-phenomena/"> 4 Conserved Quantities and Continuum Phenomena </a> </li> <li class="section section-5"> <a href="/nks/p465--ultimate-models-for-the-universe/"> 5 Ultimate Models for the Universe </a> </li> <li class="section section-6"> <a href="/nks/p472--the-nature-of-space/"> 6 The Nature of Space </a> </li> <li class="section section-7"> <a href="/nks/p475--space-as-a-network/"> 7 Space as a Network </a> </li> <li class="section section-8"> <a href="/nks/p481--the-relationship-of-space-and-time/"> 8 The Relationship of Space and Time </a> </li> <li class="section section-9"> <a href="/nks/p486--time-and-causal-networks/"> 9 Time and Causal Networks </a> </li> <li class="section section-10"> <a href="/nks/p497--the-sequencing-of-events-in-the-universe/"> 10 The Sequencing of Events in the Universe </a> </li> <li class="section section-11"> <a href="/nks/p504--uniqueness-and-branching-in-time/"> 11 Uniqueness and Branching in Time </a> </li> <li class="section section-12"> <a href="/nks/p508--evolution-of-networks/"> 12 Evolution of Networks </a> </li> <li class="section section-13"> <a href="/nks/p516--space-time-and-relativity/"> 13 Space, Time and Relativity </a> </li> <li class="section section-14"> <a href="/nks/p525--elementary-particles/"> 14 Elementary Particles </a> </li> <li class="section section-15"> <a href="/nks/p530--the-phenomenon-of-gravity/"> 15 The Phenomenon of Gravity </a> </li> <li class="section section-16"> <a href="/nks/p537--quantum-phenomena/"> 16 Quantum Phenomena </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-10"> <a href="/nks/chap-10--processes-of-perception-and-analysis/"> 10 Processes of Perception and Analysis </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p547--introduction/"> 1 Introduction </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p548--what-perception-and-analysis-do/"> 2 What Perception and Analysis Do </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p552--defining-the-notion-of-randomness/"> 3 Defining the Notion of Randomness </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p557--defining-complexity/"> 4 Defining Complexity </a> </li> <li class="section section-5"> <a href="/nks/p560--data-compression/"> 5 Data Compression </a> </li> <li class="section section-6"> <a href="/nks/p572--irreversible-data-compression/"> 6 Irreversible Data Compression </a> </li> <li class="section section-7"> <a href="/nks/p577--visual-perception/"> 7 Visual Perception </a> </li> <li class="section section-8"> <a href="/nks/p585--auditory-perception/"> 8 Auditory Perception </a> </li> <li class="section section-9"> <a href="/nks/p588--statistical-analysis/"> 9 Statistical Analysis </a> </li> <li class="section section-10"> <a href="/nks/p598--cryptography-and-cryptanalysis/"> 10 Cryptography and Cryptanalysis </a> </li> <li class="section section-11"> <a href="/nks/p606--traditional-mathematics-and-mathematical-formulas/"> 11 Traditional Mathematics and Mathematical Formulas </a> </li> <li class="section section-12"> <a href="/nks/p620--human-thinking/"> 12 Human Thinking </a> </li> <li class="section section-13"> <a href="/nks/p632--higher-forms-of-perception-and-analysis/"> 13 Higher Forms of Perception and Analysis </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-11"> <a href="/nks/chap-11--the-notion-of-computation/"> 11 The Notion of Computation </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p637--computation-as-a-framework/"> 1 Computation as a Framework </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p638--computations-in-cellular-automata/"> 2 Computations in Cellular Automata </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p642--the-phenomenon-of-universality/"> 3 The Phenomenon of Universality </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p644--a-universal-cellular-automaton/"> 4 A Universal Cellular Automaton </a> </li> <li class="section section-5"> <a href="/nks/p656--emulating-other-systems-with-cellular-automata/"> 5 Emulating Other Systems with Cellular Automata </a> </li> <li class="section section-6"> <a href="/nks/p664--emulating-cellular-automata-with-other-systems/"> 6 Emulating Cellular Automata with Other Systems </a> </li> <li class="section section-7"> <a href="/nks/p674--implications-of-universality/"> 7 Implications of Universality </a> </li> <li class="section section-8"> <a href="/nks/p675--the-rule-110-cellular-automaton/"> 8 The Rule 110 Cellular Automaton </a> </li> <li class="section section-9"> <a href="/nks/p690--the-significance-of-universality-in-rule-110/"> 9 The Significance of Universality in Rule 110 </a> </li> <li class="section section-10"> <a href="/nks/p691--class-4-behavior-and-universality/"> 10 Class 4 Behavior and Universality </a> </li> <li class="section section-11"> <a href="/nks/p694--the-threshold-of-universality-in-cellular-automata/"> 11 The Threshold of Universality in Cellular Automata </a> </li> <li class="section section-12"> <a href="/nks/p706--universality-in-turing-machines-and-other-systems/"> 12 Universality in Turing Machines and Other Systems </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter chapter-12"> <a href="/nks/chap-12--the-principle-of-computational-equivalence/"> 12 The Principle of Computational Equivalence </a> <ul class="sections"> <li class="section section-1"> <a href="/nks/p715--basic-framework/"> 1 Basic Framework </a> </li> <li class="section section-2"> <a href="/nks/p716--outline-of-the-principle/"> 2 Outline of the Principle </a> </li> <li class="section section-3"> <a href="/nks/p719--the-content-of-the-principle/"> 3 The Content of the Principle </a> </li> <li class="section section-4"> <a href="/nks/p726--the-validity-of-the-principle/"> 4 The Validity of the Principle </a> </li> <li class="section section-5"> <a href="/nks/p735--explaining-the-phenomenon-of-complexity/"> 5 Explaining the Phenomenon of Complexity </a> </li> <li class="section section-6"> <a href="/nks/p737--computational-irreducibility/"> 6 Computational Irreducibility </a> </li> <li class="section section-7"> <a href="/nks/p750--the-phenomenon-of-free-will/"> 7 The Phenomenon of Free Will </a> </li> <li class="section section-8"> <a href="/nks/p753--undecidability-and-intractability/"> 8 Undecidability and Intractability </a> </li> <li class="section section-9"> <a href="/nks/p772--implications-for-mathematics-and-its-foundations/"> 9 Implications for Mathematics and Its Foundations </a> </li> <li class="section section-10"> <a href="/nks/p822--intelligence-in-the-universe/"> 10 Intelligence in the Universe </a> </li> <li class="section section-11"> <a href="/nks/p840--implications-for-technology/"> 11 Implications for Technology </a> </li> <li class="section section-12"> <a href="/nks/p844--historical-perspectives/"> 12 Historical Perspectives </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="chapter notes"> <a href="/nks/notes-for-chapters/"> Notes </a> </li> </ul> <div class="search"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div id="search"> <div class="text-align-c__600"> <div class="inline-grid cols-3 cols-1__600"> <form id="search-index-form" action="/nks/index/"><div><label for="search-index-input">Look up in index</label><input type="search" id="search-index-input" name="search-index-input"></div></form> <form id="search-all-form" action="/nks/search/"><div><label for="search-all-input">Text search</label><input type="search" id="search-all-input" name="search-all-input"></div></form> <form id="search-jump-form"><div><label for="search-jump-input">Jump to page</label><input type="search" id="search-jump-input" name="search-jump-input"></div></form> </div> </div> </div> </header>  <main id="main"> <div class="wide-wrapper"> <div id="previous" style="display:none;"><a href="/">‹</a></div> <div id="next"><a href="/nks/index/names/f-j/">›</a></div> <div id="content" class="thin-padding"> <h1 class="main-heading">Index of Names</h1> <hr>  <nav id="names-nav"> <a href="/nks/index/names/a-e/" class="a-e">A–E</a> <a href="/nks/index/names/f-j/" class="f-j">F–J</a> <a href="/nks/index/names/k-o/" class="k-o">K–O</a> <a href="/nks/index/names/p-s/" class="p-s">P–S</a> <a href="/nks/index/names/t-z/" class="t-z">T–Z</a> </nav>  <hr> <div id="names-content"> Ackermann, Wilhelm (Germany, 1896–1962) and Ackermann functions, <a href="/nksonline/page-906c/">906</a> Aiken, Howard H. (USA, 1900–1973) and Mark I computer, <a href="/nksonline/page-1107a/">1107</a> Albertus Magnus (Germany, ~1200–1280) and mathematics in science, <a href="/nksonline/page-859a/">859</a> Alder, Berni J. (USA, 1925–2020) and inspirational book cover, <a href="/nksonline/page-864a/">864</a> and molecular dynamics, <a href="/nksonline/page-878a/">879</a>, <a href="/nksonline/page-999d/">999</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> Alekseev, Vladimir M. (Russia, 1932–1980) and 3-body problem, <a href="/nksonline/page-973a/">973</a> Alexander, James W. (USA, 1888–1971) and moves on networks, <a href="/nksonline/page-1038e/">1038</a> Ammann, Robert (USA, 1946–1994) and nested tilings, <a href="/nksonline/page-942f/">942</a> Anaxagoras (Greece, ~500 – ~428 BC) and purpose in nature, <a href="/nksonline/page-1185a/">1185</a> Apollonius (Turkey/Egypt, ~262 BC – ~190 BC) and circle packing, <a href="/nksonline/page-985f/">986</a> Aquinas, Thomas (Italy, 1225–1274) and argument by design, <a href="/nksonline/page-861a/">861</a> Archimedes (Sicily, 287–212 BC) and π, <a href="/nksonline/page-911f/">911</a> and use of mathematics, <a href="/nksonline/page-859a/">859</a> Aristotle (Greece, 384–322 BC) and complexity, <a href="/nksonline/page-861a/">861</a> and definition of life, <a href="/nksonline/page-1178c/">1178</a> and embryology, <a href="/nksonline/page-1010a/">1010</a> and gnomons, <a href="/nksonline/page-1008e/">1008</a> and history of logic, <a href="/nksonline/page-1099a/">1099</a> and logic in science, <a href="/nksonline/page-860d/">860</a> and nature of space, <a href="/nksonline/page-1028a/">1028</a> and origins of randomness, <a href="/nksonline/page-967c/">967</a> and purpose in nature, <a href="/nksonline/page-1185a/">1185</a> and theoretical biology, <a href="/nksonline/page-1003g/">1003</a> Atanasoff, John V. (USA, 1903–1995) and early electronic computers, <a href="/nksonline/page-1107a/">1107</a> Augustine (Algeria, 354–430 AD) and free will, <a href="/nksonline/page-1135b/">1135</a> Axelrod, Robert M. (USA, 1943– ) and prisoner's dilemma, <a href="/nksonline/page-1104d/">1104</a> Babbage, Charles (England, 1791–1871) and computers, <a href="/nksonline/page-1107a/">1107</a> and universality, <a href="/nksonline/page-1109h/">1110</a> Bachelier, Louis (France, 1870–1946) and randomness in markets, <a href="/nksonline/page-1014e/">1014</a> Backus, John (USA, 1924–[2007]) and computer languages, <a href="/nksonline/page-1103c/">1104</a> Bacon, Roger (England, ~1219 – ~1292) and math in science, <a href="/nksonline/page-859a/">859</a> Bak, Per (Denmark/USA, 1947–[2002]) and self-organized criticality, <a href="/nksonline/page-989c/">989</a> Baker, Alan (England, 1939– ) and Diophantine equations, <a href="/nksonline/page-1164b/">1164</a> Banks, E. Roger (USA, 1944– ) and 1D universal CA, <a href="/nksonline/page-1115c/">1115</a> and 2D universal CA, <a href="/nksonline/page-1117b/">1117</a> Barnsley, Michael F. (England/USA, 1946– ) and parameter space sets, <a href="/nksonline/page-1006b/">1006</a> and pictures of ferns, <a href="/nksonline/page-1005d/">1005</a> Batcher, Kenneth E. (USA, 1935– ) and sorting networks, <a href="/nksonline/page-1142a/">1142</a> Bays, Carter (USA, 1940– ) and 3D class 4 CAs, <a href="/nksonline/page-949b/">949</a> Beeler, Michael D. (USA, 1944– ) and 2D Turing machines, <a href="/nksonline/page-930c/">930</a> Bell, Alexander Graham (USA, 1847–1922) and speech sounds, <a href="/nksonline/page-1080a/">1080</a> Bell, David I. (USA/Australia, 1953– ) and structures in Life, <a href="/nksonline/page-964f/">965</a> Bell, John S. (England/Switzerland, 1928–1990) and quantum mechanics, <a href="/nksonline/page-1056a/">1058</a> Belousov, Boris P. (Russia, 1893–1970) and oscillatory chemical reactions, <a href="/nksonline/page-1013c/">1013</a> Bendix, Peter B. (USA, 1946– ) and Knuth–Bendix procedure, <a href="/nksonline/page-1037a/">1037</a> Benford, Frank (USA, 1883–1948) and leading digits, <a href="/nksonline/page-914c/">914</a> Bennett, Charles H. (USA, 1943– ) and logical depth, <a href="/nksonline/page-1068b/">1069</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> and reversibility of computation, <a href="/nksonline/page-1019b/">1020</a> and sphere packing, <a href="/nksonline/page-985f/">985</a> Bentley, Wilson A. (USA, 1865–1931) and snowflakes, <a href="/nksonline/page-992h/">992</a> Berger, Robert (USA, 1938– ) and non-periodic tilings, <a href="/nksonline/page-943c/">943</a> and undecidability in tiling, <a href="/nksonline/page-1139a/">1139</a> Berlekamp, Elwyn R. (USA, 1940–[2019]) and Berlekamp–Massey algorithm, <a href="/nksonline/page-1087a/">1087</a> Bernoulli, Daniel (Netherlands/Switzerland, 1700–1782) and molecular theory of gases, <a href="/nksonline/page-1019b/">1019</a> Birkhoff, Garrett (USA, 1911–1996) and equational logic, <a href="/nksonline/page-1172e/">1172</a> Black, Fischer (USA, 1938–1995) and options pricing, <a href="/nksonline/page-1015e/">1015</a> Blum, Lenore C. (USA, 1942– ) in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> and random generators, <a href="/nksonline/page-1090c/">1090</a> Blum, Manuel (USA, 1938– ) in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> and random generators, <a href="/nksonline/page-1090c/">1090</a> Bobrow, Daniel G. (USA, 1935–[2017]) and simple Turing machines, <a href="/nksonline/page-1143d/">1143</a> Bohm, David J. (USA/England, 1917–1992) and discreteness of space, <a href="/nksonline/page-1027c/">1027</a> and hidden variables, <a href="/nksonline/page-1056a/">1058</a> Bohr, Niels H. D. (Denmark, 1885–1962) and quantum theory, <a href="/nksonline/page-1056a/">1056</a> Boltzmann, Ludwig E. (Austria, 1844–1906) and statistical mechanics, <a href="/nksonline/page-1019b/">1019</a> Boole, George (England/Ireland, 1815–1864) and axioms for logic, <a href="/nksonline/page-1151a/">1151</a> and Boolean functions, <a href="/nksonline/page-1097c/">1097</a> and continuous logic, <a href="/nksonline/page-1175c/">1175</a> and model for thought, <a href="/nksonline/page-1099a/">1099</a> Boone, William W. (USA, 1920–1983) and word problem for groups, <a href="/nksonline/page-1141b/">1141</a> Borel, F. E. J. Emile (France, 1871–1956) and defining randomness, <a href="/nksonline/page-1067b/">1068</a> and normal numbers, <a href="/nksonline/page-912c/">912</a> Brady, Allen H. (USA, 1934– ) and 2D Turing machines, <a href="/nksonline/page-930c/">930</a> Bravais, Auguste (France, 1811–1863) and phyllotaxis, <a href="/nksonline/page-1007a/">1007</a> Bravais, Louis F. (France, 1801–1843) and phyllotaxis, <a href="/nksonline/page-1007a/">1007</a> Bray, William C. (USA, 1879–1946) and oscillatory chemical reactions, <a href="/nksonline/page-1013c/">1013</a> Broadwell, James E. (USA, 1921–[2018]) and CA fluids, <a href="/nksonline/page-999d/">999</a> Broglie, Louis-V.-P.-R. de (France, 1892–1987) and wave-particle duality, <a href="/nksonline/page-1056a/">1056</a> Brouwer, Luitzen E. J. (Netherlands, 1881–1966) and character of math, <a href="/nksonline/page-1176d/">1176</a> Bruns, E. Heinrich (Germany, 1848–1919) and three-body problem, <a href="/nksonline/page-972d/">972</a> Buch, Arnim (Germany, 1969– ) and automated proofs, <a href="/nksonline/page-1157c/">1158</a> Buchberger, Bruno (Austria, 1942– ) and Gröbner basis approach, <a href="/nksonline/page-1037a/">1037</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> Buntrock, Jürgen (Germany, 1958– ) and long-running TMs, <a href="/nksonline/page-889a/">889</a> Burks, Arthur W. (USA, 1915–[2008]) and cellular automata, <a href="/nksonline/page-876b/">876</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> Bush, Vannevar (USA, 1890–1974) and differential analyzer, <a href="/nksonline/page-1107a/">1107</a> Caesar, Julius (Italy, 100–44 BC) and cryptography, <a href="/nksonline/page-1085c/">1085</a> Campbell, John H. (USA, 1938– ) and patterns on shells, <a href="/nksonline/page-1012b/">1012</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> Cantor, Georg F. L. P. (Germany, 1845–1918) and Cantor set, <a href="/nksonline/page-893a/">893</a> and the continuum, <a href="/nksonline/page-1127e/">1127</a> and definition of dimension, <a href="/nksonline/page-1030d/">1030</a> and diagonal arguments, <a href="/nksonline/page-1128b/">1128</a> and digit sequences, <a href="/nksonline/page-902a/">902</a> and history of numbers, <a href="/nksonline/page-901d/">901</a> and real numbers, <a href="/nksonline/page-1153g/">1153</a> and set theory, <a href="/nksonline/page-1154c/">1154</a> and transfinite numbers, <a href="/nksonline/page-1162b/">1162</a> Carnot, Sadi N. L. (France, 1796–1832) and thermodynamics, <a href="/nksonline/page-1019b/">1019</a> Cartwright, Mary L. (England, 1900–1998) and chaos theory, <a href="/nksonline/page-971c/">971</a> Casimir, Hendrik B. G. (Netherlands, 1909–2000) and electron model, <a href="/nksonline/page-1043e/">1044</a> Catalan, Eugène C. (Belgium, 1814–1894) and iterated aliquot sums, <a href="/nksonline/page-911e/">911</a> Cayley, Arthur (England, 1821–1895) and group theory, <a href="/nksonline/page-1153b/">1153</a> and iterated maps, <a href="/nksonline/page-918c/">918</a> Chaitin, Gregory J. (USA/Argentina, 1947– ) and algorithmic randomness, <a href="/nksonline/page-1067b/">1068</a> and experimental math, <a href="/nksonline/page-899c/">899</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> and randomness in arithmetic, <a href="/nksonline/page-1067a/">1067</a> and universal objects, <a href="/nksonline/page-1127b/">1127</a> Champernowne, David G. (England, 1912–2000) and normal numbers, <a href="/nksonline/page-912c/">912</a> Chaté, Hugues (France, 1961– ) and CA classes, <a href="/nksonline/page-948f/">948</a> and continuous CAs, <a href="/nksonline/page-921g/">922</a> Chomsky, Noam (USA, 1928– ) and generative grammars, <a href="/nksonline/page-938d/">939</a> and models of language, <a href="/nksonline/page-1103c/">1104</a> and universals in language, <a href="/nksonline/page-1181a/">1181</a> Church, Alonzo (USA, 1903–1995) and Church's Thesis, <a href="/nksonline/page-1125d/">1125</a> and defining randomness, <a href="/nksonline/page-1067b/">1068</a> and lambda calculus, <a href="/nksonline/page-1121c/">1121</a> and models of computation, <a href="/nksonline/page-878a/">879</a> and number combinators, <a href="/nksonline/page-1121d/">1122</a> and origins of universality, <a href="/nksonline/page-1109h/">1110</a> and undecidability, <a href="/nksonline/page-1136d/">1136</a> Cicero, M. Tullius (Italy, 106–43 BC) and free will, <a href="/nksonline/page-1135b/">1135</a> Clausius, Rudolf J. E. (Germany, 1822–1888) and thermodynamics, <a href="/nksonline/page-1019b/">1019</a> Cocconi, Giuseppe (Italy/USA/Switzerland, 1914–[2008]) and SETI, <a href="/nksonline/page-1188b/">1189</a> Codd, Edgar F. (USA, 1923–[2003]) and universal CAs, <a href="/nksonline/page-1117b/">1117</a> Cohen, Paul J. (USA, 1934–[2007]) and continuum hypothesis, <a href="/nksonline/page-1154c/">1155</a> Conway, John H. (England/USA, 1937–[2020]) and arithmetic recurrences, <a href="/nksonline/page-1115a/">1115</a> and Game of Life, <a href="/nksonline/page-876b/">877</a>, <a href="/nksonline/page-878a/">880</a>, <a href="/nksonline/page-949a/">949</a> and iterated run-length encoding, <a href="/nksonline/page-905e/">905</a> and non-periodic tilings, <a href="/nksonline/page-943c/">943</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> and recursive sequences, <a href="/nksonline/page-907a/">907</a> and universality of Life, <a href="/nksonline/page-1117b/">1117</a> Cook, Matthew (USA, 1970– ) and cyclic tag systems, <a href="/nksonline/page-895e/">895</a> and polyomino tiling, <a href="/nksonline/page-943d/">943</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xii/">xii</a> and rule 110, <a href="/nksonline/page-1115c/">1115</a> Cook, Stephen A. (USA/Canada, 1939– ) and NP completeness, <a href="/nksonline/page-1143a/">1143</a> Cosmas (Italy, ~1210 – ~1235) and mosaic patterns, <a href="/nksonline/page-872d/">873</a> Cowe, Russell J. (UK, 1946– ) and shell patterns, <a href="/nksonline/page-1012b/">1012</a> Crutchfield, James P. (USA, 1955– ) and Markov models, <a href="/nksonline/page-1084a/">1084</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> Curry, Haskell B. (USA, 1900–1982) and combinators, <a href="/nksonline/page-898b/">898</a> da Vinci, Leonardo (Italy, 1452–1519) and fluid turbulence, <a href="/nksonline/page-997a/">997</a> and geometrical rules, <a href="/nksonline/page-878a/">878</a> and math in science, <a href="/nksonline/page-859a/">859</a> and phyllotaxis, <a href="/nksonline/page-1007a/">1007</a> and rule-based pictures, <a href="/nksonline/page-874b/">875</a> and theory of lunes, <a href="/nksonline/page-872d/">873</a> Dante Alighieri (Italy, 1265–1321) and rhyming schemes, <a href="/nksonline/page-874b/">875</a> Darwin, Charles R. (England, 1809–1882) and Origin of Species, <a href="/nksonline/page-1001e/">1001</a> and origins of complexity, <a href="/nksonline/page-861a/">861</a> Davis, H. Chandler (USA/Canada, 1926– ) and dragon curves, <a href="/nksonline/page-893a/">893</a> Davis, Martin D. (USA, 1928– ) and Diophantine equations, <a href="/nksonline/page-1161a/">1161</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> de Broglie, Louis-V.-P.-R. (France, 1892–1987) and wave-particle duality, <a href="/nksonline/page-1056a/">1056</a> de Bruijn, Nicolaas G. (Netherlands, 1918–[2012]) and maximal sequences, <a href="/nksonline/page-1088a/">1089</a> de Moivre, Abraham (France/England, 1667–1754) and Gaussian distribution, <a href="/nksonline/page-977a/">977</a> Dedekind, J. W. Richard (Germany, 1831–1916) and axioms for arithmetic, <a href="/nksonline/page-1152a/">1152</a> and categoricity of models, <a href="/nksonline/page-1172d/">1172</a> and primitive recursion, <a href="/nksonline/page-907b/">907</a> and real numbers, <a href="/nksonline/page-1153g/">1153</a> Dehn, Max W. (Germany, 1878–1952) and word problem for groups, <a href="/nksonline/page-1141b/">1141</a> Democritus (Greece, ~460 – ~370 BC) and atomism, <a href="/nksonline/page-876a/">876</a> and extraterrestrial life, <a href="/nksonline/page-1180a/">1180</a> Descartes, René (France/Netherlands, 1596–1650) and complexity in biology, <a href="/nksonline/page-861c/">861</a> and discrete space, <a href="/nksonline/page-1027c/">1027</a> and equiangular spirals, <a href="/nksonline/page-1008e/">1008</a> and snowflakes, <a href="/nksonline/page-992h/">992</a> and sums of three squares, <a href="/nksonline/page-910d/">910</a> and theoretical biology, <a href="/nksonline/page-1003g/">1003</a> and Turing test, <a href="/nksonline/page-1099a/">1099</a> Deutsch, David (England, 1953– ) in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> and quantum computers, <a href="/nksonline/page-1147d/">1147</a> Diffie, Whitfield (USA, 1944– ) and cryptography, <a href="/nksonline/page-1089e/">1089</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> Diophantus (Egypt, ~246 – ~330 AD) and Diophantine equations, <a href="/nksonline/page-944f/">944</a> Dirac, Paul A. M. (England, 1902–1984) and history of quantum mechanics, <a href="/nksonline/page-1056a/">1056</a> Drake, Frank D. (USA, 1930– ) and SETI, <a href="/nksonline/page-1188b/">1189</a> Drexler, K. Eric (USA, 1955– ) and nanotechnology, <a href="/nksonline/page-1193b/">1193</a> Duhem, Pierre M. M. (France, 1861–1916) and chaos theory, <a href="/nksonline/page-971c/">971</a> Dürer, Albrecht (Germany, 1471–1528) and parametrizing growth, <a href="/nksonline/page-1010d/">1010</a> Eddington, Arthur S. (England, 1882–1944) and models of the universe, <a href="/nksonline/page-1025d/">1025</a> Eden, Murray (USA, 1920– ) and aggregation systems, <a href="/nksonline/page-978b/">978</a> Edgerton, Harold E. (USA, 1903–1990) and splashes, <a href="/nksonline/page-1000c/">1000</a> Edison, Thomas A. (USA, 1847–1931) and searching for materials, <a href="/nksonline/page-1193c/">1193</a> Ehrlich, Paul (Germany, 1854–1915) and chemotherapy, <a href="/nksonline/page-1193c/">1193</a> Einstein, Albert (Germany/Switzerland/USA, 1879–1955) and EPR experiment, <a href="/nksonline/page-1056a/">1058</a> and general relativity, <a href="/nksonline/page-1047c/">1047</a> and math in science, <a href="/nksonline/page-860a/">860</a> and particles as gravity, <a href="/nksonline/page-1053a/">1054</a> and quantum theory, <a href="/nksonline/page-1056a/">1056</a> and special relativity, <a href="/nksonline/page-1041c/">1041</a> and unified field theory, <a href="/nksonline/page-1028a/">1028</a> Elkies, Noam D. (USA, 1966– ) and nearby powers, <a href="/nksonline/page-1166b/">1166</a> in Preface, <a href="/nksonline/page-xiii/">xiii</a> Epicurus (Greece, 341–270 BC) and randomness, <a href="/nksonline/page-967c/">967</a> Eratosthenes (Egypt, 276–195 BC) and prime sieve, <a href="/nksonline/page-908b/">909</a> Ermentrout, G. Bard (USA, 1954– ) and patterns on shells, <a href="/nksonline/page-1012b/">1012</a> Escher, Maurits C. (Netherlands, 1898–1972) and ornamental art, <a href="/nksonline/page-872d/">874</a> Euclid (?Egypt, ~300 BC) and axioms for geometry, <a href="/nksonline/page-1154a/">1154</a> and foundations of math, <a href="/nksonline/page-1149b/">1149</a> and math in science, <a href="/nksonline/page-859a/">859</a> and mathematical induction, <a href="/nksonline/page-1152a/">1152</a> and nature of space, <a href="/nksonline/page-1028a/">1028</a> and perfect numbers, <a href="/nksonline/page-911d/">911</a> and primes, <a href="/nksonline/page-908b/">909</a> theorem network of, <a href="/nksonline/page-1176b/">1176</a> and theory of lunes, <a href="/nksonline/page-872d/">873</a> Euler, Leonhard (Switzerland/Russia/Germany, 1707–1783) and continued fractions, <a href="/nksonline/page-914d/">914</a>, <a href="/nksonline/page-915a/">915</a> and a cubic Diophantine equation, <a href="/nksonline/page-1165a/">1165</a> and differential geometry, <a href="/nksonline/page-1009b/">1009</a> and equations for geodesics, <a href="/nksonline/page-1049a/">1049</a> and Fermat's Last Theorem, <a href="/nksonline/page-1166d/">1166</a> and number theory, <a href="/nksonline/page-878a/">878</a> and perfect numbers, <a href="/nksonline/page-911d/">911</a> and primes, <a href="/nksonline/page-908b/">909</a> </div> </div> </div> </main> <script src="/nks/js/shared.en.js"></script> <script src="/nks/index/names/js/names.en.js"></script>  <div id ="IPstripe-wrap"></div> <script src="/common/stripe/stripe.en.js"></script> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "WebSite", "name": "Stephen Wolfram: A New Kind of Science | Online", "description": "The latest on exploring the computational universe, with free online access to Stephen Wolfram's classic 1,200-page breakthrough book, \"A New Kind of Science\".", "keywords": "A New Kind of Science Online, NKS Online, NKSO", "url": "https://www.wolframscience.com/nks/", "image": "https://www.wolframscience.com/nks/img/a-new-kind-of-science-cover.png", "inLanguage": "en", "creator": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Wolfram" } } </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "WebPage", "name": "[Index: A-E] Index of People Referenced in Stephen Wolfram: A New Kind of Science | Online", "description": "People in A New Kind of Science, together with basic biographical data. 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[Index: A-E] Index of People Referenced in Stephen Wolfram: A New Kind of Science | Online