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vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Americiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antimonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antimonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Antimonies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antimonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Argons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Argons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arsenics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arsenics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Arsenics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arsenics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allemontites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allemontites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Allemontites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allemontites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astatines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astatines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Astatines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astatines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uraninites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uraninites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Uraninites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uraninites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bariums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bariums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bariums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bariums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Berkeliums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Berkeliums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Berkeliums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Berkeliums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Berylliums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Berylliums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Berylliums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Berylliums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bismuths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bismuths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Bismuths </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bismuths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bohriums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bohriums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Bohriums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bohriums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Borons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Borons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Borons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Borons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qingsongites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qingsongites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 Qingsongites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qingsongites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wurtzite_BN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wurtzite_BN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19 Wurtzite BN </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wurtzite_BN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bromines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bromines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 20 Bromines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bromines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cadmiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cadmiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 21 Cadmiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cadmiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caesiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caesiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 22 Caesiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caesiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calciums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calciums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 23 Calciums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calciums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Californiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Californiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 24 Californiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Californiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 25 Carbons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ceriums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ceriums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 26 Ceriums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ceriums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chlorines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chlorines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 27 Chlorines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chlorines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chromiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chromiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 28 Chromiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chromiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cobalts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cobalts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 29 Cobalts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cobalts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coperniciums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coperniciums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 30 Coperniciums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coperniciums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coppers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coppers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 31 Coppers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coppers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Curiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Curiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 32 Curiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Curiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Darmstadiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Darmstadiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 33 Darmstadiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Darmstadiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dubniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dubniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 34 Dubniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dubniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dysprosiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dysprosiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 35 Dysprosiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dysprosiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Einsteiniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Einsteiniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 36 Einsteiniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Einsteiniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erbiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erbiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 37 Erbiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erbiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 38 Europiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fermiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fermiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 39 Fermiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fermiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flevoriums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flevoriums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 40 Flevoriums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flevoriums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluorines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluorines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 41 Fluorines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluorines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Franciums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Franciums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 42 Franciums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Franciums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gadoliniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gadoliniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 43 Gadoliniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gadoliniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Galliums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galliums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 44 Galliums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galliums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germaniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germaniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 45 Germaniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germaniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Golds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Golds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 46 Golds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Golds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hafniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hafniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 47 Hafniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hafniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hassiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hassiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 48 Hassiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hassiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heliums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heliums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 49 Heliums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heliums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holmiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holmiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 50 Holmiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holmiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 51 Hydrogens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 52 Indiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iodines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iodines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 53 Iodines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iodines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iridiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iridiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 54 Iridiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iridiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 55 Irons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meteoritic_irons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meteoritic_irons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 56 Meteoritic irons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meteoritic_irons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_hydrides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_hydrides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 57 Iron hydrides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_hydrides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kryptons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kryptons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 58 Kryptons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kryptons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lanthanums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lanthanums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 59 Lanthanums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lanthanums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lawrenciums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lawrenciums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 60 Lawrenciums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lawrenciums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 61 Leads </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lithiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 62 Lithiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Livermoriums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Livermoriums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 63 Livermoriums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Livermoriums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lutetiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lutetiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 64 Lutetiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lutetiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnesiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnesiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 65 Magnesiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnesiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manganeses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manganeses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 66 Manganeses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manganeses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meitneriums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meitneriums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 67 Meitneriums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meitneriums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mendeleviums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mendeleviums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 68 Mendeleviums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mendeleviums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mercuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mercuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 69 Mercuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mercuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metalloids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metalloids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 70 Metalloids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metalloids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moscoviums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moscoviums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 71 Moscoviums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moscoviums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molybdenums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molybdenums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 72 Molybdenums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molybdenums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neodymiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neodymiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 73 Neodymiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neodymiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 74 Neons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neptuniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neptuniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 75 Neptuniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neptuniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nickels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nickels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 76 Nickels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nickels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nihoniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nihoniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 77 Nihoniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nihoniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nihonium_monofluorides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nihonium_monofluorides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 78 Nihonium monofluorides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nihonium_monofluorides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nihonium_monohydrides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nihonium_monohydrides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 79 Nihonium monohydrides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nihonium_monohydrides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nihonium_monoiodides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nihonium_monoiodides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 80 Nihonium monoiodides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nihonium_monoiodides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Niobiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Niobiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 81 Niobiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Niobiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nitrogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nitrogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 82 Nitrogens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nitrogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carlsbergites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carlsbergites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 83 Carlsbergites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carlsbergites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nobeliums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nobeliums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 84 Nobeliums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nobeliums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oganessons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oganessons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 85 Oganessons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oganessons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Osmiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Osmiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 86 Osmiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Osmiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxygens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxygens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 87 Oxygens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxygens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palladiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palladiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 88 Palladiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palladiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potarites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potarites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 89 Potarites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potarites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phosphoruses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phosphoruses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 90 Phosphoruses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phosphoruses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Platinums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Platinums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 91 Platinums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Platinums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooperites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooperites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 92 Cooperites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooperites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plutoniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plutoniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 93 Plutoniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plutoniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poloniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poloniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 94 Poloniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poloniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potassiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potassiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 95 Potassiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potassiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Praseodymiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Praseodymiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 96 Praseodymiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Praseodymiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Promethiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Promethiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 97 Promethiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Promethiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protactiniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protactiniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 98 Protactiniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protactiniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 99 Radiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 100 Radons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rheniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rheniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 101 Rheniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rheniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhodiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhodiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 102 Rhodiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhodiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roentgeniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roentgeniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 103 Roentgeniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roentgeniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rubidiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rubidiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 104 Rubidiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rubidiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rutheniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rutheniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 105 Rutheniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rutheniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rutherfordiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rutherfordiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 106 Rutherfordiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rutherfordiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samariums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samariums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 107 Samariums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samariums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scandiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scandiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 108 Scandiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scandiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seaborgiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seaborgiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 109 Seaborgiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seaborgiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seleniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seleniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 110 Seleniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seleniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Achávalites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Achávalites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 111 Achávalites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Achávalites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clausthalites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clausthalites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 112 Clausthalites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clausthalites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siderophiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siderophiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 113 Siderophiles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siderophiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silicons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 114 Silicons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silicon_hydrogenated_amorphous_carbons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicon_hydrogenated_amorphous_carbons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 115 Silicon hydrogenated amorphous carbons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicon_hydrogenated_amorphous_carbons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moissanite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moissanite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 116 Moissanite </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moissanite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silvers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silvers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 117 Silvers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silvers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bromyrites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bromyrites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 118 Bromyrites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bromyrites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iodyrites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iodyrites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 119 Iodyrites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iodyrites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sodiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sodiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 120 Sodiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sodiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluorites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluorites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 121 Fluorites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluorites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strontiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strontiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 122 Strontiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strontiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sulfurs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sulfurs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 123 Sulfurs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sulfurs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tantalums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tantalums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 124 Tantalums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tantalums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technetiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technetiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 125 Technetiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technetiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telluriums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telluriums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 126 Telluriums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telluriums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Altaites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altaites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 127 Altaites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altaites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tennessines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tennessines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 128 Tennessines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tennessines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terbiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terbiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 129 Terbiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terbiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thalliums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thalliums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 130 Thalliums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thalliums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thoriums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thoriums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 131 Thoriums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thoriums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monazites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monazites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 132 Monazites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monazites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umbozerites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umbozerites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 133 Umbozerites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umbozerites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thuliums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thuliums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 134 Thuliums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thuliums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 135 Tins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronzes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronzes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 136 Bronzes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronzes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Titaniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Titaniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 137 Titaniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Titaniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Osbornites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Osbornites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 138 Osbornites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Osbornites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tungstens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tungstens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 139 Tungstens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tungstens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uraniums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uraniums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 140 Uraniums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uraniums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vanadiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vanadiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 141 Vanadiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vanadiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xenons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xenons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 142 Xenons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xenons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ytterbiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ytterbiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 143 Ytterbiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ytterbiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ytterbium_Oxides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ytterbium_Oxides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 144 Ytterbium Oxides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ytterbium_Oxides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yttriums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yttriums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 145 Yttriums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yttriums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yttrium_nitrides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yttrium_nitrides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 146 Yttrium nitrides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yttrium_nitrides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zincs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zincs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 147 Zincs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zincs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brasses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brasses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 148 Brasses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brasses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zincites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zincites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 149 Zincites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zincites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zinc_selenides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zinc_selenides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 150 Zinc selenides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zinc_selenides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zirconiums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zirconiums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 151 Zirconiums </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zirconiums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypotheses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypotheses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 152 Hypotheses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypotheses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 153 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 154 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div 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dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy" title="User:Marshallsumter/Radiation astronomy">Radiation astronomy</a></bdi></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Swarm-satellite.jpg" class="new" title="File:Swarm-satellite.jpg">File:Swarm-satellite.jpg</a><figcaption>The "Swarm" satellites have been flying around Earth since Fall of 2013. Credit: Christoph Seidler, ESA/DTU.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "Three [Swarm] satellites of the European Space Agency (ESA) have measured the magnetic field of Earth more precisely than ever before."<a href="#cite_note-Seidler-1">[1]</a> Alloys included here may be "a combination of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal", an "admixture", anything "made by combining several things", a "substance made from any combination of ingredients" or "a substance made from the chemical combination of elements". <div style="clear:both;"></div> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explorations_(Earth)">Explorations (Earth)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Explorations (Earth)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Explorations (Earth)">edit source</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2661592">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Exploration_geology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Exploration geology (page does not exist)">Exploration geology</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Togo_phosphates_mining.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Togo_phosphates_mining.jpg/300px-Togo_phosphates_mining.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Togo_phosphates_mining.jpg/450px-Togo_phosphates_mining.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Togo_phosphates_mining.jpg/600px-Togo_phosphates_mining.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Phosphate mining in Togo is a last phase of exploration geology. Credit: Alexandra Pugachevsky.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "Exploration geology is the single most important and very first phase of mining. It begins by identifying what mineral/minerals is/are to be exploited, their geological setting, approximate size of orebody required and potential areas. Once these factors are considered, funds are required to finance the exploration project. Usually exploration companies list on stock exchanges to raise the required capital. Exploration begins by firstly gathering any possible data available on the resource, area, local geology usually from the geological survey, from satellite imagery as well as previous scientific work. The next phase usually involves geotechnical prospecting which makes use of either seismic, electrical, magnetic, radioactive or density techniques. Once a suitable area has been found, holes are drilled and the core retrieved is logged and correlated against other logs to form a model of the orebody. Once sufficient holes have been drilled and the ore tested for qualities, feasibility studies and due diligence work can commence."<a href="#cite_note-MuhammadMoolla-2">[2]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alloys">Alloys</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Alloys" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Alloys">edit source</a>]</div> Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character.<a href="#cite_note-Callister-3">[3]</a> Def. a "metal that is a combination of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal"<a href="#cite_note-AlloyWikt-4">[4]</a> or an "admixture"<a href="#cite_note-AlloyWikt1-5">[5]</a>, "instance of admixing [mingling], a mixing-in of something"<a href="#cite_note-AdmixtureWikt-6">[6]</a> is called an alloy. Def. anything "made by combining several things",<a href="#cite_note-CompoundWikt1-7">[7]</a> a "substance formed by chemical union [bonding]<a href="#cite_note-CompoundWikt3-8">[8]</a> of two or more ingredients [elements]<a href="#cite_note-CompoundWikt3-8">[8]</a> in definite proportions by weight",<a href="#cite_note-CompoundWikt2-9">[9]</a> a "substance made from any combination of ingredients",<a href="#cite_note-CompoundWikt3-8">[8]</a> "a substance made from the chemical combination of elements"<a href="#cite_note-CompoundWikt-10">[10]</a> is called a compound. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel.<a href="#cite_note-Verhoeven-11">[11]</a> The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its base element, but engineering properties such as tensile strength,<a href="#cite_note-Mills-12">[12]</a> ductility, and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Actiniums">Actiniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Actiniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Actiniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Actinium_sample_(31481701837).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Actinium_sample_%2831481701837%29.png/250px-Actinium_sample_%2831481701837%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Actinium_sample_%2831481701837%29.png/375px-Actinium_sample_%2831481701837%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Actinium_sample_%2831481701837%29.png/500px-Actinium_sample_%2831481701837%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Actinium-225 medical radioisotope held in a v-vial at ORNL; note: the blue glow that originates from the ionization of surrounding air by alpha particles. Credit: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/people/37940997@N05">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uraninite-39029.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Uraninite-39029.jpg/200px-Uraninite-39029.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Uraninite-39029.jpg/300px-Uraninite-39029.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Uraninite-39029.jpg/400px-Uraninite-39029.jpg 2x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption>Uraninite ores have elevated concentrations of actinium. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Robert_Matthew_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:user:Robert Matthew Lavinsky">Robert Matthew Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Actinium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Actinium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Actinium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Actinium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Actinium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Actinium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Actinium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Actinium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> AcOF, AcOCl, AcOBr exist. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aluminums">Aluminums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aluminums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Aluminums">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Aluminums" title="Chemicals/Aluminums">Chemicals/Aluminums</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Aluminum1.jpg" class="new" title="File:Aluminum1.jpg">File:Aluminum1.jpg</a><figcaption>Near the top center of this image is a gray reflective flake of native aluminum. Credit: Vasil Arnaudov.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_aluminum_in_polished_section_2.png" class="new" title="File:Native aluminum in polished section 2.png">File:Native aluminum in polished section 2.png</a><figcaption>The bright silvery flakes are native aluminum in a polished section. Credit: Thomas Witzke / Abraxas-Verlag.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Aluminum_flame.png" class="new" title="File:Aluminum flame.png">File:Aluminum flame.png</a><figcaption>The image shows the color of aluminum in a natural gas burner. Credit: Alternative Fuels Laboratory/McGill University. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aluminium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Aluminium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Aluminium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Aluminium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Aluminium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Aluminium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Aluminium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Aluminium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> This flake was discovered, "During a field trip to the NW Rila Mountain in the early 1960s, one of us (V.A.) investigated the desilicated pegmatite apophysis and, from the phlogopite zone (Fig. 1c), collected a rock specimen with a protruding metallic flake visible to the naked eye (Fig. 2) [from which the above image was cropped]."<a href="#cite_note-Dekov-13">[13]</a> The designation for native aluminum is Al0 as indicated in, "Here we present data for a unique Al0 flake protruding from the phlogopite matrix of a rock specimen collected from a desilicated pegmatite vein."<a href="#cite_note-Dekov-13">[13]</a> Native aluminium metal is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.<a href="#cite_note-WebmineralAluminums-14">[14]</a> Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea, where these deposits may have resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4−.<a href="#cite_note-Chen_2011-15">[15]</a> The second image of native aluminum is shown on the right of this section. The sample is from a mud volcano in the Caspian Sea near Baku, Azerbaidzhan. The type locality for native aluminum is the Tolbachik volcano, Kamchatka, Russia. Def. any "intermetallic compound of aluminium and a more electropositive element"<a href="#cite_note-AluminideWikt-16">[16]</a> is called an aluminide. The aluminides are those naturally occurring minerals with a high atomic % aluminum. In the image on the right of a flake of native aluminum, the scale bar = 1 mm. The typical alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, tin and zinc. Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon) in the Earth's crust, and the most abundant metal there. It makes up about 8% by mass of the crust, though it is less common in the mantle below. As a mineral occurrence, aluminum is mostly an oxide. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Americiums">Americiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Americiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Americiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Americium_microscope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Americium_microscope.jpg/250px-Americium_microscope.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Americium_microscope.jpg/375px-Americium_microscope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Americium_microscope.jpg/500px-Americium_microscope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="981" /></a><figcaption>A small disc of Am-241 is shown under the microscope. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Bionerd" class="extiw" title="c:user:Bionerd">Bionerd</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Americium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Americium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Americium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Americium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Americium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Americium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Americium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Americium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Sorption of americium at trace levels has been detected on a clay mineral.<a href="#cite_note-Stammose-17">[17]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antimonies">Antimonies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Antimonies" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Antimonies">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antimony_massive.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Antimony_massive.jpg/200px-Antimony_massive.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Antimony_massive.jpg/300px-Antimony_massive.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Antimony_massive.jpg/400px-Antimony_massive.jpg 2x" data-file-width="494" data-file-height="462" /></a><figcaption>This is massive antimony with oxidation products from Arechuybo, Mexico. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Aramgutang" class="extiw" title="c:User:Aramgutang">Aram Dulyan</a> at the Natural History Museum, London.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antimony-229849.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Antimony-229849.jpg/200px-Antimony-229849.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Antimony-229849.jpg/300px-Antimony-229849.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Antimony-229849.jpg/400px-Antimony-229849.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption>The native antimony crystals, lustrous and nicely striated in part, range up to 0.5 cm in size. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Robert_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:User:Robert Lavinsky">Robert Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSb.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSb.png/100px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSb.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSb.png/150px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSb.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSb.png/200px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSb.png 2x" data-file-width="336" data-file-height="903" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of antimony in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/user:Herge" class="extiw" title="de:user:Herge">Herge</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antimony_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Antimony_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Antimony_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Antimony_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Antimony_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Antimony_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Antimony_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Antimony spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Native antimony such as occurs in the rock on the upper right with its various oxidation products is crystalline in the hexagonal system. The image on the left shows hexagonal crystals with metallic luster. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Argons">Argons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Argons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Argons">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Argons" title="Chemicals/Argons">Chemicals/Argons</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arsenics">Arsenics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Arsenics" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Arsenics">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_arsenic_from_silver_vein.jpg" class="new" title="File:Native arsenic from silver vein.jpg">File:Native arsenic from silver vein.jpg</a><figcaption>Native arsenic such as this specimen is found in silver ore veins. Credit: Amethyst Galleries, Inc.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Native_arsenic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Native_arsenic.jpg/200px-Native_arsenic.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Native_arsenic.jpg/300px-Native_arsenic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Native_arsenic.jpg/400px-Native_arsenic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>This massive native arsenic with quartz and calcite is from Ste. Marie-aux-mines, Alsace, France. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Aramgutang" class="extiw" title="c:User:Aramgutang">Aram Dulyan</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ultrapure_metallic_arsenic_under_argon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Ultrapure_metallic_arsenic_under_argon.jpg/250px-Ultrapure_metallic_arsenic_under_argon.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Ultrapure_metallic_arsenic_under_argon.jpg/375px-Ultrapure_metallic_arsenic_under_argon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Ultrapure_metallic_arsenic_under_argon.jpg/500px-Ultrapure_metallic_arsenic_under_argon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="752" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>Ultrapure metallic arsenic is kept under argon, 1-2 grams. Credit: Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungAs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungAs.jpg/100px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungAs.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="358" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungAs.jpg/150px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungAs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungAs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="172" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of arsenic in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/user:Herge" class="extiw" title="de:user:Herge">Herge</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arsenic_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Arsenic_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Arsenic_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Arsenic_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Arsenic_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Arsenic_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Arsenic_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Arsenic emission spectrum is for 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Native arsenic such as in the image on the right occurs in silver ore veins. "The dominant group V source is arsenic, although antimony and phosphorous sources are not atypical."<a href="#cite_note-Melloch-18">[18]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Allemontites">Allemontites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Allemontites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Allemontites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allemontite_-_USGS_Mineral_Specimens_008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Allemontite_-_USGS_Mineral_Specimens_008.jpg/200px-Allemontite_-_USGS_Mineral_Specimens_008.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Allemontite_-_USGS_Mineral_Specimens_008.jpg/300px-Allemontite_-_USGS_Mineral_Specimens_008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Allemontite_-_USGS_Mineral_Specimens_008.jpg/400px-Allemontite_-_USGS_Mineral_Specimens_008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1050" /></a><figcaption>Allemontite (with Pen for scale) is from the mineral collection of Brigham Young University Department of Geology, Provo, Utah. Credit: Andrew Silver, USGS.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allemontite-118476.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Allemontite-118476.jpg/200px-Allemontite-118476.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Allemontite-118476.jpg/300px-Allemontite-118476.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Allemontite-118476.jpg/400px-Allemontite-118476.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>Allemontite specimen is from Příbram, Central Bohemia Region, Bohemia (Böhmen; Boehmen), Czech Republic. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Robert_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:User:Robert Lavinsky">Robert Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Allemontite is a native alloy of arsenic and antimony, with a composition of AsSb.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts-19">[19]</a> The first example on the right is from the mineral collection of Brigham Young University Department of Geology, Provo, Utah. The second on the left is from Příbram, Central Bohemia Region, Bohemia (Böhmen; Boehmen), Czech Republic. As a natural source of arsenic, it has 50 at % arsenic. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Astatines">Astatines</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Astatines" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Astatines">edit source</a>]</div> Astatine iodide has the chemical formula AtI. Astatine bromide has the chemical formula AtBr. Astatine monochloride (AtCl) is made either by the direct combination of gas-phase astatine with chlorine or by the sequential addition of astatine and dichromate ion to an acidic chloride solution. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uraninites">Uraninites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Uraninites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Uraninites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Uraninite_Astatine_source.jpg" class="new" title="File:Uraninite Astatine source.jpg">File:Uraninite Astatine source.jpg</a><figcaption>The rarest naturally occurring element on Earth is named Astatine and it occurs in uraninite as a uranium decay product. Credit: Fred E. Davis.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Uraninite_crystal_cluster.jpg" class="new" title="File:Uraninite crystal cluster.jpg">File:Uraninite crystal cluster.jpg</a><figcaption>A cluster of seven crystals, four are visible, in the photo of uraninite, with a yellow uranophane coating. Credit: Fred E. Davis.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> All of the known isotopes of astatine are very short-lived. Astatine occurs naturally in minerals such as uraninite as a decay product of uranium. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bariums">Bariums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bariums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Bariums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barium_unter_Argon_Schutzgas_Atmosph%C3%A4re.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Barium_unter_Argon_Schutzgas_Atmosph%C3%A4re.jpg/250px-Barium_unter_Argon_Schutzgas_Atmosph%C3%A4re.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Barium_unter_Argon_Schutzgas_Atmosph%C3%A4re.jpg/375px-Barium_unter_Argon_Schutzgas_Atmosph%C3%A4re.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Barium_unter_Argon_Schutzgas_Atmosph%C3%A4re.jpg/500px-Barium_unter_Argon_Schutzgas_Atmosph%C3%A4re.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>Pure barium metal in a protective argon gas atmosphere. Credit: Matthias Zepper.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Barium_flame.png" class="new" title="File:Barium flame.png">File:Barium flame.png</a><figcaption>The image shows the color of barium in a natural gas burner. Credit: Ernest Z. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_barium_(1975).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Phase_diagram_of_barium_%281975%29.png/250px-Phase_diagram_of_barium_%281975%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Phase_diagram_of_barium_%281975%29.png 1.5x" data-file-width="373" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption>This is a pressure-temperature phase diagram for barium. Credit: David A. Young, ERDA.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Barium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Barium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Barium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Barium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Barium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Barium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Barium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Barium is bcc (α-Ba) at room temperature as the phase diagram on the left indicates. It does change to an hcp structure at high pressures and temperatures. Native barium is not known to occur on the surface of the Earth. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Berkeliums">Berkeliums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Berkeliums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Berkeliums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gabon_Geology_Oklo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Gabon_Geology_Oklo.svg/200px-Gabon_Geology_Oklo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Gabon_Geology_Oklo.svg/300px-Gabon_Geology_Oklo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Gabon_Geology_Oklo.svg/400px-Gabon_Geology_Oklo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1060" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption>The geological situation in Gabon leading to natural nuclear fission reactors is described 1. Nuclear reactor zones 2. Sandstone 3. Uranium ore layer 4. Granite. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:MesserWoland" class="extiw" title="c:User:MesserWoland">MesserWoland</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berkelium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Berkelium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Berkelium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Berkelium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Berkelium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Berkelium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Berkelium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Berkelium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Like americium and curium it "is possible that some berkelium and other transuranic elements were created in the natural nuclear reactor in Oklo, Gabon."<a href="#cite_note-jolyonBk-20">[20]</a> A natural nuclear fission reactor is a uranium mineral deposit where self-sustaining <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nuclear_chain_reaction" class="extiw" title="w:nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reactions</a> have occurred. This can be examined by analysis of isotope ratios. The existence of this phenomenon was discovered in 1972 at Oklo in Gabon, Africa. Oklo is the only known location for this in the world and consists of 16 sites at which self-sustaining nuclear fission reactions took place approximately 1.7 billion years ago, and ran for a few hundred thousand years, averaging 100 kW of thermal power during that time.<a href="#cite_note-Meshik-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gauthier-Lafaye1996-22">[22]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Berylliums">Berylliums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Berylliums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Berylliums">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Berylliums" title="Chemicals/Berylliums">Chemicals/Berylliums</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beryllium_emission_spectrum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Beryllium_emission_spectrum.png/400px-Beryllium_emission_spectrum.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Beryllium_emission_spectrum.png/600px-Beryllium_emission_spectrum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Beryllium_emission_spectrum.png 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="70" /></a><figcaption>This spectrograph shows the visual spectral lines of beryllium. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Penyulap" class="extiw" title="c:User:Penyulap">Penyulap</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Be-140g.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Be-140g.jpg/220px-Be-140g.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Be-140g.jpg/330px-Be-140g.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Be-140g.jpg/440px-Be-140g.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Beryllium is > 99 % pure, crystalline big fragment > 140 g. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Beryllium-Chromium_phase_diagram.png" class="new" title="File:Beryllium-Chromium phase diagram.png">File:Beryllium-Chromium phase diagram.png</a><figcaption>This is a beryllium-chromium phase diagram. Credit: M. Venkatraman and J.P. Neumann.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Beryllium has at least six emission/absorption lines across the red. The emission and absorption spectra for beryllium contain lines in the blue. Beryllium occurs in a hexgonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure at room temperature (α-Be). As indicated in the phase diagram on the left beryllium occurs as (β-Be) which is bcc at higher temperatures up to melting. Native beryllium is not known to occur on the surface of the Earth, but may eventually be found among beryllium-bearing minerals in small amounts. Beryllium copper (BeCu), also known as copper beryllium (CuBe), beryllium bronze and spring copper, is a copper alloy with 0.5–3% beryllium,<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> but can contain other elements as well. Beryllium can be alloyed with nickel and aluminum.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bismuths">Bismuths</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bismuths" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Bismuths">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bismuth-113484.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Bismuth-113484.jpg/250px-Bismuth-113484.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Bismuth-113484.jpg/375px-Bismuth-113484.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Bismuth-113484.jpg/500px-Bismuth-113484.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="548" /></a><figcaption>A rich small mini of the native element bismuth is from from China. Credit: Robert M. Lavinsky.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bismuth_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Bismuth_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Bismuth_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Bismuth_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Bismuth_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Bismuth_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Bismuth_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Bismuth spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Bismuth does occur on Earth as native bismuth exampled on the right. "Strong absorption lines due to Bi II have been found in the Hg—Mn star HR7775 (HD193452) in high-resolution spectra obtained with the IUE."<a href="#cite_note-Jacobs-25">[25]</a> "Detailed examination of the optical spectrum at high resolution1 showed that it is one of the most extreme stars of the ‘cool’ Hg—Mn group, with strong enhancements of Hg, Pt, Sr, Y, and Ga; the last of these is confirmed2 by the very strong Ga II resonance line at 1,414 Å. Four-colour Strömgren photometry of HR7775 (ref. 3), interpreted with the aid of the model atmosphere calibrations by Relyea and Kurucz4, gives Teff = 10,800 K, log g = 4.2, while the Hβ index gives log g = 4.0 according to the calibration of Schmidt5."<a href="#cite_note-Jacobs-25">[25]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bohriums">Bohriums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bohriums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Bohriums">edit source</a>]</div> Chemistry experiments have confirmed that bohrium behaves as the heavier homologue to rhenium in group 7. The chemical properties of bohrium are characterized only partly, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 7 elements. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Borons">Borons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Borons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Borons">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Borons" title="Chemicals/Borons">Chemicals/Borons</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boron_R105.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Boron_R105.jpg/250px-Boron_R105.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Boron_R105.jpg/375px-Boron_R105.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Boron_R105.jpg/500px-Boron_R105.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>These polycrystalline chunks are rhombohedral β-boron, net 25.5 grams. Credit: James L Marshall.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boron_phase_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Boron_phase_diagram.svg/250px-Boron_phase_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Boron_phase_diagram.svg/375px-Boron_phase_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Boron_phase_diagram.svg/500px-Boron_phase_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1209" data-file-height="955" /></a><figcaption>Phase diagram is elemental boron (colors represent actuals). Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Fulvio314" class="extiw" title="c:user:Fulvio314">Fulvio314</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boron_emission_spectrum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Boron_emission_spectrum.png/400px-Boron_emission_spectrum.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Boron_emission_spectrum.png/600px-Boron_emission_spectrum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Boron_emission_spectrum.png 2x" data-file-width="783" data-file-height="77" /></a><figcaption>This spectrograph shows the visual spectral lines of boron. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Penyulap" class="extiw" title="c:User:Penyulap">Penyulap</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boron_(B).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Boron_%28B%29.jpg/250px-Boron_%28B%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Boron_%28B%29.jpg/375px-Boron_%28B%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Boron_%28B%29.jpg/500px-Boron_%28B%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1472" data-file-height="1472" /></a><figcaption>Crystalline boron, which is shown here, is nearly as hard as diamond (9.5 on Mohs scale, diamond has 10). Credit: Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungB.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungB.png/100px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungB.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungB.png/150px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungB.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungB.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="538" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of boron in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/user:Herge" class="extiw" title="de:user:Herge">Herge</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. Boron is synthesized entirely by cosmic ray spallation and supernovae and not by stellar nucleosynthesis, so it is a low-abundance element in the Solar System and in the Earth's crust.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> It constitutes about 0.001 percent by weight of Earth's crust.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> It is concentrated on Earth by the water-solubility of its more common naturally occurring compounds, the borate mineral such as borax and kernite. Elemental boron is a metalloid that is found in small amounts in meteoroids but chemically uncombined boron is not otherwise found naturally on Earth. The "presence in ... cosmic radiation [is] of a much greater proportion of "secondary" nuclei, such as lithium, beryllium and boron, than is found generally in the universe."<a href="#cite_note-Gaisser-28">[28]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Qingsongites">Qingsongites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Qingsongites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Qingsongites">edit source</a>]</div> Qingsongite is a rare boron nitride (BN) mineral with cubic crystalline form first described in 2009 for an occurrence as minute inclusions within chromite deposits in the Luobusa ophiolite in the Shannan Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region, China.<a href="#cite_note-MindatQingsongite1977-29">[29]</a> It was recognized as a mineral in August 2013 by the International Mineralogical Association named after Chinese geologist Qingsong Fang (1939–2010).<a href="#cite_note-MindatQingsongite1977-29">[29]</a> Qingsongite is the only known boron mineral that is formed deep in the Earth's mantle.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Associated minerals or phases include osbornite (titanium nitride), coesite, kyanite and amorphous carbon.<a href="#cite_note-Pittalwala-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wurtzite_BN">Wurtzite BN</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Wurtzite BN" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Wurtzite BN">edit source</a>]</div> Only small amounts of the wurtzite form of boron nitride (w-BN) exist in nature as a mineral.<a href="#cite_note-Griggs-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bromines">Bromines</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bromines" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section's source code: Bromines">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Bromines" title="Chemicals/Bromines">Chemicals/Bromines</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cadmiums">Cadmiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cadmiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section's source code: Cadmiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg/250px-CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg/375px-CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption>Cadmium metal bowl is shown. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Halfdan" class="extiw" title="c:user:Halfdan">Halfdan</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cadmium-crystal_bar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cadmium-crystal_bar.jpg/250px-Cadmium-crystal_bar.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cadmium-crystal_bar.jpg/375px-Cadmium-crystal_bar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cadmium-crystal_bar.jpg/500px-Cadmium-crystal_bar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5220" data-file-height="3378" /></a><figcaption>A crystal cadmium bar, purity 99.999 %, made by the flux process, as well as a 1 cm3 cadmium cube for comparison. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cadmium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cadmium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Cadmium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cadmium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Cadmium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cadmium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Cadmium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Cadmium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The only cadmium mineral of importance, greenockite (CdS), is nearly always associated with sphalerite (ZnS). Cadmium is used in the control rods of nuclear reactors, acting as a very effective neutron poison to control neutron flux in nuclear fission.<a href="#cite_note-Scoullos-33">[33]</a> When cadmium rods are inserted in the core of a nuclear reactor, cadmium absorbs neutrons, preventing them from creating additional fission events, thus controlling the amount of reactivity. The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company uses an alloy consisting of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.<a href="#cite_note-Scoullos-33">[33]</a> In Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cadmium was used as heat, light, and weathering stabilizers.<a href="#cite_note-Scoullos-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jennings-34">[34]</a> Cadmium is used in many kinds of solder and bearing alloys, because it has a low coefficient of friction and fatigue resistance.<a href="#cite_note-Scoullos-33">[33]</a> It is also found in some of the lowest-melting alloys, such as Wood's metal.<a href="#cite_note-Brady-35">[35]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Caesiums">Caesiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Caesiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section's source code: Caesiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CsCrystals.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/CsCrystals.JPG/250px-CsCrystals.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/CsCrystals.JPG/375px-CsCrystals.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/CsCrystals.JPG/500px-CsCrystals.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>High pure cesium crystals show dendritic morphology. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Dnn87" class="extiw" title="c:user:Dnn87">Dnn87</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_cesium_(1975).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Phase_diagram_of_cesium_%281975%29.png/250px-Phase_diagram_of_cesium_%281975%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Phase_diagram_of_cesium_%281975%29.png/375px-Phase_diagram_of_cesium_%281975%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Phase_diagram_of_cesium_%281975%29.png 2x" data-file-width="386" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption>Temperature-pressure diagram for caesium, formerly known as "cesium". Credit: David A. Young, ERDA.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Caesium_flame.png" class="new" title="File:Caesium flame.png">File:Caesium flame.png</a><figcaption>The image shows the color of caesium in a natural gas burner. Credit: Ernest Z. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caesium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Caesium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Caesium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Caesium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Caesium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Caesium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Caesium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Caesium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> As the temperature-pressure diagram on the left shows, caesium (formerly cesium) is bcc (α-Cs) from room temperature up to melting. Native caesium does not appear to occur on the surface of the Earth or the Moon. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calciums">Calciums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Calciums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section's source code: Calciums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcium_unter_Argon_Schutzgasatmosph%C3%A4re.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Calcium_unter_Argon_Schutzgasatmosph%C3%A4re.jpg/250px-Calcium_unter_Argon_Schutzgasatmosph%C3%A4re.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Calcium_unter_Argon_Schutzgasatmosph%C3%A4re.jpg/375px-Calcium_unter_Argon_Schutzgasatmosph%C3%A4re.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Calcium_unter_Argon_Schutzgasatmosph%C3%A4re.jpg/500px-Calcium_unter_Argon_Schutzgasatmosph%C3%A4re.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1626" data-file-height="1068" /></a><figcaption>Pure calcium metal is shown in a protective argon atmosphere. Credit: Matthias Zepper.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Calcium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Calcium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Calcium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Calcium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Calcium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Calcium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Calcium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungCa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungCa.png/100px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungCa.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungCa.png/150px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungCa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungCa.png/200px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungCa.png 2x" data-file-width="495" data-file-height="1401" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of calcium in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/user:Herge" class="extiw" title="de:user:Herge">Herge</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcium_Spectrum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Calcium_Spectrum.jpg/400px-Calcium_Spectrum.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Calcium_Spectrum.jpg/600px-Calcium_Spectrum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Calcium_Spectrum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="64" /></a><figcaption>Spectrum of Ca is at 600/pmm. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/user:teravolt" class="extiw" title="w:user:teravolt">teravolt</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Aluminum-Calcium_phase_diagram.png" class="new" title="File:Aluminum-Calcium phase diagram.png">File:Aluminum-Calcium phase diagram.png</a><figcaption>This is an Aluminum-Calcium phase diagram. Credit: The ESA IMPRESS Team.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Calcium has a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure at room temperature. As shown in the phase diagram on the left, it does not change structure up to melting. Native calcium is not known to occur on the surface of the Earth. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Californiums">Californiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Californiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section's source code: Californiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Californium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Californium.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="176" data-file-height="158" /></a><figcaption>A disc of californium metal (249Cf, 10 mg). Credit: United States Department of Energy.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Californium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Californium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Californium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Californium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Californium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Californium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Californium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Californium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> It forms alloys with lanthanide metals.<a href="#cite_note-Haire-36">[36]</a> The element has two crystalline forms at standard atmospheric pressure: a double-hexagonal close-packed form dubbed alpha (α) and a face-centered cubic form designated beta (β). A double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp) unit cell consists of two hexagonal close-packed structures that share a common hexagonal plane, giving dhcp an ABACABAC sequence.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The α form exists below 600–800 °C with a density of 15.10 g/cm3 and the β form exists above 600–800 °C with a density of 8.74 g/cm3.<a href="#cite_note-Haire-36">[36]</a> At 48 GPascal of pressure the β form changes into an orthorhombic crystal system due to delocalization of the atom's 5f electrons, which frees them to bond.<a href="#cite_note-Haire-36">[36]</a> The three lower-mass transplutonium elements—americium, curium, and berkelium—require much less pressure to delocalize their 5f electrons.<a href="#cite_note-Haire-36">[36]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Carbons">Carbons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Carbons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section's source code: Carbons">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Carbons" title="Chemicals/Carbons">Chemicals/Carbons</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_Spectra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Carbon_Spectra.jpg/400px-Carbon_Spectra.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Carbon_Spectra.jpg/600px-Carbon_Spectra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Carbon_Spectra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="64" /></a><figcaption>The spectrum shows the lines in the visible due to emission from elemental carbon. Credit:<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Teravolt" class="extiw" title="w:User:Teravolt">Teravolt</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bunsen_burner_flame_types.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bunsen_burner_flame_types.png/50px-Bunsen_burner_flame_types.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bunsen_burner_flame_types.png/75px-Bunsen_burner_flame_types.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bunsen_burner_flame_types.png/100px-Bunsen_burner_flame_types.png 2x" data-file-width="358" data-file-height="1294" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of carbon in a natural gas burner. Credit: Arthur Jan Fijałkowski. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Graphite-and-diamond-with-scale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Graphite-and-diamond-with-scale.jpg/300px-Graphite-and-diamond-with-scale.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Graphite-and-diamond-with-scale.jpg/450px-Graphite-and-diamond-with-scale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Graphite-and-diamond-with-scale.jpg/600px-Graphite-and-diamond-with-scale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="961" data-file-height="562" /></a><figcaption>Diamond and graphite are shown side by side, where the scale is based on a rough approximation. Credit: Robert Lavinsky.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Carbonides are naturally occurring minerals composed of 50 atomic percent, or more, carbon. Carbonide-like minerals with greater than 25 at % carbon are also included. This separates carbon containing minerals from carbonates which are at most 25 at % carbon. Carbon has an emission line in plasmas at 529.053 nm from C VI.<a href="#cite_note-McCarthy-38">[38]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ceriums">Ceriums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Ceriums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section's source code: Ceriums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cerium2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cerium2.jpg/250px-Cerium2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cerium2.jpg/375px-Cerium2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cerium2.jpg/500px-Cerium2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Ultrapure Cerium metal is shown under argon, 1.5 grams. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Jurii" class="extiw" title="c:user:Jurii">Jurii</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cerium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cerium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Cerium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cerium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Cerium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cerium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Cerium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Cerium spectrum is shown for 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The pyrophoric alloy known as "mischmetal" is composed of 50% cerium, 25% lanthanum, and the remainder being the other lanthanides, that is used widely for lighter flints.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood-39">[39]</a> Usually iron is added to form the alloy ferrocerium (a synthetic pyrophoric alloy of "mischmetal": cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, other trace lanthanides and some iron – about 95% lanthanides and 5% iron hardened by blending in oxides of iron and / or magnesium).<a href="#cite_note-Ullmann-40">[40]</a> Cerium is used as alloying element in aluminum to create castable eutectic aluminum alloys with 6–16 wt.% Ce, to which Mg and/or Si can be further added, which have excellent high temperature strength and are suitable for automotive applications e.g. in cylinder heads.<a href="#cite_note-Sims-41">[41]</a> Other alloys of cerium include Pu-Ce and Pu-Ce-Co plutonium alloys, which have been used as nuclear fuel. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chlorines">Chlorines</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Chlorines" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section's source code: Chlorines">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Chlorines" title="Chemicals/Chlorines">Chemicals/Chlorines</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chromiums">Chromiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Chromiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section's source code: Chromiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_chromium.jpg" class="new" title="File:Native chromium.jpg">File:Native chromium.jpg</a><figcaption>This is a native chromium nugget. Credit: Neal Ekengren.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Fe-Cr_Phase_Diagram.gif" class="new" title="File:Fe-Cr Phase Diagram.gif">File:Fe-Cr Phase Diagram.gif</a><figcaption>Fe-Cr phase diagram shows which phases are to be expected at equilibrium for different combinations of chromium content and temperature. Credit: Computational Thermodynamics Inc.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chromium2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Chromium2.jpg/300px-Chromium2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Chromium2.jpg/450px-Chromium2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Chromium2.jpg/600px-Chromium2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>A hunk of chromium metal is shown. Credit: W. Oelen.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChromiumFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/ChromiumFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png/150px-ChromiumFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/ChromiumFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png 1.5x" data-file-width="169" data-file-height="102" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of chromium in an oxy-hydrogen torch. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:NSEasternShoreChemist" class="extiw" title="c:user:NSEasternShoreChemist">NSEasternShoreChemist</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chromium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Chromium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Chromium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Chromium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Chromium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Chromium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Chromium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>This is a visible emission-line spectrum for chromium over the range: 400-700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:User:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Native chromium such as the nugget in the image on the right is very rare. It is also a hard mineral, probably because of an oxide coating giving it a slight bluish cast. "An unusual mineral association (diamond, SiC, graphite, native chromium, Ni-Fe alloy, Cr2+-bearing chromite), indicating a high-pressure, reducing environment, occurs in both the peridotites and chromitites."<a href="#cite_note-Bai-42">[42]</a> As the phase diagram for the Fe-Cr system on the left shows, chromium is bcc from 600°C on up to melting. Chromium is also bcc at room temperature and pressure. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cobalts">Cobalts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Cobalts" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section's source code: Cobalts">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_cobalt_from_Moon.jpg" class="new" title="File:Native cobalt from Moon.jpg">File:Native cobalt from Moon.jpg</a><figcaption>This is a scanning electron micrograph of native cobalt from the Luna 24 landing site, Mare Crisium, The Moon. Credit: Pavel M. Kartashov, Hudson Institute of Mineralogy.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kobalt_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kobalt_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/250px-Kobalt_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kobalt_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/375px-Kobalt_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Kobalt_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/500px-Kobalt_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a><figcaption>Pure (99.9 %) cobalt chips, electrolytically refined, and a high purity (99.8 % = 2N8) 1 cm3 cobalt cube for comparison is shown. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CobaltFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/CobaltFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png/150px-CobaltFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/CobaltFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png 1.5x" data-file-width="167" data-file-height="102" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of cobalt in an oxy-hydrogen torch. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:NSEasternShoreChemist" class="extiw" title="c:user:NSEasternShoreChemist">NSEasternShoreChemist</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cobalt_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Cobalt_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Cobalt_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Cobalt_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Cobalt_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Cobalt_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Cobalt_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Cobalt emission spectrum is from 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Cobalt has a hexagonal close-packed structure (hcp) until about 450°C when a fcc structure begins to appear. On the right is a scanning electron micrograph of native cobalt from the Luna 24 landing site, Mare Crisium, The Moon. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coperniciums">Coperniciums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Coperniciums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section's source code: Coperniciums">edit source</a>]</div> Very few properties of copernicium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production<a href="#cite_note-Subramanian-43">[43]</a> and the fact that copernicium (and its parents) decays very quickly. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coppers">Coppers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Coppers" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section's source code: Coppers">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copper-114517.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Copper-114517.jpg/250px-Copper-114517.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Copper-114517.jpg/375px-Copper-114517.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Copper-114517.jpg/500px-Copper-114517.jpg 2x" data-file-width="502" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A large, sculptural specimen of penny-bright copper is from Arizona. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Robert_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:User:Robert Lavinsky">Robert Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copper_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Copper_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Copper_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Copper_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Copper_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Copper_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Copper_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Copper emission spectrum is for 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Landsat_Thematic_Mapper_Manitouwadge.jpg" class="new" title="File:Landsat Thematic Mapper Manitouwadge.jpg">File:Landsat Thematic Mapper Manitouwadge.jpg</a><figcaption>This is a Landsat Thematic Mapper image with overlain geological structures. Credit: I.M. Kettles, A.N. Rencz, and S.D. Bauke.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Copper_(I)_blue_flame.png" class="new" title="File:Copper (I) blue flame.png">File:Copper (I) blue flame.png</a><figcaption>The image shows the color of copper (I) in a natural gas burner. Credit: Anne Marie Helmenstine. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flametest--Cu.swn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flametest--Cu.swn.jpg/100px-Flametest--Cu.swn.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flametest--Cu.swn.jpg/150px-Flametest--Cu.swn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flametest--Cu.swn.jpg/200px-Flametest--Cu.swn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of copper (II) non-halide in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:S%C3%B8ren_Wedel_Nielsen" class="extiw" title="c:user:Søren Wedel Nielsen">Søren Wedel Nielsen</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Cu%2B2_(CuCl2)-Blue.jpg" class="new" title="File:Cu+2 (CuCl2)-Blue.jpg">File:Cu+2 (CuCl2)-Blue.jpg</a><figcaption>The image shows the color of copper (II) halide in a natural gas burner. Credit: AmazingRust. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The most advantageous form for copper is native copper. On the right is a large, sculptural specimen of penny-bright copper from Arizona. "Approximately five million tonnes were mined from native copper deposits in Michigan. Copper masses from the Michigan deposits were transported by the Pleistocene glaciers. Areas on the copper surfaces which appear to represent glacial abrasion show minimal corrosion."<a href="#cite_note-Johnson-44">[44]</a> "A group of pixel areas north of Lake Superior [in the Landsat image on the right] take the form of a linear band which lies along the northern edge of the Port Coldwell Complex (D). [...] there are numerous Cu showings along the northern edge of the Port Coldwell complex (Ontario Division of Mines, 1971)."<a href="#cite_note-Kettles-45">[45]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Classification of copper and its alloys </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Family</th> <th>Principal alloying element</th> <th>Composition range wt %</th> <th>Other elements </th></tr> <tr> <td>Copper alloys, brass</td> <td>Zinc (Zn)</td> <td>30% Zn</td> <td>0.02–0.15% As, 1.7–2.8% Pb, P, Al, Mn, 0.05% iron, and Si </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phosphor bronze</td> <td>Tin (Sn)</td> <td>0.5–11% Sn, 0.01–0.35% P</td> <td>0.5–3.0% Pb </td></tr> <tr> <td>Aluminium bronzes</td> <td>Aluminium (Al)</td> <td>5% to 11% aluminium</td> <td>iron, nickel, manganese, zinc, silicon, arsenic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Silicon bronzes</td> <td>Silicon (Si)</td> <td><6%Si, 92.5% Cu-7.5% Si</td> <td>Al, Zn, Ti, Fe </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cupronickel, nickel silvers</td> <td>Nickel (Ni)</td> <td>60-90% Cu, 9-32% Ni, ≥52% Ni (Monel)</td> <td>0.4-2.3% Fe, 1-2.5% Mn </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Curiums">Curiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Curiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section's source code: Curiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Curium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Curium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Curium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Curium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Curium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Curium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Curium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Curium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "Curium is a radioactive transuranic element that has only been produced in nuclear reactors. It is possible that some curium and other transuranic elements were created in the natural nuclear reactor in Oklo, Gabon."<a href="#cite_note-jolyon-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Darmstadiums">Darmstadiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Darmstadiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section's source code: Darmstadiums">edit source</a>]</div> The only known darmstadtium isotope with a half-life long enough for chemical research is 281Ds, which would have to be produced as the granddaughter of 289Fl.<a href="#cite_note-Moody-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dubniums">Dubniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Dubniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section's source code: Dubniums">edit source</a>]</div> Dubnium was processed in nitric and hydrofluoric acid solution, at concentrations where niobium forms NbOF− 4 and tantalum forms TaF− 6, where dubnium's behavior was close to that of niobium but not tantalum; it was thus deduced that dubnium formed DbOF− 4, it was concluded that dubnium often behaved like niobium, sometimes like protactinium, but rarely like tantalum.<a href="#cite_note-Nagame-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dysprosiums">Dysprosiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Dysprosiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section's source code: Dysprosiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dy_chips.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Dy_chips.jpg/250px-Dy_chips.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Dy_chips.jpg/375px-Dy_chips.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Dy_chips.jpg/500px-Dy_chips.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>Dysprosium metal chips are shown. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Materialscientist" class="extiw" title="c:User:Materialscientist">Materialscientist</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dysprosium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dysprosium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Dysprosium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dysprosium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Dysprosium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dysprosium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Dysprosium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Dysprosium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dysprosium_spectrum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Dysprosium_spectrum.png/400px-Dysprosium_spectrum.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Dysprosium_spectrum.png 1.5x" data-file-width="593" data-file-height="65" /></a><figcaption>First order and partial second order spectra of a 12V dysprosium spark taken with a diffraction grating and a cellphone camera. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Umop503" class="extiw" title="c:user:Umop503">Umop503</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "The magnetic and structural properties of the neodymium-dysprosium alloy system have been measured over the entire composition range."<a href="#cite_note-Chatterjee-49">[49]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einsteiniums">Einsteiniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Einsteiniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section's source code: Einsteiniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einsteinium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Einsteinium.jpg/250px-Einsteinium.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="361" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Einsteinium.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="301" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Quartz vial (9 mm diameter) contains ~300 micrograms of Es-253 solid. Credit: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/awards/cf/cfcitations/cfbios/haire.shtm">Haire, R. G., US Department of Energy</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einsteinium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Einsteinium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Einsteinium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Einsteinium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Einsteinium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Einsteinium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Einsteinium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Einsteinium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Einsteinium is a soft, silvery, paramagnetic metal with chemistry typical of the late actinides, with a preponderance of the +3 oxidation state; the +2 oxidation state is also accessible, especially in solids. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Erbiums">Erbiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Erbiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section's source code: Erbiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erbium-crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Erbium-crop.jpg/250px-Erbium-crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Erbium-crop.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="264" data-file-height="249" /></a><figcaption>Erbium is a silvery-white solid metal. Credit: <a href="https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Tomihahndorf" class="extiw" title="de:User:Tomihahndorf">Tomihahndorf</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erbium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Erbium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Erbium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Erbium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Erbium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Erbium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Erbium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Erbium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erbium_spectrum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Erbium_spectrum.png/400px-Erbium_spectrum.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Erbium_spectrum.png/600px-Erbium_spectrum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Erbium_spectrum.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="36" /></a><figcaption>12V spark spectrum of erbium taken through a diffraction grating with a cellphone camera. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Umop503" class="extiw" title="c:user:Umop503">Umop503</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> When added to vanadium as an alloy, erbium lowers hardness and improves workability.<a href="#cite_note-Hammond-50">[50]</a> An erbium-nickel alloy Er3Ni has an unusually high specific heat capacity at liquid-helium temperatures. "Along with uranium, zinc, iron ore, copper and gold, Greenland’s ancient rocks also harbor large quantities of those minerals known as “rare earth,” among them lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praesodymium, terbium and yttrium."<a href="#cite_note-Weiden-51">[51]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Europiums">Europiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Europiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section's source code: Europiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Europium.jpg/250px-Europium.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Europium.jpg/375px-Europium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Europium.jpg/500px-Europium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="804" /></a><figcaption>Weakly oxidized europium, hence slightly yellowish, 1.5 grams, large piece 0.6 x 1.6 cm are shown. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Jurii" class="extiw" title="c:user:Jurii">Jurii</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Europium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Europium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Europium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Europium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Europium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Europium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Europium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europium_Emission_Spectrum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Europium_Emission_Spectrum.png/400px-Europium_Emission_Spectrum.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Europium_Emission_Spectrum.png/600px-Europium_Emission_Spectrum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Europium_Emission_Spectrum.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="46" /></a><figcaption>Spark spectrum of europium metal taken using a 12V circuit, diffraction grating, and phone camera. Note this is the spectrum of the pure element, not the spectrum it makes as a dopant in phosphors. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Umop503" class="extiw" title="c:user:Umop503">Umop503</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The "aluminum−boron−europium ternary alloy fuels with boron content of 1.5∼4.85 wt. % and europium content of 3 wt. % were prepared."<a href="#cite_note-Wang-52">[52]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fermiums">Fermiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Fermiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section's source code: Fermiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fermium-Ytterbium_Alloy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Fermium-Ytterbium_Alloy.jpg" decoding="async" width="246" height="228" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="228" /></a><figcaption>A fermium-ytterbium alloy is used for measuring the enthalpy of vaporization of fermium metal. Credit: Ben E. Lewis.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> In the image at the right a fermium-ytterbium alloy is shown. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flevoriums">Flevoriums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Flevoriums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section's source code: Flevoriums">edit source</a>]</div> About 90 flerovium atoms have been seen: 58 were synthesized directly; the rest were from radioactive decay of heavier elements. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fluorines">Fluorines</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Fluorines" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section's source code: Fluorines">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Fluorines" title="Chemicals/Fluorines">Chemicals/Fluorines</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Franciums">Franciums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Franciums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section's source code: Franciums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francium-87.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Francium-87.jpg/250px-Francium-87.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Francium-87.jpg/375px-Francium-87.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Francium-87.jpg/500px-Francium-87.jpg 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption>This rock probably contains on the order of a few atoms of francium at any one time, as part of the complex decay chains of the thorium and uranium that make up a much larger fraction of the sample. Credit: Theodore Gray.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pichblende.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Pichblende.jpg/250px-Pichblende.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Pichblende.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="279" /></a><figcaption>This sample of uraninite contains about 100,000 atoms (3.3×10−20 g) of francium-223 at any given time.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-53">[53]</a> Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Farhan" class="extiw" title="c:user:Farhan">Farhan</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Francium is bcc at room temperature. Outside the laboratory, francium is extremely rare, with trace amounts found in uranium and thorium ores, where the isotope francium-223 continually forms and decays. Francium chloride has been studied as a pathway to separate francium from other elements, by using the high vapour pressure of the compound, although francium fluoride would have a higher vapour pressure.<a href="#cite_note-Lavrukhina-54">[54]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gadoliniums">Gadoliniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Gadoliniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section's source code: Gadoliniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gadolinium-4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Gadolinium-4.jpg/250px-Gadolinium-4.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Gadolinium-4.jpg/375px-Gadolinium-4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Gadolinium-4.jpg/500px-Gadolinium-4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1036" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption>Gadolinium is a silvery-white metal when oxidation is removed. Credit: Unknown author.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gadolinium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Gadolinium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Gadolinium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Gadolinium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Gadolinium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Gadolinium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Gadolinium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Gadolinium is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gadolinium_spectrum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Gadolinium_spectrum.png/400px-Gadolinium_spectrum.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Gadolinium_spectrum.png 1.5x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="68" /></a><figcaption>Spectrum of gadolinium from a 12V spark, taken through a diffraction grating with a cellphone camera. The full first order spectrum is visible, and most of the second order; a spectrum of a reflection is also visible, showing the unusual color combination this element emits. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Umop503" class="extiw" title="c:user:Umop503">Umop503</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Gadolinium metal is only slightly malleable and is a ductile rare-earth element. Gadolinium demonstrates a magnetocaloric effect whereby its temperature increases when it enters a magnetic field and decreases when it leaves the magnetic field. The temperature is lowered to 5 °C (41 °F) for the gadolinium alloy Gd85Er15, and this effect is considerably stronger for the alloy Gd5(Si2Ge2), but at a much lower temperature (<85 K (−188.2 °C; −306.7 °F)).<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> A significant magnetocaloric effect is observed at higher temperatures, up to about 300 K, in the compounds Gd5(SixGe1−x)4.<a href="#cite_note-Gschneidner2001-56">[56]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Galliums">Galliums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Galliums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section's source code: Galliums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Gallite_from_Namibia.jpg" class="new" title="File:Gallite from Namibia.jpg">File:Gallite from Namibia.jpg</a><figcaption>This is an example of gallite from Namibia. Credit: Hudson Institute of Mineralogy.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ga,31.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Ga%2C31.jpg/250px-Ga%2C31.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Ga%2C31.jpg/375px-Ga%2C31.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Ga%2C31.jpg/500px-Ga%2C31.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>This is a liquid drop of gallium. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:RTC" class="extiw" title="w:User:RTC">RTC</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solid_gallium_(Ga).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Solid_gallium_%28Ga%29.jpg/250px-Solid_gallium_%28Ga%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Solid_gallium_%28Ga%29.jpg/375px-Solid_gallium_%28Ga%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Solid_gallium_%28Ga%29.jpg/500px-Solid_gallium_%28Ga%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="968" /></a><figcaption>This solid gallium is fresh and after some time (2 months) at room temperature. Credit: Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Gallium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Gallium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Gallium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Gallium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Gallium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Gallium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Gallium emission spectrum is for 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> While native gallium would be the best source of gallium, it apparently does not occur on Earth. The image on the right is a drop of liquid gallium. Gallium "enrichments are observed in the deep waters of the Norwegian Sea and Iceland Basin."<a href="#cite_note-Shiller-57">[57]</a> "If northern deep water formation occurs at lower latitudes during glacial periods, the amount of sediment resuspension in the formation areas is likely to be affected with concomitant effects on the trace element content of newly formed northern-source deep waters."<a href="#cite_note-Shiller-57">[57]</a> "At higher growth temperatures(>600'C) the lifetimes of the alkyl-gallium species are much shorter and the growth front dynamics should begin to look more like MBE since atomic gallium will be the dominant group III surface species."<a href="#cite_note-Robertson-58">[58]</a> Gallite (CuGaS2) is 25 at % gallium. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Germaniums">Germaniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Germaniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section's source code: Germaniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Germanite_from_Tsumeb,_Namibia.jpg" class="new" title="File:Germanite from Tsumeb, Namibia.jpg">File:Germanite from Tsumeb, Namibia.jpg</a><figcaption>This sample of germanite is displayed in the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History. Credit: R Nave.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg/250px-Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg/375px-Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg/500px-Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1056" data-file-height="1056" /></a><figcaption>This chunk is 12 grams of polycrystalline germanium, 2 x 3 cm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Jurii" class="extiw" title="c:user:Jurii">Jurii</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germanium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Germanium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Germanium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Germanium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Germanium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Germanium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Germanium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Germanium emission spectrum is for 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The sample of germanite on the right has a composition of Cu26Fe4Ge4S32. Generally, germanite has a composition closer to Cu3(Ge, Ga, Fe, Zn) (S,As)4.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts-19">[19]</a> "This sample also contains tennantite."<a href="#cite_note-Nave-59">[59]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Golds">Golds</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Golds" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section's source code: Golds">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold-cat12a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Gold-cat12a.jpg/250px-Gold-cat12a.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Gold-cat12a.jpg/375px-Gold-cat12a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Gold-cat12a.jpg/500px-Gold-cat12a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1343" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>This very elaborate, 3-dimensional cluster of gold shows complex and minute crystallization patterns, and is overall hackly in texture. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Robert_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:User:Robert Lavinsky">Robert Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_nugget_(placer_gold)_2_(17025829922).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Gold_nugget_%28placer_gold%29_2_%2817025829922%29.jpg/250px-Gold_nugget_%28placer_gold%29_2_%2817025829922%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Gold_nugget_%28placer_gold%29_2_%2817025829922%29.jpg/375px-Gold_nugget_%28placer_gold%29_2_%2817025829922%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Gold_nugget_%28placer_gold%29_2_%2817025829922%29.jpg/500px-Gold_nugget_%28placer_gold%29_2_%2817025829922%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1014" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>This gold nugget (placer gold) is 9.5 mm across at its widest. Credit: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/people/47445767@N05">James St. John</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Gold_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Gold_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Gold_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Gold_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Gold_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Gold_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Gold spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Gold (Au) is the most prestigious metal known, but it's not the most valuable. Gold is the only metal that has a deep, rich, metallic yellow color. Almost all other metals are silvery-colored. Gold is very rare in crustal rocks - it averages about 5 ppb (parts per billion). Where gold has been concentrated, it occurs as wires, dendritic crystals, twisted sheets, octahedral crystals, and variably-shaped nuggets. It most commonly occurs in hydrothermal quartz veins, disseminated in some contact- & hydrothermal-metamorphic rocks, and in placer deposits. Placers are concentrations of heavy minerals in stream gravels or in cracks on bedrock-floored streams. Gold has a high specific gravity (about 19), so it easily accumulates in placer deposits. Its high density allows prospectors to readily collect placer gold by panning. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hafniums">Hafniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Hafniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section's source code: Hafniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Fe-Hf_phase_diagram.gif" class="new" title="File:Fe-Hf phase diagram.gif">File:Fe-Hf phase diagram.gif</a><figcaption>This is an iron-hafnium phase diagram. Credit: H. Okamoto.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hf-crystal_bar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Hf-crystal_bar.jpg/250px-Hf-crystal_bar.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Hf-crystal_bar.jpg/375px-Hf-crystal_bar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Hf-crystal_bar.jpg/500px-Hf-crystal_bar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5428" data-file-height="1544" /></a><figcaption>A sample of a 1,7kg Hafnium crystal bar, made by van Arkel-de Boer process. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:user:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hafnium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Hafnium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Hafnium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Hafnium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Hafnium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Hafnium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Hafnium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Hafnium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Note in the iron-hafnium phase diagram on the left that hafnium occurs in two phases: hcp (α-Hf) at lower temperatures and bcc (β-Hf) at higher temperatures up to melting. Hafnium is used in alloys with iron, titanium, niobium, tantalum, and other metals, for example the main engine of the Apollo Lunar Modules, is C103 which consists of 89% niobium, 10% hafnium and 1% titanium.<a href="#cite_note-Hebda-60">[60]</a> Small additions of hafnium increase the adherence of protective oxide scales on nickel-based alloys, improving thereby the corrosion resistance especially under cyclic temperature conditions that tend to break oxide scales by inducing thermal stresses between the bulk material and the oxide layer.<a href="#cite_note-Maslenkov-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beglov-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Voitovich-63">[63]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hassiums">Hassiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Hassiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section's source code: Hassiums">edit source</a>]</div> Hassium behaves as the heavier homologue to osmium, reacting readily with oxygen to form a volatile tetroxide. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heliums">Heliums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Heliums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section's source code: Heliums">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Heliums" title="Chemicals/Heliums">Chemicals/Heliums</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Holmiums">Holmiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Holmiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section's source code: Holmiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holmium2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Holmium2.jpg/250px-Holmium2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Holmium2.jpg/375px-Holmium2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Holmium2.jpg/500px-Holmium2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="989" data-file-height="786" /></a><figcaption>Ultrapure holmium metal of 17 grams is shown. Credit: Unknown author.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holmium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Holmium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Holmium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Holmium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Holmium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Holmium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Holmium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Holmium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holmium_spectrum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Holmium_spectrum.png/400px-Holmium_spectrum.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Holmium_spectrum.png/600px-Holmium_spectrum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Holmium_spectrum.png 2x" data-file-width="645" data-file-height="45" /></a><figcaption> Spectrum of holmium from a 12V spark, taken through a diffraction grating with a cellphone camera. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Umop503" class="extiw" title="c:user:Umop503">Umop503</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "The constant of the alloy-formation rate for HoNi 2, which was obtained in [22] at 1023 K in the LiCl–KCl eutectic melt, is 0.36 kg/m2 h0.5."<a href="#cite_note-Bushuev-64">[64]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrogens">Hydrogens</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Hydrogens" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section's source code: Hydrogens">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Hydrogens" title="Chemicals/Hydrogens">Chemicals/Hydrogens</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indiums">Indiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Indiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section's source code: Indiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Indium_R060771_Eastern_Transbaikal,_Russia.jpg" class="new" title="File:Indium R060771 Eastern Transbaikal, Russia.jpg">File:Indium R060771 Eastern Transbaikal, Russia.jpg</a><figcaption>These pieces of native indium are from Eastern Transbaikal, Russia. Credit: Michael Scott.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Indium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Indium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Indium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Indium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Indium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Indium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Indium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Indium is an ingredient in the gallium–indium–tin alloy galinstan, which is liquid at room temperature and replaces mercury in some thermometers.<a href="#cite_note-Surmann-65">[65]</a> Other alloys of indium with bismuth, cadmium, lead, and tin, which have higher but still low melting points (between 50 and 100 °C), are used in fire sprinkler systems and heat regulators.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood-39">[39]</a> "Indium minerals are very rare ; only 7 species have been defined so far : roquesite, CuInS2 (Picot & Pierrot, 1963) ; indite, FeIn2S4, and dzhalindite, In(OH)3 (Genkin & Murav'eva, 1963) ; sakuraiite, (Cu,Fe,Zn)3(In,Sn)S4 (Kato, 1965) ; native indium (Ivanov, 1966b) ; yixunite, PtIn (Yu Tsu-Hsiang et al., 1976) ; petrukite, (Cu,Fe,Zn,Ag)3(Sn,In)S4 (Kissin & Owens, 1989)."<a href="#cite_note-Botelho-66">[66]</a> On the right are microprobe fragments of native indium from Eastern Transbaikal, Russia. The electron microprobe confirms that indium is the only component of the metallic phase. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iodines">Iodines</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Iodines" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section's source code: Iodines">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Iodines" title="Chemicals/Iodines">Chemicals/Iodines</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iridiums">Iridiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Iridiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section's source code: Iridiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Cubic_native_iridium_crystal.png" class="new" title="File:Cubic native iridium crystal.png">File:Cubic native iridium crystal.png</a><figcaption>The image is of a cubic crystal of native iridium. Credit: Norman King.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iridium-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Iridium-2.jpg/250px-Iridium-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Iridium-2.jpg/375px-Iridium-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Iridium-2.jpg/500px-Iridium-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>Pieces are pure iridium, 1 gram. Credit: Unknown author.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iridium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Iridium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Iridium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Iridium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Iridium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Iridium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Iridium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Iridium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Native iridium such as the small cubic crystal shown in the image on the right is rare. An alloy of iridium with ruthenium in thermocouples allowed for the measurement of high temperatures in air up to 2,000 °C (3,630 °F).<a href="#cite_note-Hunt-67">[67]</a> Iridium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys; especially the iridium–osmium alloys, osmiridium (osmium-rich), and iridosmium (iridium-rich).<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2003-68">[68]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Irons">Irons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Irons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section's source code: Irons">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_iron.jpg" class="new" title="File:Native iron.jpg">File:Native iron.jpg</a><figcaption>This piece from the Khungtukun Massif, Malaya Romanikha River, Khatanga, Taimyr Peninsula, Taymyrskiy Autonomous Okrug, Eastern-Siberian Region, Russia, displays inclusions of native iron. Credit: Hudson Institute of Mineralogy.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pure_iron_phase_diagram_(EN).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Pure_iron_phase_diagram_%28EN%29.png/250px-Pure_iron_phase_diagram_%28EN%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Pure_iron_phase_diagram_%28EN%29.png/375px-Pure_iron_phase_diagram_%28EN%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Pure_iron_phase_diagram_%28EN%29.png/500px-Pure_iron_phase_diagram_%28EN%29.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="714" /></a><figcaption>This diagram shows most of the phases of pure iron. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Daniele_Pugliesi" class="extiw" title="c:User:Daniele Pugliesi">Daniele Pugliesi</a> and <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Materialscientist" class="extiw" title="c:User:Materialscientist">Materialscientist</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron_III_Flame_Thermite_Reaction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Iron_III_Flame_Thermite_Reaction.jpg/100px-Iron_III_Flame_Thermite_Reaction.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Iron_III_Flame_Thermite_Reaction.jpg/150px-Iron_III_Flame_Thermite_Reaction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Iron_III_Flame_Thermite_Reaction.jpg/200px-Iron_III_Flame_Thermite_Reaction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="1013" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of iron (III) orange in a thermite reaction. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Denver_%26_Rio_Grande" class="extiw" title="c:user:Denver & Rio Grande">Denver & Rio Grande</a>. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Epsilon_iron_unary_phase_diagram.jpg" class="new" title="File:Epsilon iron unary phase diagram.jpg">File:Epsilon iron unary phase diagram.jpg</a><figcaption>The unary (temperature-pressure) iron phase diagram shows the epsilon phase of iron at extremely high pressure. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:His_Manliness" class="extiw" title="w:User:His Manliness">His Manliness</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron-252608.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Iron-252608.jpg/250px-Iron-252608.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Iron-252608.jpg/375px-Iron-252608.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Iron-252608.jpg/500px-Iron-252608.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption>An uncommon slabbed and polished specimen of lustrous, metallic, elemental native iron in basalt from Germany. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Robert_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:User:Robert Lavinsky">Robert Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_of_pure_iron,_16_grams,_1_cm_diameter..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Cylinder_of_pure_iron%2C_16_grams%2C_1_cm_diameter..jpg/250px-Cylinder_of_pure_iron%2C_16_grams%2C_1_cm_diameter..jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Cylinder_of_pure_iron%2C_16_grams%2C_1_cm_diameter..jpg/375px-Cylinder_of_pure_iron%2C_16_grams%2C_1_cm_diameter..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Cylinder_of_pure_iron%2C_16_grams%2C_1_cm_diameter..jpg/500px-Cylinder_of_pure_iron%2C_16_grams%2C_1_cm_diameter..jpg 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="908" /></a><figcaption>Iron is a silvery, relatively reactive metal, which is very abundant and is used for multiple purposes. Credit: Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Iron_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Iron_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Iron_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Iron_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Iron_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Iron_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Iron spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The polished piece on the top right displays inclusions of native iron. Iron occurs in several allotropes from α-Fe which has a body-centered cubic structure (bcc) at room temperature up to 910°C, γ-Fe which has a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure from 910°C to 1394°C, and δ-Fe (bcc) from 1394°C to 1538°C. Hexagonal close-packed (hcp) iron occurs at high pressures and temperatures as ε-Fe. Austenite, also known as gamma-phase iron (γ-Fe), is a metallic, non-magnetic allotrope of iron or a solid solution of iron, with an alloying element.<a href="#cite_note-ReedHill-69">[69]</a> In plain-carbon steel, austenite exists above the critical eutectoid temperature of 1000 K (727 °C); other alloys of steel have different eutectoid temperatures. The austenite allotrope is named after Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen (1843–1902);<a href="#cite_note-Gove-70">[70]</a> it exists at room temperature in some stainless steels due to the presence of nickel stabilizing the austenite at lower temperatures. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meteoritic_irons">Meteoritic irons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Meteoritic irons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section's source code: Meteoritic irons">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Meteoritic_irons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Meteoritic irons (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/Meteoritic irons</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iron_hydrides">Iron hydrides</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Iron hydrides" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section's source code: Iron hydrides">edit source</a>]</div> "Carroll and McCormack (1972) in Dublin reported complex spectra in the blue and green wavelength regions of both FeH and FeD".<a href="#cite_note-JGPhillips-71">[71]</a> "Carroll et al. (1976) detected a number of coincidences between laboratory lines of FeH and weak unidentified solar lines, again in the blue and green wavelength region, in addition to the infrared."<a href="#cite_note-Fawzy-72">[72]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kryptons">Kryptons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Kryptons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section's source code: Kryptons">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Kryptons" title="Chemicals/Kryptons">Chemicals/Kryptons</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lanthanums">Lanthanums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Lanthanums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section's source code: Lanthanums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lanthanum-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Lanthanum-2.jpg/250px-Lanthanum-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Lanthanum-2.jpg/375px-Lanthanum-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Lanthanum-2.jpg/500px-Lanthanum-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="708" /></a><figcaption>1 cm big piece is pure lanthanum. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Jurii" class="extiw" title="c:user:Jurii">Jurii</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lanthanum_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Lanthanum_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Lanthanum_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Lanthanum_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Lanthanum_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Lanthanum_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Lanthanum_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Lanthanum spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Hydrogen sponge alloys can contain lanthanum and are capable of storing up to 400 times their own volume of hydrogen gas in a reversible adsorption process, where heat energy is released every time they do so; therefore these alloys have possibilities in energy conservation systems.<a href="#cite_note-Lide2005-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Uchida-74">[74]</a> Mischmetal, a pyrophoric alloy used in lighter flints, contains 25% to 45% lanthanum.<a href="#cite_note-Hammond-50">[50]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lawrenciums">Lawrenciums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Lawrenciums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section's source code: Lawrenciums">edit source</a>]</div> The first ionization energy of lawrencium was measured, using the isotope 256Lr.<a href="#cite_note-Sato-75">[75]</a> The measured value, 4.96+0.08 −0.07 electronvolt (eV), agreed very well with the relativistic theoretical prediction of 4.963(15) eV, and also provided a first step into measuring the first ionization energies of the transactinides.<a href="#cite_note-Sato-75">[75]</a> This value is the lowest among all the lanthanides and actinides, and supports the s2p configuration as the 7p1/2 electron is expected to be only weakly bound. This suggests that lutetium and lawrencium behave similarly to the d-block elements (and hence being the true heavier congeners of scandium and yttrium, instead of lanthanum and actinium). Although some alkali metal-like behaviour has been predicted,<a href="#cite_note-Gunther-76">[76]</a> adsorption experiments suggest that lawrencium is trivalent like scandium and yttrium, not monovalent like the alkali metals.<a href="#cite_note-Haire2007-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leads">Leads</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Leads" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section's source code: Leads">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead-176678.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Lead-176678.jpg/150px-Lead-176678.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Lead-176678.jpg/225px-Lead-176678.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Lead-176678.jpg/300px-Lead-176678.jpg 2x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>This is a piece of native lead. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Rob_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:user:Rob Lavinsky">Rob Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_piece_of_lead.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/A_piece_of_lead.jpg/250px-A_piece_of_lead.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/A_piece_of_lead.jpg/375px-A_piece_of_lead.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/A_piece_of_lead.jpg/500px-A_piece_of_lead.jpg 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="780" /></a><figcaption>A piece of lead, cut through, is silvery for a short time, before the surface oxidizes. Credit: Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png/100px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png/150px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png/200px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png 2x" data-file-width="228" data-file-height="721" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of lead in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/user:Herge" class="extiw" title="de:user:Herge">Herge</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Lead_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Lead_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Lead_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Lead_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Lead_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Lead_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Lead spectrum is for 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "Diamond cubic structures with lattice parameters around the lattice parameter of silicon exists both in thin lead and tin films, and in massive lead and tin, freshly solidified in vacuum of ≈5 x 10-6 Torr. Experimental evidence for almost identical structures of at least three oxide types is presented, demonstrating that lead and tin behave like silicon not only in the initial stages of crystallization, but also in the initial stages of oxidation."<a href="#cite_note-Peneva-78">[78]</a> The piece of native lead on the right shows a relatively sharp, and well-formed cuboctahedron of Lead at the top of the specimen, which is associated with elongated crystals on the base and back. Its source locality is Långban, Filipstad, Värmland, Sweden. A fresh surface of high purity lead on the left is silvery in appearance. Lead tin telluride, PbSnTe or Pb1−xSnxTe, is a ternary alloy of lead, tin and tellurium, generally made by alloying either tin into lead telluride or lead into tin Telluride. In genuine Ashtadhatu, all eight metals (Au, Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn, Sn, Fe and Sb or Hg) are in equal proportion (12.5% each).<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Sn, Pb, Cu, As, Sb are used to make Babbitt alloys.<a href="#cite_note-Babbitt-82">[82]</a> "The inner parts of the boxes are to be lined with any of the harder kinds of composition known under the names of britannia metal or pewter, of which block tin is the basis. An excellent compound for this purpose I have prepared by taking about 50 parts of tin, five of antimony, and one of copper, but I do not intend to confine myself to this particular composition."<a href="#cite_note-Babbitt-82">[82]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lithiums">Lithiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Lithiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section's source code: Lithiums">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Lithiums" title="Chemicals/Lithiums">Chemicals/Lithiums</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungLi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungLi.png/100px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungLi.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungLi.png/150px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungLi.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungLi.png/200px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungLi.png 2x" data-file-width="495" data-file-height="1401" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of lithium in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/user:Herge" class="extiw" title="de:user:Herge">Herge</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spectrum_Lines_of_Li.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Spectrum_Lines_of_Li.png/400px-Spectrum_Lines_of_Li.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Spectrum_Lines_of_Li.png 1.5x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="100" /></a><figcaption>This spectrograph shows the visual spectral lines of lithium. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:T_c951" class="extiw" title="w:User:T c951">T c951</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lithium_paraffin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Lithium_paraffin.jpg/300px-Lithium_paraffin.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Lithium_paraffin.jpg/450px-Lithium_paraffin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Lithium_paraffin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>Lithium remains chemically inert when immersed in oil. Credit: <a href="https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/user:Tomihahndorf" class="extiw" title="de:user:Tomihahndorf">Tomihahndorf</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "[T]he standard solar models have enjoyed tremendous success recently in terms of agreement between the predicted outer structure and the results from helioseismology[, but] some observed properties of the <a href="/wiki/Sun_(star)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun (star)">Sun</a> still defy explanation, such as the degree of Li depletion" [the "solar Li abundance is roughly a factor of 200 below the meteoritic abundance"].<a href="#cite_note-King-83">[83]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Livermoriums">Livermoriums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Livermoriums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section's source code: Livermoriums">edit source</a>]</div> Although generated by heavy ion bombardment, the short-lived radioisotopes are not known to occur naturally on the surface of the Earth. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lutetiums">Lutetiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Lutetiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section's source code: Lutetiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lutetium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Lutetium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/250px-Lutetium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Lutetium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/375px-Lutetium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Lutetium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/500px-Lutetium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4594" data-file-height="3149" /></a><figcaption>Lutetium, sublimed-dendritic, high purity 99.995 % Lu/TREM, as well as an argon arc remelted 1 cm3 lutetium (99,9 %) cube for comparison. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:user:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lutetium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Lutetium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Lutetium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Lutetium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Lutetium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Lutetium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Lutetium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Lutetium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Scandium, yttrium, and lutetium tend to occur together with the other lanthanides (except short-lived promethium) in the Earth's crust, and are often harder to extract from their ores. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Magnesiums">Magnesiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Magnesiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section's source code: Magnesiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magnesium_Spectra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Magnesium_Spectra.jpg/400px-Magnesium_Spectra.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Magnesium_Spectra.jpg/600px-Magnesium_Spectra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Magnesium_Spectra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="783" data-file-height="64" /></a><figcaption>This image shows the optical emission lines of magnesium. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:teravolt" class="extiw" title="w:User:teravolt">teravolt</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_2893_Crystalised_magnesium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2893_Crystalised_magnesium.jpg/300px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2893_Crystalised_magnesium.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2893_Crystalised_magnesium.jpg/450px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2893_Crystalised_magnesium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2893_Crystalised_magnesium.jpg/600px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2893_Crystalised_magnesium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2296" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Crystalized magnesium is shown. Credit: Mark Fergus, CSIRO.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Magnesium-rich_end_with_iron.png" class="new" title="File:Magnesium-rich end with iron.png">File:Magnesium-rich end with iron.png</a><figcaption>This portion of the iron-magnesium phase diagram is concentrated on the magnesium-rich end. Credit: A.A. Nayeb-Hashemi, J.B. Clark and L.J. Swartzendruber.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Mg-flame.jpg" class="new" title="File:Mg-flame.jpg">File:Mg-flame.jpg</a><figcaption>The image shows the color of magnesium in a natural gas burner. Credit: KB. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Magnesium has a hcp structure from room temperature up to melting. No other phases occur as is shown in the magnesium-end of the iron-magnesium phase diagram on the left. Native magnesium is unlikely to occur on the surface of the Earth and is not known to occur. Magnesium (Mg I) has an absorption band at 416.727±2.9 nm with an excitation potential of 4.33 eV.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> Magnesium (Mg II) has an absorption band at 439.059±6.6 nm with an excitation potential of 9.96 eV.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manganeses">Manganeses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Manganeses" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section's source code: Manganeses">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Fe-Mn_Phase_Diagram.gif" class="new" title="File:Fe-Mn Phase Diagram.gif">File:Fe-Mn Phase Diagram.gif</a><figcaption>The pure manganese end member of this Fe-Mn phase diagram shows the higher temperature Mn phases. Credit: A. Rabinkin.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manganese_element.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Manganese_element.jpg/250px-Manganese_element.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Manganese_element.jpg/375px-Manganese_element.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Manganese_element.jpg/500px-Manganese_element.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Two pieces of manganese metal are shown. Credit: W. Oelen.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ManganeseFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/ManganeseFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="103" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="103" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of manganese (II) in an oxy-hydrogen torch. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:NSEasternShoreChemist" class="extiw" title="c:user:NSEasternShoreChemist">NSEasternShoreChemist</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manganese_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Manganese_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Manganese_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Manganese_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Manganese_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Manganese_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Manganese_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Manganese emission spectrum is from 400 nm - 700 nm Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> If native manganese occurs on Earth or nearby <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" class="mw-disambig" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> bodies, it likely occurs as bcc α-Mn. "Beta manganese has a cubic crystal structure with space group P4132 [1]. The unit cell contains 20 atoms, divided between two non-equivalent sites."<a href="#cite_note-Dunlop-85">[85]</a> "The structures of γ- and δ-manganese are found to be face-centred cubic and body-centred cubic respectively."<a href="#cite_note-Basinski-86">[86]</a> Manganese (Mn I) has two absorption bands at 403.449±1.4 nm and 405.554±0.8 nm, where the second has an excitation potential of 2.13 eV.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> Manganese (Mn II) has an absorption band at 420.638±0.8 nm with an excitation potential of 5.37 eV.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meitneriums">Meitneriums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Meitneriums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section's source code: Meitneriums">edit source</a>]</div> Meitnerium is the seventh member of the 6d series of transition metals, and should be much like the platinum group metals.<a href="#cite_note-Griffith-87">[87]</a> Calculations on its ionization potentials and atomic radius and ionic radii are similar to that of its lighter homologue iridium, thus implying that meitnerium's basic properties will resemble those of the other group 9 elements, cobalt, rhodium, and iridium.<a href="#cite_note-Haire2007-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mendeleviums">Mendeleviums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Mendeleviums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section's source code: Mendeleviums">edit source</a>]</div> Seventeen isotopes of mendelevium are known, with mass numbers from 244 to 260; all are radioactive.<a href="#cite_note-Silva2006-88">[88]</a> Additionally, five nuclear isomers are known: 245mMd, 247mMd, 249mMd, 254mMd, and 258mMd.<a href="#cite_note-Audi-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nucleonica-90">[90]</a> Of these, the longest-lived isotope is 258Md with a half-life of 51.5 days, and the longest-lived isomer is 258mMd with a half-life of 58.0 minutes.<a href="#cite_note-Audi-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nucleonica-90">[90]</a> Nevertheless, the shorter-lived 256Md (half-life 1.17 hours) is more often used in chemical experimentation because it can be produced in larger quantities from alpha particle irradiation of einsteinium.<a href="#cite_note-Silva2006-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mercuries">Mercuries</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Mercuries" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section's source code: Mercuries">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Mercuries" title="Chemicals/Mercuries">Chemicals/Mercuries</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metalloids">Metalloids</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Metalloids" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section's source code: Metalloids">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Native_arsenic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Native_arsenic.jpg/200px-Native_arsenic.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Native_arsenic.jpg/300px-Native_arsenic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Native_arsenic.jpg/400px-Native_arsenic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>This massive native arsenic with quartz and calcite is from Ste. Marie-aux-mines, Alsace, France. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Aramgutang" class="extiw" title="c:User:Aramgutang">Aram Dulyan</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Metalloids are elements whose properties are intermediate between metals and solid nonmetals or semiconductors. A variety of elements are often considered metalloids: <ol><li>boron, considered here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Borons</a>,</li> <li>aluminum, a face-centered cubic metal, considered in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Aluminums</a>,</li> <li>silicon, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Silicons</a>,</li> <li>gallium, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Galliums</a>,</li> <li>germanium, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Germaniums</a>,</li> <li>arsenic, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Arsenics</a>,</li> <li>selenium, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Seleniums</a>, also included in the <a href="/wiki/Minerals/Chalcogens" title="Minerals/Chalcogens">chalcogens</a>,</li> <li>indium, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Indiums</a>,</li> <li>tin, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Tins</a>,</li> <li>antimony, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Antimonies</a>,</li> <li>tellurium, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Telluriums</a>, also included in the <a href="/wiki/Minerals/Chalcogens" title="Minerals/Chalcogens">chalcogens</a>,</li> <li>polonium, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Poloniums</a>, and</li> <li>astatine, here in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alloys (page does not exist)">Astatines</a>, with the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Minerals/Halogens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerals/Halogens (page does not exist)">halogens</a>.</li></ol> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Moscoviums">Moscoviums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Moscoviums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section's source code: Moscoviums">edit source</a>]</div> The moscovium isotopes 288Mc, 289Mc, and 290Mc may be chemically investigated with current methods, although their short half-lives would make this challenging.<a href="#cite_note-Eichler-91">[91]</a> Moscovium is the heaviest element that has known isotopes that are long-lived enough for chemical experimentation.<a href="#cite_note-Moody-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Molybdenums">Molybdenums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Molybdenums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section's source code: Molybdenums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_molybdenum_Luna_24_landing_site.jpg" class="new" title="File:Native molybdenum Luna 24 landing site.jpg">File:Native molybdenum Luna 24 landing site.jpg</a><figcaption>This is a scanning electron micrograph of native molybdenum particles in lunar regolith. Credit: A. V. Mokhov and P. M. Kartashov.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Molybdenum_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Molybdenum_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Molybdenum_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Molybdenum_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Molybdenum_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Molybdenum_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Molybdenum_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Molybdenum spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Fe-Mo_Phase_Diagram.gif" class="new" title="File:Fe-Mo Phase Diagram.gif">File:Fe-Mo Phase Diagram.gif</a><figcaption>This is a calculated iron-molybdenum phase diagram. Credit: Computational Thermodynamics Inc.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The electron micrograph on the right shows a couple of pieces of native molybdenum found in lunar regolith at the Luna 24 landing site after transport back to <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> and analysis. The phase diagram for the iron-molybdenum system demonstrates that molybdenum is bcc (α-Mo) for its intermediate and higher temperatures. It's also bcc at room temperature. Molybdenum can withstand extreme temperatures without significantly expanding or softening, making it useful in environments of intense heat.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-azom-92">[92]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neodymiums">Neodymiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Neodymiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section's source code: Neodymiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neodymium2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Neodymium2.jpg/250px-Neodymium2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Neodymium2.jpg/375px-Neodymium2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Neodymium2.jpg/500px-Neodymium2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="782" /></a><figcaption>Ultrapure neodymium is shown under argon, 5 grams. C Credit: Unknown author.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neodymium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Neodymium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Neodymium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Neodymium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Neodymium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Neodymium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Neodymium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Neodymium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Thorianite contains the oxides of uranium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium and neodymium. "Along with uranium, zinc, iron ore, copper and gold, Greenland’s ancient rocks also harbor large quantities of those minerals known as “rare earth,” among them lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praesodymium, terbium and yttrium."<a href="#cite_note-Weiden-51">[51]</a> Neodymium is in the alloys used to make high-strength neodymium magnets—a type of powerful permanent magnet.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> To make neodymium magnets it is alloyed with iron, which is a ferromagnet.<a href="#cite_note-Stamenov-94">[94]</a> Neodymium magnets, an alloy, Nd2Fe14B, are the strongest permanent magnets known<a href="#cite_note-Zhang-95">[95]</a> and tend to corrode.<a href="#cite_note-Bala-96">[96]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neons">Neons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Neons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section's source code: Neons">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Neons" title="Chemicals/Neons">Chemicals/Neons</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neptuniums">Neptuniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Neptuniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section's source code: Neptuniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Neptunium_Aeschynite.png" class="new" title="File:Neptunium Aeschynite.png">File:Neptunium Aeschynite.png</a><figcaption>This mineral, Aeschynite, probably contains on the order of a few atoms of neptunium at any one time, as part of the complex decay chain of the uranium that makes up a much larger fraction of the sample. Credit: Theodore Gray.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neptunium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Neptunium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Neptunium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Neptunium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Neptunium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Neptunium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Neptunium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Neptunium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The image at the right shows a rock with the mineral Aeschynite approximately centered above the biotite mica. Aeschynite "probably contains on the order of a few atoms of neptunium at any one time, as part of the complex decay chain of the uranium that makes up a much larger fraction of the sample."<a href="#cite_note-GrayNeptunium-97">[97]</a> Pure neptunium is paramagnetic, NpAl3 is ferromagnetic, NpGe3 has no magnetic ordering, and NpSn3 behaves fermionically.<a href="#cite_note-Yoshida-98">[98]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nickels">Nickels</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Nickels" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section's source code: Nickels">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Nickels" title="Chemicals/Nickels">Chemicals/Nickels</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nickel_chunk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Nickel_chunk.jpg/250px-Nickel_chunk.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Nickel_chunk.jpg/375px-Nickel_chunk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Nickel_chunk.jpg/500px-Nickel_chunk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="632" /></a><figcaption>This piece of Ni is about 3 cm in size. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/user:Materialscientist" class="extiw" title="w:user:Materialscientist">Materialscientist</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nickel_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Nickel_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Nickel_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Nickel_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Nickel_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Nickel_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Nickel_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>This is an emission-line spectrum for nickel over the visible range: 400-700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:User:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NickelFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/NickelFlameTestOxyHydrogen.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="103" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="103" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of nickel in an oxy-hydrogen flame. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:NSEasternShoreChemist" class="extiw" title="c:user:NSEasternShoreChemist">NSEasternShoreChemist</a>. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. Nickel has an emission line occurring in the solar corona at 511.603 nm from Ni XIII.<a href="#cite_note-Swings-99">[99]</a> Nickel has an emission line occurring in the solar corona at 670.183 nm from Ni XV.<a href="#cite_note-Swings-99">[99]</a> Nickel has three emission lines occurring in the solar corona at 380.08 nm of Ni XIII and 423.14 nm and 431.1 of Ni XII.<a href="#cite_note-Swings-99">[99]</a> Nickel has an absorption band at 401.550-436.210 nm with an excitation potential of 4.01 eV.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> Antitaenite is a meteoritic metal alloy mineral composed of iron and nickel, 20-40% Ni (and traces of other elements).<a href="#cite_note-Rancourt1995-100">[100]</a> Breithauptite is a nickel antimonide mineral with the simple formula NiSb. Niccolite has the chemical formula NiAs.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts-19">[19]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nihoniums">Nihoniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Nihoniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section's source code: Nihoniums">edit source</a>]</div> Stability of a nucleus is provided by the strong interaction. However, its range is very short; as nuclei become larger, their influence on the outermost nucleons (protons and neutrons) weakens. At the same time, the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons, as it has unlimited range.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Nuclei of the heaviest elements are thus theoretically predicted<a href="#cite_note-Staszczak-102">[102]</a> and have so far been observed<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> to primarily decay via decay modes that are caused by such repulsion: alpha decay and spontaneous fission; not all decay modes are caused by electrostatic repulsion. For example, beta decay is caused by the weak interaction.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> these modes are predominant for nuclei of superheavy elements. Alpha decays are registered by the emitted alpha particles, and the decay products are easy to determine before the actual decay; if such a decay or a series of consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be determined arithmetically. Since mass of a nucleus is not measured directly but is rather calculated from that of another nucleus, such measurement is called indirect. Direct measurements are also possible, but for the most part they have remained unavailable for heaviest nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> The first direct measurement of mass of a superheavy nucleus was reported in 2018 at LBNL.<a href="#cite_note-Grant-106">[106]</a> Mass was determined from the location of a nucleus after the transfer (the location helps determine its trajectory, which is linked to the mass-to-charge ratio of the nucleus, since the transfer was done in presence of a magnet).<a href="#cite_note-Howes-107">[107]</a> Spontaneous fission, however, produces various nuclei as products, so the original nuclide cannot be determined from its daughters.<a href="#cite_note-Robinson-108">[108]</a> a leading scientist at JINR, and thus it was a "hobbyhorse" for the facility.<a href="#cite_note-coldfusion77-109">[109]</a> In contrast, the LBL scientists believed fission information was not sufficient for a claim of synthesis of an element. They believed spontaneous fission had not been studied enough to use it for identification of a new element, since there was a difficulty of establishing that a compound nucleus had only ejected neutrons and not charged particles like protons or alpha particles.<a href="#cite_note-Hyde-110">[110]</a> They thus preferred to link new isotopes to the already known ones by successive alpha decays.<a href="#cite_note-Robinson-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nihonium_monofluorides">Nihonium monofluorides</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Nihonium monofluorides" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section's source code: Nihonium monofluorides">edit source</a>]</div> The analogous monofluoride (NhF) should also exist.<a href="#cite_note-Stysziński-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nihonium_monohydrides">Nihonium monohydrides</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Nihonium monohydrides" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section's source code: Nihonium monohydrides">edit source</a>]</div> The simplest possible nihonium compound is the monohydride, NhH. The bonding is provided by the 7p1/2 electron of nihonium and the 1s electron of hydrogen. The SO interaction causes the binding energy of nihonium monohydride to be reduced by about 1 eV<a href="#cite_note-Hoffman-112">[112]</a> and the nihonium–hydrogen bond length to decrease as the bonding 7p1/2 orbital is relativistically contracted. This is unique among the 7p element monohydrides; all the others have relativistic expansion of the bond length instead of contraction.<a href="#cite_note-hydride-113">[113]</a> Another effect of the SO interaction is that the Nh–H bond is expected to have significant pi bonding character (side-on orbital overlap), unlike the almost pure sigma bonding (head-on orbital overlap) in thallium monohydride (TlH).<a href="#cite_note-Seth-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nihonium_monoiodides">Nihonium monoiodides</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Nihonium monoiodides" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section's source code: Nihonium monoiodides">edit source</a>]</div> Nihonium(I) is predicted to be more similar to silver(I) than thallium(I):<a href="#cite_note-Hoffman-112">[112]</a> the Nh+ ion is expected to more willingly bind anions, so that NhCl should be quite soluble in excess hydrochloric acid or ammonia; thallium(I) chloride (TlCl) is not. In contrast to Tl+, which forms the strongly basic hydroxide (thallium(I) hydroxide (TlOH)) in solution, the Nh+ cation should instead hydrolyse all the way to the amphoteric oxide Nh2O, which would be soluble in aqueous ammonia and weakly soluble in water.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Niobiums">Niobiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Niobiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section's source code: Niobiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Iron-niobium_phase_diagram.png" class="new" title="File:Iron-niobium phase diagram.png">File:Iron-niobium phase diagram.png</a><figcaption>This is an iron-niobium phase diagram. Credit: E. Paul and L.J. Swartendruber.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niobium_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Niobium_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/250px-Niobium_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Niobium_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/375px-Niobium_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Niobium_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/500px-Niobium_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5356" data-file-height="3229" /></a><figcaption>High purity (99.995 % = 4N5) niobium crystals, electrolytic made, as well as a high purity (99.95 % = 3N5) 1 cm3 anodized niobium cube for comparison. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niobium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Niobium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Niobium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Niobium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Niobium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Niobium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Niobium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Niobium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> As can be seen in the iron-niobium phase diagram on the left, niobium is single phase (α-Nb) up to its melting temperature. This is a bcc structure. Ferroniobium is an alloy of 60–70% niobium with iron, where niobium is used mostly in alloy steel.<a href="#cite_note-Tither-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dufresne-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Niobium is used in various superconducting materials, Type-II superconductor alloys, also containing titanium and tin. Quantities of niobium are used in nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-based superalloys in proportions as great as 6.5%.<a href="#cite_note-Heisterkamp-119">[119]</a> It appears to be the case that native niobium does not occur in the surface rocks on Earth. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nitrogens">Nitrogens</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: Nitrogens" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section's source code: Nitrogens">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Nitrogens" title="Chemicals/Nitrogens">Chemicals/Nitrogens</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Carlsbergites">Carlsbergites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Carlsbergites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section's source code: Carlsbergites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agpalilik.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Agpalilik.jpg/300px-Agpalilik.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Agpalilik.jpg/450px-Agpalilik.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Agpalilik.jpg/600px-Agpalilik.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2684" data-file-height="1828" /></a><figcaption>Agpalilik meteorite is outside the Geological Museum in Copenhagen. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:FunkMonk" class="extiw" title="c:user:FunkMonk">Michael B. H.</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Carlsbergite was first described in the Agpalilik fragment of the Cape York meteorite. It is a chromium nitride mineral (CrN),<a href="#cite_note-WebmineralCarlsbergites-120">[120]</a> named after the Carlsberg Foundation that backed the recovery of the Agpalilik fragment from the Cape York meteorite.<a href="#cite_note-WebmineralCarlsbergites-120">[120]</a> It occurs in meteorites along the grain boundaries of kamacite or troilite in the form of tiny plates,<a href="#cite_note-WebmineralCarlsbergites-120">[120]</a> associated with kamacite, taenite, daubreelite, troilite and sphalerite.<a href="#cite_note-HandbookCarlsbergites-121">[121]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nobeliums">Nobeliums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Nobeliums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section's source code: Nobeliums">edit source</a>]</div> A nobelium atom has 102 electrons, of which three can act as valence electrons. They are expected to be arranged in the configuration [Rn]5f147s2 (ground state term symbol 1S0), although experimental verification of this electron configuration had not yet been made as of 2006.<a href="#cite_note-Silva2011-122">[122]</a> In forming compounds, all the three valence electrons may be lost, leaving behind a [Rn]5f13 core: this conforms to the trend set by the other actinides with their [Rn]5fn electron configurations in the tripositive state. Nevertheless, it is more likely that only two valence electrons may be lost, leaving behind a stable [Rn]5f14 core with a filled 5f14 shell. The first ionization potential of nobelium was measured to be at most (6.65 ± 0.07) eV in 1974, based on the assumption that the 7s electrons would ionize before the 5f ones;<a href="#cite_note-Martin-123">[123]</a> this value has not yet been refined further due to nobelium's scarcity and high radioactivity.<a href="#cite_note-Lide2003-124">[124]</a> The ionic radius of hexacoordinate and octacoordinate No3+ had been preliminarily estimated in 1978 to be around 90 and 102 pm respectively;<a href="#cite_note-Silva2011-122">[122]</a> the ionic radius of No2+ has been experimentally found to be 100 pm to two significant figures.<a href="#cite_note-Silva2011-122">[122]</a> The enthalpy of hydration of No2+ has been calculated as 1486 kJ/mol.<a href="#cite_note-Silva2011-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oganessons">Oganessons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Oganessons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section's source code: Oganessons">edit source</a>]</div> Although oganesson is a member of group 18 (the noble gases) – the first synthetic element to be so – it may be significantly reactive, unlike all the other elements of that group.<a href="#cite_note-Nash2005-125">[125]</a> It was formerly thought to be a gas under standard conditions for temperature and pressure but is now predicted to be a solid due to relativistic effects.<a href="#cite_note-Nash2005-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Osmiums">Osmiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: Osmiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section's source code: Osmiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_Osmium_crystal.png" class="new" title="File:Native Osmium crystal.png">File:Native Osmium crystal.png</a><figcaption>A crystal of native osmium from Nishni Tagil, Ural, Russia, is shown. Credit: Thomas Witzke.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Osmium_crystals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Osmium_crystals.jpg/250px-Osmium_crystals.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Osmium_crystals.jpg/375px-Osmium_crystals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Osmium_crystals.jpg/500px-Osmium_crystals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4824" data-file-height="3099" /></a><figcaption>Osmium Os shown are crystals, purity ≥ 99.99%, 2.2 g. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:user:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Osmium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Osmium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Osmium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Osmium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Osmium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Osmium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Osmium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Osmium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The crystal of native osmium shown on the right is about 2 mm across. Osmium alloys with platinum, iridium, and other platinum-group metals.<a href="#cite_note-Haynes-126">[126]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oxygens">Oxygens</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Oxygens" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section's source code: Oxygens">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Oxygens" title="Chemicals/Oxygens">Chemicals/Oxygens</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Palladiums">Palladiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: Palladiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section's source code: Palladiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Palladium_nugget_Brazil.png" class="new" title="File:Palladium nugget Brazil.png">File:Palladium nugget Brazil.png</a><figcaption>This is a palladium nugget. Credit: Hudson Institute of Mineralogy. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Palladium_Mednorudyanskoye_Cu_Deposit.jpg" class="new" title="File:Palladium Mednorudyanskoye Cu Deposit.jpg">File:Palladium Mednorudyanskoye Cu Deposit.jpg</a><figcaption>This piece of native palladium is from the Mednorudyanskoye Cu Deposit, Nizhnii Tagil, Sverdlovskaya Oblast', Middle Urals, Urals Region, Russia. Credit: Hudson Institute of Mineralogy.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palladium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Palladium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Palladium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Palladium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Palladium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Palladium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Palladium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Palladium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "Natural Palladium [like the nugget shown on the right] always contains some Platinum."<a href="#cite_note-Hudson2015-127">[127]</a> This palladium nugget is from Bom Sucesso Creek, Serro, Minas Gerais, Brazil. "(Pd,Cu) alloys, some with the approximate composition PdCu4, are reported by Kapsiotis et al. (2010)."<a href="#cite_note-Hudson2015-127">[127]</a> The piece of native palladium [image on the left] from the Mednorudyanskoye Cu Deposit, Nizhnii Tagil, Sverdlovskaya Oblast', Middle Urals, Urals Region, Russia, probably contains some copper. Palladium can be found as a free metal alloyed with gold and other platinum-group metals in placer deposits of the Ural Mountains, Australia, Ethiopia, North and South America. Palladium is found in the rare minerals cooperite<a href="#cite_note-Verryn-128">[128]</a> and polarite.<a href="#cite_note-Genkin-129">[129]</a> Many more Pd minerals are known, but all of them are very rare.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Potarites">Potarites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: Potarites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section's source code: Potarites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Potarite_from_Brazil.jpg" class="new" title="File:Potarite from Brazil.jpg">File:Potarite from Brazil.jpg</a><figcaption>This piece of potarite is from Serro, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Credit: Hudson Institute of Mineralogy.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Potarite has the chemical formula PdHg.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts-19">[19]</a> On the right is a piece of potarite is from Serro, Minas Gerais, Brazil. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phosphoruses">Phosphoruses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Phosphoruses" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section's source code: Phosphoruses">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhosphorusAllotropes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/PhosphorusAllotropes.svg/400px-PhosphorusAllotropes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/PhosphorusAllotropes.svg/600px-PhosphorusAllotropes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/PhosphorusAllotropes.svg/800px-PhosphorusAllotropes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="562" /></a><figcaption>White phosphorus and resulting allotropes, including violet phosphorus, are indicated. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:UserXresu" class="extiw" title="c:User:UserXresu">UserXresu</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhosphComby.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/PhosphComby.jpg/250px-PhosphComby.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/PhosphComby.jpg/375px-PhosphComby.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/PhosphComby.jpg/500px-PhosphComby.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="253" /></a><figcaption>White phosphorus is under water on the left, with red phosphorus (center images), and violet phosporus right. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Materialscientist" class="extiw" title="c:User:Materialscientist">Materialscientist</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phosphorus_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Phosphorus_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Phosphorus_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Phosphorus_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Phosphorus_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Phosphorus_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Phosphorus_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Phosphorus spectrum is for emission lines between 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Phosphorus has several allotropes that exhibit strikingly diverse properties.<a href="#cite_note-Holleman-131">[131]</a> The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus.<a href="#cite_note-Abundance-132">[132]</a> Violet phosphorus is a form of phosphorus that can be produced by day-long annealing of red phosphorus above 550 °C, when phosphorus was recrystallised from molten lead, a red/purple form is obtained, sometimes known as "Hittorf's phosphorus" (or violet or α-metallic phosphorus).<a href="#cite_note-Berger-133">[133]</a> "It would appear that violet phosphorus is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/polymer" class="extiw" title="w:polymer">polymer</a> of high relative molecular mass, which on heating breaks down into P2 molecules. On cooling, these would normally <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimer_(chemistry)" class="extiw" title="w:Dimer (chemistry)">dimerize</a> to give P4 molecules (i.e. white phosphorus) but, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/in_vacuo" class="extiw" title="w:in vacuo">in vacuo</a>, they link up again to form the polymeric violet allotrope."<a href="#cite_note-AllotropesofPhosphorus-134">[134]</a> Phosphorus is an important component in steel production, in the making of phosphor bronze, and in many other related products.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Phosphorus is added to metallic copper during its smelting process to react with oxygen present as an impurity in copper and to produce phosphorus-containing copper (CuOFP) alloys with a higher hydrogen embrittlement resistance than normal copper.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Platinums">Platinums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: Platinums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section's source code: Platinums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Platinum-nugget.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Platinum-nugget.jpg/250px-Platinum-nugget.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Platinum-nugget.jpg/375px-Platinum-nugget.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Platinum-nugget.jpg/500px-Platinum-nugget.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5072" data-file-height="3496" /></a><figcaption>This is a native platinum nugget, locality Kondyor mine, Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Platinum_crystals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Platinum_crystals.jpg/250px-Platinum_crystals.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Platinum_crystals.jpg/375px-Platinum_crystals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Platinum_crystals.jpg/500px-Platinum_crystals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2084" data-file-height="1460" /></a><figcaption>Crystals of pure platinum were grown by gas phase transport. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Periodictableru" class="extiw" title="c:user:Periodictableru">Periodictableru</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Platinum_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Platinum_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Platinum_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Platinum_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Platinum_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Platinum_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Platinum_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Platinum spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Platinum can also occur as nuggets such as the one imaged on the right from Russia. "Terrestrial iron-free rhodium-bearing platinum with the composition of Pt0.68Rh0.32 in association with platinum-bearing rhodium Rh0.57Pt0.43 [...] was originally discovered in heavy fractions from basic rocks (norite, gabbro, and anorthosite) in the upper zone of the layered Stillwater intrusion (Montana, United States) [2]."<a href="#cite_note-Gornostaeva-138">[138]</a> In nickel and copper deposits, platinum-group metals occur as sulfides (e.g., (Pt,Pd)S), tellurides (e.g., PtBiTe), antimonides (PdSb), and arsenides (e.g. PtAs2), and as end alloys with nickel or copper. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cooperites">Cooperites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=92" title="Edit section: Cooperites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=92" title="Edit section's source code: Cooperites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cooperite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cooperite.jpg/250px-Cooperite.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cooperite.jpg/375px-Cooperite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cooperite.jpg/500px-Cooperite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="761" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Outstanding specimen is the extremely rare platinum mineral cooperite (PtS). Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:David_Hospital" class="extiw" title="c:user:David Hospital">David Hospital</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> This specimen on the right is a single nugget from Tulameen River, Princeton, British Columbia, Canada. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plutoniums">Plutoniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=93" title="Edit section: Plutoniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=93" title="Edit section's source code: Plutoniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Muromontite.png" class="new" title="File:Muromontite.png">File:Muromontite.png</a><figcaption>This is a sample of the naturally occurring mineral muromontite. Credit: eBay seller rubbleshop.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Plutonium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "The sample [on the right] representing plutonium is the naturally occurring mineral muromontite, which is a mixture of uranium and beryllium. [The] alpha particles from the decay of uranium are captured by the beryllium atoms, which in turn release neutrons. [...] In the case of this sample, [...] the neutrons are in turn re-captured by the uranium, which then undergoes further decay and is transformed into plutonium. The result is that this mineral contains the highest known naturally occurring concentration of plutonium."<a href="#cite_note-GrayPlutonium-139">[139]</a> Gallium, aluminium, americium, scandium and cerium can stabilize the δ phase of plutonium for room temperature, silicon, indium, zinc and zirconium allow formation of metastable δ state when rapidly cooled, high amounts of hafnium, holmium and thallium also allows some retention of the δ phase at room temperature, but nNeptunium is the only element that can stabilize the α phase at higher temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-Hecker-140">[140]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Poloniums">Poloniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=94" title="Edit section: Poloniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=94" title="Edit section's source code: Poloniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Polonium_Halo_in_Biotite.png" class="new" title="File:Polonium Halo in Biotite.png">File:Polonium Halo in Biotite.png</a><figcaption>This photograph shows a 210Po halo in biotite from the Buckhorn pegmatite. Credit: Lorence G. Collins.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uranium_roll_front_hosted_in_Dakota_Sandstone_near_Denver,_Colorado.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Uranium_roll_front_hosted_in_Dakota_Sandstone_near_Denver%2C_Colorado.jpg/250px-Uranium_roll_front_hosted_in_Dakota_Sandstone_near_Denver%2C_Colorado.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Uranium_roll_front_hosted_in_Dakota_Sandstone_near_Denver%2C_Colorado.jpg/375px-Uranium_roll_front_hosted_in_Dakota_Sandstone_near_Denver%2C_Colorado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Uranium_roll_front_hosted_in_Dakota_Sandstone_near_Denver%2C_Colorado.jpg/500px-Uranium_roll_front_hosted_in_Dakota_Sandstone_near_Denver%2C_Colorado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3693" data-file-height="2611" /></a><figcaption>Uranium roll front occurs in quartzose sandstone in the Cretaceous of Colorado, USA. Credit: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/people/47445767@N05">James St. John</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Radioactive_decay_halos_along_crack.png" class="new" title="File:Radioactive decay halos along crack.png">File:Radioactive decay halos along crack.png</a><figcaption>This photo shows a fracture in biotite in which migrating 210Po and/or 210Pb ions have created damage to the biotite lattice parallel to the fracture. Credit: Lorence G. Collins.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polonium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Polonium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Polonium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Polonium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Polonium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Polonium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Polonium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Polonium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> α-Po crystallizes in a simple cubic lattice.<a href="#cite_note-CST-141">[141]</a> Native polonium may occur in minerals like pitchblende due to the decay of uranium. But, when the uranium is chemically bound, the polonium is likely to be also. β-Po has a rhombohedral (trigonal) crystal structure.<a href="#cite_note-CSTPo-142">[142]</a> "Solid diorite and gabbro rock, which had previously crystallized from magma, has been subjected to repeated cataclasis and recrystallization. This has happened without melting; and the cataclasis provided openings for the introduction of uranium-bearing fluids and for the modification of these rocks to granite by silication and cation deletion."<a href="#cite_note-Collins1997-143">[143]</a> "In uranium ore-fields the extra uranium provides an abundant source of inert radon gas; and it is this gas that diffuses in ambient fluids so that incipient biotite and fluorite crystallization is exposed to it. Radon (222Rn) decays and Po isotopes nucleate in the rapidly growing biotite (and fluorite) crystals whence they are positioned to produce the Po halos."<a href="#cite_note-Collins1997-143">[143]</a> On the lower right is a photograph showing radioactive decay halos along a crack in biotite. On the left is an example of groundwater incursion that has moved through a nearby fault. The groundwater has picked up dissolved uranium compounds and moved downward through adjacent porous sandstones. Uraninite then precipitated around a tongue of groundwater, resulting in the roll front seen in the image on the left. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Potassiums">Potassiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=95" title="Edit section: Potassiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=95" title="Edit section's source code: Potassiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_potassium_(1975).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Phase_diagram_of_potassium_%281975%29.png/250px-Phase_diagram_of_potassium_%281975%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Phase_diagram_of_potassium_%281975%29.png/375px-Phase_diagram_of_potassium_%281975%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Phase_diagram_of_potassium_%281975%29.png 2x" data-file-width="377" data-file-height="362" /></a><figcaption>This is a pressure-temperature phase diagram for potassium. Credit: David A. Young, ERDA.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Potassium.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Potassium.JPG/300px-Potassium.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Potassium.JPG/450px-Potassium.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Potassium.JPG/600px-Potassium.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Cut potassium (kalium) pieces show metallic silver color. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Dnn87" class="extiw" title="c:user:Dnn87">Dennis s.k</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Potassium_flame.png" class="new" title="File:Potassium flame.png">File:Potassium flame.png</a><figcaption>The image shows the color of potassium in a natural gas burner. Credit: SciencePhoto. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Potassium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Potassium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Potassium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Potassium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Potassium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Potassium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Potassium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>This is a potassium emission-line spectrum over the range 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:User:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> As indicated in the phase diagram on the left, potassium occurs in a bcc (α-K) phase from room temperature up to melting. Native potassium does not appear to occur on the Earth's surface. "The group [of potassium lines] at λλ 535, 510, and 495 Å showed no trace of structure even in an arc of but half an ampere."<a href="#cite_note-Nutting-144">[144]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Praseodymiums">Praseodymiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=96" title="Edit section: Praseodymiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=96" title="Edit section's source code: Praseodymiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Praseodymium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Praseodymium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Praseodymium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Praseodymium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Praseodymium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Praseodymium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Praseodymium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Praseodymium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Po-BeO mixtures or alloys used as neutron sources are a neutron trigger or initiator for nuclear weapons<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rhodes-145">[145]</a> and for inspections of oil wells. The polonide of praseodymium (PrPo) melts at 1250 °C, and that of thulium (TmPo) melts at 2200 °C.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood-39">[39]</a> PbPo is one of the very few naturally occurring polonium compounds, as polonium alpha decays to form lead.<a href="#cite_note-Weigel-146">[146]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Promethiums">Promethiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=97" title="Edit section: Promethiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=97" title="Edit section's source code: Promethiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Promethium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Promethium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Promethium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Promethium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Promethium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Promethium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Promethium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Promethium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Formula </th> <th>symmetry </th> <th>space group </th> <th>No </th> <th>Pearson symbol </th> <th>a (pm) </th> <th>b (pm) </th> <th>c (pm) </th> <th>Z </th> <th>density, g/cm3 </th></tr> <tr> <td>α-Pm </td> <td>Close-packing of equal spheres (dhcp)<a href="#cite_note-Pallmer-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gschneidner-148">[148]</a> </td> <td>P63/mmc </td> <td>194 </td> <td>hP4 </td> <td>365 </td> <td>365 </td> <td>1165 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>7.26 </td></tr> <tr> <td>β-Pm </td> <td>Cubic crystal system (bcc)<a href="#cite_note-Gschneidner-148">[148]</a> </td> <td>Fm3m </td> <td>225 </td> <td>cF4 </td> <td>410 </td> <td>410 </td> <td>410 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>6.99 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protactiniums">Protactiniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=98" title="Edit section: Protactiniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=98" title="Edit section's source code: Protactiniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Protactinium.jpg" class="new" title="File:Protactinium.jpg">File:Protactinium.jpg</a><figcaption>Protactinium crystal, prepared by the van Arkel (chemical vapour transport) process. Credit: The Actinide Group, the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itu.jrc.ec.europa.eu/">Institute for Transuranium Elements</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protactinium-233.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Protactinium-233.jpg/250px-Protactinium-233.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Protactinium-233.jpg/375px-Protactinium-233.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Protactinium-233.jpg/500px-Protactinium-233.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2542" /></a><figcaption>This sample of Protactinium-233 (dark circular area in the photo) was photographed in the light from its own radioactive emission (the lighter area) at the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho. Credit: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/people/37916456@N02">ENERGY.GOV</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protactinium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Protactinium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Protactinium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Protactinium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Protactinium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Protactinium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Protactinium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Protactinium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Protactinium is one of the rarest and most expensive naturally occurring elements, found in the form of two isotopes – 231Pa and 234Pa, with the isotope 234Pa occurring in two different energy states: nearly all natural protactinium is protactinium-231, an alpha emitter formed by the decay of uranium-235, whereas the beta radiating protactinium-234 is produced as a result of <a href="/wiki/File:Decay_chain(4n%2B2,_Uranium_series).PNG" title="File:Decay chain(4n+2, Uranium series).PNG">uranium-238 decay</a>. Nearly all uranium-238 (99.8%) decays first to the shorter-lived 234mPa isomer.<a href="#cite_note-ANL-149">[149]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radiums">Radiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=99" title="Edit section: Radiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=99" title="Edit section's source code: Radiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radium226.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Radium226.jpg/250px-Radium226.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Radium226.jpg/375px-Radium226.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Radium226.jpg/500px-Radium226.jpg 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="522" /></a><figcaption>Radium electroplated on a very small sample of copper foil and covered with polyurethane to prevent reaction with the air. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Grenadier-commonswiki" class="extiw" title="c:user:Grenadier-commonswiki">grenadier</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Radium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Radium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Radium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Radium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Radium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Radium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Radium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Radium_flame.png" class="new" title="File:Radium flame.png">File:Radium flame.png</a><figcaption>The image shows the color of radium in a natural gas burner. Credit: Alan Crooks. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "Solid radium is bcc at room temperature. Radium melts at 973 K.63"<a href="#cite_note-Young-150">[150]</a> Radium oxide (RaO) has not been characterized well past its existence, despite oxides being common compounds for the other alkaline earth metals. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radons">Radons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=100" title="Edit section: Radons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=100" title="Edit section's source code: Radons">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Radons" title="Chemicals/Radons">Chemicals/Radons</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rheniums">Rheniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=101" title="Edit section: Rheniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=101" title="Edit section's source code: Rheniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_rhenium_2.png" class="new" title="File:Native rhenium 2.png">File:Native rhenium 2.png</a><figcaption>This is an image of the first find of native rhenium in the transitional clay layer at the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary in the Gams Section. Credit: A. F. Grachev, S. E. Borisovsky, and A. V. Grigor’eva.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhenium_single_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Rhenium_single_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/250px-Rhenium_single_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Rhenium_single_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/375px-Rhenium_single_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Rhenium_single_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/500px-Rhenium_single_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4848" data-file-height="3052" /></a><figcaption>Three high-purity forms of rhenium metal are shown: a single crystal (99.999% pure) made by the floating-zone process, an e-beam remelted bar (99.995% pure), and a 1 cm3 cube (99.99% pure) for comparison. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhenium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Rhenium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Rhenium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Rhenium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Rhenium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Rhenium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Rhenium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Rhenium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "Native rhenium was first discovered in the Earth's crust in wolframites from a rare metal deposit in the Transbaikal region [1]. [...] The study of the lunar regolith from two sites revealed native rhenium particles with different morphological features: irregular dense particles from Mare Fecunditatis and spheroidal particles from Mare Crisium. The origin of particles (less than 10 µm in size) is assigned to exhalative processes [2]. Among the extraterrestrial objects, native rhenium was found in Ni-iron and silicates from the Allende meteorite [3]."<a href="#cite_note-Grachev-151">[151]</a> "Solid radium is bcc at room temperature. Radium melts at 973 K.63"<a href="#cite_note-Young-150">[150]</a> "Instrumental neutron activation analyses of Kilauean aerosols collected in 1984 show Ir:Au:Re ratios of 1:12:2000 normalized to CI chondrites. The large Re enrichment in these volcanic aerosols may explain the 3 to 15-fold Re excess, relative to chondritic, in the observed siderophile element signature of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary clay layer.2,3 Strong evidence exists that an impact of an extraterrestrial body on the Earth caused mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous period.4,5 ... A Kilauean aerosol contribution of only 0.01 % of the chondritic component in the boundary clay layer would produce the observed Re enrichments."<a href="#cite_note-Hildebrand-152">[152]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rhodiums">Rhodiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=102" title="Edit section: Rhodiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=102" title="Edit section's source code: Rhodiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_rhodium.jpg" class="new" title="File:Native rhodium.jpg">File:Native rhodium.jpg</a><figcaption>This image of microbreccia contains rhodium-bearing ferroplatinum. Credit: T. A. Gornostaeva, P. M. Kartashov, A. V. Mokhov, and O. A. Bogatikov.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhodium_powder_pressed_melted.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rhodium_powder_pressed_melted.jpg/250px-Rhodium_powder_pressed_melted.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rhodium_powder_pressed_melted.jpg/375px-Rhodium_powder_pressed_melted.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rhodium_powder_pressed_melted.jpg/500px-Rhodium_powder_pressed_melted.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5280" data-file-height="2704" /></a><figcaption>Rhodium processing is shown: 1g powder, 1g pressed cylinder, 1 g argon arc remelted pellet. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhodium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Rhodium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Rhodium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Rhodium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Rhodium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Rhodium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Rhodium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Rhodium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The image on the right contains small particles of native rhodium-bearing ferroplatinum. This sample was obtained from the lunar regolith "by the Luna-16 automatic station".<a href="#cite_note-Gornostaeva-138">[138]</a> "Terrestrial iron-free rhodium-bearing platinum with the composition of Pt0.68Rh0.32 in association with platinum-bearing rhodium Rh0.57Pt0.43 [...] was originally discovered in heavy fractions from basic rocks (norite, gabbro, and anorthosite) in the upper zone of the layered Stillwater intrusion (Montana, United States) [2]."<a href="#cite_note-Gornostaeva-138">[138]</a> Naturally occurring rhodium is usually found as a free metal or as an alloy with similar metals and rarely as a chemical compound in minerals such as bowieite and rhodplumsite. Rhodium is used as an alloying agent for hardening and improving the corrosion resistance.<a href="#cite_note-Cramer-153">[153]</a> of platinum and palladium. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roentgeniums">Roentgeniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=103" title="Edit section: Roentgeniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=103" title="Edit section's source code: Roentgeniums">edit source</a>]</div> "Based on the observation of the long-lived isotopes of roentgenium, 261Rg and 265Rg (Z = 111, t1/2 ≥ 108 y) in natural Au, an experiment was performed to enrich Rg in 99.999% Au. 16 mg of Au were heated in vacuum for two weeks at a temperature of 1127°C (63°C above the melting point of Au). The content of 197Au and 261Rg in the residue was studied with high resolution inductively coupled plasma-sector field mass spectrometry (ICP-SFMS). The residue of Au was 3 × 10−6 of its original quantity. The recovery of Rg was a few percent. The abundance of Rg compared to Au in the enriched solution was about 2 × 10−6, which is a three to four orders of magnitude enrichment."<a href="#cite_note-Marinov-154">[154]</a> The isotopes 280Rg and 281Rg are promising for chemical experimentation and may be produced as the granddaughters of the moscovium isotopes 288Mc and 289Mc respectively;<a href="#cite_note-Moody-47">[47]</a> their parents are the nihonium isotopes 284Nh and 285Nh, which have already received preliminary chemical investigations.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rubidiums">Rubidiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=104" title="Edit section: Rubidiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=104" title="Edit section's source code: Rubidiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_rubidium_(1975).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Phase_diagram_of_rubidium_%281975%29.png/250px-Phase_diagram_of_rubidium_%281975%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Phase_diagram_of_rubidium_%281975%29.png 1.5x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="465" /></a><figcaption>This is a pressure-temperature phase diagram for rubidium. Credit: David A. Young, ERDA.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rubidiumsample.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Rubidiumsample.JPG/250px-Rubidiumsample.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Rubidiumsample.JPG/375px-Rubidiumsample.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Rubidiumsample.JPG/500px-Rubidiumsample.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Rubidium metal sample is enclosed in a quartz ampule to prevent oxidation. Credit: .{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Die_Flammenf%C3%A4rbung_des_Rubidium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Die_Flammenf%C3%A4rbung_des_Rubidium.jpg/250px-Die_Flammenf%C3%A4rbung_des_Rubidium.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Die_Flammenf%C3%A4rbung_des_Rubidium.jpg/375px-Die_Flammenf%C3%A4rbung_des_Rubidium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Die_Flammenf%C3%A4rbung_des_Rubidium.jpg/500px-Die_Flammenf%C3%A4rbung_des_Rubidium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>This image shows the flame test for Rubidium. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Didaktische.Medien" class="extiw" title="c:User:Didaktische.Medien">Didaktische.Medien</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rubidium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Rubidium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Rubidium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Rubidium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Rubidium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Rubidium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Rubidium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Rubidium emission spectrum is for 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The pressure-temperature diagram on the left shows that rubidium is bcc (α-Rb) from room temperature through melting. Native rubidium does not appear to occur on the Earth's surface. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rutheniums">Rutheniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=105" title="Edit section: Rutheniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=105" title="Edit section's source code: Rutheniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_Ruthenium_from_Verkneivinsk.png" class="new" title="File:Native Ruthenium from Verkneivinsk.png">File:Native Ruthenium from Verkneivinsk.png</a><figcaption>This is a piece of native ruthenium from Verkhneivinsk, Neiva river, Sverdlovskaya Oblast', Middle Urals, Urals Region, Russia. Credit: Hudson Institute of Mineralogy.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruthenium_a_half_bar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Ruthenium_a_half_bar.jpg/250px-Ruthenium_a_half_bar.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Ruthenium_a_half_bar.jpg/375px-Ruthenium_a_half_bar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Ruthenium_a_half_bar.jpg/500px-Ruthenium_a_half_bar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4216" data-file-height="2916" /></a><figcaption>One half of a high-purity (99.99%), electron-beam-remelted ruthenium bar is shown. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruthenium_crystals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ruthenium_crystals.jpg/250px-Ruthenium_crystals.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ruthenium_crystals.jpg/375px-Ruthenium_crystals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ruthenium_crystals.jpg/500px-Ruthenium_crystals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2404" data-file-height="2092" /></a><figcaption>Gas phase grown crystals of ruthenium metal are shown. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Periodictableru" class="extiw" title="c:user:Periodictableru">Periodictableru</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruthenium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Ruthenium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Ruthenium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Ruthenium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Ruthenium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Ruthenium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Ruthenium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Ruthenium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The piece of native ruthenium in the image on the right contains some iridium. It is from Verkhneivinsk, Neiva river, Sverdlovskaya Oblast', Middle Urals, Urals Region, Russia. A minor application for ruthenium is in platinum alloys. A ruthenium-molybdenum alloy is known to be superconductive at temperatures below 10.6 K.<a href="#cite_note-Haynes2016-156">[156]</a> The composition of the mined platinum group metal (PGM) mixtures varies widely, depending on the geochemical formation. For example, the PGMs mined in South Africa contain on average 11% ruthenium while the PGMs mined in the former USSR contain only 2% (1992).<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rutherfordiums">Rutherfordiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=106" title="Edit section: Rutherfordiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=106" title="Edit section's source code: Rutherfordiums">edit source</a>]</div> Rutherfordium was synthesized by bombarding a californium-249 target with carbon-12 ions and measured the alpha decay of 257Rf, correlated with the daughter decay of nobelium-253:<a href="#cite_note-Ghiorso-159">[159]</a> <dl><dd>249 98Cf + 12 6C → 257 104Rf + 4 n</dd></dl> Rutherfordium is the parent of K-alpha X-rays in the elemental signature of the 257Rf decay product, nobelium-253.<a href="#cite_note-Bemis-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Samariums">Samariums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=107" title="Edit section: Samariums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=107" title="Edit section's source code: Samariums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samarium-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Samarium-2.jpg/250px-Samarium-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Samarium-2.jpg/375px-Samarium-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Samarium-2.jpg/500px-Samarium-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Ultrapure sublimated samarium, 2 grams, is shown. Credit: Unknown author.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samarium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Samarium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Samarium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Samarium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Samarium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Samarium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Samarium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Samarium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Samarium occurs in concentration up to 2.8% in several minerals including cerite, gadolinite, samarskite, monazite and bastnäsite. <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Formula </th> <th>color </th> <th>symmetry </th> <th>space group </th> <th>No </th> <th>Pearson symbol </th> <th>a (pm) </th> <th>b (pm) </th> <th>c (pm) </th> <th>Z </th> <th>density, g/cm3 </th></tr> <tr> <td>Sm </td> <td>silvery </td> <td>trigonal<a href="#cite_note-sm-161">[161]</a> </td> <td>R3m </td> <td>166 </td> <td>hR9 </td> <td>362.9 </td> <td>362.9 </td> <td>2621.3 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>7.52 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sm </td> <td>silvery </td> <td>hexagonal<a href="#cite_note-sm-161">[161]</a> </td> <td>P63/mmc </td> <td>194 </td> <td>hP4 </td> <td>362 </td> <td>362 </td> <td>1168 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>7.54 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sm </td> <td>silvery </td> <td>tetragonal<a href="#cite_note-sm2-162">[162]</a> </td> <td>I4/mmm </td> <td>139 </td> <td>tI2 </td> <td>240.2 </td> <td>240.2 </td> <td>423.1 </td> <td>2 </td> <td>20.46 </td></tr> <tr> <td>SmO </td> <td>golden </td> <td>cubic<a href="#cite_note-smox-163">[163]</a> </td> <td>Fm3m </td> <td>225 </td> <td>cF8 </td> <td>494.3 </td> <td>494.3 </td> <td>494.3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>9.15 </td></tr> <tr> <td>SmN </td> <td> </td> <td>cubic<a href="#cite_note-smn-164">[164]</a> </td> <td>Fm3m </td> <td>225 </td> <td>cF8 </td> <td>357 </td> <td>357 </td> <td>357 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>8.48 </td></tr> <tr> <td>SmP </td> <td> </td> <td>cubic<a href="#cite_note-smp-165">[165]</a> </td> <td>Fm3m </td> <td>225 </td> <td>cF8 </td> <td>576 </td> <td>576 </td> <td>576 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>6.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>SmAs </td> <td> </td> <td>cubic<a href="#cite_note-smas-166">[166]</a> </td> <td>Fm3m </td> <td>225 </td> <td>cF8 </td> <td>591.5 </td> <td>591.5 </td> <td>591.5 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>7.23 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scandiums">Scandiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=108" title="Edit section: Scandiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=108" title="Edit section's source code: Scandiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scandium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Scandium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Scandium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Scandium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Scandium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Scandium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Scandium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Scandium emission spectrum is from 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ultrapure_crystalline_scandium,_5_grams.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ultrapure_crystalline_scandium%2C_5_grams.jpg/250px-Ultrapure_crystalline_scandium%2C_5_grams.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ultrapure_crystalline_scandium%2C_5_grams.jpg/375px-Ultrapure_crystalline_scandium%2C_5_grams.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ultrapure_crystalline_scandium%2C_5_grams.jpg/500px-Ultrapure_crystalline_scandium%2C_5_grams.jpg 2x" data-file-width="924" data-file-height="924" /></a><figcaption>Scandium is the first transition metal and the first rare earth element. Credit: Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Scandium is the first transition metal and the first rare earth element, the latter also includes yttrium and the lanthanoids. The ignoble light metal has only a few applications, because its chemistry isn't so complex and it also is rather expensive. It is used in high-quality, light alloys, e.g., for frames of racing bicycles. Scandium (Sc II) has an absorption band, 424.683±1.0 nm, with an excitation potential of 0.31 eV.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> Metallic scandium is used in aluminium alloysis for strengthening with as little as 0.5% scandium.<a href="#cite_note-Burrell-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zakharov-168">[168]</a> The alloy Al 20Li 20Mg 10Sc 20Ti 30 is as strong as titanium, light as aluminium, and hard as some ceramics.<a href="#cite_note-Youssef-169">[169]</a> "Neutron activation analysis was used to deterimne the total [lanthanum] La and [scandium] Sc content of three soils developed from loess-capped glacial till. The profiles were classified as Gray-Brown Podzolics (Hapludalfs) overlying paleosols developed in Rockain till. The total La content in the less than 250µ fraction of these soils ranged from 18.1 to 37.1 ppm, with an average content of 23.7 ppm in the loess and 28.5 ppm in the glacial till. Total Sc in the soils ranged from 5.1 to 10.9 ppm with average contents of 6.5 and 9.0 ppm in the loess and glacial till, respectively. Translocation by pedogenic processes was indicated by the accumulation of these elements in the argillic B horizons. Correlation coefficients of La and Sc with clay percentages in the profiles were 0.79 and 0.88, respectively."<a href="#cite_note-Kline-170">[170]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seaborgiums">Seaborgiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=109" title="Edit section: Seaborgiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=109" title="Edit section's source code: Seaborgiums">edit source</a>]</div> Alpha emission (α), spontaneous fission (SF) and electron capture (EC) are decay modes of seaborgium. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>List of seaborgium isotopes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Isotope </th> <th>Half-life <a href="#cite_note-nuclidetable-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-periodictable-172">[172]</a></th> <th>Decay mode<a href="#cite_note-nuclidetable-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-periodictable-172">[172]</a></th> <th>Discovery year</th> <th>Reaction </th></tr> <tr> <td>258Sg</td> <td>00000003 !3 ms</td> <td>SF</td> <td>1994</td> <td>209Bi(51V,2n) </td></tr> <tr> <td>259Sg</td> <td>00006 !600 ms</td> <td>α</td> <td>1985</td> <td>207Pb(54Cr,2n) </td></tr> <tr> <td>260Sg</td> <td>00000004 !4 ms</td> <td>SF, α</td> <td>1985</td> <td>208Pb(54Cr,2n) </td></tr> <tr> <td>261Sg</td> <td>00002 !200 ms</td> <td>α, EC, SF</td> <td>1985</td> <td>208Pb(54Cr,n) </td></tr> <tr> <td>261mSg</td> <td>00000000092 !92 μs</td> <td>IT</td> <td>2009</td> <td>208Pb(54Cr,n) </td></tr> <tr> <td>262Sg</td> <td>0000007 !7 ms</td> <td>SF, α</td> <td>2001</td> <td>270Ds(—,2α) </td></tr> <tr> <td>263Sg</td> <td>0001 !1 s</td> <td>α</td> <td>1994</td> <td>271Ds(—,2α) </td></tr> <tr> <td>263mSg</td> <td>000012 !120 ms</td> <td>α, SF</td> <td>1974</td> <td>249Cf(18O,4n) </td></tr> <tr> <td>264Sg</td> <td>0000037 !37 ms</td> <td>SF</td> <td>2006</td> <td>238U(34Si,4n) </td></tr> <tr> <td>265Sg</td> <td>0008 !8 s</td> <td>α</td> <td>1993</td> <td>248Cm(22Ne,5n) </td></tr> <tr> <td>265mSg</td> <td>00162 !16.2 s</td> <td>α</td> <td>1993</td> <td>248Cm(22Ne,5n) </td></tr> <tr> <td>266Sg</td> <td>000036 !360 ms</td> <td>SF</td> <td>2004</td> <td>270Hs(—,α) </td></tr> <tr> <td>267Sg</td> <td>0084 !1.4 min</td> <td>SF, α</td> <td>2004</td> <td>271Hs(—,α) </td></tr> <tr> <td>269Sg</td> <td>0840 !14 min</td> <td>α</td> <td>2010</td> <td>285Fl(—,4α) </td></tr> <tr> <td>271Sg</td> <td>0144 !2.4 min</td> <td>α</td> <td>2003</td> <td>287Fl(—,4α) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seleniums">Seleniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=110" title="Edit section: Seleniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=110" title="Edit section's source code: Seleniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Selenium_native.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Selenium_native.jpg/220px-Selenium_native.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Selenium_native.jpg/330px-Selenium_native.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Selenium_native.jpg/440px-Selenium_native.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>Selenium (native) with pen for scale is from the mineral collection of Brigham Young University Department of Geology, Provo, Utah. Credit: Andrew Silver, USGS.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Selenium_in_sandstone_Westwater_Canyon_Section_23_Mine_Grants,_New_Mexico.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Selenium_in_sandstone_Westwater_Canyon_Section_23_Mine_Grants%2C_New_Mexico.jpg/200px-Selenium_in_sandstone_Westwater_Canyon_Section_23_Mine_Grants%2C_New_Mexico.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Selenium_in_sandstone_Westwater_Canyon_Section_23_Mine_Grants%2C_New_Mexico.jpg/300px-Selenium_in_sandstone_Westwater_Canyon_Section_23_Mine_Grants%2C_New_Mexico.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Selenium_in_sandstone_Westwater_Canyon_Section_23_Mine_Grants%2C_New_Mexico.jpg/400px-Selenium_in_sandstone_Westwater_Canyon_Section_23_Mine_Grants%2C_New_Mexico.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2236" data-file-height="1658" /></a><figcaption>The dark gray mineral in the yellow sandstone is native selenium. Credit: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/people/47445767@N05">James St. John</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_selenium.jpg" class="new" title="File:Native selenium.jpg">File:Native selenium.jpg</a><figcaption>These are native selenium needles from Katharine mine, Radvanice, Czech Republic. Credit: Asahi.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SeBlackRed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/SeBlackRed.jpg/250px-SeBlackRed.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/SeBlackRed.jpg/375px-SeBlackRed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/SeBlackRed.jpg/500px-SeBlackRed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Black, glassy amorphous (with thin layer of grey selenium) and red amorphous selenium are allotropes of selenium. Credit: W. Oelen.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Selenium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Selenium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Selenium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Selenium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Selenium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Selenium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Selenium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Selenium emission spectrum for 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> On the right is a photograph of native selenium from the mineral collection of Brigham Young University Department of Geology, Provo, Utah. The image on the left shows dark gray selenium in sandstone from Westwater Canyon Section 23 Mine Grants, New Mexico. In the center image are native selenium needles from Katharine mine, Radvanice, Czech Republic. Allotropes of selenium are amorphous, brick-red (α, β,<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> and γ<a href="#cite_note-Foss-175">[175]</a>) powders, black, vitreous beads,<a href="#cite_note-House-176">[176]</a> and gray selenium. Selenium is used with bismuth in brasses to replace lead.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-177">[177]</a> Like lead and sulfur, selenium improves the machinability of steel at concentrations around 0.15%.<a href="#cite_note-Isakov-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dshtein-179">[179]</a> Selenium produces the same machinability improvement in copper alloys.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-177">[177]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Achávalites">Achávalites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=111" title="Edit section: Achávalites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=111" title="Edit section's source code: Achávalites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achavalite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Achavalite.jpg/250px-Achavalite.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Achavalite.jpg/375px-Achavalite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Achavalite.jpg/500px-Achavalite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Black metallic crystals are the extremely rare iron selenide mineral achávalite from Cacheuta Mine, Mendoza, Argentina, associated with cacheutaite. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:David_Hospital" class="extiw" title="c:user:David Hospital">David Hospital</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Achávalite has the chemical formula (Fe,Cu)Se. Achávalite (IMA symbol is Ahv<a href="#cite_note-Warr-180">[180]</a>) a selenide mineral that is a member of the nickeline group. It has only been found in a single Argentinian mine system, being first discovered in 1939 in a selenide deposit. The type locality is the Cacheuta mine, Sierra de Cacheuta, Mendoza, Argentina.<a href="#cite_note-MindatAchavalite-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-WebminAchavalite-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hålenius-183">[183]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clausthalites">Clausthalites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=112" title="Edit section: Clausthalites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=112" title="Edit section's source code: Clausthalites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clausthalite-207330.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Clausthalite-207330.jpg/250px-Clausthalite-207330.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Clausthalite-207330.jpg/375px-Clausthalite-207330.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Clausthalite-207330.jpg/500px-Clausthalite-207330.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption>Clausthalite is a rare lead selenide exhibiting scintillating, metallic microcrystals covering the carbonate matrix. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Rob_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:user:Rob Lavinsky">Rob Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Clausthalite is a lead selenide mineral, with chemical formula PbSe. It is a face-centered mineral with Z = 4 formula units per unit cell. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Siderophiles">Siderophiles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=113" title="Edit section: Siderophiles" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=113" title="Edit section's source code: Siderophiles">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elemental_abundances.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Elemental_abundances.svg/350px-Elemental_abundances.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Elemental_abundances.svg/525px-Elemental_abundances.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Elemental_abundances.svg/700px-Elemental_abundances.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>Abundance (atom fraction) of the chemical elements in Earth's upper continental crust as a function of atomic number. The rarest elements in the crust (shown in yellow) are not the heaviest, but are rather the siderophile (iron-loving) elements in the Goldschmidt classification of elements. These have been depleted by being relocated deeper into the Earth's core. Their abundance in meteoroid materials is relatively higher. Additionally, tellurium and selenium have been depleted from the crust due to formation of volatile hydrides. Credit: Gordon B. Haxel, Sara Boore, and Susan Mayfield from USGS.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Def. "an element that forms alloys easily with iron and [may be] concentrated in the Earth's core"<a href="#cite_note-SiderophileWikt-184">[184]</a> is called a siderophile. Siderophile (metal-loving) chemical elements include W, P, Co, Ni, Mo, Re, and Ir.<a href="#cite_note-Newsom-185">[185]</a> "The platinum group elements (PGE: Os, Ir, Ru, Rh, Pt, and Pd) and Re are highly siderophile elements (HSE)".<a href="#cite_note-Dale-186">[186]</a> "We believe that silicon is a major element - about 5% [of the Earth's inner core] by weight could be silicon dissolved into the iron-nickel alloys."<a href="#cite_note-Ohtani-187">[187]</a> "The innermost part of Earth is thought to be a solid ball with a radius of about 1,200 km (745 miles)."<a href="#cite_note-Morelle-188">[188]</a> "It is mainly composed of iron, which makes up an estimated 85% of its weight, and nickel, which accounts for about 10% of the core."<a href="#cite_note-Morelle-188">[188]</a> "These difficult experiments are really exciting because they can provide a window into what Earth's interior was like soon after it first formed, 4.5 billion years ago, when the core first started to separate from the rocky parts of Earth."<a href="#cite_note-Redfern-189">[189]</a> "But other workers have recently suggested that oxygen might also be important in the core."<a href="#cite_note-Redfern-189">[189]</a> "In a way, these two options [oxygen was sucked into the core that would leave the rocky mantle surrounding the core depleted of the element or a larger amount of silicon had been incorporated in Earth's core more than four billion years ago, that would have left the rest of the planet relatively oxygen rich] are real alternatives that depend a lot on the conditions prevailing when Earth's core first began to form."<a href="#cite_note-Redfern-189">[189]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Silicons">Silicons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=114" title="Edit section: Silicons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=114" title="Edit section's source code: Silicons">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SiliconCroda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/SiliconCroda.jpg/300px-SiliconCroda.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/SiliconCroda.jpg/450px-SiliconCroda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/SiliconCroda.jpg/600px-SiliconCroda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1046" data-file-height="727" /></a><figcaption>Close up photo is of a piece of purified silicon. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/user:Enricoros" class="extiw" title="w:user:Enricoros">Enricoros</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silicon_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Silicon_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Silicon_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Silicon_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Silicon_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Silicon_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Silicon_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Silicon spectrum is from 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Silicon (Si II) has two absorption bands at 412.805±10.8 nm and 413.088±13.0 nm with excitation potentials of 9.79 eV and 9.80 eV, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> Silicon has an absorption line (Si IV) at 408.9 nm.<a href="#cite_note-Conti-190">[190]</a> Elemental silicon is added to molten cast iron as ferrosilicon or silicocalcium alloys to improve performance in casting thin sections and to prevent the formation of cementite where exposed to outside air. The presence of elemental silicon in molten iron acts as a sink for oxygen, so that the steel carbon content, which must be kept within narrow limits for each type of steel, can be more closely controlled. Ferrosilicon production and use is a monitor of the steel industry, and although this form of elemental silicon is grossly impure, it accounts for 80% of the world's use of free silicon. Silicon is an important constituent of electrical steel, modifying its resistivity and ferromagnetic properties. The properties of silicon may be used to modify alloys with metals other than iron. "Metallurgical grade" silicon is silicon of 95–99% purity. About 55% of the world consumption of metallurgical purity silicon goes for production of aluminium-silicon alloys (silumin alloys) for aluminium part casts, mainly for use in the automotive industry. Silicon's importance in aluminium casting is that a significantly high amount (12%) of silicon in aluminium forms a eutectic mixture which solidifies with very little thermal contraction. This greatly reduces tearing and cracks formed from stress as casting alloys cool to solidity. Silicon also significantly improves the hardness and thus wear-resistance of aluminium.<a href="#cite_note-Apelian-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-Corathers-192">[192]</a> "The relatively long-lived radionuclide of silicon, 32Si, finds important applications as a tracer for studying aqueous geochemistry, biogeochemical cycles of silicon in the oceans, and the chronology of glaciers and biogenic silica-rich sediments in lacustrine and marine environments."<a href="#cite_note-Lal-193">[193]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Silicon_hydrogenated_amorphous_carbons">Silicon hydrogenated amorphous carbons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=115" title="Edit section: Silicon hydrogenated amorphous carbons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=115" title="Edit section's source code: Silicon hydrogenated amorphous carbons">edit source</a>]</div> "The broad, 60 < FWHM < 100 nm, featureless luminescence band known as extended red emission (ERE) is seen in such diverse dusty astrophysical environments as reflection nebulae17, planetary nebulae3, HII regions (Orion)12, a Nova11, Galactic cirrus14, a dark nebula7, Galaxies8,6 and the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM)4. The band is confined between 540-950 nm, but the wavelength of peak emission varies from environment to environment, even within a given object. ... the wavelength of peak emission is longer and the efficiency of the luminescence is lower, the harder and denser the illuminating radiation field is13. These general characteristics of ERE constrain the photoluminescence (PL) band and efficiency for laboratory analysis of dust analog materials."<a href="#cite_note-Smith99-194">[194]</a> "The PL efficiencies measured for [hydrogenated amorphous carbon] HAC and Si-HAC alloys are consistent with dust estimates for reflection nebulae and planetary nebulae, but exhibit substantial photoluminescence below 540 nm which is not observed in astrophysical environments."<a href="#cite_note-Smith99-194">[194]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Moissanite">Moissanite</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=116" title="Edit section: Moissanite" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=116" title="Edit section's source code: Moissanite">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moissanite-USGS-20-1001d-14x-.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Moissanite-USGS-20-1001d-14x-.jpg/250px-Moissanite-USGS-20-1001d-14x-.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Moissanite-USGS-20-1001d-14x-.jpg/375px-Moissanite-USGS-20-1001d-14x-.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Moissanite-USGS-20-1001d-14x-.jpg/500px-Moissanite-USGS-20-1001d-14x-.jpg 2x" data-file-width="693" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Moissanite is native SiC. Credit: Andrew Silver.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Moissanite is native SiC.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts-19">[19]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Silvers">Silvers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=117" title="Edit section: Silvers" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=117" title="Edit section's source code: Silvers">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver-280342.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Silver-280342.jpg/250px-Silver-280342.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Silver-280342.jpg/375px-Silver-280342.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Silver-280342.jpg 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>These specimens are some of the most easily recognizable, dramatic and highly sought after silver specimens from the Western Hemisphere. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Robert_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:User:Robert Lavinsky">Robert Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Native_silver.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Native_silver.jpg/250px-Native_silver.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Native_silver.jpg/375px-Native_silver.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Native_silver.jpg/500px-Native_silver.jpg 2x" data-file-width="814" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>Native silver is on calcite from Kongsberg, Norway. Credit: Aram Dulyan.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_crystal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Silver_crystal.jpg/250px-Silver_crystal.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Silver_crystal.jpg/375px-Silver_crystal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Silver_crystal.jpg/500px-Silver_crystal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4428" data-file-height="3472" /></a><figcaption>A pure (>99.95%) silver crystal, synthetic electrolytic is made with visible dendritic structures. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Silver_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Silver_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Silver_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Silver_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Silver_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Silver_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Silver spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Native silver does occur as cubic, octahedral, or dodecahedral crystals; "also elongated, arborescent, reticulated, or as thin to thick wires."<a href="#cite_note-Roberts-19">[19]</a> The metal is found in the Earth's crust in the pure, free elemental form ("native silver"), as an alloy with gold, copper, zinc, cadmium, indium, tin, mercury, cobalt, nickel, palladium, manganese, phosphorus, and lead, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. Ag+ is the stable species in aqueous solution and solids.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood-39">[39]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bromyrites">Bromyrites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=118" title="Edit section: Bromyrites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=118" title="Edit section's source code: Bromyrites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Bromyrite.jpg" class="new" title="File:Bromyrite.jpg">File:Bromyrite.jpg</a><figcaption>This is a butterscotch colored bromargyrite cube from Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia. Credit: Lou Perloff / Photo Atlas of Minerals.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Bromyrite, or bromargyrite, is a cubic silver bromide mineral (AgBr) that is 50 at % bromine. The image on the right shows a butterscotch colored bromargyrite cube from Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iodyrites">Iodyrites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=119" title="Edit section: Iodyrites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=119" title="Edit section's source code: Iodyrites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Iodyrite.jpg" class="new" title="File:Iodyrite.jpg">File:Iodyrite.jpg</a><figcaption>These are twinned iodyrite, or iodargyrite, crystals. Credit: Hudson Institute of Mineralogy.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Iodyrite (AgI) may be the most common mineral with large amounts of iodine found on Earth. It is 50 at % iodine. On the right are twinned iodyrite, or iodargyrite, crystals are within a rock sample from Schöne Aussicht Mine, Dernbach, Neuwied, Wied Iron Spar District, Westerwald, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sodiums">Sodiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=120" title="Edit section: Sodiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=120" title="Edit section's source code: Sodiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sodium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Sodium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Sodium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Sodium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Sodium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Sodium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Sodium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Sodium spectrum is ringrising 400 nm - 700 nm Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Bi-Na_phase_diagram.gif" class="new" title="File:Bi-Na phase diagram.gif">File:Bi-Na phase diagram.gif</a><figcaption>This is a phase diagram for the sodium-bismuth system. Credit: J. Sangster and A.D. Pelton.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Na_(Sodium).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg/300px-Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg/450px-Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg/600px-Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Sodium metal is from the Dennis s.k collection. Credit: Dennis s.k.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flametest--Na.swn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flametest--Na.swn.jpg/100px-Flametest--Na.swn.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flametest--Na.swn.jpg/150px-Flametest--Na.swn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flametest--Na.swn.jpg/200px-Flametest--Na.swn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of sodium in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:S%C3%B8ren_Wedel_Nielsen" class="extiw" title="c:user:Søren Wedel Nielsen">Søren Wedel Nielsen</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure>. The phase diagram on the left shows bcc (α-Na) at higher temperatures up to melting and hcp (β-Na) with decreasing temperature below the transition at 97.8°C. Native sodium does not appear to occur on the surface of the Earth. "Glaciers in the Karakoram and western Himalaya (site 2 and 3) show high annual snow accumulation rates and high annual fluxes of calcium, sodium, chloride, sulfate, and nitrate."<a href="#cite_note-Wake-195">[195]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fluorites">Fluorites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=121" title="Edit section: Fluorites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=121" title="Edit section's source code: Fluorites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fluorine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Fluorine.jpg/250px-Fluorine.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Fluorine.jpg/375px-Fluorine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Fluorine.jpg/500px-Fluorine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="3592" /></a><figcaption>These are cyan colored fluorite crystals from Rogerley Mine, Frosterley, Weardale, North Pennines, Co. Durham, England, UK. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Parent_G%C3%A9ry" class="extiw" title="c:User:Parent Géry">Parent Géry</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fluorite-Quartz-cflo47a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Fluorite-Quartz-cflo47a.jpg/250px-Fluorite-Quartz-cflo47a.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="347" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Fluorite-Quartz-cflo47a.jpg/375px-Fluorite-Quartz-cflo47a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Fluorite-Quartz-cflo47a.jpg/500px-Fluorite-Quartz-cflo47a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The fluorite crystal is just over 1 cm and is rimmed on one side with sparkling pyrite. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Robert_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:User:Robert Lavinsky">Robert Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Fluorite is a mineral composed of NaF. Although fluorite usually appears violet or purple in color, the crystals at left are cyan with some blue or violet fluorite mixed in suggesting slight variations in composition. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strontiums">Strontiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=122" title="Edit section: Strontiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=122" title="Edit section's source code: Strontiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Magnesium-Strontium_phase_diagram.png" class="new" title="File:Magnesium-Strontium phase diagram.png">File:Magnesium-Strontium phase diagram.png</a><figcaption>This is a magnesium-strontium phase diagram. Credit: A.A. Nayeb-Hashemi and J.B. Clark.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSr.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSr.png/100px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSr.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSr.png/150px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSr.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSr.png/200px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungSr.png 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="1467" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of strontium in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/user:Herge" class="extiw" title="de:user:Herge">Herge</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plamenn%C3%A1_zkou%C5%A1ka_kationt_Sr%2B2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Plamenn%C3%A1_zkou%C5%A1ka_kationt_Sr%2B2.jpg/200px-Plamenn%C3%A1_zkou%C5%A1ka_kationt_Sr%2B2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Plamenn%C3%A1_zkou%C5%A1ka_kationt_Sr%2B2.jpg/300px-Plamenn%C3%A1_zkou%C5%A1ka_kationt_Sr%2B2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Plamenn%C3%A1_zkou%C5%A1ka_kationt_Sr%2B2.jpg/400px-Plamenn%C3%A1_zkou%C5%A1ka_kationt_Sr%2B2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of strontium in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Roman_Kyn%C4%8Dl" class="extiw" title="c:user:Roman Kynčl">Roman Kynčl</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strontium_destilled_crystals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Strontium_destilled_crystals.jpg/250px-Strontium_destilled_crystals.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Strontium_destilled_crystals.jpg/375px-Strontium_destilled_crystals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Strontium_destilled_crystals.jpg/500px-Strontium_destilled_crystals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5236" data-file-height="3357" /></a><figcaption>The chemical element strontium as synthetic crystals, sealed under argon in a glass ampoule, purity (99.95 %). Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strontium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Strontium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Strontium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Strontium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Strontium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Strontium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Strontium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Strontium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Strontium at room temperature crystallizes in a fcc structure (α-Sr). According to the phase diagram on the left, α-Sr transforms to γ-Sr (bcc) at 547°C. Native strontium does not appear to occur on the surface of the Earth. Three allotropes of metallic strontium exist, with transition points at 235 and 540 °C.<a href="#cite_note-Ropp-196">[196]</a> Strontium (Sr II) has two absorption bands: 407.771±11.3 nm and 421.552±10.4 nm.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sulfurs">Sulfurs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=123" title="Edit section: Sulfurs" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=123" title="Edit section's source code: Sulfurs">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Sulfurs" title="Chemicals/Sulfurs">Chemicals/Sulfurs</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tantalums">Tantalums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=124" title="Edit section: Tantalums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=124" title="Edit section's source code: Tantalums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_tantalum_from_Greenland.jpg" class="new" title="File:Native tantalum from Greenland.jpg">File:Native tantalum from Greenland.jpg</a><figcaption>This is a piece of native tantalum from Kvanefjeld Mountain, Kuannersuit Plateau, Ilímaussaq complex, Narsaq, Kujalleq, Greenland. Credit: V.V. Seredin.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Iron-Tantalum_phase_diagram.png" class="new" title="File:Iron-Tantalum phase diagram.png">File:Iron-Tantalum phase diagram.png</a><figcaption>This is a National Bureau of Standards phase diagram for Fe-Ta. Credit: L.J. Swartzendruber and E. Paul.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The iron-tantalum phase diagram on the left shows the bcc (α-Ta) phase from lower temperatures through and up to melting. On the right is a scanning electron micrograph of a piece of native tantalum from Kvanefjeld Mountain, Kuannersuit Plateau, Ilímaussaq complex, Narsaq, Kujalleq, Greenland. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tantalum_single_crystal_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Tantalum_single_crystal_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/250px-Tantalum_single_crystal_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Tantalum_single_crystal_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/375px-Tantalum_single_crystal_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Tantalum_single_crystal_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/500px-Tantalum_single_crystal_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4937" data-file-height="2991" /></a><figcaption>A high purity (99.999 %) <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum" class="extiw" title="w:Tantalum">tantalum</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_crystal" class="extiw" title="w:Single crystal">single crystal</a>, made by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_melting" class="extiw" title="w:Zone melting">floating zone process</a>, some single crystalline fragments of tantalum, as well as a high purity (99.99 % = 4N) 1 cm3 tantalum cube for comparison. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:user:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tantalum_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Tantalum_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Tantalum_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Tantalum_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Tantalum_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Tantalum_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Tantalum_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Tantalum spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Tantalum forms compounds in oxidation states −III to +V. A tantalum-tellurium alloy forms quasicrystals.<a href="#cite_note-Holleman2007-197">[197]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technetiums">Technetiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=125" title="Edit section: Technetiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=125" title="Edit section's source code: Technetiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Technetium-sample-cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Technetium-sample-cropped.jpg/250px-Technetium-sample-cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Technetium-sample-cropped.jpg/375px-Technetium-sample-cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Technetium-sample-cropped.jpg/500px-Technetium-sample-cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption>Technetium sample inside a sealed glass ampoule, filled with argon gas. 6x1 mm goldfoil covered with 99Tc powder (electroplated). Credit: Marco Cardin.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Technetium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Technetium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Technetium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Technetium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Technetium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Technetium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Technetium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Technetium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nu +^{97}Mo\rightarrow e^{-}+^{97}Tc,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ν</mi> <msup> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>97</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>M</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>97</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>T</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nu +^{97}Mo\rightarrow e^{-}+^{97}Tc,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d3721ae144ad927cdeddb961786f2d929a0aa4ee" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:23.734ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nu +^{97}Mo\rightarrow e^{-}+^{97}Tc,}"> and</dd></dl> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nu +^{98}Mo\rightarrow e^{-}+^{98}Tc.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ν</mi> <msup> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>98</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>M</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>98</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>T</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nu +^{98}Mo\rightarrow e^{-}+^{98}Tc.}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/72ae3180baaaf46799a525bd016c573323aa9869" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:23.734ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nu +^{98}Mo\rightarrow e^{-}+^{98}Tc.}"></dd></dl> These "reactions probe precisely the time scale and neutrino-flux component of most interest: the boron-8 neutrino luminosity, which is the most sensitive monitor of variations in the solar core temperature, during and before the Pleistocene epoch. (The half-lives of technetium-97 and -98 are, respectively, 2.6 and 4.2 million years; the reaction on molybdenum-98 is induced only by the high-energy boron-8 neutrinos; and the reaction on molybdenum-97 may sample in addition the flux of beryllium-7 neutrinos, which are second only to boron-8 neutrinos in sensitivity to the core temperature.)"<a href="#cite_note-Cowan-198">[198]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Telluriums">Telluriums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=126" title="Edit section: Telluriums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=126" title="Edit section's source code: Telluriums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tellurium-tmu07a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Tellurium-tmu07a.jpg/100px-Tellurium-tmu07a.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Tellurium-tmu07a.jpg/150px-Tellurium-tmu07a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Tellurium-tmu07a.jpg/200px-Tellurium-tmu07a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="663" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>This is a native tellurium crystal from the Emperor Mine, Vatukoula, Tavua Gold Field, Viti Levu, Fiji. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Robert_Stravinsky" class="extiw" title="c:User:Robert Stravinsky">Robert Stravinsky</a>. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_tellurium.JPG" class="new" title="File:Native tellurium.JPG">File:Native tellurium.JPG</a><figcaption>On the upper left of the rock is native tellurium. Credit: Theodore W. Gray.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> On the right is an example of native tellurium from the Emperor Mine, Vatukoula, Tavua Gold Field, Viti Levu, Fiji. On the left is an encrustation of native tellurium on the upper left portion of a rock. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tellurium2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Tellurium2.jpg/250px-Tellurium2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Tellurium2.jpg/375px-Tellurium2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Tellurium2.jpg/500px-Tellurium2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1170" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption>Metallic tellurium is diameter 3.5 cm. Credit: Unknown author.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Tellurium is used in iron, stainless steel, copper, lead alloys, n-type bismuth telluride alloys<a href="#cite_note-Nozariasbmar-199">[199]</a>. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tellurium-89043.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Tellurium-89043.jpg/250px-Tellurium-89043.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Tellurium-89043.jpg/375px-Tellurium-89043.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Tellurium-89043.jpg/500px-Tellurium-89043.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="804" /></a><figcaption>Native tellurium crystal on sylvanite (Vatukoula, Viti Levu, Fiji), picture width 2 mm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Christian_Rewitzer" class="extiw" title="c:user:Christian Rewitzer">Christian Rewitzer</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tellurium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Tellurium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Tellurium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Tellurium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Tellurium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Tellurium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Tellurium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Tellurium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Tellurium has two allotropes, crystalline and amorphous. When crystalline, tellurium is silvery-white with a metallic luster. The crystals are trigonal and chiral (space group 152 or 154 depending on the chirality), like the gray form of selenium. It is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid. Amorphous tellurium is a black-brown powder prepared by precipitating it from a solution of tellurous acid or telluric acid (Te(OH)6).<a href="#cite_note-Leddicotte-200">[200]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Altaites">Altaites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=127" title="Edit section: Altaites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=127" title="Edit section's source code: Altaites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altaite-170094.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Altaite-170094.jpg/250px-Altaite-170094.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Altaite-170094.jpg/375px-Altaite-170094.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Altaite-170094.jpg/500px-Altaite-170094.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="693" /></a><figcaption>Rich silvery veins and flecks are altaite throughout the matrix. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Rob_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:user:Rob Lavinsky">Rob Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Altaite has the chemical formula of PbTe. It has face-centered cubic structure with four formula molecules (Z=4) per unit cell. It is 50 atomic percent lead and 50 at. % tellurium. Crystal habits include cubic and octahedral crystals; but much more commonly found in massive and granular forms. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tennessines">Tennessines</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=128" title="Edit section: Tennessines" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=128" title="Edit section's source code: Tennessines">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DecayChain_Tennessine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/DecayChain_Tennessine.svg/250px-DecayChain_Tennessine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/DecayChain_Tennessine.svg/375px-DecayChain_Tennessine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/DecayChain_Tennessine.svg/500px-DecayChain_Tennessine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption>Decay chain of the atoms produced in the original experiment to produce tennessine. Credit: See authors.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The figures near the arrows describe experimental (black) and theoretical (blue) values for the lifetime and energy of each decay. Lifetimes may be converted to half-lives by multiplying by ln 2.<a href="#cite_note-Oganessian-201">[201]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terbiums">Terbiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=129" title="Edit section: Terbiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=129" title="Edit section's source code: Terbiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Terbium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Terbium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Terbium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Terbium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Terbium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Terbium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Terbium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Terbium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pure_terbium,_3_grams._Original_size_-_1_cm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Pure_terbium%2C_3_grams._Original_size_-_1_cm.jpg/250px-Pure_terbium%2C_3_grams._Original_size_-_1_cm.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Pure_terbium%2C_3_grams._Original_size_-_1_cm.jpg/375px-Pure_terbium%2C_3_grams._Original_size_-_1_cm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Pure_terbium%2C_3_grams._Original_size_-_1_cm.jpg/500px-Pure_terbium%2C_3_grams._Original_size_-_1_cm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="704" /></a><figcaption>Terbium is a relatively resistant, sparsely toxic lanthanoid. Credit: Hi-Res Images of Chemical Elements.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Terbium is never found in nature as a free element, but it is contained in many minerals, including cerite, gadolinite, monazite, xenotime and euxenite. Terfenol-D, an alloy of the formula Tb xDy 1-xFe 2 (x ≈ 0.3), is a magnetostrictive material. Terbium is contained along with other rare earth elements in many minerals, including monazite ((Ce,La,Th,Nd,Y)PO 4 with up to 0.03% terbium), xenotime (YPO 4) and euxenite ((Y,Ca,Er,La,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti) 2O 6 with 1% or more terbium). The crust abundance of terbium is estimated as 1.2 mg/kg.<a href="#cite_note-Patnaik-202">[202]</a> No terbium-dominant mineral has yet been found.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thalliums">Thalliums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=130" title="Edit section: Thalliums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=130" title="Edit section's source code: Thalliums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Thallium_flame.png" class="new" title="File:Thallium flame.png">File:Thallium flame.png</a><figcaption>The image shows the color of thallium in a natural gas burner. Credit: Ernest Z. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg/250px-Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg/375px-Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg/500px-Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Pieces of very pure thallium are in a glass ampoule under argon. Credit: W. Oelen.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Thallium (I) ions are found geologically mostly in potassium-based ores. The radioisotope thallium-201 is the soluble chloride TlCl. A mercury–thallium alloy, which forms a eutectic at 8.5% thallium, is reported to freeze at −60 °C, some 20 °C below the freezing point of mercury. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thallium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Thallium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Thallium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Thallium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Thallium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Thallium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Thallium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Thallium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> There is a green thallium line that shows up in arc spectra using "two to eight amperes at 120 volts, usually between ordinary arc carbons."<a href="#cite_note-Nutting-144">[144]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thoriums">Thoriums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=131" title="Edit section: Thoriums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=131" title="Edit section's source code: Thoriums">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Thoriums" title="Chemicals/Thoriums">Chemicals/Thoriums</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg/300px-Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg/450px-Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg/600px-Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Thorium sample (99.9 % = 3N) is a thin sheet under argon in a glass ampoule, ca. 0.1 g. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:user:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Thorium is a silvery, radioactive, metallic element. At room temperature and pressure, thorium crystallizes into a face-centered cubic lattice, where one thorium atom occupies each location of a black sphere in the diagram on the left. Thorium can form alloys with many other metals. Addition of small proportions of thorium improves the mechanical strength of magnesium, and thorium-aluminium alloys have been considered as a way to store thorium in thorium nuclear reactors. Thorium forms eutectic mixtures with chromium and uranium, and it is completely miscible in both solid and liquid states with its lighter congener cerium.<a href="#cite_note-Wickleder-204">[204]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cubic-face-centered.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg/100px-Cubic-face-centered.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg/150px-Cubic-face-centered.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg/200px-Cubic-face-centered.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="1002" /></a><figcaption>This diagram shows a face-centered cubic lattice. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Daniel_Mayer" class="extiw" title="w:User:Daniel Mayer">Daniel Mayer</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:DrBob" class="extiw" title="w:User:DrBob">DrBob</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thorium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Thorium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Thorium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Thorium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Thorium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Thorium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Thorium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Thorium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Def. a chemical element (symbol Th) with atomic number 90 is called thorium. Tetravalent thorium compounds are usually colourless or yellow, like those of silver or lead, as the Th4+ ion has no 5f or 6d electrons.<a href="#cite_note-Tretyakov-205">[205]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monazites">Monazites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=132" title="Edit section: Monazites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=132" title="Edit section's source code: Monazites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monazite_-_Rostadheia,_Iveland,_Norvegia_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Monazite_-_Rostadheia%2C_Iveland%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg/250px-Monazite_-_Rostadheia%2C_Iveland%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Monazite_-_Rostadheia%2C_Iveland%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg/375px-Monazite_-_Rostadheia%2C_Iveland%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Monazite_-_Rostadheia%2C_Iveland%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg/500px-Monazite_-_Rostadheia%2C_Iveland%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2196" data-file-height="1880" /></a><figcaption>This monazite is a tabular crystal from Rostadheia, Iveland, Norway. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Aangelo" class="extiw" title="c:User:Aangelo">Aangelo</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MonaziteUSGOV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/MonaziteUSGOV.jpg/250px-MonaziteUSGOV.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/MonaziteUSGOV.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="270" /></a><figcaption>The primary source of the world's thorium is the rare-earth-and-thorium-phosphate mineral monazite. Credit: USGS.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monazite-(Ce)-164025.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Monazite-%28Ce%29-164025.jpg/200px-Monazite-%28Ce%29-164025.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Monazite-%28Ce%29-164025.jpg/300px-Monazite-%28Ce%29-164025.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Monazite-%28Ce%29-164025.jpg/400px-Monazite-%28Ce%29-164025.jpg 2x" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Monazite gets its name from the Greek word "monazein", which means "to be alone", in allusion to its isolated crystals and their rarity when first found. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Robert_M._Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:user:Robert M. Lavinsky">Robert M. Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Monazite, a primarily reddish-brown phosphate mineral that contains rare-earth elements, with variability composition, is considered a group of minerals:<a href="#cite_note-MindatMonazite-206">[206]</a> <ul><li>monazite-(Ce), (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO 4 (the most common member),</li> <li>monazite-(La), (La,Ce,Nd)PO 4,</li> <li>monazite-(Nd), (Nd,La,Ce)PO 4,</li> <li>monazite-(Sm), (Sm,Gd,Ce,Th)PO 4,</li> <li>monazite-(Pr), (Pr,Ce,Nd,Th)PO 4.</li></ul> (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO 4 occurs usually in small isolated crystals has a hardness of 5.0 to 5.5 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness and is relatively dense, about 4.6 to 5.7 g/cm3. The primary source of the world's thorium is the rare-earth, and thorium, phosphate mineral monazite. Silica (SiO 2) is present in trace amounts, as is small amounts of uranium. Due to the alpha decay of thorium and uranium, monazite contains a significant amount of <a href="/wiki/Helium" class="mw-redirect" title="Helium">helium</a>, which can be extracted by heating.<a href="#cite_note-Helium-207">[207]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Umbozerites">Umbozerites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=133" title="Edit section: Umbozerites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=133" title="Edit section's source code: Umbozerites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umbozerite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Umbozerite.jpg/200px-Umbozerite.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Umbozerite.jpg/300px-Umbozerite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Umbozerite.jpg/400px-Umbozerite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2537" data-file-height="1743" /></a><figcaption>Umbozerite is from Karnasurt Mt., Lovozero Massif, Kola, Russia, size 4.2 cm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Weirdmeister" class="extiw" title="c:user:Weirdmeister">Weirdmeister</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The IMA-CNMNC approved mineral symbol is Ubz.<a href="#cite_note-Warr-180">[180]</a> Umbozerites have the chemical formula Na 3Sr 4Th[Si(O,OH (3-4)] 8, IMA formula Na 3Sr 4ThSi 8(O,OH) 24, common impurities: Ti,Ce,Fe,U,Mn,Ca,Ba,K, and Crystal System: Amorphous.<a href="#cite_note-MindatUmbozerite-208">[208]</a> Environment: In ussingite veinlets cutting alkalic rocks, type locality: Umbozero (Lake Umba), Kola Peninsula, Russia, dark brown prismatic umbozerite masses in pegmatite rock, Metamict - Mineral originally crystalline, now amorphous due to radiation damage, Pseudo Tetragonal - Crystals show a tetragonal shape, Umbozerite is Radioactive as defined in 49 CFR 173.403, greater than 70 Bq / gram.<a href="#cite_note-WebmineralUmbozerite-209">[209]</a> Occurrence: In pneumatolytic-hydrothermal veins cutting alkalic rocks in the upper part of a differentiated alkalic massif, Crystal Data: Metamict; tetragonal after recrystallization<a href="#cite_note-HandbookUmbozerite-210">[210]</a> Association: Ussingite, sphalerite, belovite, manganoan pectolite, lorenzenite, niobium-bearing minerals of the lomonosovite group.<a href="#cite_note-HandbookUmbozerite-210">[210]</a> Distribution: Found on Mts. Karnasurt and Punkaruaiv, near Lake Umba, Lovozero massif, Kola Peninsula, Russia.<a href="#cite_note-HandbookUmbozerite-210">[210]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thuliums">Thuliums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=134" title="Edit section: Thuliums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=134" title="Edit section's source code: Thuliums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thulium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Thulium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/250px-Thulium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Thulium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/375px-Thulium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Thulium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/500px-Thulium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4765" data-file-height="3274" /></a><figcaption>Thulium, sublimed-dendritic, high purity 99.99 % Tm/TREM. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thulium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Thulium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Thulium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Thulium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Thulium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Thulium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Thulium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Thulium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Thulium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the pale green Tm (III) ions, which exist as [Tm(OH 2) 9]3+ complexes:<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <dl><dd>2Tm (s)+ 3H 2SO 4(aq)→ 2Tm3+ (aq)+ 3SO2− 4 (aq)+ 3H 2(aq)</dd></dl> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tins">Tins</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=135" title="Edit section: Tins" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=135" title="Edit section's source code: Tins">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tin-160365.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tin-160365.jpg/200px-Tin-160365.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tin-160365.jpg/300px-Tin-160365.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Tin-160365.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>This small piece of native tin is from the Badiko District, Bauchi State, Nigeria. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Robert_Lavinsky" class="extiw" title="c:User:Robert Lavinsky">Robert Lavinsky</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_tin.jpg" class="new" title="File:Native tin.jpg">File:Native tin.jpg</a><figcaption>This is native tin from a porphyry copper deposit in the Bingham Deposit, Utah, USA. Credit: Alison Roberts.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Native tin such as in the images on the right and left occurs in two crystal forms: α-Sn (cubic) and β-Sn (tetragonal).<a href="#cite_note-Roberts-19">[19]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sn-Alpha-Beta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Sn-Alpha-Beta.jpg/250px-Sn-Alpha-Beta.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Sn-Alpha-Beta.jpg/375px-Sn-Alpha-Beta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Sn-Alpha-Beta.jpg/500px-Sn-Alpha-Beta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2752" data-file-height="1696" /></a><figcaption>Purest tin 99,999 % = 5N, beta (left, white) and alpha (right, gray) allotropes. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tin_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Tin_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Tin_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Tin_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Tin_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Tin_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Tin_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Tin spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> α-tin, the nonmetallic form or gray tin, is stable below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F) and is brittle. α-tin has a diamond cubic crystal structure, similar to diamond, silicon or germanium. α-tin has no metallic properties, because its atoms form a covalent structure in which electrons cannot move freely. α-tin is a dull-gray powdery material with no common uses other than specialized semiconductor applications.<a href="#cite_note-Holleman1985-212">[212]</a> The α-β transformation temperature is 13.2 °C (55.8 °F), but impurities (e.g. Al, Zn, etc.) lower it well below 0 °C (32 °F). With the addition of antimony or bismuth the transformation might not occur at all, increasing durability.<a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-213">[213]</a> β–α transition of tin is at −40 °C. β-tin, the metallic form or white tin, has Tetragonal crystal system, body-centered tetragonal (BCT structure) and is stable at and above room temperature and is malleable. γ-tin and σ-tin exist at temperatures above 161 °C (322 °F)  and pressures above several GPa.<a href="#cite_note-Molodets-214">[214]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bronzes">Bronzes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=136" title="Edit section: Bronzes" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=136" title="Edit section's source code: Bronzes">edit source</a>]</div> Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (such as aluminum, manganese, nickel or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such as arsenic, or silicon. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Titaniums">Titaniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=137" title="Edit section: Titaniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=137" title="Edit section's source code: Titaniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Iron-titanium_phase_diagram.png" class="new" title="File:Iron-titanium phase diagram.png">File:Iron-titanium phase diagram.png</a><figcaption>This is an iron-titanium phase diagram. Credit: Hirokai.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Titanium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Titanium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Titanium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Titanium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Titanium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Titanium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Titanium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>This is an emission spectrum that covers the visible range: 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:User:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ti,22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ti%2C22.jpg/150px-Ti%2C22.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ti%2C22.jpg/225px-Ti%2C22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ti%2C22.jpg/300px-Ti%2C22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Titanium strips inside a glass jar are part of the Everest Element Set from Russia. Credit: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/user:RTC" class="extiw" title="w:user:RTC">RTC</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Titan-crystal_bar.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Titan-crystal_bar.JPG/250px-Titan-crystal_bar.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Titan-crystal_bar.JPG/375px-Titan-crystal_bar.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Titan-crystal_bar.JPG/500px-Titan-crystal_bar.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5572" data-file-height="3500" /></a><figcaption>A titanium crystal bar, high purity 99.995 %, made by the iodide process at URALREDMET in the Soviet era. Credit: <a href="https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/user:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="de:user:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "Microbeam analysis of eclogites from the ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic belt in Dabieshan, China has revealed native titanium inclusions in garnets of coesite eclogite. The inclusions are about 10 μm in size, have a submetallic luster from the thin oxidation film on the surface, and are brown under reflected light."<a href="#cite_note-Chen-215">[215]</a> Titanium is a dimorphic allotrope that "undergoes a phase transformation (hcp to bcc) at 882 °C [5]."<a href="#cite_note-Panigrahi-216">[216]</a> As the phase diagram on the left indicates, there is a miscibility gap between bcc iron (α-Fe) and hcp (α-Ti) up to about 800°C. Titanium (Ti) has green emission lines at 521.97, 522.268, 522.413, 524.729, and 526.596 nm as observed in solar limb faculae.<a href="#cite_note-Stellmacher-217">[217]</a> Titanium (Ti II) has an absorption band, 391.346-441.108 nm, with an excitation potential range of 0.60-3.08 eV.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> Titanium has two emission lines at 456.3757 and 457.1971 nm from Ti II.<a href="#cite_note-Catanzaro-218">[218]</a> Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, zirconium, nickel, vanadium, copper, and molybdenum. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Osbornites">Osbornites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=138" title="Edit section: Osbornites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=138" title="Edit section's source code: Osbornites">edit source</a>]</div> Osbornite is a very rare natural form of titanium nitride (TiN), found almost exclusively in meteorites.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-WebmineralOsbornites-220">[220]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tungstens">Tungstens</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=139" title="Edit section: Tungstens" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=139" title="Edit section's source code: Tungstens">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_tungsten_Luna_24_landing_site.jpg" class="new" title="File:Native tungsten Luna 24 landing site.jpg">File:Native tungsten Luna 24 landing site.jpg</a><figcaption>The small, bright crystalline mass on the right of this electron micrograph is native tungsten. Credit: Andrei V. Mokhov.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Fe-W-phase-diagram.jpg" class="new" title="File:Fe-W-phase-diagram.jpg">File:Fe-W-phase-diagram.jpg</a><figcaption>This is an iron-tungsten phase diagram. Credit: Satyendra.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wolfram_evaporated_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Wolfram_evaporated_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/250px-Wolfram_evaporated_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Wolfram_evaporated_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/375px-Wolfram_evaporated_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Wolfram_evaporated_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/500px-Wolfram_evaporated_crystals_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="2988" /></a><figcaption>Tungsten rods are shown with evaporated crystals, partially oxidized with colorful tarnish. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tungsten_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Tungsten_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Tungsten_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Tungsten_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Tungsten_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Tungsten_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Tungsten_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Tungsten spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> In the scanning electron micrograph on the right is a bright grain, or crystalline mass, of native tungsten. The sample is a fragment of lunar silicate glass from the Luna 24 landing site, Mare Crisium, The Moon. The fragment is bright in backscattered electrons. The iron-tungsten phase diagram on the left shows that the bcc phase of tungsten (α-W) occurs from lower temperatures on up to the melting temperature. Tungsten is usually alloyed with nickel, iron, or cobalt to form heavy alloys, Tungsten carbide (chemical formula: WC) is a chemical compound (specifically, a carbide) containing equal parts of tungsten and carbon atoms. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uraniums">Uraniums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=140" title="Edit section: Uraniums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=140" title="Edit section's source code: Uraniums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uranium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Uranium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Uranium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Uranium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Uranium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Uranium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Uranium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Uranium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HEUraniumC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HEUraniumC.jpg/250px-HEUraniumC.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HEUraniumC.jpg/375px-HEUraniumC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HEUraniumC.jpg/500px-HEUraniumC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>A billet of highly enriched uranium was recovered from scrap processed at the Y-12 National Security Complex Plant. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Choihei" class="extiw" title="c:user:Choihei">Choihei</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Uranium "not only exists in the forms of tetravalent and hexavalent uranium oxides, but also occurs in the form of native uranium [from the hydrothermal Guidong and Zhuguang uranium deposits of the middle Nanling metallogenic belt, Southern China]."<a href="#cite_note-Ziying-221">[221]</a> Depleted uranium (DU) is alloyed with 1–2% other elements, such as titanium or molybdenum.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> UCo is a superconductor at 1.70°K.<a href="#cite_note-Chandrasekhar-223">[223]</a> UMnGe (Pnma, a = 686.12(9), b = 425.49(6) and c = 736.5(1) pm) adopts the orthorhombic structure of TiNiSi and U 2Mn 3Ge (P63/mmc, a = 524.3(2) and c = 799.2(3) pm) possesses the hexagonal Mg 2Cu 3Si-type structure (ordered variant of the hexagonal Laves phase MgZn 2).<a href="#cite_note-Hoffmann-224">[224]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vanadiums">Vanadiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=141" title="Edit section: Vanadiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=141" title="Edit section's source code: Vanadiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Native_vanadium_crystals.png" class="new" title="File:Native vanadium crystals.png">File:Native vanadium crystals.png</a><figcaption>In this backscattered electron micrograph on the left, the native vanadium crystals have been colorized in red. Credit: MikhailI Ostrooumov and Yuri Taran.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Fe-V_Phase_Diagram.gif" class="new" title="File:Fe-V Phase Diagram.gif">File:Fe-V Phase Diagram.gif</a><figcaption>This Fe-V phase diagram shows which phases are to be expected at equilibrium for different combinations of vanadium content and temperature. Credit: Computational Thermodynamics Inc.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vanadium2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Vanadium2.jpg/300px-Vanadium2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Vanadium2.jpg/450px-Vanadium2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Vanadium2.jpg/600px-Vanadium2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Vanadium pieces are shown. Credit: W. Oelen.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vanadiumoxidationstates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Vanadiumoxidationstates.jpg/100px-Vanadiumoxidationstates.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Vanadiumoxidationstates.jpg/150px-Vanadiumoxidationstates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Vanadiumoxidationstates.jpg/200px-Vanadiumoxidationstates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2003" data-file-height="3005" /></a><figcaption>Oxidation states of vanadium are shown from left +2 (lilac), +3 (green), +4 (blue) and +5 (yellow). Credit: Steffen Kristensen. {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "[N]ative vanadium [occurs] in natural fumarolic incrustations and in the mineral assemblage precipitated in silica tubes inserted into high-temperature (750-830°C) fumaroles of Colima volcano – the most active volcano of Mexico, and one of the most active in the Americas. [...] The new mineral and its name (“vanadium”) have been approved by the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification of the International Mineralogical Association (Williams et al., 2013; IMA # 2012- 021a). The holotype material has been deposited in the Geological Museum of National Mexican University (New mineral collection of Mexican Mineralogical Society with cataloged under FIM 12/01)."<a href="#cite_note-Ostrooumov-225">[225]</a> In the image on the right, the backscattered electron micrograph on the left side, has the native vanadium crystals colorized in red. The energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) spectrum on the right shows the vanadium peaks plus small amounts of Fe and S.<a href="#cite_note-Ostrooumov-225">[225]</a> As the phase diagram on the left indicates vanadium is bcc down to lower temperatures from its melting point. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vanadium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Vanadium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Vanadium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Vanadium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Vanadium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Vanadium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Vanadium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>This is an emission spectrum that covers the visible range: 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:User:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The chemistry of vanadium is noteworthy for the accessibility of the four adjacent <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/oxidation_state" class="extiw" title="w:oxidation state">oxidation states</a> 2-5. In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_ions_in_aqueous_solution" class="extiw" title="w:Metal ions in aqueous solution">aqueous solution</a> the colours are lilac V2+(aq), green V3+(aq), blue VO2+(aq) and, at high pH, yellow VO42-. Vanadium (V II) has an absorption band, 392.973-403.678 nm, with an excitation potential range of 1.07-1.81 eV.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Xenons">Xenons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=142" title="Edit section: Xenons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=142" title="Edit section's source code: Xenons">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Chemicals/Xenons" title="Chemicals/Xenons">Chemicals/Xenons</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ytterbiums">Ytterbiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=143" title="Edit section: Ytterbiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=143" title="Edit section's source code: Ytterbiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ytterbium-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ytterbium-3.jpg/250px-Ytterbium-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ytterbium-3.jpg/375px-Ytterbium-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ytterbium-3.jpg/500px-Ytterbium-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="467" /></a><figcaption>Ytterbium metal solid is 0.5 x 1 cm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Jurii" class="extiw" title="c:user:Jurii">Jurii</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euxenite_-_Vegusdal,_Norvegia_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Euxenite_-_Vegusdal%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg/250px-Euxenite_-_Vegusdal%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Euxenite_-_Vegusdal%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg/375px-Euxenite_-_Vegusdal%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Euxenite_-_Vegusdal%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg/500px-Euxenite_-_Vegusdal%2C_Norvegia_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Euxenite crystal aggregation (11 cm) is from Vegusdal, Norway. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Aangelo" class="extiw" title="c:user:Aangelo">Aangelo</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Natural ytterbium is a mixture of seven stable isotopes, which altogether are present at concentrations of 0.3 parts per million. Ytterbium has three allotropes: alpha, beta and gamma; their transformation temperatures are −13 °C and 795 °C,<a href="#cite_note-Hammond-50">[50]</a> although the exact transformation temperature depends on the pressure and stress.<a href="#cite_note-Bucher-226">[226]</a> The beta allotrope (6.966 g/cm3) exists at room temperature, and it has a face-centered cubic crystal structure. The high-temperature gamma allotrope (6.57 g/cm3) has a body-centered cubic crystalline structure.<a href="#cite_note-Hammond-50">[50]</a> The alpha allotrope (6.903 g/cm3) has a hexagonal crystalline structure and is stable at low temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-Holleman-131">[131]</a> The beta allotrope has a metallic electrical conductivity at normal atmospheric pressure, but it becomes a semiconductor when exposed to a pressure of about 16,000 atmospheres (1.6 GPa). Its electrical resistivity increases ten times upon compression to 39,000 atmospheres (3.9 GPa), but then drops to about 10% of its room-temperature resistivity at about 40,000 atm (4.0 GPa).<a href="#cite_note-Hammond-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Emsley2003-68">[68]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ytterbium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ytterbium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Ytterbium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ytterbium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Ytterbium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ytterbium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Ytterbium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Ytterbium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The alpha allotrope is diamagnetic.<a href="#cite_note-Bucher-226">[226]</a> Ytterbium is paramagnetic at temperatures above 1.0 K.<a href="#cite_note-Jackson-227">[227]</a> Natural ytterbium is composed of seven stable isotopes: 168Yb, 170Yb, 171Yb, 172Yb, 173Yb, 174Yb, and 176Yb, with 174Yb being the most common, at 31.8% of the natural abundance). 27 radioisotopes have been observed, with the most stable ones being 169Yb with a half-life of 32.0 days, 175Yb with a half-life of 4.18 days, and 166Yb with a half-life of 56.7 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than two hours, and most of these have half-lives under 20 minutes. Ytterbium also has 12 meta states, with the most stable being 169mYb (t1/2 46 seconds).<a href="#cite_note-nucleonica-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-Audi-89">[89]</a> The isotopes of ytterbium range in atomic weight from 147.9674 atomic mass unit (u) for 148Yb to 180.9562 u for 181Yb. The primary decay mode of ytterbium isotopes lighter than the most abundant stable isotope, 174Yb, is electron capture, and the primary decay mode for those heavier than 174Yb is beta decay. The primary decay products of ytterbium isotopes lighter than 174Yb are thulium isotopes, and the primary decay products of ytterbium isotopes with heavier than 174Yb are lutetium isotopes.<a href="#cite_note-nucleonica-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-Audi-89">[89]</a> It occurs in the minerals monazite, euxenite, and xenotime. <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ytterbium_Oxides">Ytterbium Oxides</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=144" title="Edit section: Ytterbium Oxides" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=144" title="Edit section's source code: Ytterbium Oxides">edit source</a>]</div> The +2 oxidation state occurs only in solid compounds and reacts in some ways similarly to the alkaline earth metal compounds; for example, ytterbium(II) oxide (YbO) shows the same structure as calcium oxide (CaO).<a href="#cite_note-Holleman-131">[131]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Yttriums">Yttriums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=145" title="Edit section: Yttriums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=145" title="Edit section's source code: Yttriums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yttrium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Yttrium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/250px-Yttrium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Yttrium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/375px-Yttrium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Yttrium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/500px-Yttrium_sublimed_dendritic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4952" data-file-height="3368" /></a><figcaption>Yttrium, sublimed-dendritic, high purity 99.99 % Y/TREM, as well as an argon arc remelted 1 cm3 yttrium cube for comparison, purity 99.9 %. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yttrium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Yttrium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Yttrium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Yttrium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Yttrium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Yttrium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Yttrium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Yttrium spectrum is 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xenot%C3%ADmio1.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Xenot%C3%ADmio1.jpeg/250px-Xenot%C3%ADmio1.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Xenot%C3%ADmio1.jpeg/375px-Xenot%C3%ADmio1.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Xenot%C3%ADmio1.jpeg/500px-Xenot%C3%ADmio1.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="655" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>Xenotime crystals contain yttrium. Credit: Tom Epaminondas (mineral collector) / Eurico Zimbres (FGEL-UERJ).{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Yttrium (Y II) has an absorption band from 395.035 to 439.802 nm, with an excitation potential range of 0.10-0.13 eV.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> The orange system, in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Orange_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Orange astronomy (page does not exist)">orange astronomy</a> is a number of emission lines very close together forming a band in the orange portion of the visible spectrum. These lines are usually associated with particular molecular species, including ScO, YO, and TiO.<a href="#cite_note-Herbig-229">[229]</a> Small amounts of yttrium (0.1 to 0.2%) have been used to reduce the grain sizes of chromium, molybdenum, titanium, and zirconium.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Yttrium is used to increase the strength of aluminium and magnesium alloys.<a href="#cite_note-Lide2008-231">[231]</a> The addition of yttrium to alloys generally improves workability, adds resistance to high-temperature recrystallization, and significantly enhances resistance to high-temperature oxidation.<a href="#cite_note-Daane-232">[232]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Yttrium_nitrides">Yttrium nitrides</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=146" title="Edit section: Yttrium nitrides" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=146" title="Edit section's source code: Yttrium nitrides">edit source</a>]</div> Yttrium nitride (YN) is formed when the metal is heated to 1000 °C in nitrogen.<a href="#cite_note-Daane-232">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zincs">Zincs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=147" title="Edit section: Zincs" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=147" title="Edit section's source code: Zincs">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zinc_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Zinc_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Zinc_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Zinc_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Zinc_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Zinc_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Zinc_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Zinc emission spectrum is for 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZincMetalUSGOV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/ZincMetalUSGOV.jpg/300px-ZincMetalUSGOV.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/ZincMetalUSGOV.jpg/450px-ZincMetalUSGOV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/ZincMetalUSGOV.jpg/600px-ZincMetalUSGOV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1151" data-file-height="865" /></a><figcaption>Pure zinc metal wedge is shown. Credit: United States Geological Survey.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zinc_burning.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Zinc_burning.JPG/200px-Zinc_burning.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Zinc_burning.JPG/300px-Zinc_burning.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Zinc_burning.JPG/400px-Zinc_burning.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The image shows the color of zinc in a natural gas burner. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Chemicalinterest" class="extiw" title="c:user:Chemicalinterest">Chemicalinterest</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zinc_fragment_sublimed_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Zinc_fragment_sublimed_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/250px-Zinc_fragment_sublimed_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Zinc_fragment_sublimed_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/375px-Zinc_fragment_sublimed_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Zinc_fragment_sublimed_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/500px-Zinc_fragment_sublimed_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5135" data-file-height="3138" /></a><figcaption>Zinc, purity 99.995 %, left: a crystaline fragment of an ingot, right: sublimed-dendritic, and a 1 cm3 zinc cube for comparison. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:User:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> "Satellite images taken over the past several decades show the dramatic disappearance of ice, including on the island’s inland areas, where the ice fields can in places be up to three and a half kilometers deep."<a href="#cite_note-Weiden-51">[51]</a> "Along with uranium, zinc, iron ore, copper and gold, Greenland’s ancient rocks also harbor large quantities of those minerals known as “rare earth,” among them lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praesodymium, terbium and yttrium."<a href="#cite_note-Weiden-51">[51]</a> Metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium.<a href="#cite_note-Ingalls-233">[233]</a> Although neither zinc nor zirconium is ferromagnetic, their alloy ZrZn 2 exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K.<a href="#cite_note-Lide2006-234">[234]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Brasses">Brasses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=148" title="Edit section: Brasses" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=148" title="Edit section's source code: Brasses">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagramme_binaire_Cu_Zn.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Diagramme_binaire_Cu_Zn.svg/250px-Diagramme_binaire_Cu_Zn.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Diagramme_binaire_Cu_Zn.svg/375px-Diagramme_binaire_Cu_Zn.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Diagramme_binaire_Cu_Zn.svg/500px-Diagramme_binaire_Cu_Zn.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="388" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>Copper-zinc (Cu-Zn) binary phase diagram is for brass. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:Cdang" class="extiw" title="c:user:Cdang">Cdang</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> The earliest brasses may have been natural alloys made by smelting zinc-rich copper ores.<a href="#cite_note-Craddock-235">[235]</a> The compositions of these early "brass" objects are highly variable and most have zinc contents of between 5% and 15% wt which is lower than in brass produced by cementation.<a href="#cite_note-Craddock-235">[235]</a> Alpha-brass is Cu 3Zn.<a href="#cite_note-MindatBrasses-236">[236]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zincites">Zincites</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=149" title="Edit section: Zincites" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=149" title="Edit section's source code: Zincites">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zincite_from_Arizona.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Zincite_from_Arizona.jpg/250px-Zincite_from_Arizona.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Zincite_from_Arizona.jpg/375px-Zincite_from_Arizona.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Zincite_from_Arizona.jpg/500px-Zincite_from_Arizona.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1350" /></a><figcaption>This giant chunk of a crystal cluster is enormous. Credit: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/people/cobalt/">cobalt123</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Zincite has the formula ZnO.<a href="#cite_note-MindatZincites-237">[237]</a> <ol><li>Colour: Red, orange, yellow, white; rarely green.<a href="#cite_note-MindatZincites-237">[237]</a></li> <li>Lustre: Sub-Vitreous, Resinous, Waxy, Greasy, Silky, Dull, Earthy.<a href="#cite_note-MindatZincites-237">[237]</a></li> <li>Crystal System: Hexagonal.<a href="#cite_note-MindatZincites-237">[237]</a></li></ol> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zinc_selenides">Zinc selenides</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=150" title="Edit section: Zinc selenides" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=150" title="Edit section's source code: Zinc selenides">edit source</a>]</div> "ZnSe appears as an attractive material to blue and near UV optoelectronics."<a href="#cite_note-Vigue-238">[238]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zirconiums">Zirconiums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=151" title="Edit section: Zirconiums" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=151" title="Edit section's source code: Zirconiums">edit source</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zirconium_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Zirconium_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/300px-Zirconium_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Zirconium_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/450px-Zirconium_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Zirconium_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/600px-Zirconium_crystal_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4758" data-file-height="3498" /></a><figcaption>Purest zirconium 99.97%, two samples of crystal bar showing different surface textures, made by crystal bar process, as well as a highly pure (99,95 % = 3N5) 1 cm3 zirconium cube for comparison. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/use:Alchemist-hp" class="extiw" title="c:use:Alchemist-hp">Alchemist-hp</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Upload&wpDestFile=Fe-Zr_phase_diagram.gif" class="new" title="File:Fe-Zr phase diagram.gif">File:Fe-Zr phase diagram.gif</a><figcaption>This is a binary phase diagram of the iron-zirconum system. Credit: D. Arias and J.P. Abriata.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Fairuse" title="Template:Fairuse">fairuse</a>}}</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zirconium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Zirconium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Zirconium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Zirconium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Zirconium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Zirconium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Zirconium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Zirconium spectrum is for 400 nm - 700 nm. Credit: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/user:McZusatz" class="extiw" title="c:user:McZusatz">McZusatz</a>.{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Free_media" title="Template:Free media">free media</a>}}</figcaption></figure> Zirconium is a lustrous, greyish-white, soft, ductile, malleable metal that is solid at room temperature, though it is hard and brittle at lesser purities.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-madehow-239">[239]</a> Zirconium is highly resistant to corrosion by alkalis, acids, salt water and other agents.<a href="#cite_note-Lide2008-231">[231]</a> However, it will dissolve in hydrochloric and sulfuric acid, especially when fluorine is present.<a href="#cite_note-Nostrand-240">[240]</a> Alloys with zinc are magnetic at less than 35 K.<a href="#cite_note-Lide2008-231">[231]</a> The melting point of zirconium is 1855 °C (3371 °F), and the boiling point is 4371 °C (7900 °F).<a href="#cite_note-Lide2007-241">[241]</a> Zirconium has an electronegativity of 1.33 on the Pauling scale for the elements within the d-block with known electronegativities, zirconium has the fifth lowest electronegativity after hafnium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> At room temperature zirconium exhibits a hexagonally close-packed crystal structure, α-Zr, which changes to β-Zr, a body-centered cubic crystal structure, at 863 °C, β-phase until the melting point.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> As the Fe-Zr phase diagram on the left demonstrates, zirconium has a hcp structure (α-Zr) at lower temperatures, including room temperature, and a bcc structure (β-Zr) at higher temperatures up to melting. "Zirconium isotopic abundances [may be] determined from ZrO bandheads near 6925 Å via synthetic spectra for a sample of S stars."<a href="#cite_note-Lambert-244">[244]</a> Zirconium (Zr II) has an absorption band, 395.824-415.624 nm, with an excitation potential of 0.52-0.75 eV.<a href="#cite_note-Sadakane-84">[84]</a> The mineral zircon is the most important source of zirconium. Naturally occurring zirconium is composed of five isotopes: <ol><li>90Zr is the most common, making up 51.45% of all zirconium,</li> <li>91Zr,</li> <li>92Zr and</li> <li>94Zr are stable, although 94Zr is predicted to undergo double beta decay (not observed experimentally) with a half-life of more than 1.10×1017 years,</li> <li>96Zr has a half-life of 2.4×1019 years, is the longest-lived radioisotope of zirconium and is the least common, comprising only 2.80% of zirconium.<a href="#cite_note-nubase-245">[245]</a></li></ol> Twenty-eight artificial isotopes of zirconium have been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 78 to 110. <ol><li>88Zr, decays by electron capture,</li> <li>93Zr is the longest-lived artificial isotope, with a half-life of 1.53×106 years,</li> <li>110Zr, the heaviest isotope of zirconium, is the most radioactive, with an estimated half-life of 30 milliseconds.<a href="#cite_note-nubase-245">[245]</a></li></ol> Radioactive isotopes at or above mass number 93 decay by electron emission, whereas those at or below 89 usually decay by positron emission. Five isotopes of zirconium also exist as metastable isomers: <ol><li>83mZr,</li> <li>85mZr,</li> <li>89mZr, is the longest lived with a half-life of 4.161 minutes,</li> <li>90m1Zr,</li> <li>90m2Zr has the shortest half-life at 131 nanoseconds, and</li> <li>91mZr.<a href="#cite_note-nubase-245">[245]</a></li></ol> 88Zr: "When irradiated with low-energy neutrons from a nuclear reactor, each atom of zirconium-88 had a high probability of absorbing a neutron into its nucleus, causing the element to transform into another isotope, zirconium-89. The reaction was about 85,000 times as likely to occur as predicted."<a href="#cite_note-Conover-246">[246]</a> "88Zr has a thermal neutron capture cross-section of 861,000 ± 69,000 barns (1σ uncertainty), which is five orders of magnitude larger than the theoretically predicted value of 10 barns2."<a href="#cite_note-Shusterman-247">[247]</a> "Only one other isotope, xenon-135, is known to be better at capturing neutrons. Previously studied versions of zirconium are much more reluctant to take on another neutron, with absorption probabilities about a millionth that of zirconium-88, or less."<a href="#cite_note-Conover-246">[246]</a> "Isotopes with a high neutron capture probability can be used to control nuclear reactors by sopping up loose neutrons, slowing the rate of reactions."<a href="#cite_note-Conover-246">[246]</a> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hypotheses">Hypotheses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=152" title="Edit section: Hypotheses" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=152" title="Edit section's source code: Hypotheses">edit source</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2661592"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main resource: <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">Hypotheses</a></div> <ol><li>The use of satellites should provide ten times the information as sounding rockets or balloons.</li></ol> A control group for a radiation satellite would contain <ol><li>a radiation astronomy telescope,</li> <li>a two-way communication system,</li> <li>a positional locator,</li> <li>an orientation propulsion system, and</li> <li>power supplies and energy sources for all components.</li></ol> A control group for radiation astronomy satellites may include an ideal or rigorously stable orbit so that the satellite observes the radiation at or to a much higher resolution than an Earth-based ground-level observatory is capable of. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=153" title="Edit section: See also" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=153" title="Edit section's source code: See also">edit source</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2670040">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma-ray_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamma-ray astronomy (page does not exist)">Gamma-ray astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocks/Meteorites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocks/Meteorites (page does not exist)">Meteorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Neutrons" title="Radiation/Neutrons">Neutron astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Optical astronomy (page does not exist)">Optical astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals/Pnictogens" title="Minerals/Pnictogens">Pnictogens</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submillimeter_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Submillimeter astronomy (page does not exist)">Submillimeter astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=X-ray_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="X-ray astronomy (page does not exist)">X-ray astronomy</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&veaction=edit&section=154" title="Edit section: References" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">edit</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys&action=edit&section=154" title="Edit section's source code: References">edit source</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2661605">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Seidler-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Seidler_1-0">↑</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2527938">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFChristoph_Seidlertranslated_by_Anne-Marie_de_Grazia2014" class="citation web cs1">Christoph Seidler; translated by Anne-Marie de Grazia (19 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.q-mag.org/earths-weakening-magnetic-field.html">"Earth's weakening magnetic field"</a>. Q-Mag.org. Retrieved 2014-10-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Earth%27s+weakening+magnetic+field&rft.pub=Q-Mag.org&rft.date=2014-06-19&rft.au=Christoph+Seidler&rft.au=translated+by+Anne-Marie+de+Grazia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.q-mag.org%2Fearths-weakening-magnetic-field.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MuhammadMoolla-2"><a href="#cite_ref-MuhammadMoolla_2-0">↑</a> Muhammad moolla (15 May 2009). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:RFD#Dominant_group">Topic:Mining</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:RFD#Dominant_group">http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:RFD#Dominant_group</a>. Retrieved 2016-05-05.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Topic%3AMining&rft.aulast=Muhammad+moolla&rft.au=Muhammad+moolla&rft.date=15+May+2009&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikiversity.org%2Fwiki%2FWikiversity%3ARFD%23Dominant_group&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Callister-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Callister_3-0">↑</a> Callister, W.D. "Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction" 2007, 7th edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, Section 4.3 and Chapter 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-AlloyWikt-4"><a href="#cite_ref-AlloyWikt_4-0">↑</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/User:Bluelion~enwiktionary" class="extiw" title="wikt:User:Bluelion~enwiktionary">Bluelion~enwiktionary</a> (7 May 2003). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aloy">alloy</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aloy">https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aloy</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=alloy&rft.aulast=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3ABluelion%7Eenwiktionary%7CBluelion%7Eenwiktionary%5D%5D&rft.au=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3ABluelion%7Eenwiktionary%7CBluelion%7Eenwiktionary%5D%5D&rft.date=7+May+2003&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Faloy&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-AlloyWikt1-5"><a href="#cite_ref-AlloyWikt1_5-0">↑</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/User:Widsith" class="extiw" title="wikt:User:Widsith">Widsith</a> (1 May 2012). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alloy">alloy</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alloy">https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alloy</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=alloy&rft.aulast=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3AWidsith%7CWidsith%5D%5D&rft.au=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3AWidsith%7CWidsith%5D%5D&rft.date=1+May+2012&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Falloy&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-AdmixtureWikt-6"><a href="#cite_ref-AdmixtureWikt_6-0">↑</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/User:Jtle515" class="extiw" title="wikt:User:Jtle515">Jtle515</a> (3 March 2012). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/admixture">admixture</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/admixture">https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/admixture</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=admixture&rft.aulast=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3AJtle515%7CJtle515%5D%5D&rft.au=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3AJtle515%7CJtle515%5D%5D&rft.date=3+March+2012&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fadmixture&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-CompoundWikt1-7"><a href="#cite_ref-CompoundWikt1_7-0">↑</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/User:Paul_G" class="extiw" title="wikt:User:Paul G">Paul G</a> (8 November 2005). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound">compound</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound">https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=compound&rft.aulast=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3APaul+G%7CPaul+G%5D%5D&rft.au=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3APaul+G%7CPaul+G%5D%5D&rft.date=8+November+2005&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fcompound&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-CompoundWikt3-8">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-CompoundWikt3_8-0">8.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CompoundWikt3_8-1">8.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CompoundWikt3_8-2">8.2</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/User:Quercus_solaris" class="extiw" title="wikt:User:Quercus solaris">Quercus solaris</a> (12 February 2022). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound">compound</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound">https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=compound&rft.aulast=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3AQuercus+solaris%7CQuercus+solaris%5D%5D&rft.au=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3AQuercus+solaris%7CQuercus+solaris%5D%5D&rft.date=12+February+2022&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fcompound&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-CompoundWikt2-9"><a href="#cite_ref-CompoundWikt2_9-0">↑</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/User:DCDuring" class="extiw" title="wikt:User:DCDuring">DCDuring</a> (27 November 2010). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound">compound</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound">https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=compound&rft.aulast=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3ADCDuring%7CDCDuring%5D%5D&rft.au=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3ADCDuring%7CDCDuring%5D%5D&rft.date=27+November+2010&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fcompound&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-CompoundWikt-10"><a href="#cite_ref-CompoundWikt_10-0">↑</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/User:DavidL2" class="extiw" title="wikt:User:DavidL2">DavidL2</a> (12 October 2004). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound">compound</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound">https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=compound&rft.aulast=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3ADavidL2%7CDavidL2%5D%5D&rft.au=%5B%5Bwikt%3AUser%3ADavidL2%7CDavidL2%5D%5D&rft.date=12+October+2004&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fcompound&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Verhoeven-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Verhoeven_11-0">↑</a> Verhoeven, John D. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160505065853/https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=PA56">Steel Metallurgy for the Non-metallurgist</a>. ASM International. p. 56. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160505065853/https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=PA56">https://web.archive.org/web/20160505065853/https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=PA56</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Steel+Metallurgy+for+the+Non-metallurgist&rft.aulast=Verhoeven%2C+John+D.&rft.au=Verhoeven%2C+John+D.&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B56&rft.pub=ASM+International&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160505065853%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbrpx-LtdCLYC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Mills-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Mills_12-0">↑</a> Mills, Adelbert Phillo (1922) Materials of Construction: Their Manufacture and Properties, John Wiley & sons, inc, originally published by the University of Wisconsin, Madison </li> <li id="cite_note-Dekov-13">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Dekov_13-0">13.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dekov_13-1">13.1</a> Vesselin M. Dekov, Vasil Arnaudov, Frans Munnik, Tanya B. Boycheva, and Saverio Fiore (August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rruff.info/uploads/AM94_1283.pdf">"Native aluminum: Does it exist?"</a>. American Mineralogist 94 (8-9): 1283-6. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2138%2Fam.2009.3236">10.2138/am.2009.3236</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://rruff.info/uploads/AM94_1283.pdf">http://rruff.info/uploads/AM94_1283.pdf</a>. Retrieved 2015-08-28.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Native+aluminum%3A+Does+it+exist%3F&rft.jtitle=American+Mineralogist&rft.aulast=Vesselin+M.+Dekov%2C+Vasil+Arnaudov%2C+Frans+Munnik%2C+Tanya+B.+Boycheva%2C+and+Saverio+Fiore&rft.au=Vesselin+M.+Dekov%2C+Vasil+Arnaudov%2C+Frans+Munnik%2C+Tanya+B.+Boycheva%2C+and+Saverio+Fiore&rft.date=August+2009&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=8-9&rft.pages=1283-6&rft_id=info:doi/10.2138%2Fam.2009.3236&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frruff.info%2Fuploads%2FAM94_1283.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-WebmineralAluminums-14"><a href="#cite_ref-WebmineralAluminums_14-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFBarthelmy" class="citation web cs1">Barthelmy, D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080704001129/http://webmineral.com/data/Aluminum.shtml">"Aluminum Mineral Data"</a>. Mineralogy Database. Retrieved 9 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mineralogy+Database&rft.atitle=Aluminum+Mineral+Data&rft.aulast=Barthelmy&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20080704001129%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwebmineral.com%2Fdata%2FAluminum.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|archive-date=</code> requires <code class="cs1-code">|archive-url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#archive_date_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen_2011-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Chen_2011_15-0">↑</a> Chen, Z.; Huang, Chi-Yue; Zhao, Meixun; Yan, Wen; Chien, Chih-Wei; Chen, Muhong; Yang, Huaping; Machiyama, Hideaki et al. (2011). "Characteristics and possible origin of native aluminum in cold seep sediments from the northeastern South China Sea". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 40 (1): 363–370. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jseaes.2010.06.006">10.1016/j.jseaes.2010.06.006</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Characteristics+and+possible+origin+of+native+aluminum+in+cold+seep+sediments+from+the+northeastern+South+China+Sea&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+Earth+Sciences&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Z.&rft.au=Chen%2C%26%2332%3BZ.&rft.au=Huang%2C%26%2332%3BChi-Yue&rft.au=Zhao%2C%26%2332%3BMeixun&rft.au=Yan%2C%26%2332%3BWen&rft.au=Chien%2C%26%2332%3BChih-Wei&rft.au=Chen%2C%26%2332%3BMuhong&rft.au=Yang%2C%26%2332%3BHuaping&rft.au=Machiyama%2C%26%2332%3BHideaki&rft.au=Lin%2C%26%2332%3BSaulwood&rft.date=2011&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=363%E2%80%93370&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2Fj.jseaes.2010.06.006&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-AluminideWikt-16"><a href="#cite_ref-AluminideWikt_16-0">↑</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aluminide">aluminide</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 31 March 2014. <a class="external free" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aluminide">https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aluminide</a>. Retrieved 2015-02-22.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=aluminide&rft.date=31+March+2014&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Faluminide&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Stammose-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Stammose_17-0">↑</a> D. Stammose and J.-M. Dolo (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AP3wCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA202&lpg=PA202&source=bl&ots=HSbrCjCBzW&sig=TCbSmutAUaFoz9bY4OEShSLPcSw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBWoVChMIz8GJ9P_6yAIVRuYmCh24kA0R#v=onepage&f=false">"Sorption of americium at trace levels on a clay mineral"</a>. Radiochimica Acta 51: 189-93. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AP3wCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA202&lpg=PA202&source=bl&ots=HSbrCjCBzW&sig=TCbSmutAUaFoz9bY4OEShSLPcSw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBWoVChMIz8GJ9P_6yAIVRuYmCh24kA0R#v=onepage&f=false">https://books.google.com/books?id=AP3wCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA202&lpg=PA202&source=bl&ots=HSbrCjCBzW&sig=TCbSmutAUaFoz9bY4OEShSLPcSw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBWoVChMIz8GJ9P_6yAIVRuYmCh24kA0R#v=onepage&f=false</a>. Retrieved 2015-11-05.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Sorption+of+americium+at+trace+levels+on+a+clay+mineral&rft.jtitle=Radiochimica+Acta&rft.aulast=D.+Stammose+and+J.-M.+Dolo&rft.au=D.+Stammose+and+J.-M.+Dolo&rft.date=1990&rft.volume=51&rft.pages=189-93&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAP3wCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA202%26lpg%3DPA202%26source%3Dbl%26ots%3DHSbrCjCBzW%26sig%3DTCbSmutAUaFoz9bY4OEShSLPcSw%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D0CDsQ6AEwBWoVChMIz8GJ9P_6yAIVRuYmCh24kA0R%23v%3Donepage%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Melloch-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Melloch_18-0">↑</a> M. R. Melloch; J. M. Woodall; E. S. Harmon; N. Otsuka; Fred H. Pollak; D. D. Nolte; R. M. Feenstra; M. A. Lutz (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.ms.25.080195.002555">"Low-temperature grown III-V materials"</a>. Annual Review of Materials Science 25 (1): 547-600. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ms.25.080195.002555">10.1146/annurev.ms.25.080195.002555</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.ms.25.080195.002555">http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.ms.25.080195.002555</a>. Retrieved 2013-08-29.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Low-temperature+grown+III-V+materials&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Materials+Science&rft.aulast=M.+R.+Melloch&rft.au=M.+R.+Melloch&rft.au=J.+M.+Woodall&rft.au=E.+S.+Harmon&rft.au=N.+Otsuka&rft.au=Fred+H.+Pollak&rft.au=D.+D.+Nolte&rft.au=R.+M.+Feenstra&rft.au=M.+A.+Lutz&rft.date=1995&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=547-600&rft_id=info:doi/10.1146%2Fannurev.ms.25.080195.002555&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.annualreviews.org%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ms.25.080195.002555&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Roberts-19">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_19-0">19.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_19-1">19.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_19-2">19.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_19-3">19.3</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_19-4">19.4</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_19-5">19.5</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_19-6">19.6</a> Willard Lincoln Roberts; George Robert Rapp Jr.; Julius Weber (1974). Encyclopedia of Minerals. New York, New York, USA: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp. 121-2.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Minerals&rft.aulast=Willard+Lincoln+Roberts&rft.au=Willard+Lincoln+Roberts&rft.au=George+Robert+Rapp+Jr.&rft.au=Julius+Weber&rft.date=1974&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B121-2&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York%2C+USA&rft.pub=Van+Nostrand+Reinhold+Company&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-jolyonBk-20"><a href="#cite_ref-jolyonBk_20-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFjolyon2015" class="citation web cs1">jolyon (6 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/element/Berkelium">"The Mineralogy of Curium"</a>. Hudson Institute of Mineralogy. Retrieved 2015-11-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mineralogy+of+Curium&rft.pub=Hudson+Institute+of+Mineralogy&rft.date=2015-11-06&rft.au=jolyon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mindat.org%2Felement%2FBerkelium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meshik-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Meshik_21-0">↑</a> A. P. Meshik (November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=ancient-nuclear-reactor">"The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor"</a>. Scientific American. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=ancient-nuclear-reactor">http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=ancient-nuclear-reactor</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Workings+of+an+Ancient+Nuclear+Reactor&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.aulast=A.+P.+Meshik&rft.au=A.+P.+Meshik&rft.date=November+2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciam.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dancient-nuclear-reactor&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Gauthier-Lafaye1996-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Gauthier-Lafaye1996_22-0">↑</a> F. Gauthier-Lafaye; P. Holliger; P.-L. Blanc (1996). "Natural fission reactors in the Franceville Basin, Gabon: a review of the conditions and results of a "critical event" in a geologic system". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 60 (25): 4831–52. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0016-7037%2896%2900245-1">10.1016/S0016-7037(96)00245-1</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Natural+fission+reactors+in+the+Franceville+Basin%2C+Gabon%3A+a+review+of+the+conditions+and+results+of+a+%22critical+event%22+in+a+geologic+system&rft.jtitle=Geochimica+et+Cosmochimica+Acta&rft.aulast=F.+Gauthier-Lafaye%3B+P.+Holliger%3B+P.-L.+Blanc&rft.au=F.+Gauthier-Lafaye%3B+P.+Holliger%3B+P.-L.+Blanc&rft.date=1996&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=4831%E2%80%9352&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2FS0016-7037%2896%2900245-1&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.matthey.ch/index.php?id=45&L=1">http://www.matthey.ch/index.php?id=45&L=1</a> Copper beryllium and nickel beryllium datasheets. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150723034608/http://www.ibcadvancedalloys.com/products/beryllium-aluminum-alloys-beralcast-alloys/">"Beralcast – Beryllium Aluminum Alloys"</a>. IBC Advanced Alloys. Retrieved 2015-07-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IBC+Advanced+Alloys&rft.atitle=Beralcast+%E2%80%93+Beryllium+Aluminum+Alloys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150723034608%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibcadvancedalloys.com%2Fproducts%2Fberyllium-aluminum-alloys-beralcast-alloys%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|archive-date=</code> requires <code class="cs1-code">|archive-url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#archive_date_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacobs-25">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Jacobs_25-0">25.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jacobs_25-1">25.1</a> J. M. Jacobs & M. M. Dworetsky (7 October 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/299535a0">"Bismuth abundance anomaly in a Hg—Mn star"</a>. Nature 299: 535–536. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/299535a0">https://www.nature.com/articles/299535a0</a>. Retrieved 20 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bismuth+abundance+anomaly+in+a+Hg%E2%80%94Mn+star&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.aulast=J.+M.+Jacobs+%26+M.+M.+Dworetsky&rft.au=J.+M.+Jacobs+%26+M.+M.+Dworetsky&rft.date=7+October+1982&rft.volume=299&rft.pages=535%E2%80%93536&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F299535a0&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120529072641/http://van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=17594">"Q & A: Where does the element Boron come from?"</a>. Retrieved 2011-12-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Q+%26+A%3A+Where+does+the+element+Boron+come+from%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120529072641%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fvan.physics.illinois.edu%2Fqa%2Flisting.php%3Fid%3D17594&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|archive-date=</code> requires <code class="cs1-code">|archive-url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#archive_date_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200804181151/https://www.britannica.com/science/boron-chemical-element">"Boron"</a>. Britannica encyclopedia. Retrieved 4 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica+encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Boron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200804181151%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fboron-chemical-element&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|archive-date=</code> requires <code class="cs1-code">|archive-url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#archive_date_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Gaisser-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Gaisser_28-0">↑</a> Thomas K. Gaisser (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&ots=IxjwLxBwXu&sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs">Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 279. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&ots=IxjwLxBwXu&sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs">http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&ots=IxjwLxBwXu&sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs</a>. Retrieved 2014-01-11.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmic+Rays+and+Particle+Physics&rft.aulast=Thomas+K.+Gaisser&rft.au=Thomas+K.+Gaisser&rft.date=1990&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B279&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fhl%3Den%26lr%3D%26id%3DqJ7Z6oIMqeUC%26oi%3Dfnd%26pg%3DPR15%26ots%3DIxjwLxBwXu%26sig%3DvoHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-MindatQingsongite1977-29">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-MindatQingsongite1977_29-0">29.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MindatQingsongite1977_29-1">29.1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/min-43792.html">Qingsongite on Mindat.org</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sci-news.com/geology/science-qingsongite-new-mineral-01286.html">Qingsongite: New Mineral from Tibet Hard as Diamond</a>. sciencenews.org. August 5, 2013 </li> <li id="cite_note-Pittalwala-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Pittalwala_31-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ucrtoday.ucr.edu/16729">Pittalwala, Iqbal, International Research Team Discovers New Mineral, UCR Today, Aug. 2, 2013</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Griggs-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Griggs_32-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFGriggs2014" class="citation web cs1">Griggs, Jessica (2014-05-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16610-diamond-no-longer-natures-hardest-material/">"Diamond no longer nature's hardest material"</a>. New Scientist. Retrieved 2018-01-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Diamond+no+longer+nature%27s+hardest+material&rft.date=2014-05-13&rft.aulast=Griggs&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn16610-diamond-no-longer-natures-hardest-material%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scoullos-33">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Scoullos_33-0">33.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scoullos_33-1">33.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scoullos_33-2">33.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scoullos_33-3">33.3</a> Scoullos, Michael J.; Vonkeman, Gerrit H.; Thornton, Iain; Makuch, Zen (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9yzN-QGag_8C">Mercury, Cadmium, Lead: Handbook for Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy and Regulation</a>. Springer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9yzN-QGag_8C">https://books.google.com/books?id=9yzN-QGag_8C</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mercury%2C+Cadmium%2C+Lead%3A+Handbook+for+Sustainable+Heavy+Metals+Policy+and+Regulation&rft.aulast=Scoullos&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft.au=Scoullos%2C%26%2332%3BMichael+J.&rft.au=Vonkeman%2C%26%2332%3BGerrit+H.&rft.au=Thornton%2C%26%2332%3BIain&rft.au=Makuch%2C%26%2332%3BZen&rft.date=2001&rft.pub=Springer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9yzN-QGag_8C&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Jennings-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Jennings_34-0">↑</a> Jennings, Thomas C. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YUkJNI9QYsUC&pg=PA149">"Cadmium Environmental Concerns"</a>. PVC handbook. Hanser Verlag. p. 149. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YUkJNI9QYsUC&pg=PA149">https://books.google.com/books?id=YUkJNI9QYsUC&pg=PA149</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Cadmium+Environmental+Concerns&rft.atitle=PVC+handbook&rft.aulast=Jennings&rft.aufirst=Thomas+C.&rft.au=Jennings%2C%26%2332%3BThomas+C.&rft.date=2005&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B149&rft.pub=Hanser+Verlag&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYUkJNI9QYsUC%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Brady-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Brady_35-0">↑</a> Brady, George Stuart; Brady, George S.; Clauser, Henry R.; Vaccari, John A. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vIhvSQLhhMEC&pg=PA425">Materials handbook: an encyclopedia for managers, technical professionals, purchasing and production managers, technicians, and supervisors</a>. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 425. ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-136076-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-136076-0">978-0-07-136076-0</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vIhvSQLhhMEC&pg=PA425">https://books.google.com/books?id=vIhvSQLhhMEC&pg=PA425</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+handbook%3A+an+encyclopedia+for+managers%2C+technical+professionals%2C+purchasing+and+production+managers%2C+technicians%2C+and+supervisors&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=George+Stuart&rft.au=Brady%2C%26%2332%3BGeorge+Stuart&rft.au=Brady%2C%26%2332%3BGeorge+S.&rft.au=Clauser%2C%26%2332%3BHenry+R.&rft.au=Vaccari%2C%26%2332%3BJohn+A.&rft.date=2002&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B425&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.isbn=978-0-07-136076-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvIhvSQLhhMEC%26pg%3DPA425&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Haire-36">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Haire_36-0">36.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haire_36-1">36.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haire_36-2">36.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haire_36-3">36.3</a> Haire, Richard G. (2006). "Californium". In Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Springer Science+Business Media. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3555-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3555-5">978-1-4020-3555-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">↑</a> Szwacki, Nevill Gonzalez; Szwacka, Teresa (2010). Basic Elements of Crystallography. Pan Stanford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4241-59-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4241-59-5">978-981-4241-59-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarthy-38"><a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy_38-0">↑</a> K. J. McCarthy; A. Baciero; B. Zurro; TJ-II Team (12 June 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crpppc42.epfl.ch/Buda/pdf/p3_116.pdf">Impurity Behaviour Studies in the TJ-II Stellarator, In: 27th EPS Conference on Contr. Fusion and Plasma Phys.</a>. 24B. Budapest: ECA. pp. 1244-7. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://crpppc42.epfl.ch/Buda/pdf/p3_116.pdf">http://crpppc42.epfl.ch/Buda/pdf/p3_116.pdf</a>. Retrieved 20 January 2013.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Impurity+Behaviour+Studies+in+the+TJ-II+Stellarator%2C+In%3A+%27%2727th+EPS+Conference+on+Contr.+Fusion+and+Plasma+Phys.%27%27&rft.aulast=K.+J.+McCarthy&rft.au=K.+J.+McCarthy&rft.au=A.+Baciero&rft.au=B.+Zurro&rft.au=TJ-II+Team&rft.date=12+June+2000&rft.volume=24B&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1244-7&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=ECA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcrpppc42.epfl.ch%2FBuda%2Fpdf%2Fp3_116.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Greenwood-39">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_39-0">39.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_39-1">39.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_39-2">39.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_39-3">39.3</a> Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8">978-0-08-037941-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ullmann-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Ullmann_40-0">↑</a> Klaus Reinhardt and Herwig Winkler in "Cerium Mischmetal, Cerium Alloys, and Cerium Compounds" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a06_139">10.1002/14356007.a06_139</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sims-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Sims_41-0">↑</a> Sims, Zachary (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1257369">"Cerium-Based, Intermetallic-Strengthened Aluminum Casting Alloy: High-Volume Co-product Development"</a>. JOM 68 (7): 1940–1947. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11837-016-1943-9">10.1007/s11837-016-1943-9</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1257369">https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1257369</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Cerium-Based%2C+Intermetallic-Strengthened+Aluminum+Casting+Alloy%3A+High-Volume+Co-product+Development&rft.jtitle=JOM&rft.aulast=Sims&rft.aufirst=Zachary&rft.au=Sims%2C%26%2332%3BZachary&rft.date=2016&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1940%E2%80%931947&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007%2Fs11837-016-1943-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1257369&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Bai-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Bai_42-0">↑</a> Wen-Ji Bai, Mei-Fu Zhou, and Paul T. Robinson (August 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/e93-143">"Possibly diamond-bearing mantle peridotites and podiform chromitites in the Luobusa and Donqiao ophiolites, Tibet"</a>. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 30 (8): 1650-9. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fe93-143">10.1139/e93-143</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/e93-143">http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/e93-143</a>. Retrieved 2015-08-19.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Possibly+diamond-bearing+mantle+peridotites+and+podiform+chromitites+in+the+Luobusa+and+Donqiao+ophiolites%2C+Tibet&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Earth+Sciences&rft.aulast=Wen-Ji+Bai%2C+Mei-Fu+Zhou%2C+and+Paul+T.+Robinson&rft.au=Wen-Ji+Bai%2C+Mei-Fu+Zhou%2C+and+Paul+T.+Robinson&rft.date=August+1993&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1650-9&rft_id=info:doi/10.1139%2Fe93-143&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrcresearchpress.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1139%2Fe93-143&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Subramanian-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Subramanian_43-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFSubramanian" class="citation web cs1">Subramanian, S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-08-28/making-new-elements-doesn-t-pay-just-ask-this-berkeley-scientist">"Making New Elements Doesn't Pay. Just Ask This Berkeley Scientist"</a>. Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved 2020-01-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg+Businessweek&rft.atitle=Making+New+Elements+Doesn%27t+Pay.+Just+Ask+This+Berkeley+Scientist&rft.aulast=Subramanian&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Ffeatures%2F2019-08-28%2Fmaking-new-elements-doesn-t-pay-just-ask-this-berkeley-scientist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson-44"><a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_44-0">↑</a> A.B. Johnson Jr.; B. Francis (1 January 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/5406419">Durability of metals from archaeological objects, metal meteorites, and native metals</a>. PNL-3198. Richland, Washington USA: Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Department of Energy. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2172%2F5406419">10.2172/5406419</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/5406419">http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/5406419</a>. Retrieved 2014-10-28.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Durability+of+metals+from+archaeological+objects%2C+metal+meteorites%2C+and+native+metals&rft.aulast=A.B.+Johnson+Jr.&rft.au=A.B.+Johnson+Jr.&rft.au=B.+Francis&rft.date=1+January+1980&rft.volume=PNL-3198&rft.issue=TRN%3A+80-007629&rft.place=Richland%2C+Washington+USA&rft.pub=Battelle+Pacific+Northwest+Laboratories%2C+Department+of+Energy&rft_id=info:doi/10.2172%2F5406419&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fscitech%2Fbiblio%2F5406419&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Kettles-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Kettles_45-0">↑</a> I.M. Kettles; A.N. Rencz; S.D. Bauke (April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asprs.org/a/publications/pers/2000journal/april/2000_apr_437-445.pdf">"Integrating Landsat, Geologic, and Airborne Gamma Ray Data as an Aid to Surficial Geology Mapping and Mineral Exploration in the Manitouwadge Area, Ontario"</a>. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing 66 (4): 437-45. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://asprs.org/a/publications/pers/2000journal/april/2000_apr_437-445.pdf">http://asprs.org/a/publications/pers/2000journal/april/2000_apr_437-445.pdf</a>. Retrieved 2014-10-28.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Integrating+Landsat%2C+Geologic%2C+and+Airborne+Gamma+Ray+Data+as+an+Aid+to+Surficial+Geology+Mapping+and+Mineral+Exploration+in+the+Manitouwadge+Area%2C+Ontario&rft.jtitle=Photogrammetric+Engineering+%26+Remote+Sensing&rft.aulast=I.M.+Kettles&rft.au=I.M.+Kettles&rft.au=A.N.+Rencz&rft.au=S.D.+Bauke&rft.date=April+2000&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=437-45&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fasprs.org%2Fa%2Fpublications%2Fpers%2F2000journal%2Fapril%2F2000_apr_437-445.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-jolyon-46"><a href="#cite_ref-jolyon_46-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFjolyon2015" class="citation web cs1">jolyon (6 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/element/Curium">"The Mineralogy of Curium"</a>. Hudson Institute of Mineralogy. Retrieved 2015-11-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mineralogy+of+Curium&rft.pub=Hudson+Institute+of+Mineralogy&rft.date=2015-11-06&rft.au=jolyon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mindat.org%2Felement%2FCurium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moody-47">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Moody_47-0">47.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moody_47-1">47.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moody_47-2">47.2</a> Moody, Ken (2013-11-30). "Synthesis of Superheavy Elements". In Schädel, Matthias; Shaughnessy, Dawn. The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements (2nd ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 24–8. ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642374661" title="Special:BookSources/9783642374661">9783642374661</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Synthesis+of+Superheavy+Elements&rft.atitle=The+Chemistry+of+Superheavy+Elements&rft.aulast=Moody&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft.au=Moody%2C%26%2332%3BKen&rft.date=2013-11-30&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B24%E2%80%938&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.isbn=9783642374661&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Nagame-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Nagame_48-0">↑</a> Nagame, Y.; Kratz, J. V.; Schädel, M. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jopss.jaea.go.jp/pdfdata/BB2016-0022.pdf">"Chemical properties of rutherfordium (Rf) and dubnium (Db) in the aqueous phase"</a>. EPJ Web of Conferences 131: 07007. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fepjconf%2F201613107007">10.1051/epjconf/201613107007</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://jopss.jaea.go.jp/pdfdata/BB2016-0022.pdf">https://jopss.jaea.go.jp/pdfdata/BB2016-0022.pdf</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Chemical+properties+of+rutherfordium+%28Rf%29+and+dubnium+%28Db%29+in+the+aqueous+phase&rft.jtitle=EPJ+Web+of+Conferences&rft.aulast=Nagame&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft.au=Nagame%2C%26%2332%3BY.&rft.au=Kratz%2C%26%2332%3BJ.+V.&rft.au=Sch%C3%A4del%2C%26%2332%3BM.&rft.date=2016&rft.volume=131&rft.pages=07007&rft_id=info:doi/10.1051%2Fepjconf%2F201613107007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjopss.jaea.go.jp%2Fpdfdata%2FBB2016-0022.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Chatterjee-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Chatterjee_49-0">↑</a> D Chatterjee and K N R Taylor (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0305-4608/2/1/020/pdf">"Magnetic and structural properties of the neodymium-dysprosium alloy system"</a>. Journal of Physics F: Metal Physics 2 (1): 151. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0305-4608/2/1/020/pdf">https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0305-4608/2/1/020/pdf</a>. 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CRC press.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elements%2C+in+Handbook+of+Chemistry+and+Physics&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rft.au=Hammond%2C%26%2332%3BC.+R.&rft.date=2000&rft.edition=81st&rft.pub=CRC+press&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Weiden-51">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Weiden_51-0">51.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weiden_51-1">51.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weiden_51-2">51.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weiden_51-3">51.3</a> Silvia von der Weiden (21 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcrunch.com/business-finance/as-greenland-s-glaciers-recede-a-rush-on-the-riches-buried-below/c2s4915/">As Greenland's Glaciers Recede, A Rush On The Riches Buried Below</a>. WorldCrunch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.worldcrunch.com/business-finance/as-greenland-s-glaciers-recede-a-rush-on-the-riches-buried-below/c2s4915/">http://www.worldcrunch.com/business-finance/as-greenland-s-glaciers-recede-a-rush-on-the-riches-buried-below/c2s4915/</a>. Retrieved 20 September 2014.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=As+Greenland%27s+Glaciers+Recede%2C+A+Rush+On+The+Riches+Buried+Below&rft.aulast=Silvia+von+der+Weiden&rft.au=Silvia+von+der+Weiden&rft.date=21+March+2012&rft.pub=WorldCrunch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcrunch.com%2Fbusiness-finance%2Fas-greenland-s-glaciers-recede-a-rush-on-the-riches-buried-below%2Fc2s4915%2F&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Wang-52"><a href="#cite_ref-Wang_52-0">↑</a> Wei Wang, Hui Zou, Shuizhou Cai (18 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/prep.201800223">"The Oxidation and Combustion Properties of Gas Atomized Aluminum− Boron− Europium Alloy Powders"</a>. Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 44 (6): 725-732. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fprep.201800223">10.1002/prep.201800223</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/prep.201800223">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/prep.201800223</a>. Retrieved 18 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Oxidation+and+Combustion+Properties+of+Gas+Atomized+Aluminum%E2%88%92+Boron%E2%88%92+Europium+Alloy+Powders&rft.jtitle=Propellants%2C+Explosives%2C+Pyrotechnics&rft.aulast=Wei+Wang%2C+Hui+Zou%2C+Shuizhou+Cai&rft.au=Wei+Wang%2C+Hui+Zou%2C+Shuizhou+Cai&rft.date=18+February+2019&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=725-732&rft_id=info:doi/10.1002%2Fprep.201800223&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2Fprep.201800223&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Emsley2001-53">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Emsley2001_53-0">53.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Emsley2001_53-1">53.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Emsley2001_53-2">53.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Emsley2001_53-3">53.3</a> Emsley, John (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA265">Nature's Building Blocks</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 262–266. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA265">https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA265</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature%27s+Building+Blocks&rft.aulast=Emsley&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Emsley%2C%26%2332%3BJohn&rft.date=2001&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B262%E2%80%93266&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj-Xu07p3cKwC%26pg%3DPA265&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Lavrukhina-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Lavrukhina_54-0">↑</a> Lavrukhina, Avgusta Konstantinovna; Pozdnyakov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1970). Analytical Chemistry of Technetium, Promethium, Astatine, and Francium. Translated by R. Kondor. Ann Arbor–Humphrey Science Publishers. p. 269. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-250-39923-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-250-39923-9">978-0-250-39923-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFGschneidner,_Karl_JrGibson,_Kerry2001" class="citation web cs1">Gschneidner, Karl Jr; Gibson, Kerry (7 December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100323011159/http://www.external.ameslab.gov/news/release/01magneticrefrig.htm">"Magnetic refrigerator successfully tested"</a>. Ames Laboratory. Retrieved 17 December 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Magnetic+refrigerator+successfully+tested&rft.pub=Ames+Laboratory&rft.date=2001-12-07&rft.au=Gschneidner%2C+Karl+Jr&rft.au=Gibson%2C+Kerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100323011159%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.external.ameslab.gov%2Fnews%2Frelease%2F01magneticrefrig.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|archive-date=</code> requires <code class="cs1-code">|archive-url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#archive_date_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Gschneidner2001-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Gschneidner2001_56-0">↑</a> Gschneidner, K.; Pecharsky, V.; Tsokol, A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141109081936/http://www.teknik.uu.se/ftf/education/magnetmatr/Projektreferenser/MCE_Reports_Progress05.pdf">"Recent Developments in Magnetocaloric Materials"</a>. Reports on Progress in Physics 68 (6): 1479. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0034-4885%2F68%2F6%2FR04">10.1088/0034-4885/68/6/R04</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141109081936/http://www.teknik.uu.se/ftf/education/magnetmatr/Projektreferenser/MCE_Reports_Progress05.pdf">https://web.archive.org/web/20141109081936/http://www.teknik.uu.se/ftf/education/magnetmatr/Projektreferenser/MCE_Reports_Progress05.pdf</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Recent+Developments+in+Magnetocaloric+Materials&rft.jtitle=Reports+on+Progress+in+Physics&rft.aulast=Gschneidner%2C+K.&rft.au=Gschneidner%2C+K.&rft.au=Pecharsky%2C+V.&rft.au=Tsokol%2C+A.&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1479&rft_id=info:doi/10.1088%2F0034-4885%2F68%2F6%2FR04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20141109081936%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.teknik.uu.se%2Fftf%2Feducation%2Fmagnetmatr%2FProjektreferenser%2FMCE_Reports_Progress05.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Shiller-57">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Shiller_57-0">57.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shiller_57-1">57.1</a> Alan M. Shiller (June 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304420398000097">"Dissolved gallium in the Atlantic Ocean"</a>. Marine Chemistry 61 (1-2): 87-99. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0304-4203%2898%2900009-7">10.1016/S0304-4203(98)00009-7</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304420398000097">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304420398000097</a>. Retrieved 2014-10-29.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Dissolved+gallium+in+the+Atlantic+Ocean&rft.jtitle=Marine+Chemistry&rft.aulast=Alan+M.+Shiller&rft.au=Alan+M.+Shiller&rft.date=June+1998&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=1-2&rft.pages=87-99&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2FS0304-4203%2898%2900009-7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0304420398000097&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Robertson-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Robertson_58-0">↑</a> A. Robertson Jr; T.H. Chiu; W.T. Tsang; J.E. Cunningham (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S1946427400538469">"RHEED Intensity Oscillation Studies of the Kinetics of GaAs Deposition During Chemical Beam Epitaxy (CBE)"</a>. MRS Proceedings 102: 17-23. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1557%2FPROC-102-17">http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/PROC-102-17</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S1946427400538469">http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S1946427400538469</a>. Retrieved 2012-07-17.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=RHEED+Intensity+Oscillation+Studies+of+the+Kinetics+of+GaAs+Deposition+During+Chemical+Beam+Epitaxy+%28CBE%29&rft.jtitle=MRS+Proceedings&rft.aulast=A.+Robertson+Jr&rft.au=A.+Robertson+Jr&rft.au=T.H.+Chiu&rft.au=W.T.+Tsang&rft.au=J.E.+Cunningham&rft.date=1987&rft.volume=102&rft.pages=17-23&rft_id=info:doi/http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1557%2FPROC-102-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Fabstract_S1946427400538469&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Nave-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Nave_59-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFR_Nave2015" class="citation web cs1">R Nave (17 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/minerals/germanite.html">"Germanite"</a>. Washington, DS USA: Smithsonian Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2015-08-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Germanite&rft.place=Washington%2C+DS+USA&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Museum+of+Natural+History&rft.date=2015-08-17&rft.au=R+Nave&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu%2Fhbase%2Fminerals%2Fgermanite.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hebda-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Hebda_60-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFHebda2001" class="citation web cs1">Hebda, John (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217080513/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_3/images/pdfs/016.pdf">"Niobium alloys and high Temperature Applications"</a> (PDF). CBMM. 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Metal Science and Heat Treatment 17 (3): 207–209. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00663680">10.1007/BF00663680</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Oxidation+of+hafnium+alloys+with+nickel&rft.jtitle=Metal+Science+and+Heat+Treatment&rft.aulast=Voitovich&rft.aufirst=R.+F.&rft.au=Voitovich%2C%26%2332%3BR.+F.&rft.au=Golovko%2C+%C3%89.+I.&rft.date=1975&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=207%E2%80%93209&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007%2FBF00663680&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Bushuev-64"><a href="#cite_ref-Bushuev_64-0">↑</a> A. N. Bushuev, O. V. El’kin, I. V. Tolstobrova, A. V. Sazanov, and D. A. Kondrat’ev (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrey-Bushuev-2/publication/329899928_Preparation_of_a_Nickel-Holmium_Alloy_Coating_in_an_Equimolar_HoCl3-Containing_NaCl-KCl_Melt/links/5dd4e7bf299bf11ec8629a72/Preparation-of-a-Nickel-Holmium-Alloy-Coating-in-an-Equimolar-HoCl3-Containing-NaCl-KCl-Melt.pdf">"Preparation of a Nickel–Holmium Alloy Coating in an Equimolar HoCl 3-Containing NaCl–KCl Melt"</a>. 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Retrieved 18 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Preparation+of+a+Nickel%E2%80%93Holmium+Alloy+Coating+in+an+Equimolar+%3Cspan+class%3D%22chemf+nowrap%22%3EHoCl%3Cspan+style%3D%22display%3Ainline-block%3Bmargin-bottom%3A-0.3em%3Bvertical-align%3A-0.4em%3Bline-height%3A1em%3Bfont-size%3A80%25%3Btext-align%3Aleft%22%3E%3Csup+style%3D%22font-size%3Ainherit%3Bline-height%3Ainherit%3Bvertical-align%3Abaseline%22%3E%3C%2Fsup%3E%3Cbr+%2F%3E%3Csub+style%3D%22font-size%3Ainherit%3Bline-height%3Ainherit%3Bvertical-align%3Abaseline%22%3E3%3C%2Fsub%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E-Containing+NaCl%E2%80%93KCl+Melt&rft.jtitle=Russian+Metallurgy+%28Metally%29&rft.aulast=A.+N.+Bushuev%2C+O.+V.+El%E2%80%99kin%2C+I.+V.+Tolstobrova%2C+A.+V.+Sazanov%2C+and+D.+A.+Kondrat%E2%80%99ev&rft.au=A.+N.+Bushuev%2C+O.+V.+El%E2%80%99kin%2C+I.+V.+Tolstobrova%2C+A.+V.+Sazanov%2C+and+D.+A.+Kondrat%E2%80%99ev&rft.date=2018&rft.volume=2018&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=771-778&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fprofile%2FAndrey-Bushuev-2%2Fpublication%2F329899928_Preparation_of_a_Nickel-Holmium_Alloy_Coating_in_an_Equimolar_HoCl3-Containing_NaCl-KCl_Melt%2Flinks%2F5dd4e7bf299bf11ec8629a72%2FPreparation-of-a-Nickel-Holmium-Alloy-Coating-in-an-Equimolar-HoCl3-Containing-NaCl-KCl-Melt.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Surmann-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Surmann_65-0">↑</a> Surmann, P; Zeyat, H (Nov 2005). 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Botelho; Guy Roger; Ferdinand d'Yvoire; Yves Moẽlo; Marcel Volfinger (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rruff-2.geo.arizona.edu/uploads/EJM6_245.pdf">"Yanomamite, InAsO4.2H2O, a new indium mineral from topaz-bearing greisen in the Gohiás Tin Province, Brazil"</a>. European Journal of Mineralogy 6: 245-54. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://rruff-2.geo.arizona.edu/uploads/EJM6_245.pdf">https://rruff-2.geo.arizona.edu/uploads/EJM6_245.pdf</a>. 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Retrieved 2017-12-13.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=RHEED+study+of+the+initial+stages+of+crystallization+and+oxidation+of+lead+and+tin&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Crystal+Growth&rft.aulast=S.K.+Peneva%2C+K.D.+Djuneva+and+E.A.+Tsukeva&rft.au=S.K.+Peneva%2C+K.D.+Djuneva+and+E.A.+Tsukeva&rft.date=2+May+1981&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=382-396&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2F0022-0248%2881%2990088-9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2F0022024881900889&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-260323">"The Eight Metals"</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tG0fnF0VRk0C&pg=PA163&dq=Ashtadhatu&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiLlZn_spXQAhVDxVQKHeLuAh4Q6AEIITAB#v=onepage&q=Ashtadhatu&f=false">Social, Cultural, and Economic History of Himachal Pradesh</a>. Manjit Singh Ahluwalia. Indus Publishing. 1998 p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">↑</a> स्वर्ण रूप्यं ताम्रं च रंग यशदमेव च। शीसं लौहं रसश्चेति धातवोऽष्टौ प्रकीर्तिता:। Here rasa can be taken as either mercury or brass. </li> <li id="cite_note-Babbitt-82">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Babbitt_82-0">82.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Babbitt_82-1">82.1</a> Isaac Babbitt, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00001252&idkey=NONE&homeurl=http%3A%252F%252Fpatft.uspto.gov%252Fnetahtml%252FPTO%252Fpatimg.htm">http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00001252&idkey=NONE&homeurl=http%3A%252F%252Fpatft.uspto.gov%252Fnetahtml%252FPTO%252Fpatimg.htm</a> "Mode of making boxes for axles and gudgeons," U.S. patent no. 1,252 (issued: July 17, 1839). </li> <li id="cite_note-King-83"><a href="#cite_ref-King_83-0">↑</a> Jeremy R. King; Constantine P. Deliyannis; Merchant Boesgaard (April 1, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/478/2/778/pdf/0004-637X_478_2_778.pdf">"The 9Be Abundances of α Centauri A and B and the Sun: Implications for Stellar Evolution and Mixing"</a>. The Astrophysical Journal 478 (2): 778. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/478/2/778/pdf/0004-637X_478_2_778.pdf">http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/478/2/778/pdf/0004-637X_478_2_778.pdf</a>. Retrieved 2012-07-11.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+%3Csup%3E9%3C%2Fsup%3EBe+Abundances+of+%CE%B1+Centauri+A+and+B+and+the+Sun%3A+Implications+for+Stellar+Evolution+and+Mixing&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.aulast=Jeremy+R.+King&rft.au=Jeremy+R.+King&rft.au=Constantine+P.+Deliyannis&rft.au=Merchant+Boesgaard&rft.date=April+1%2C+1997&rft.volume=478&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=778&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2F0004-637X%2F478%2F2%2F778%2Fpdf%2F0004-637X_478_2_778.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Sadakane-84">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-0">84.00</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-1">84.01</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-2">84.02</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-3">84.03</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-4">84.04</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-5">84.05</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-6">84.06</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-7">84.07</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-8">84.08</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-9">84.09</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-10">84.10</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sadakane_84-11">84.11</a> Kozo Sadakane; Minoru Ueta (August 1989). "Abundance Analysis of Sirius in the Blue-Violet Region". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan 41 (2): 279-88.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Abundance+Analysis+of+Sirius+in+the+Blue-Violet+Region&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Astronomical+Society+of+Japan&rft.aulast=Kozo+Sadakane&rft.au=Kozo+Sadakane&rft.au=Minoru+Ueta&rft.date=August+1989&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=279-88&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Dunlop-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Dunlop_85-0">↑</a> J.B. Dunlop; J.M. Williams; J. Crangle (January-March 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0378436377903102">"119Sn Mössbauer and neutron diffraction investigation of β Mn-Sn solid solutions"</a>. Physica B+C 86-88: 269-71. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0378-4363%2877%2990310-2">10.1016/0378-4363(77)90310-2</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0378436377903102">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0378436377903102</a>. Retrieved 2015-08-19.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%3Csup%3E119%3C%2Fsup%3ESn+M%C3%B6ssbauer+and+neutron+diffraction+investigation+of+%CE%B2+Mn-Sn+solid+solutions&rft.jtitle=Physica+B%2BC&rft.aulast=J.B.+Dunlop&rft.au=J.B.+Dunlop&rft.au=J.M.+Williams&rft.au=J.+Crangle&rft.date=January-March+1977&rft.volume=86-88&rft.pages=269-71&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2F0378-4363%2877%2990310-2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2F0378436377903102&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Basinski-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Basinski_86-0">↑</a> Z. S. Basinski; J. W. Christian (20 May 1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/223/1155/554.short">"A Pressurized High-Temperature Debye-Scherrer Camera, and Its Use to Determine the Structures and Coefficients of Expansion of γ- and δ-manganese"</a>. The Royal Society Proceedings A 223 (1155): 554. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1954.0136">10.1098/rspa.1954.0136</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/223/1155/554.short">http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/223/1155/554.short</a>. Retrieved 2015-08-19.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+Pressurized+High-Temperature+Debye-Scherrer+Camera%2C+and+Its+Use+to+Determine+the+Structures+and+Coefficients+of+Expansion+of+%CE%B3-+and+%CE%B4-manganese&rft.jtitle=The+Royal+Society+Proceedings+A&rft.aulast=Z.+S.+Basinski&rft.au=Z.+S.+Basinski&rft.au=J.+W.+Christian&rft.date=20+May+1954&rft.volume=223&rft.issue=1155&rft.pages=554&rft_id=info:doi/10.1098%2Frspa.1954.0136&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frspa.royalsocietypublishing.org%2Fcontent%2F223%2F1155%2F554.short&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Griffith-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Griffith_87-0">↑</a> Griffith, W. P. (2008). "The Periodic Table and the Platinum Group Metals". Platinum Metals Review 52 (2): 114–119. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1595%2F147106708X297486">10.1595/147106708X297486</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Periodic+Table+and+the+Platinum+Group+Metals&rft.jtitle=Platinum+Metals+Review&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=W.+P.&rft.au=Griffith%2C%26%2332%3BW.+P.&rft.date=2008&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=114%E2%80%93119&rft_id=info:doi/10.1595%2F147106708X297486&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Silva2006-88">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Silva2006_88-0">88.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Silva2006_88-1">88.1</a> Silva, Robert J. (2006). "Fermium, Mendelevium, Nobelium, and Lawrencium" (PDF). In Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements. Vol. 3 (3rd ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 1621–1651. doi:10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_13. {{ISBN|978-1-4020-3555-5 ]]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-07-17. </li> <li id="cite_note-Audi-89">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Audi_89-0">89.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Audi_89-1">89.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Audi_89-2">89.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Audi_89-3">89.3</a> Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 </li> <li id="cite_note-Nucleonica-90">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Nucleonica_90-0">90.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nucleonica_90-1">90.1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFNucleonica2007–2014" class="citation web cs1">Nucleonica (2007–2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nucleonica.net/unc.aspx">"Universal Nuclide Chart"</a>. Nucleonica. Retrieved 22 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nucleonica&rft.atitle=Universal+Nuclide+Chart&rft.date=2007%2F2014&rft.au=Nucleonica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nucleonica.net%2Func.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eichler-91"><a href="#cite_ref-Eichler_91-0">↑</a> Eichler, Robert (2013). "First foot prints of chemistry on the shore of the Island of Superheavy Elements". Journal of Physics: Conference Series (IOP Science) 420 (1): 012003. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F420%2F1%2F012003">10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012003</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=First+foot+prints+of+chemistry+on+the+shore+of+the+Island+of+Superheavy+Elements&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physics%3A+Conference+Series&rft.aulast=Eichler&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Eichler%2C%26%2332%3BRobert&rft.date=2013&rft.volume=420&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=012003&rft.pub=IOP+Science&rft_id=info:doi/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F420%2F1%2F012003&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-azom-92"><a href="#cite_ref-azom_92-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110614171110/http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=616">"Molybdenum"</a>. AZoM.com Pty. Limited. 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Molybdenum&rft.pub=AZoM.com+Pty.+Limited&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20110614171110%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.azom.com%2Farticle.aspx%3FArticleID%3D616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|archive-date=</code> requires <code class="cs1-code">|archive-url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#archive_date_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.toshiba.co.jp/about/press/2012_08/pr1601.htm">Toshiba Develops Dysprosium-free Samarium-Cobalt Magnet to Replace Heat-resistant Neodymium Magnet in Essential Applications</a>. Toshiba (2012-08-16). Retrieved on 2012-09-24. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stamenov-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Stamenov_94-0">↑</a> Stamenov P. (2021) Magnetism of the Elements. In: Coey J.M.D., Parkin S.S. (eds) Handbook of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. Springer, Cham. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63210-6_15">https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63210-6_15</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhang-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Zhang_95-0">↑</a> Zhang, W., Liu, G. & Han, K. The Fe-Nd (Iron-Neodymium) system. JPE 13, 645–648 (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02667216">https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02667216</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bala-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Bala_96-0">↑</a> Bala, H., Szymura, S., Pawłowska, G. et al. Effect of impurities on the corrosion behaviour of neodymium. J Appl Electrochem 23, 1017–1024 (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00266123">https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00266123</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-GrayNeptunium-97"><a href="#cite_ref-GrayNeptunium_97-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFTheodore_Gray2005" class="citation web cs1">Theodore Gray (20 September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://periodictable.com/Items/093.2/index.html">"An example of the element Neptunium"</a>. Periodic Table.com. Retrieved 2015-11-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+example+of+the+element+Neptunium&rft.pub=Periodic+Table.com&rft.date=2005-09-20&rft.au=Theodore+Gray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fperiodictable.com%2FItems%2F093.2%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yoshida-98"><a href="#cite_ref-Yoshida_98-0">↑</a> Yoshida, Zenko; Johnson, Stephen G.; Kimura, Takaumi; Krsul, John R. (2006). Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean. eds. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180117190715/http://radchem.nevada.edu/classes/rdch710/files/neptunium.pdf">The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements</a>. 3 (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. pp. 699–812. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-3598-5_6">10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_6</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180117190715/http://radchem.nevada.edu/classes/rdch710/files/neptunium.pdf">https://web.archive.org/web/20180117190715/http://radchem.nevada.edu/classes/rdch710/files/neptunium.pdf</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chemistry+of+the+Actinide+and+Transactinide+Elements&rft.aulast=Yoshida&rft.aufirst=Zenko&rft.au=Yoshida%2C%26%2332%3BZenko&rft.au=Johnson%2C%26%2332%3BStephen+G.&rft.au=Kimura%2C%26%2332%3BTakaumi&rft.au=Krsul%2C%26%2332%3BJohn+R.&rft.date=2006&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B699%E2%80%93812&rft.edition=3rd&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+the+Netherlands&rft.pub=Springer&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007%2F1-4020-3598-5_6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20180117190715%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fradchem.nevada.edu%2Fclasses%2Frdch710%2Ffiles%2Fneptunium.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Swings-99">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Swings_99-0">99.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swings_99-1">99.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swings_99-2">99.2</a> P. Swings (July 1943). "Edlén's Identification of the Coronal Lines with Forbidden Lines of Fe X, XI, XIII, XIV, XV; Ni XII, XIII, XV, XVI; Ca XII, XIII, XV; a X, XIV". The Astrophysical Journal 98 (07): 116-28. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F144550">10.1086/144550</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Edl%C3%A9n%27s+Identification+of+the+Coronal+Lines+with+Forbidden+Lines+of+Fe+X%2C+XI%2C+XIII%2C+XIV%2C+XV%3B+Ni+XII%2C+XIII%2C+XV%2C+XVI%3B+Ca+XII%2C+XIII%2C+XV%3B+a+X%2C+XIV&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.aulast=P.+Swings&rft.au=P.+Swings&rft.date=July+1943&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=07&rft.pages=116-28&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086%2F144550&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Rancourt1995-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Rancourt1995_100-0">↑</a> D.G. Rancourt and R.B. Scorzelli. Low Spin γ-Fe-Ni (γLS) Proposed as a New Mineral in Fe-Ni-Bearing Meteorites: Epitaxial Intergrowth of γLS and Tetrataenite as Possible Equilibrium State at ~20-40 at % Ni. Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 150 (1995) 30-36 </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">↑</a> Beiser, A. (2003). Concepts of modern physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-244848-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-244848-1">978-0-07-244848-1</a>. OCLC 48965418. </li> <li id="cite_note-Staszczak-102"><a href="#cite_ref-Staszczak_102-0">↑</a> Staszczak, A.; Baran, A.; Nazarewicz, W. (2013). "Spontaneous fission modes and lifetimes of superheavy elements in the nuclear density functional theory". Physical Review C 87 (2): 024320–1. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrevc.87.024320">10.1103/physrevc.87.024320</a>. ISSN <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0556-2813">0556-2813</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Spontaneous+fission+modes+and+lifetimes+of+superheavy+elements+in+the+nuclear+density+functional+theory&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+C&rft.aulast=Staszczak&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Staszczak%2C%26%2332%3BA.&rft.au=Baran%2C%26%2332%3BA.&rft.au=Nazarewicz%2C%26%2332%3BW.&rft.date=2013&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=024320%E2%80%931&rft_id=info:doi/10.1103%2Fphysrevc.87.024320&rft.issn=0556-2813&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">↑</a> Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">↑</a> Beiser, A. (2003). Concepts of modern physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-244848-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-244848-1">978-0-07-244848-1</a>. OCLC 48965418. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">↑</a> Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Rykaczewski, K. P. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1337838">"A beachhead on the island of stability"</a>. Physics Today 68 (8): 32–38. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.3.2880">10.1063/PT.3.2880</a>. ISSN <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228">0031-9228</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1337838">https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1337838</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+beachhead+on+the+island+of+stability&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.aulast=Oganessian&rft.aufirst=Yu.+Ts.&rft.au=Oganessian%2C%26%2332%3BYu.+Ts.&rft.au=Rykaczewski%2C%26%2332%3BK.+P.&rft.date=2015&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=32%E2%80%9338&rft_id=info:doi/10.1063%2FPT.3.2880&rft.issn=0031-9228&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1337838&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Grant_106-0">↑</a> Grant, A. (2018). "Weighing the heaviest elements". Physics Today. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.6.1.20181113a">10.1063/PT.6.1.20181113a</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Weighing+the+heaviest+elements&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Grant%2C%26%2332%3BA.&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info:doi/10.1063%2FPT.6.1.20181113a&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Howes-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Howes_107-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFHowes2019" class="citation web cs1">Howes, L. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cen.acs.org/physical-chemistry/periodic-table/IYPT-Exploring-the-superheavy-elements-at-the-end-of-the-periodic-table/97/i21">"Exploring the superheavy elements at the end of the periodic table"</a>. Chemical & Engineering News. Retrieved 2020-01-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&rft.atitle=Exploring+the+superheavy+elements+at+the+end+of+the+periodic+table&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Howes&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcen.acs.org%2Fphysical-chemistry%2Fperiodic-table%2FIYPT-Exploring-the-superheavy-elements-at-the-end-of-the-periodic-table%2F97%2Fi21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinson-108">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_108-0">108.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_108-1">108.1</a> Robinson, A. E. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/the-transfermium-wars-scientific-brawling-and-name-calling-during-the-cold-war">"The Transfermium Wars: Scientific Brawling and Name-Calling during the Cold War"</a>. Distillations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/the-transfermium-wars-scientific-brawling-and-name-calling-during-the-cold-war">https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/the-transfermium-wars-scientific-brawling-and-name-calling-during-the-cold-war</a>. Retrieved 2020-02-22.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Transfermium+Wars%3A+Scientific+Brawling+and+Name-Calling+during+the+Cold+War&rft.jtitle=Distillations&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=A.+E.&rft.au=Robinson%2C%26%2332%3BA.+E.&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencehistory.org%2Fdistillations%2Fthe-transfermium-wars-scientific-brawling-and-name-calling-during-the-cold-war&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-coldfusion77-109"><a href="#cite_ref-coldfusion77_109-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://n-t.ru/ri/ps/pb106.htm">"Популярная библиотека химических элементов. Сиборгий (экавольфрам)"</a> [Popular library of chemical elements. Seaborgium (eka-tungsten)]. n-t.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 2020-01-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=n-t.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.+%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9+%28%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fn-t.ru%2Fri%2Fps%2Fpb106.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> Reprinted from "Экавольфрам". Популярная библиотека химических элементов. Серебро — Нильсборий и далее (in ru). Nauka. 1977.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.+%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE+%E2%80%94+%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B8+%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5&rft.date=1977&rft.pub=Nauka&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Hyde-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Hyde_110-0">↑</a> Hyde, E. K.; Hoffman, D. C.; Keller, O. L. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/05x8w9h7">"A History and Analysis of the Discovery of Elements 104 and 105"</a>. Radiochimica Acta 42 (2): 67–68. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fract.1987.42.2.57">10.1524/ract.1987.42.2.57</a>. ISSN <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/issn/2193-3405">2193-3405</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/05x8w9h7">http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/05x8w9h7</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+History+and+Analysis+of+the+Discovery+of+Elements+104+and+105&rft.jtitle=Radiochimica+Acta&rft.aulast=Hyde&rft.aufirst=E.+K.&rft.au=Hyde%2C%26%2332%3BE.+K.&rft.au=Hoffman%2C%26%2332%3BD.+C.&rft.au=Keller%2C%26%2332%3BO.+L.&rft.date=1987&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=67%E2%80%9368&rft_id=info:doi/10.1524%2Fract.1987.42.2.57&rft.issn=2193-3405&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F05x8w9h7&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Stysziński-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Stysziński_111-0">↑</a> Stysziński, Jacek (2010). "Why do we Need Relativistic Computational Methods?". Relativistic Methods for Chemists. Challenges and Advances in Computational Chemistry and Physics. 10. pp. 139–146. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-9975-5_3">10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_3</a>. ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9974-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9974-8">978-1-4020-9974-8</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Why+do+we+Need+Relativistic+Computational+Methods%3F&rft.atitle=Relativistic+Methods+for+Chemists&rft.aulast=Styszi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Jacek&rft.au=Styszi%C5%84ski%2C%26%2332%3BJacek&rft.date=2010&rft.series=Challenges+and+Advances+in+Computational+Chemistry+and+Physics&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B139%E2%80%93146&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-9975-5_3&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-9974-8&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoffman-112">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoffman_112-0">112.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoffman_112-1">112.1</a> Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3555-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3555-5">978-1-4020-3555-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-hydride-113"><a href="#cite_ref-hydride_113-0">↑</a> Han, Young-Kyu; Bae, Cheolbeom; Son, Sang-Kil; Lee, Yoon Sup (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/bb2beba2bc47c3381ed69b7125f6fbfb4b98596a">"Spin–orbit effects on the transactinide p-block element monohydrides MH (M=element 113–118)"</a>. Journal of Chemical Physics 112 (6): 2684. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.480842">10.1063/1.480842</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/bb2beba2bc47c3381ed69b7125f6fbfb4b98596a">https://semanticscholar.org/paper/bb2beba2bc47c3381ed69b7125f6fbfb4b98596a</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Spin%E2%80%93orbit+effects+on+the+transactinide+p-block+element+monohydrides+MH+%28M%3Delement+113%E2%80%93118%29&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Physics&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=Young-Kyu&rft.au=Han%2C%26%2332%3BYoung-Kyu&rft.au=Bae%2C%26%2332%3BCheolbeom&rft.au=Son%2C%26%2332%3BSang-Kil&rft.au=Lee%2C%26%2332%3BYoon+Sup&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=2684&rft_id=info:doi/10.1063%2F1.480842&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsemanticscholar.org%2Fpaper%2Fbb2beba2bc47c3381ed69b7125f6fbfb4b98596a&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Seth-114"><a href="#cite_ref-Seth_114-0">↑</a> Seth, Michael; Schwerdtfeger, Peter; Fægri, Knut (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/9aaa02788fada5fa2fe16de76ad51718d31b68f8">"The chemistry of superheavy elements. III. Theoretical studies on element 113 compounds"</a>. Journal of Chemical Physics 111 (14): 6422–6433. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.480168">10.1063/1.480168</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/9aaa02788fada5fa2fe16de76ad51718d31b68f8">https://semanticscholar.org/paper/9aaa02788fada5fa2fe16de76ad51718d31b68f8</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+chemistry+of+superheavy+elements.+III.+Theoretical+studies+on+element+113+compounds&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Physics&rft.aulast=Seth&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Seth%2C%26%2332%3BMichael&rft.au=Schwerdtfeger%2C%26%2332%3BPeter&rft.au=F%C3%A6gri%2C%26%2332%3BKnut&rft.date=1999&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=6422%E2%80%936433&rft_id=info:doi/10.1063%2F1.480168&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsemanticscholar.org%2Fpaper%2F9aaa02788fada5fa2fe16de76ad51718d31b68f8&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">↑</a> Fricke, Burkhard (1975). "Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties". Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry. Structure and Bonding. 21: 89–144. doi:10.1007/BFb0116498. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-07109-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-07109-9">978-3-540-07109-9</a>. Retrieved 4 October 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-Tither-116"><a href="#cite_ref-Tither_116-0">↑</a> Tither, Geoffrey (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100553/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/oppening.pdf">Progress in Niobium Markets and Technology 1981–2001</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100553/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/oppening.pdf">https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100553/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/oppening.pdf</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Progress+in+Niobium+Markets+and+Technology+1981%E2%80%932001&rft.aulast=Tither%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Tither%2C+Geoffrey&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20081217100553%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbmm.com.br%2Fportug%2Fsources%2Ftechlib%2Fscience_techno%2Ftable_content%2Fimages%2Fpdfs%2Foppening.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Dufresne-117"><a href="#cite_ref-Dufresne_117-0">↑</a> Dufresne, Claude; Goyette, Ghislain (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100559/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_1/images/pdfs/start.pdf">The Production of Ferroniobium at the Niobec mine 1981–2001</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100559/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_1/images/pdfs/start.pdf">https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100559/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_1/images/pdfs/start.pdf</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Production+of+Ferroniobium+at+the+Niobec+mine+1981%E2%80%932001&rft.aulast=Dufresne&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft.au=Dufresne%2C%26%2332%3BClaude&rft.au=Goyette%2C+Ghislain&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20081217100559%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbmm.com.br%2Fportug%2Fsources%2Ftechlib%2Fscience_techno%2Ftable_content%2Fsub_1%2Fimages%2Fpdfs%2Fstart.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200212215757/https://www.astm.org/Standards/A572">"ASTM A572 / A572M-18, Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel"</a>. ASTM International, West Conshohocken. 2018. Retrieved 2020-02-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ASTM+A572+%2F+A572M-18%2C+Standard+Specification+for+High-Strength+Low-Alloy+Columbium-Vanadium+Structural+Steel&rft.pub=ASTM+International%2C+West+Conshohocken&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200212215757%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FA572&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heisterkamp-119"><a href="#cite_ref-Heisterkamp_119-0">↑</a> Heisterkamp, Friedrich; Carneiro, Tadeu (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100604/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/closing.pdf">Niobium: Future Possibilities – Technology and the Market Place</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100604/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/closing.pdf">https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100604/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/closing.pdf</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Niobium%3A+Future+Possibilities+%E2%80%93+Technology+and+the+Market+Place&rft.aulast=Heisterkamp&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft.au=Heisterkamp%2C%26%2332%3BFriedrich&rft.au=Carneiro%2C+Tadeu&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20081217100604%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbmm.com.br%2Fportug%2Fsources%2Ftechlib%2Fscience_techno%2Ftable_content%2Fimages%2Fpdfs%2Fclosing.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-WebmineralCarlsbergites-120">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-WebmineralCarlsbergites_120-0">120.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WebmineralCarlsbergites_120-1">120.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WebmineralCarlsbergites_120-2">120.2</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webmineral.com/data/Carlsbergite.shtml">"Carlsbergite"</a>. Webmineral. Retrieved 10 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Carlsbergite&rft.pub=Webmineral&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebmineral.com%2Fdata%2FCarlsbergite.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HandbookCarlsbergites-121"><a href="#cite_ref-HandbookCarlsbergites_121-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.handbookofmineralogy.com/pdfs/carlsbergite.pdf">Carlsbergite in the Handbook of Mineralogy</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Silva2011-122">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Silva2011_122-0">122.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Silva2011_122-1">122.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Silva2011_122-2">122.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Silva2011_122-3">122.3</a> Silva, Robert J. (2011). "Chapter 13. Fermium, Mendelevium, Nobelium, and Lawrencium". In Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements. Netherlands: Springer. pp. 1621–1651. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0211-0_13. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-0210-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-0210-3">978-94-007-0210-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Martin-123"><a href="#cite_ref-Martin_123-0">↑</a> Martin, William C.; Hagan, Lucy; Reader, Joseph; Sugar, Jack (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200215124722/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9618/febdd51cee0e84ff7af88767be47cfcd4818.pdf">"Ground Levels and Ionization Potentials for Lanthanide and Actinide Atoms and Ions"</a>. Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 3 (3): 771–9. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3253147">10.1063/1.3253147</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200215124722/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9618/febdd51cee0e84ff7af88767be47cfcd4818.pdf">https://web.archive.org/web/20200215124722/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9618/febdd51cee0e84ff7af88767be47cfcd4818.pdf</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ground+Levels+and+Ionization+Potentials+for+Lanthanide+and+Actinide+Atoms+and+Ions&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physical+and+Chemical+Reference+Data&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft.au=Martin%2C%26%2332%3BWilliam+C.&rft.au=Hagan%2C%26%2332%3BLucy&rft.au=Reader%2C%26%2332%3BJoseph&rft.au=Sugar%2C%26%2332%3BJack&rft.date=1974&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=771%E2%80%939&rft_id=info:doi/10.1063%2F1.3253147&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20200215124722%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F9618%2Ffebdd51cee0e84ff7af88767be47cfcd4818.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Lide2003-124"><a href="#cite_ref-Lide2003_124-0">↑</a> Lide, David R. (editor), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 84th Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton (FL), 2003, section 10, Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics; Ionization Potentials of Atoms and Atomic Ions </li> <li id="cite_note-Nash2005-125">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Nash2005_125-0">125.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nash2005_125-1">125.1</a> Nash, Clinton S. (2005). "Atomic and Molecular Properties of Elements 112, 114, and 118". Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 109 (15): 3493–3500. Bibcode:2005JPCA..109.3493N. doi:10.1021/jp050736o. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16833687">16833687</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Haynes-126"><a href="#cite_ref-Haynes_126-0">↑</a> Haynes, William M., ed. (2011). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). CRC Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1439855119" title="Special:BookSources/978-1439855119">978-1439855119</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hudson2015-127">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Hudson2015_127-0">127.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hudson2015_127-1">127.1</a> Hudson Institute of Mineralogy (29 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/min-3067.html">Palladium</a>. Mindat. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.mindat.org/min-3067.html">http://www.mindat.org/min-3067.html</a>. Retrieved 2015-11-04.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palladium&rft.aulast=Hudson+Institute+of+Mineralogy&rft.au=Hudson+Institute+of+Mineralogy&rft.date=29+October+2015&rft.pub=Mindat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mindat.org%2Fmin-3067.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Verryn-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Verryn_128-0">↑</a> Verryn, Sabine M. C.; Merkle, Roland K. W. (1994). "Compositional variation of cooperite, braggite, and vysotskite from the Bushveld Complex". Mineralogical Magazine 58 (2): 223–234. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fminmag.1994.058.391.05">10.1180/minmag.1994.058.391.05</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Compositional+variation+of+cooperite%2C+braggite%2C+and+vysotskite+from+the+Bushveld+Complex&rft.jtitle=Mineralogical+Magazine&rft.aulast=Verryn&rft.aufirst=Sabine+M.+C.&rft.au=Verryn%2C%26%2332%3BSabine+M.+C.&rft.au=Merkle%2C%26%2332%3BRoland+K.+W.&rft.date=1994&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=223%E2%80%93234&rft_id=info:doi/10.1180%2Fminmag.1994.058.391.05&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Genkin-129"><a href="#cite_ref-Genkin_129-0">↑</a> Genkin, A. D.; Evstigneeva, T. L. (1986). "Associations of platinum- group minerals of the Norilsk copper-nickel sulfide ores". Economic Geology 81 (5): 1203–1212. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2113%2Fgsecongeo.81.5.1203">10.2113/gsecongeo.81.5.1203</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Associations+of+platinum-+group+minerals+of+the+Norilsk+copper-nickel+sulfide+ores&rft.jtitle=Economic+Geology&rft.aulast=Genkin&rft.aufirst=A.+D.&rft.au=Genkin%2C%26%2332%3BA.+D.&rft.au=Evstigneeva%2C%26%2332%3BT.+L.&rft.date=1986&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1203%E2%80%931212&rft_id=info:doi/10.2113%2Fgsecongeo.81.5.1203&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mindat.org/">"Mindat.org - Mines, Minerals and More"</a>. www.mindat.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mindat.org&rft.atitle=Mindat.org+-+Mines%2C+Minerals+and+More&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mindat.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holleman-131">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Holleman_131-0">131.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holleman_131-1">131.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holleman_131-2">131.2</a> A. Holleman; N. Wiberg (1985). "XV 2.1.3". Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (33rd ed.). de Gruyter.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=XV+2.1.3&rft.atitle=Lehrbuch+der+Anorganischen+Chemie&rft.aulast=A.+Holleman&rft.au=A.+Holleman&rft.au=N.+Wiberg&rft.date=1985&rft.edition=33rd&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Abundance-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Abundance_132-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ptable.com/#Property/Abundance/Crust">Abundance</a>. ptable.com </li> <li id="cite_note-Berger-133"><a href="#cite_ref-Berger_133-0">↑</a> Berger, L. I. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/semiconductormat0000berg">Semiconductor materials</a>. CRC Press. p. 84]. ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-8912-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8493-8912-7">0-8493-8912-7</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://archive.org/details/semiconductormat0000berg">https://archive.org/details/semiconductormat0000berg</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semiconductor+materials&rft.aulast=Berger%2C+L.+I.&rft.au=Berger%2C+L.+I.&rft.date=1996&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B84%5D&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.isbn=0-8493-8912-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsemiconductormat0000berg&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-AllotropesofPhosphorus-134"><a href="#cite_ref-AllotropesofPhosphorus_134-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropes_of_phosphorus">"Allotropes of phosphorus"</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 20 March 2013. Retrieved 2013-03-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Allotropes+of+phosphorus&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft.date=2013-03-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAllotropes_of_phosphorus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">↑</a> Roland W. Scholz, ed (2014-03-12). Sustainable Phosphorus Management: A Global Transdisciplinary Roadmap. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 175. ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9400772502" title="Special:BookSources/978-9400772502">978-9400772502</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sustainable+Phosphorus+Management%3A+A+Global+Transdisciplinary+Roadmap&rft.date=2014-03-12&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B175&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.isbn=978-9400772502&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">↑</a> Mel Schwartz (2016-07-06). Encyclopedia and Handbook of Materials, Parts and Finishes. CRC Press. ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138032064" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138032064">978-1138032064</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+and+Handbook+of+Materials%2C+Parts+and+Finishes&rft.aulast=Mel+Schwartz&rft.au=Mel+Schwartz&rft.date=2016-07-06&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.isbn=978-1138032064&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">↑</a> Joseph R. Davisz, ed (January 2001). Copper and Copper Alloys. ASM International. p. 181.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copper+and+Copper+Alloys&rft.date=January+2001&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B181&rft.pub=ASM+International&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Gornostaeva-138">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Gornostaeva_138-0">138.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gornostaeva_138-1">138.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gornostaeva_138-2">138.2</a> T. A. Gornostaeva; P. M. Kartashov; A. V. Mokhov; O. A. Bogatikov (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1028334X12060220#/page-1">"Native Rhodium-Bearing Ferroplatinum in a Lunar Regolith Sample from the Mare Fecunditatis"</a>. Doklady Earth Sciences 444 (2): 770-2. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS1028334X12060220">10.1134/S1028334X12060220</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1028334X12060220#/page-1">http://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1028334X12060220#/page-1</a>. Retrieved 2015-11-04.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Native+Rhodium-Bearing+Ferroplatinum+in+a+Lunar+Regolith+Sample+from+the+Mare+Fecunditatis&rft.jtitle=Doklady+Earth+Sciences&rft.aulast=T.+A.+Gornostaeva&rft.au=T.+A.+Gornostaeva&rft.au=P.+M.+Kartashov&rft.au=A.+V.+Mokhov&rft.au=O.+A.+Bogatikov&rft.date=2012&rft.volume=444&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=770-2&rft_id=info:doi/10.1134%2FS1028334X12060220&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1134%2FS1028334X12060220%23%2Fpage-1&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-GrayPlutonium-139"><a href="#cite_ref-GrayPlutonium_139-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFTheodore_W._Gray2002" class="citation web cs1">Theodore W. Gray (19 October 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://periodictable.com/Items/094.1/index.html">"Natural plutonium-containing mineral"</a>. Periodic Table.com. Retrieved 2015-11-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Natural+plutonium-containing+mineral&rft.pub=Periodic+Table.com&rft.date=2002-10-19&rft.au=Theodore+W.+Gray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fperiodictable.com%2FItems%2F094.1%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hecker-140"><a href="#cite_ref-Hecker_140-0">↑</a> Hecker, Siegfried S. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090224204042/http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00818035.pdf">"Plutonium and its alloys: from atoms to microstructure"</a>. Los Alamos Science 26: 290–335. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090224204042/http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00818035.pdf">https://web.archive.org/web/20090224204042/http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00818035.pdf</a>. Retrieved February 15, 2009.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Plutonium+and+its+alloys%3A+from+atoms+to+microstructure&rft.jtitle=Los+Alamos+Science&rft.aulast=Hecker&rft.aufirst=Siegfried+S.&rft.au=Hecker%2C%26%2332%3BSiegfried+S.&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=290%E2%80%93335&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20090224204042%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fsgp%2Fothergov%2Fdoe%2Flanl%2Fpubs%2F00818035.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-CST-141"><a href="#cite_ref-CST_141-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFCST2000" class="citation web cs1">CST (20 November 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010204004800/http://cst-www.nrl.navy.mil/lattice/struk/a_h.html">"The Simple Cubic Lattice"</a>. Washington, DC USA: The Naval Research Laboratory. Retrieved 2015-08-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Simple+Cubic+Lattice&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC+USA&rft.pub=The+Naval+Research+Laboratory&rft.date=2000-11-20&rft.au=CST&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20010204004800%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fcst-www.nrl.navy.mil%2Flattice%2Fstruk%2Fa_h.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CSTPo-142"><a href="#cite_ref-CSTPo_142-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFCSTPo2000" class="citation web cs1">CSTPo (20 November 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010204004200/http://cst-www.nrl.navy.mil/lattice/struk/a_i.html">"The A_i (beta Po) Structure"</a>. Washington, DC USA: The Naval Research Laboratory. Retrieved 2015-08-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+A_i+%28beta+Po%29+Structure&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC+USA&rft.pub=The+Naval+Research+Laboratory&rft.date=2000-11-20&rft.au=CSTPo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20010204004200%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fcst-www.nrl.navy.mil%2Flattice%2Fstruk%2Fa_i.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins1997-143">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Collins1997_143-0">143.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collins1997_143-1">143.1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFLorence_G._Collins1997" class="citation web cs1">Lorence G. Collins (3 February 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarworks.csun.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.2/2980/CollinsLorence19970203_08.pdf?sequence=1">"Polonium Halos and Myrmekite in Pegmatite and Granite"</a> (PDF). Northridge, California USA: California State University, Northridge. Retrieved 2015-08-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Polonium+Halos+and+Myrmekite+in+Pegmatite+and+Granite&rft.place=Northridge%2C+California+USA&rft.pub=California+State+University%2C+Northridge&rft.date=1997-02-03&rft.au=Lorence+G.+Collins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.csun.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10211.2%2F2980%2FCollinsLorence19970203_08.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nutting-144">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Nutting_144-0">144.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nutting_144-1">144.1</a> P. G. Nutting (January 1906). "Line Structure. I.". The Astrophysical Journal 23 (1): 64-78. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F141302">10.1086/141302</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Line+Structure.+I.&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.aulast=P.+G.+Nutting&rft.au=P.+G.+Nutting&rft.date=January+1906&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=64-78&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086%2F141302&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhodes-145"><a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_145-0">↑</a> Rhodes, Richard (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/darksunmakingofh00rhod/page/187">Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb</a>. New York: Walker & Company. pp. 187–188]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://archive.org/details/darksunmakingofh00rhod/page/187">https://archive.org/details/darksunmakingofh00rhod/page/187</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+Sun%3A+The+Making+of+the+Hydrogen+Bomb&rft.aulast=Rhodes%2C+Richard&rft.au=Rhodes%2C+Richard&rft.date=2002&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B187%E2%80%93188%5D&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Walker+%26+Company&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdarksunmakingofh00rhod%2Fpage%2F187&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Weigel-146"><a href="#cite_ref-Weigel_146-0">↑</a> Weigel, F. (1959). "Chemie des Poloniums". Angewandte Chemie 71 (9): 289–316. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fange.19590710902">10.1002/ange.19590710902</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Chemie+des+Poloniums&rft.jtitle=Angewandte+Chemie&rft.aulast=Weigel&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Weigel%2C%26%2332%3BF.&rft.date=1959&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=289%E2%80%93316&rft_id=info:doi/10.1002%2Fange.19590710902&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Pallmer-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Pallmer_147-0">↑</a> Pallmer, P. G.; Chikalla, T. D. (1971). "The crystal structure of promethium". Journal of the Less Common Metals 24 (3): 233. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-5088%2871%2990101-9">10.1016/0022-5088(71)90101-9</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+crystal+structure+of+promethium&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Less+Common+Metals&rft.aulast=Pallmer&rft.aufirst=P.+G.&rft.au=Pallmer%2C%26%2332%3BP.+G.&rft.au=Chikalla%2C%26%2332%3BT.+D.&rft.date=1971&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=233&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2F0022-5088%2871%2990101-9&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Gschneidner-148">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Gschneidner_148-0">148.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gschneidner_148-1">148.1</a> Gschneidner Jr., K.A. (2005). Lide, D. R.. ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03029283">Physical Properties of the rare earth metals, In: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics</a> (86th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03029283">https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03029283</a>. Retrieved 2012-06-20.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Properties+of+the+rare+earth+metals%2C+In%3A+%27%27CRC+Handbook+of+Chemistry+and+Physics%27%27&rft.aulast=Gschneidner+Jr.%2C+K.A.&rft.au=Gschneidner+Jr.%2C+K.A.&rft.date=2005&rft.edition=86th&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2FBF03029283&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-ANL-149"><a href="#cite_ref-ANL_149-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080307023843/http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/protactinium.pdf">"Protactinium, Human Health Fact Sheet"</a> (PDF). Argonne National Laboratory. August 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Protactinium%2C+Human+Health+Fact+Sheet&rft.pub=Argonne+National+Laboratory&rft.date=2005-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20080307023843%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ead.anl.gov%2Fpub%2Fdoc%2Fprotactinium.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Young-150">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Young_150-0">150.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young_150-1">150.1</a> David A. Young (11 September 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/07/255/7255152.pdf">Phase Diagrams of the Elements</a>. University of California, Livermore, California USA: Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. pp. 70. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/07/255/7255152.pdf">http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/07/255/7255152.pdf</a>. Retrieved 2015-08-26.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phase+Diagrams+of+the+Elements&rft.aulast=David+A.+Young&rft.au=David+A.+Young&rft.date=11+September+1975&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B70&rft.place=University+of+California%2C+Livermore%2C+California+USA&rft.pub=Lawrence+Livermore+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2Finis%2Fcollection%2FNCLCollectionStore%2F_Public%2F07%2F255%2F7255152.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Grachev-151"><a href="#cite_ref-Grachev_151-0">↑</a> A. F. Grachev; S. E. Borisovsky; A. V. Grigor’eva (October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1028334X08070131">"The first find of native rhenium in the transitional clay layer at the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary in the Gams Section (eastern Alps, Austria)"</a>. Doklady Earth Sciences 422 (1): 1065-7. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS1028334X08070131">10.1134/S1028334X08070131</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1028334X08070131">http://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1028334X08070131</a>. Retrieved 2015-11-04.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+first+find+of+native+rhenium+in+the+transitional+clay+layer+at+the+Cretaceous%2FPaleogene+boundary+in+the+Gams+Section+%28eastern+Alps%2C+Austria%29&rft.jtitle=Doklady+Earth+Sciences&rft.aulast=A.+F.+Grachev&rft.au=A.+F.+Grachev&rft.au=S.+E.+Borisovsky&rft.au=A.+V.+Grigor%E2%80%99eva&rft.date=October+2008&rft.volume=422&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1065-7&rft_id=info:doi/10.1134%2FS1028334X08070131&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1134%2FS1028334X08070131&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Hildebrand-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Hildebrand_152-0">↑</a> A. R. Hildebrand; W. V. Boynton; W. H. Zoller (June 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984BAAS...16..679H">"Rhenium Enriched Kilauea Volcano Aerosols: Evidence for a Volcanogenic Component in the K/T Boundary Clay Layer"</a>. Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 16 (06): 679. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984BAAS...16..679H">http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984BAAS...16..679H</a>. Retrieved 2014-01-10.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Rhenium+Enriched+Kilauea+Volcano+Aerosols%3A+Evidence+for+a+Volcanogenic+Component+in+the+K%2FT+Boundary+Clay+Layer&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Astronomical+Society&rft.aulast=A.+R.+Hildebrand&rft.au=A.+R.+Hildebrand&rft.au=W.+V.+Boynton&rft.au=W.+H.+Zoller&rft.date=June+1984&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=06&rft.pages=679&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F1984BAAS...16..679H&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Cramer-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Cramer_153-0">↑</a> Cramer, Stephen D.; Covino, Jr., Bernard S., eds (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QV0sWU2qF5oC&pg=PA396">ASM handbook</a>. Materials Park, OH: ASM International. pp. 393–396. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QV0sWU2qF5oC&pg=PA396">https://books.google.com/books?id=QV0sWU2qF5oC&pg=PA396</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ASM+handbook&rft.date=1990&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B393%E2%80%93396&rft.place=Materials+Park%2C+OH&rft.pub=ASM+International&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQV0sWU2qF5oC%26pg%3DPA396&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Marinov-154"><a href="#cite_ref-Marinov_154-0">↑</a> A. Marinov, A. Pape, D. Kolb, L. Halicz, I. Segal, N. Tepliakov and R. Brandt (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phys.huji.ac.il/~marinov/publications/Rg_261_arXiv_77.pdf">"Enrichment of the Superheavy Element Roentgenium (Rg) in Natural Au"</a>. 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Retrieved 2014-04-08.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Enrichment+of+the+Superheavy+Element+Roentgenium+%28Rg%29+in+Natural+Au&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Modern+Physics+E&rft.aulast=A.+Marinov%2C+A.+Pape%2C+D.+Kolb%2C+L.+Halicz%2C+I.+Segal%2C+N.+Tepliakov+and+R.+Brandt&rft.au=A.+Marinov%2C+A.+Pape%2C+D.+Kolb%2C+L.+Halicz%2C+I.+Segal%2C+N.+Tepliakov+and+R.+Brandt&rft.date=2011&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2391-2401&rft_id=info:doi/10.1142%2FS0218301311020393&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phys.huji.ac.il%2F%7Emarinov%2Fpublications%2FRg_261_arXiv_77.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">↑</a> Aksenov, Nikolay V.; Steinegger, Patrick; Abdullin, Farid Sh.; Albin, Yury V.; Bozhikov, Gospodin A.; Chepigin, Viktor I.; Eichler, Robert; Lebedev, Vyacheslav Ya. et al. 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(2016). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). CRC Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498754293" title="Special:BookSources/9781498754293">9781498754293</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">↑</a> Hartman, H. L., ed (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wm6QMRaX9C4C&pg=PA69">SME mining engineering handbook</a>. Littleton, Colo.: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. p. 69. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wm6QMRaX9C4C&pg=PA69">https://books.google.com/books?id=Wm6QMRaX9C4C&pg=PA69</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SME+mining+engineering+handbook&rft.date=1992&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B69&rft.place=Littleton%2C+Colo.&rft.pub=Society+for+Mining%2C+Metallurgy%2C+and+Exploration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWm6QMRaX9C4C%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">↑</a> Harris, Donald C.; Cabri, Louis J. (1 August 1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/canmin/article-abstract/12/2/104/10913/The-nomenclature-of-the-natural-alloys-of-osmium">"The nomenclature of the natural alloys of osmium, iridium and ruthenium based on new compositional data of alloys from world-wide occurrences"</a>. The Canadian Mineralogist 12 (2): 104–112. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/canmin/article-abstract/12/2/104/10913/The-nomenclature-of-the-natural-alloys-of-osmium">https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/canmin/article-abstract/12/2/104/10913/The-nomenclature-of-the-natural-alloys-of-osmium</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+nomenclature+of+the+natural+alloys+of+osmium%2C+iridium+and+ruthenium+based+on+new+compositional+data+of+alloys+from+world-wide+occurrences&rft.jtitle=The+Canadian+Mineralogist&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Donald+C.&rft.au=Harris%2C%26%2332%3BDonald+C.&rft.au=Cabri%2C%26%2332%3BLouis+J.&rft.date=1+August+1973&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=104%E2%80%93112&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.geoscienceworld.org%2Fcanmin%2Farticle-abstract%2F12%2F2%2F104%2F10913%2FThe-nomenclature-of-the-natural-alloys-of-osmium&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Ghiorso-159"><a href="#cite_ref-Ghiorso_159-0">↑</a> Ghiorso, A.; Nurmia, M.; Harris, J.; Eskola, K.; Eskola, P. 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Physical Review B 23 (8): 3620. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.23.3620">10.1103/PhysRevB.23.3620</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Intermediate+valence+in+alloys+of+SmSe+with+SmAs&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+B&rft.aulast=Beeken&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Beeken%2C%26%2332%3BR.&rft.au=Schweitzer%2C%26%2332%3BJ.&rft.date=1981&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=3620&rft_id=info:doi/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.23.3620&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Burrell-167"><a href="#cite_ref-Burrell_167-0">↑</a> Burrell, A. Willey Lower "Aluminum scandium alloy" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.google.com/patents?vid=3619181">U.S. Patent 3,619,181</a> issued on November 9, 1971. </li> <li id="cite_note-Zakharov-168"><a href="#cite_ref-Zakharov_168-0">↑</a> Zakharov, V. V. (2003). "Effect of Scandium on the Structure and Properties of Aluminum Alloys". Metal Science and Heat Treatment 45 (7/8): 246. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1027368032062">10.1023/A:1027368032062</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Effect+of+Scandium+on+the+Structure+and+Properties+of+Aluminum+Alloys&rft.jtitle=Metal+Science+and+Heat+Treatment&rft.aulast=Zakharov&rft.aufirst=V.+V.&rft.au=Zakharov%2C%26%2332%3BV.+V.&rft.date=2003&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=7%2F8&rft.pages=246&rft_id=info:doi/10.1023%2FA%3A1027368032062&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Youssef-169"><a href="#cite_ref-Youssef_169-0">↑</a> Youssef, Khaled M.; Zaddach, Alexander J.; Niu, Changning; Irving, Douglas L.; Koch, Carl C. (2015). "A Novel Low-Density, High-Hardness, High-entropy Alloy with Close-packed Single-phase Nanocrystalline Structures". Materials Research Letters 3 (2): 95–99. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21663831.2014.985855">10.1080/21663831.2014.985855</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+Novel+Low-Density%2C+High-Hardness%2C+High-entropy+Alloy+with+Close-packed+Single-phase+Nanocrystalline+Structures&rft.jtitle=Materials+Research+Letters&rft.aulast=Youssef&rft.aufirst=Khaled+M.&rft.au=Youssef%2C%26%2332%3BKhaled+M.&rft.au=Zaddach%2C%26%2332%3BAlexander+J.&rft.au=Niu%2C%26%2332%3BChangning&rft.au=Irving%2C%26%2332%3BDouglas+L.&rft.au=Koch%2C%26%2332%3BCarl+C.&rft.date=2015&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=95%E2%80%9399&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080%2F21663831.2014.985855&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Kline-170"><a href="#cite_ref-Kline_170-0">↑</a> J. R. Kline; J. E. Foss; S. S. Brar (March 1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/sssaj/abstracts/33/2/SS0330020287">"Lanthanum and Scandium Distribution in Three Glacial Soils of Western Wisconsin"</a>. Soil Science Society of America Journal 33 (2): 287-91. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2136%2Fsssaj1969.03615995003300020034x">10.2136/sssaj1969.03615995003300020034x</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/sssaj/abstracts/33/2/SS0330020287">https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/sssaj/abstracts/33/2/SS0330020287</a>. Retrieved 2014-10-01.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Lanthanum+and+Scandium+Distribution+in+Three+Glacial+Soils+of+Western+Wisconsin&rft.jtitle=Soil+Science+Society+of+America+Journal&rft.aulast=J.+R.+Kline&rft.au=J.+R.+Kline&rft.au=J.+E.+Foss&rft.au=S.+S.+Brar&rft.date=March+1969&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=287-91&rft_id=info:doi/10.2136%2Fsssaj1969.03615995003300020034x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.sciencesocieties.org%2Fpublications%2Fsssaj%2Fabstracts%2F33%2F2%2FSS0330020287&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-nuclidetable-171">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-nuclidetable_171-0">171.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nuclidetable_171-1">171.1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFSonzogni,_Alejandro" class="citation web cs1">Sonzogni, Alejandro. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141714/http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/reCenter.jsp?z=107&n=163">"Interactive Chart of Nuclides"</a>. National Nuclear Data Center: Brookhaven National Laboratory. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/reCenter.jsp?z=107&n=163">the original</a> on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2008-06-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interactive+Chart+of+Nuclides&rft.place=National+Nuclear+Data+Center&rft.pub=Brookhaven+National+Laboratory&rft.au=Sonzogni%2C+Alejandro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nndc.bnl.gov%2Fchart%2FreCenter.jsp%3Fz%3D107%26n%3D163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-periodictable-172">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-periodictable_172-0">172.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-periodictable_172-1">172.1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFGray,_Theodore2002–2010" class="citation web cs1">Gray, Theodore (2002–2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://periodictable.com/">"The Photographic Periodic Table of the Elements"</a>. periodictable.com. Retrieved 16 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=periodictable.com&rft.atitle=The+Photographic+Periodic+Table+of+the+Elements&rft.date=2002%2F2010&rft.au=Gray%2C+Theodore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fperiodictable.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aflowlib.org/prototype-encyclopedia/A_mP32_14_8e.html">"β –Se (Al ) Structure: A_mP32_14_8e"</a>. Encyclopedia of Crystallographic Prototypes.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Crystallographic+Prototypes&rft.atitle=%CE%B2+%E2%80%93Se+%28Al+%29+Structure%3A+A_mP32_14_8e&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faflowlib.org%2Fprototype-encyclopedia%2FA_mP32_14_8e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aflowlib.org/prototype-encyclopedia/A_mP64_14_16e.html">"β –Se (Al ) Structure: A_mP32_14_16e"</a>. Encyclopedia of Crystallographic Prototypes.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Crystallographic+Prototypes&rft.atitle=%CE%B2+%E2%80%93Se+%28Al+%29+Structure%3A+A_mP32_14_16e&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faflowlib.org%2Fprototype-encyclopedia%2FA_mP64_14_16e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foss-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Foss_175-0">↑</a> Olav Foss and Vitalijus Janickis (1980). "Crystal structure of γ-monoclinic selenium". Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions (4): 624–627. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2FDT9800000624">10.1039/DT9800000624</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Crystal+structure+of+%CE%B3-monoclinic+selenium&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Chemical+Society%2C+Dalton+Transactions&rft.aulast=Olav+Foss+and+Vitalijus+Janickis&rft.au=Olav+Foss+and+Vitalijus+Janickis&rft.date=1980&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=624%E2%80%93627&rft_id=info:doi/10.1039%2FDT9800000624&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-House-176"><a href="#cite_ref-House_176-0">↑</a> House, James E. (2008). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. p. 524. ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-356786-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-356786-4">978-0-12-356786-4</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inorganic+chemistry&rft.aulast=House&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft.au=House%2C%26%2332%3BJames+E.&rft.date=2008&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B524&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.isbn=978-0-12-356786-4&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis-177">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Davis_177-0">177.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davis_177-1">177.1</a> Davis, Joseph R. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sxkPJzmkhnUC&pg=PA91">Copper and Copper Alloys</a>. ASM Int.. p. 91. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sxkPJzmkhnUC&pg=PA91">https://books.google.com/books?id=sxkPJzmkhnUC&pg=PA91</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copper+and+Copper+Alloys&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Joseph+R.&rft.au=Davis%2C%26%2332%3BJoseph+R.&rft.date=2001&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B91&rft.pub=ASM+Int.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsxkPJzmkhnUC%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Isakov-178"><a href="#cite_ref-Isakov_178-0">↑</a> Isakov, Edmund (2008-10-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QahG1Ou1cyEC&pg=PA67">Cutting Data for Turning of Steel</a>. p. 67. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QahG1Ou1cyEC&pg=PA67">https://books.google.com/books?id=QahG1Ou1cyEC&pg=PA67</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cutting+Data+for+Turning+of+Steel&rft.aulast=Isakov&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft.au=Isakov%2C%26%2332%3BEdmund&rft.date=2008-10-31&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B67&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQahG1Ou1cyEC%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Dshtein-179"><a href="#cite_ref-Dshtein_179-0">↑</a> Gol'Dshtein, Ya. E.; Mushtakova, T. L.; Komissarova, T. A. (1979). "Effect of selenium on the structure and properties of structural steel". Metal Science and Heat Treatment 21 (10): 741–746. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00708374">10.1007/BF00708374</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Effect+of+selenium+on+the+structure+and+properties+of+structural+steel&rft.jtitle=Metal+Science+and+Heat+Treatment&rft.aulast=Gol%27Dshtein&rft.aufirst=Ya.+E.&rft.au=Gol%27Dshtein%2C%26%2332%3BYa.+E.&rft.au=Mushtakova%2C%26%2332%3BT.+L.&rft.au=Komissarova%2C%26%2332%3BT.+A.&rft.date=1979&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=741%E2%80%93746&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007%2FBF00708374&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Warr-180">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Warr_180-0">180.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warr_180-1">180.1</a> Warr, L.N. (2021). IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols. Mineralogical Magazine, 85(3), 291-320. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43 </li> <li id="cite_note-MindatAchavalite-181"><a href="#cite_ref-MindatAchavalite_181-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/min-14.html">Mindat Profile</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-WebminAchavalite-182"><a href="#cite_ref-WebminAchavalite_182-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webmineral.com/data/Achavalite.shtml">Achavalite data on WebMineral</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hålenius-183"><a href="#cite_ref-Hålenius_183-0">↑</a> Hålenius, U., Hatert, F., Pasero, M., and Mills, S.J., IMA Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC) Newsletter 28. Mineralogical Magazine 79(7), 1859–1864 </li> <li id="cite_note-SiderophileWikt-184"><a href="#cite_ref-SiderophileWikt_184-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/siderophile">"siderophile"</a>. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 19 June 2013. Retrieved 2015-02-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=siderophile&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+California&rft.pub=Wikimedia+Foundation%2C+Inc&rft.date=2013-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fsiderophile&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newsom-185"><a href="#cite_ref-Newsom_185-0">↑</a> Horton E. Newsom (13 October 1986). W. K. Hartmann. ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1986ormo.conf..203N&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high=">Constraints on the origin of the Moon from the abundance of molybdenum and other siderophile elements, In: Origin of the moon</a>. Kona, HI USA: Lunar and Planetary Institute. pp. 203-29. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1986ormo.conf..203N&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high=">http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1986ormo.conf..203N&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high=</a>. Retrieved 2016-10-31.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constraints+on+the+origin+of+the+Moon+from+the+abundance+of+molybdenum+and+other+siderophile+elements%2C+In%3A+%27%27Origin+of+the+moon%27%27&rft.aulast=Horton+E.+Newsom&rft.au=Horton+E.+Newsom&rft.date=13+October+1986&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B203-29&rft.place=Kona%2C+HI+USA&rft.pub=Lunar+and+Planetary+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fnph-data_query%3Fbibcode%3D1986ormo.conf..203N%26link_type%3DARTICLE%26db_key%3DAST%26high%3D&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Dale-186"><a href="#cite_ref-Dale_186-0">↑</a> C.W. Dale, K.W. Burton, D.G. Pearson, A. Gannoun, O. Alard, T.W. Arglesb, and I.J. Parkinson (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dro.dur.ac.uk/10680/1/10680.pdf">"The behaviour of highly siderophile elements in oceanic crust during subduction: whole-rock and mineral-scale insights from a high-pressure terrain"</a>. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (5): 1394-416. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gca.2008.11.036">10.1016/j.gca.2008.11.036</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://dro.dur.ac.uk/10680/1/10680.pdf">http://dro.dur.ac.uk/10680/1/10680.pdf</a>. Retrieved 2016-10-31.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+behaviour+of+highly+siderophile+elements+in+oceanic+crust+during+subduction%3A+whole-rock+and+mineral-scale+insights+from+a+high-pressure+terrain&rft.jtitle=Geochimica+et+Cosmochimica+Acta&rft.aulast=C.W.+Dale%2C+K.W.+Burton%2C+D.G.+Pearson%2C+A.+Gannoun%2C+O.+Alard%2C+T.W.+Arglesb%2C+and+I.J.+Parkinson&rft.au=C.W.+Dale%2C+K.W.+Burton%2C+D.G.+Pearson%2C+A.+Gannoun%2C+O.+Alard%2C+T.W.+Arglesb%2C+and+I.J.+Parkinson&rft.date=2009&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1394-416&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2Fj.gca.2008.11.036&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdro.dur.ac.uk%2F10680%2F1%2F10680.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Ohtani-187"><a href="#cite_ref-Ohtani_187-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFEiji_Ohtani2017" class="citation web cs1">Eiji Ohtani (10 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-38561076">"New candidate for 'missing element' in Earth's core"</a>. London, England: BBC. Retrieved 2017-01-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+candidate+for+%27missing+element%27+in+Earth%27s+core&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2017-01-10&rft.au=Eiji+Ohtani&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-38561076&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morelle-188">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Morelle_188-0">188.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morelle_188-1">188.1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFRebecca_Morelle2017" class="citation web cs1">Rebecca Morelle (10 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-38561076">"New candidate for 'missing element' in Earth's core"</a>. London, England: BBC. Retrieved 2017-01-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+candidate+for+%27missing+element%27+in+Earth%27s+core&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2017-01-10&rft.au=Rebecca+Morelle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-38561076&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Redfern-189">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Redfern_189-0">189.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redfern_189-1">189.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redfern_189-2">189.2</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFSimon_Redfern2017" class="citation web cs1">Simon Redfern (10 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-38561076">"New candidate for 'missing element' in Earth's core"</a>. London, England: BBC. Retrieved 2017-01-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+candidate+for+%27missing+element%27+in+Earth%27s+core&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2017-01-10&rft.au=Simon+Redfern&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-38561076&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conti-190"><a href="#cite_ref-Conti_190-0">↑</a> Peter S. Conti; Eva M. Leep (October 1974). "Spectroscopic observations of O-type stars. V. The hydrogen lines and lambda 4686 He II". The Astrophysical Journal 193 (10): 113-24. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F153135">10.1086/153135</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Spectroscopic+observations+of+O-type+stars.+V.+The+hydrogen+lines+and+lambda+4686+He+II&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.aulast=Peter+S.+Conti&rft.au=Peter+S.+Conti&rft.au=Eva+M.+Leep&rft.date=October+1974&rft.volume=193&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=113-24&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086%2F153135&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Apelian-191"><a href="#cite_ref-Apelian_191-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFApelian2009" class="citation web cs1">Apelian, D. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120106013105/http://www.diecasting.org/research/wwr/WWR_AluminumCastAlloys.pdf">"Aluminum Cast Alloys: Enabling Tools for Improved Performance"</a> (PDF). 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USGS </li> <li id="cite_note-Lal-193"><a href="#cite_ref-Lal_193-0">↑</a> D. Lal; B.L.K. Somayajulu (June 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0040195184902154">"Some aspects of the geochemistry of silicon isotopes"</a>. Tectonophysics 105 (1-4): 383-97. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0040-1951%2884%2990215-4">10.1016/0040-1951(84)90215-4</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0040195184902154">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0040195184902154</a>. Retrieved 2014-09-30.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Some+aspects+of+the+geochemistry+of+silicon+isotopes&rft.jtitle=Tectonophysics&rft.aulast=D.+Lal&rft.au=D.+Lal&rft.au=B.L.K.+Somayajulu&rft.date=June+1984&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=1-4&rft.pages=383-97&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2F0040-1951%2884%2990215-4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2F0040195184902154&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith99-194">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith99_194-0">194.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith99_194-1">194.1</a> T. L. Smith; A. N. Witt (December 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AAS...195.7406S">"The Photoluminescence Efficiency of Extended Red Emission as a Constraint for Interstellar Dust"</a>. Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 31: 1479. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AAS...195.7406S">http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AAS...195.7406S</a>. Retrieved 2013-08-02.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Photoluminescence+Efficiency+of+Extended+Red+Emission+as+a+Constraint+for+Interstellar+Dust&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Astronomical+Society&rft.aulast=T.+L.+Smith&rft.au=T.+L.+Smith&rft.au=A.+N.+Witt&rft.date=December+1999&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=1479&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F1999AAS...195.7406S&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Wake-195"><a href="#cite_ref-Wake_195-0">↑</a> Cameron P. Wake; Paul Andrew Mayewski; Xie Zichu; Wang Ping; Li Zhongquin (July 23 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1190&context=ers_facpub&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar%3Fq%3Dsodium%2Bglaciers%2B-acetic%2B-apples%26btnG%3D%26hl%3Den%26as_sdt%3D0%252C3#search=%22sodium%20glaciers%20-acetic%20-apples%22">"Regional Distribution of Monsoon and Desert Dust Signals Recorded in Asian Glaciers"</a>. Geophysical Research Letters 20 (14): 1411-4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1190&context=ers_facpub&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar%3Fq%3Dsodium%2Bglaciers%2B-acetic%2B-apples%26btnG%3D%26hl%3Den%26as_sdt%3D0%252C3#search=%22sodium%20glaciers%20-acetic%20-apples%22">http://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1190&context=ers_facpub&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar%3Fq%3Dsodium%2Bglaciers%2B-acetic%2B-apples%26btnG%3D%26hl%3Den%26as_sdt%3D0%252C3#search=%22sodium%20glaciers%20-acetic%20-apples%22</a>. Retrieved 2014-09-29.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Regional+Distribution+of+Monsoon+and+Desert+Dust+Signals+Recorded+in+Asian+Glaciers&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.aulast=Cameron+P.+Wake&rft.au=Cameron+P.+Wake&rft.au=Paul+Andrew+Mayewski&rft.au=Xie+Zichu&rft.au=Wang+Ping&rft.au=Li+Zhongquin&rft.date=July+23+1993&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=1411-4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.library.umaine.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1190%26context%3Ders_facpub%26sei-redir%3D1%26referer%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fscholar.google.com%252Fscholar%253Fq%253Dsodium%252Bglaciers%252B-acetic%252B-apples%2526btnG%253D%2526hl%253Den%2526as_sdt%253D0%25252C3%23search%3D%2522sodium%2520glaciers%2520-acetic%2520-apples%2522&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Ropp-196"><a href="#cite_ref-Ropp_196-0">↑</a> Ropp, Richard C. 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ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-59553-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-59553-9">978-0-444-59553-9</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yZ786vEild0C&pg=PA16">https://books.google.com/books?id=yZ786vEild0C&pg=PA16</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Alkaline+Earth+Compounds&rft.aulast=Ropp&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft.au=Ropp%2C%26%2332%3BRichard+C.&rft.date=31+December+2012&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B16&rft.isbn=978-0-444-59553-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyZ786vEild0C%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Holleman2007-197"><a href="#cite_ref-Holleman2007_197-0">↑</a> Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E.; Wiberg, N. (2007). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (in de) (102nd ed.). de Gruyter.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lehrbuch+der+Anorganischen+Chemie&rft.aulast=Holleman%2C+A.+F.&rft.au=Holleman%2C+A.+F.&rft.au=Wiberg%2C+E.&rft.au=Wiberg%2C+N.&rft.date=2007&rft.edition=102nd&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Cowan-198"><a href="#cite_ref-Cowan_198-0">↑</a> Cowan, Clyde L., Jr.; Reines, Frederick; Harrison, Francis B. "Kiko"; Kruse, Herald W.; McGuire, Austin D. (1956). "Detection of the free neutrino: A confirmation". Science 124 (3212): 103–104. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.124.3212.103">10.1126/science.124.3212.103</a>. PMID <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17796274">17796274</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Detection+of+the+free+neutrino%3A+A+confirmation&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.aulast=Cowan&rft.aufirst=Clyde+L.%2C+Jr.&rft.au=Cowan%2C%26%2332%3BClyde+L.%2C+Jr.&rft.au=Reines%2C%26%2332%3BFrederick&rft.au=Harrison%2C%26%2332%3BFrancis+B.+%22Kiko%22&rft.au=Kruse%2C%26%2332%3BHerald+W.&rft.au=McGuire%2C%26%2332%3BAustin+D.&rft.date=1956&rft.volume=124&rft.issue=3212&rft.pages=103%E2%80%93104&rft_id=info:doi/10.1126%2Fscience.124.3212.103&rft_id=info:pmid/17796274&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Nozariasbmar-199"><a href="#cite_ref-Nozariasbmar_199-0">↑</a> Nozariasbmarz, Amin; Poudel, Bed; Li, Wenjie; Kang, Han Byul; Zhu, Hangtian; Priya, Shashank (2020-07-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004220305277">"Bismuth Telluride Thermoelectrics with 8% Module Efficiency for Waste Heat Recovery Application"</a>. iScience 23 (7): 101340. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.isci.2020.101340">10.1016/j.isci.2020.101340</a>. ISSN <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/issn/2589-0042">2589-0042</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004220305277">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004220305277</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bismuth+Telluride+Thermoelectrics+with+8%25+Module+Efficiency+for+Waste+Heat+Recovery+Application&rft.jtitle=iScience&rft.aulast=Nozariasbmarz&rft.aufirst=Amin&rft.au=Nozariasbmarz%2C%26%2332%3BAmin&rft.au=Poudel%2C%26%2332%3BBed&rft.au=Li%2C%26%2332%3BWenjie&rft.au=Kang%2C%26%2332%3BHan+Byul&rft.au=Zhu%2C%26%2332%3BHangtian&rft.au=Priya%2C%26%2332%3BShashank&rft.date=2020-07-24&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=101340&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2Fj.isci.2020.101340&rft.issn=2589-0042&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS2589004220305277&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Leddicotte-200"><a href="#cite_ref-Leddicotte_200-0">↑</a> Leddicotte, G. W. (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?rc000049.pdf">The radiochemistry of tellurium</a>. Nuclear science series. Subcommittee on Radiochemistry, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council. p. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?rc000049.pdf">http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?rc000049.pdf</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+radiochemistry+of+tellurium&rft.aulast=Leddicotte&rft.aufirst=G.+W.&rft.au=Leddicotte%2C%26%2332%3BG.+W.&rft.date=1961&rft.series=Nuclear+science+series&rft.issue=3038&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B5&rft.pub=Subcommittee+on+Radiochemistry%2C+National+Academy+of+Sciences-National+Research+Council&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.lanl.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fgetfile%3Frc000049.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Oganessian-201"><a href="#cite_ref-Oganessian_201-0">↑</a> Oganessian, Yu.Ts.; Abdullin, F.Sh.; Bailey, P.D.; Benker, D.E.; Bennett, M.E.; Dmitriev, S.N.; Ezold, J.G.; Hamilton, J.H. et al. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/ec9412add23e66f34b6bf51ebd7332278af413fc">"Synthesis of a new element with atomic number Z = 117"</a>. Physical Review Letters 104 (14): 142502. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.104.142502">10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.142502</a>. PMID <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20481935">20481935</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/ec9412add23e66f34b6bf51ebd7332278af413fc">https://semanticscholar.org/paper/ec9412add23e66f34b6bf51ebd7332278af413fc</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Synthesis+of+a+new+element+with+atomic+number+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22texhtml+mvar%22+style%3D%22font-style%3Aitalic%3B%22%3EZ%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3D+117%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.aulast=Oganessian&rft.aufirst=Yu.Ts.&rft.au=Oganessian%2C%26%2332%3BYu.Ts.&rft.au=Abdullin%2C%26%2332%3BF.Sh.&rft.au=Bailey%2C%26%2332%3BP.D.&rft.au=Benker%2C%26%2332%3BD.E.&rft.au=Bennett%2C%26%2332%3BM.E.&rft.au=Dmitriev%2C%26%2332%3BS.N.&rft.au=Ezold%2C%26%2332%3BJ.G.&rft.au=Hamilton%2C%26%2332%3BJ.H.&rft.au=Henderson%2C%26%2332%3BR.A.&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=142502&rft_id=info:doi/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.104.142502&rft_id=info:pmid/20481935&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsemanticscholar.org%2Fpaper%2Fec9412add23e66f34b6bf51ebd7332278af413fc&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Patnaik-202"><a href="#cite_ref-Patnaik_202-0">↑</a> Patnaik, Pradyot (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC&pg=PA243">Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds</a>. McGraw-Hill. pp. 920–921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC&pg=PA243">https://books.google.com/books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC&pg=PA243</a>. Retrieved 2009-06-06.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Inorganic+Chemical+Compounds&rft.aulast=Patnaik&rft.aufirst=Pradyot&rft.au=Patnaik%2C%26%2332%3BPradyot&rft.date=2003&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B920%E2%80%93921&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXqj-TTzkvTEC%26pg%3DPA243&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFHudson_Institute_of_Mineralogy1993–2018" class="citation web cs1">Hudson Institute of Mineralogy (1993–2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mindat.org/">"Mindat.org"</a>. www.mindat.org. Retrieved 14 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mindat.org&rft.atitle=Mindat.org&rft.date=1993%2F2018&rft.au=Hudson+Institute+of+Mineralogy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mindat.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wickleder-204"><a href="#cite_ref-Wickleder_204-0">↑</a> Wickleder, Mathias S.; Fourest, Blandine; Dorhout, Peter K. (2006). "Thorium". The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements. pp. 52–160. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-3598-5_3">10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_3</a>. ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3555-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3555-5">978-1-4020-3555-5</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Thorium&rft.atitle=The+Chemistry+of+the+Actinide+and+Transactinide+Elements&rft.aulast=Wickleder&rft.aufirst=Mathias+S.&rft.au=Wickleder%2C%26%2332%3BMathias+S.&rft.au=Fourest%2C%26%2332%3BBlandine&rft.au=Dorhout%2C%26%2332%3BPeter+K.&rft.date=2006&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B52%E2%80%93160&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007%2F1-4020-3598-5_3&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3555-5&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Tretyakov-205"><a href="#cite_ref-Tretyakov_205-0">↑</a> Tretyakov, Yu. D., ed (2007). Non-organic chemistry in three volumes. Chemistry of transition elements. 3. Academy.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Non-organic+chemistry+in+three+volumes&rft.date=2007&rft.series=Chemistry+of+transition+elements&rft.volume=3&rft.pub=Academy&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-MindatMonazite-206"><a href="#cite_ref-MindatMonazite_206-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/min-2750.html">Monazite group on Mindat.org</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Helium-207"><a href="#cite_ref-Helium_207-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S-QDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA460#v=onepage&f=true">"Helium From Sand"</a>, March 1931, Popular Mechanics p. 460. </li> <li id="cite_note-MindatUmbozerite-208"><a href="#cite_ref-MindatUmbozerite_208-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mindat.org/min-4092.html">"Umbozerite"</a>. Retrieved 19 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Umbozerite&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mindat.org%2Fmin-4092.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WebmineralUmbozerite-209"><a href="#cite_ref-WebmineralUmbozerite_209-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webmineral.com/data/Umbozerite.shtml#.YZf8BS1h0RY">"Umbozerite Mineral Data"</a>. Retrieved 19 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Umbozerite+Mineral+Data&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.webmineral.com%2Fdata%2FUmbozerite.shtml%23.YZf8BS1h0RY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HandbookUmbozerite-210">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-HandbookUmbozerite_210-0">210.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HandbookUmbozerite_210-1">210.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HandbookUmbozerite_210-2">210.2</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.handbookofmineralogy.com/pdfs/umbozerite.pdf">"Umbozerite"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 19 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Umbozerite&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.handbookofmineralogy.com%2Fpdfs%2Fumbozerite.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webelements.com/thulium/chemistry.html">"Chemical reactions of Thulium"</a>. Webelements. Retrieved 2009-06-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chemical+reactions+of+Thulium&rft.pub=Webelements&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webelements.com%2Fthulium%2Fchemistry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holleman1985-212"><a href="#cite_ref-Holleman1985_212-0">↑</a> Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (1985). "Tin". Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (in de) (91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 793–800.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Tin&rft.atitle=Lehrbuch+der+Anorganischen+Chemie&rft.aulast=Holleman&rft.aufirst=Arnold+F.&rft.au=Holleman%2C%26%2332%3BArnold+F.&rft.au=Wiberg%2C%26%2332%3BEgon&rft.au=Wiberg%2C%26%2332%3BNils&rft.date=1985&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B793%E2%80%93800&rft.edition=91%E2%80%93100&rft.pub=Walter+de%26nbsp%3BGruyter&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Schwartz-213"><a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_213-0">↑</a> Schwartz, Mel (2002). "Tin and alloys, properties". Encyclopedia of Materials, Parts and Finishes (2nd ed.). CRC Press.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Tin+and+alloys%2C+properties&rft.atitle=Encyclopedia+of+Materials%2C+Parts+and+Finishes&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Mel&rft.au=Schwartz%2C%26%2332%3BMel&rft.date=2002&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Molodets-214"><a href="#cite_ref-Molodets_214-0">↑</a> Molodets, A.M.; Nabatov, S.S. (2000). "Thermodynamic potentials, diagram of state, and phase transitions of tin on shock compression". High Temperature 38 (5): 715–721. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02755923">10.1007/BF02755923</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Thermodynamic+potentials%2C+diagram+of+state%2C+and+phase+transitions+of+tin+on+shock+compression&rft.jtitle=High+Temperature&rft.aulast=Molodets&rft.aufirst=A.M.&rft.au=Molodets%2C%26%2332%3BA.M.&rft.au=Nabatov%2C%26%2332%3BS.S.&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=715%E2%80%93721&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007%2FBF02755923&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen-215"><a href="#cite_ref-Chen_215-0">↑</a> Jing Chen, Jiliang Li, and Jun Wu (30 April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X00000571">"Native titanium inclusions in the coesite eclogites from Dabieshan, China"</a>. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 177 (3-4): 237-40. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0012-821X%2800%2900057-1">10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00057-1</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X00000571">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X00000571</a>. Retrieved 2015-08-19.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Native+titanium+inclusions+in+the+coesite+eclogites+from+Dabieshan%2C+China&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.aulast=Jing+Chen%2C+Jiliang+Li%2C+and+Jun+Wu&rft.au=Jing+Chen%2C+Jiliang+Li%2C+and+Jun+Wu&rft.date=30+April+2000&rft.volume=177&rft.issue=3-4&rft.pages=237-40&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2FS0012-821X%2800%2900057-1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0012821X00000571&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Panigrahi-216"><a href="#cite_ref-Panigrahi_216-0">↑</a> B.B. Panigrahi, M.M. Godkhindi , K. Das, P.G. Mukunda, and P. Ramakrishnan (15 April 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921509305000778">"Sintering kinetics of micrometric titanium powder"</a>. Materials Science and Engineering: A 396 (1-2): 255-62. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.msea.2005.01.016">10.1016/j.msea.2005.01.016</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921509305000778">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921509305000778</a>. Retrieved 2015-08-19.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Sintering+kinetics+of+micrometric+titanium+powder&rft.jtitle=Materials+Science+and+Engineering%3A+A&rft.aulast=B.B.+Panigrahi%2C+M.M.+Godkhindi+%2C+K.+Das%2C+P.G.+Mukunda%2C+and+P.+Ramakrishnan&rft.au=B.B.+Panigrahi%2C+M.M.+Godkhindi+%2C+K.+Das%2C+P.G.+Mukunda%2C+and+P.+Ramakrishnan&rft.date=15+April+2005&rft.volume=396&rft.issue=1-2&rft.pages=255-62&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2Fj.msea.2005.01.016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0921509305000778&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Stellmacher-217"><a href="#cite_ref-Stellmacher_217-0">↑</a> G. Stellmacher; E. Wiehr (August 1991). "Geometric line elevation in solar limb faculae". Astronomy and Astrophysics 248 (1): 227-31.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Geometric+line+elevation+in+solar+limb+faculae&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.aulast=G.+Stellmacher&rft.au=G.+Stellmacher&rft.au=E.+Wiehr&rft.date=August+1991&rft.volume=248&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=227-31&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Catanzaro-218"><a href="#cite_ref-Catanzaro_218-0">↑</a> G. Catanzaro (January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2010/01/aa13332-09.pdf">"First spectroscopic analysis of β Scorpii C and β Scorpii E Discovery of a new HgMn star in the multiple system β Scorpii"</a>. Astronomy & Astrophysics 509: 7. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F200913332">10.1051/0004-6361/200913332</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2010/01/aa13332-09.pdf">http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2010/01/aa13332-09.pdf</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-18.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=First+spectroscopic+analysis+of+%CE%B2+Scorpii+C+and+%CE%B2+Scorpii+E+Discovery+of+a+new+HgMn+star+in+the+multiple+system+%CE%B2+Scorpii&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+%26+Astrophysics&rft.aulast=G.+Catanzaro&rft.au=G.+Catanzaro&rft.date=January+2010&rft.volume=509&rft.pages=7&rft_id=info:doi/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F200913332&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aanda.org%2Farticles%2Faa%2Fpdf%2F2010%2F01%2Faa13332-09.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/min-3035.html">"Osbornite"</a>. Mindat.org. Hudson Institute of Mineralogy. Retrieved February 29, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mindat.org&rft.atitle=Osbornite&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mindat.org%2Fmin-3035.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WebmineralOsbornites-220"><a href="#cite_ref-WebmineralOsbornites_220-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webmineral.com/data/Osbornite.shtml#.V_cFauArJaQ">"Osbornite Mineral Data"</a>. Mineralogy Database. David Barthelmy. September 5, 2012. Retrieved October 6, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mineralogy+Database&rft.atitle=Osbornite+Mineral+Data&rft.date=2012-09-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebmineral.com%2Fdata%2FOsbornite.shtml%23.V_cFauArJaQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ziying-221"><a href="#cite_ref-Ziying_221-0">↑</a> Li Ziying, Huang Zhizhang, Li Xiuzhen, Guo Jian, Fan Chou (24 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1755-6724.12564">"The Discovery of Natural Native Uranium and Its Significance"</a>. Acta Geologica Sinica 89 (5): 1561-1567. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1755-6724.12564">10.1111/1755-6724.12564</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1755-6724.12564">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1755-6724.12564</a>. Retrieved 29 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Discovery+of+Natural+Native+Uranium+and+Its+Significance&rft.jtitle=Acta+Geologica+Sinica&rft.aulast=Li+Ziying%2C+Huang+Zhizhang%2C+Li+Xiuzhen%2C+Guo+Jian%2C+Fan+Chou&rft.au=Li+Ziying%2C+Huang+Zhizhang%2C+Li+Xiuzhen%2C+Guo+Jian%2C+Fan+Chou&rft.date=24+October+2015&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1561-1567&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111%2F1755-6724.12564&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2F1755-6724.12564&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/du_ii/du_ii_tabe.htm#TAB_E_Development_of_DU_Munitions">"Development of DU Munitions"</a>. Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II). Gulflink, official website of Force Health Protection & Readiness. 2000.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Depleted+Uranium+in+the+Gulf+%28II%29&rft.atitle=Development+of+DU+Munitions&rft.date=2000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gulflink.osd.mil%2Fdu_ii%2Fdu_ii_tabe.htm%23TAB_E_Development_of_DU_Munitions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chandrasekhar-223"><a href="#cite_ref-Chandrasekhar_223-0">↑</a> B. S. Chandrasekhar and J. K. Hulm (November 1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0022369758902713">"The electrical resistivity and super-conductivity of some uranium alloys and compounds"</a>. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 7 (2-3): 259-267. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-3697%2858%2990271-3">10.1016/0022-3697(58)90271-3</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0022369758902713">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0022369758902713</a>. Retrieved 29 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+electrical+resistivity+and+super-conductivity+of+some+uranium+alloys+and+compounds&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physics+and+Chemistry+of+Solids&rft.aulast=B.+S.+Chandrasekhar+and+J.+K.+Hulm&rft.au=B.+S.+Chandrasekhar+and+J.+K.+Hulm&rft.date=November+1958&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2-3&rft.pages=259-267&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2F0022-3697%2858%2990271-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2F0022369758902713&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoffmann-224"><a href="#cite_ref-Hoffmann_224-0">↑</a> Rolf-Dieter Hoffmann, Rainer Pöttgen, Bernard Chevalier, Etienne Gaudin, and Samir F. Matar (July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1293255813001301">"The ternary germanides UMnGe and U 2Mn 3Ge"</a>. Solid State Sciences 21: 73-80. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.solidstatesciences.2013.04.006">10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2013.04.006</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1293255813001301">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1293255813001301</a>. Retrieved 29 June 2022.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+ternary+germanides+UMnGe+and+%3Cspan+class%3D%22chemf+nowrap%22%3EU%3Cspan+style%3D%22display%3Ainline-block%3Bmargin-bottom%3A-0.3em%3Bvertical-align%3A-0.4em%3Bline-height%3A1em%3Bfont-size%3A80%25%3Btext-align%3Aleft%22%3E%3Csup+style%3D%22font-size%3Ainherit%3Bline-height%3Ainherit%3Bvertical-align%3Abaseline%22%3E%3C%2Fsup%3E%3Cbr+%2F%3E%3Csub+style%3D%22font-size%3Ainherit%3Bline-height%3Ainherit%3Bvertical-align%3Abaseline%22%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E%3C%2Fspan%3EMn%3Cspan+style%3D%22display%3Ainline-block%3Bmargin-bottom%3A-0.3em%3Bvertical-align%3A-0.4em%3Bline-height%3A1em%3Bfont-size%3A80%25%3Btext-align%3Aleft%22%3E%3Csup+style%3D%22font-size%3Ainherit%3Bline-height%3Ainherit%3Bvertical-align%3Abaseline%22%3E%3C%2Fsup%3E%3Cbr+%2F%3E%3Csub+style%3D%22font-size%3Ainherit%3Bline-height%3Ainherit%3Bvertical-align%3Abaseline%22%3E3%3C%2Fsub%3E%3C%2Fspan%3EGe%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.jtitle=Solid+State+Sciences&rft.aulast=Rolf-Dieter+Hoffmann%2C+Rainer+P%C3%B6ttgen%2C+Bernard+Chevalier%2C+Etienne+Gaudin%2C+and+Samir+F.+Matar&rft.au=Rolf-Dieter+Hoffmann%2C+Rainer+P%C3%B6ttgen%2C+Bernard+Chevalier%2C+Etienne+Gaudin%2C+and+Samir+F.+Matar&rft.date=July+2013&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=73-80&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2Fj.solidstatesciences.2013.04.006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS1293255813001301&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostrooumov-225">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Ostrooumov_225-0">225.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ostrooumov_225-1">225.1</a> MikhailI Ostrooumov and Yuri Taran (20 May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uhu.es/fexp/sem2015/arc/macla/macla_20_109-110.pdf">"Discovery of Native Vanadium, a New Mineral from the Colima Volcano, State of Colima (Mexico)"</a>. Revista de la Sociedad Española de Mineralogía: 109-10. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.uhu.es/fexp/sem2015/arc/macla/macla_20_109-110.pdf">http://www.uhu.es/fexp/sem2015/arc/macla/macla_20_109-110.pdf</a>. Retrieved 2015-08-19.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Discovery+of+Native+Vanadium%2C+a+New+Mineral+from+the+Colima+Volcano%2C+State+of+Colima+%28Mexico%29&rft.jtitle=Revista+de+la+Sociedad+Espa%C3%B1ola+de+Mineralog%C3%ADa&rft.aulast=MikhailI+Ostrooumov+and+Yuri+Taran&rft.au=MikhailI+Ostrooumov+and+Yuri+Taran&rft.date=20+May+2015&rft.pages=109-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uhu.es%2Ffexp%2Fsem2015%2Farc%2Fmacla%2Fmacla_20_109-110.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Bucher-226">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Bucher_226-0">226.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bucher_226-1">226.1</a> Bucher, E.; Schmidt, P.; Jayaraman, A.; Andres, K.; Maita, J.; Nassau, K.; Dernier, P. (1970). "New First-Order Phase Transition in High-Purity Ytterbium Metal". Physical Review B 2 (10): 3911. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.2.3911">10.1103/PhysRevB.2.3911</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=New+First-Order+Phase+Transition+in+High-Purity+Ytterbium+Metal&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+B&rft.aulast=Bucher&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Bucher%2C%26%2332%3BE.&rft.au=Schmidt%2C%26%2332%3BP.&rft.au=Jayaraman%2C%26%2332%3BA.&rft.au=Andres%2C%26%2332%3BK.&rft.au=Maita%2C%26%2332%3BJ.&rft.au=Nassau%2C%26%2332%3BK.&rft.au=Dernier%2C%26%2332%3BP.&rft.date=1970&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=3911&rft_id=info:doi/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.2.3911&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson-227"><a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_227-0">↑</a> Jackson, M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irm.umn.edu/quarterly/irmq10-3.pdf">"Magnetism of Rare Earth"</a>. The IRM quarterly 10(3): 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-nucleonica-228">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-nucleonica_228-0">228.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nucleonica_228-1">228.1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nucleonica.net/unc.aspx">"Nucleonica: Universal Nuclide Chart"</a>. Nucleonica. 2007–2011. Retrieved July 22, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nucleonica%3A+Universal+Nuclide+Chart&rft.pub=Nucleonica&rft.date=2007%2F2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nucleonica.net%2Func.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herbig-229"><a href="#cite_ref-Herbig_229-0">↑</a> G. H. Herbig (March 1974). "VY Canis Majoris. IV. The emission bands of ScO". The Astrophysical Journal 188 (3): 533-8. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F152744">10.1086/152744</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=VY+Canis+Majoris.+IV.+The+emission+bands+of+ScO&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.aulast=G.+H.+Herbig&rft.au=G.+H.+Herbig&rft.date=March+1974&rft.volume=188&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=533-8&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086%2F152744&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://periodic.lanl.gov/39.shtml">"Yttrium"</a>. Periodic Table of Elements: LANL. Los Alamos National Security. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://periodic.lanl.gov/39.shtml">http://periodic.lanl.gov/39.shtml</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Yttrium&rft.atitle=Periodic+Table+of+Elements%3A+LANL&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+National+Security&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fperiodic.lanl.gov%2F39.shtml&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Lide2008-231">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Lide2008_231-0">231.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lide2008_231-1">231.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lide2008_231-2">231.2</a> Lide, David R., ed (2007–2008). "Yttrium". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 4. New York: CRC Press. p. 41.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Yttrium&rft.atitle=CRC+Handbook+of+Chemistry+and+Physics&rft.date=2007%E2%80%932008&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B41&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Daane-232">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Daane_232-0">232.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daane_232-1">232.1</a> Daane, A. H. (1968). "Yttrium". In Hampel, Clifford A. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 810–821. LCCN 68029938. OCLC 449569. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ingalls-233"><a href="#cite_ref-Ingalls_233-0">↑</a> Ingalls, Walter Renton (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RhNDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA133">Production and Properties of Zinc: A Treatise on the Occurrence and Distribution of Zinc Ore, the Commercial and Technical Conditions Affecting the Production of the Spelter, Its Chemical and Physical Properties and Uses in the Arts, Together with a Historical and Statistical Review of the Industry</a>. The Engineering and Mining Journal. pp. 142–6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RhNDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA133">https://books.google.com/books?id=RhNDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA133</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Production+and+Properties+of+Zinc%3A+A+Treatise+on+the+Occurrence+and+Distribution+of+Zinc+Ore%2C+the+Commercial+and+Technical+Conditions+Affecting+the+Production+of+the+Spelter%2C+Its+Chemical+and+Physical+Properties+and+Uses+in+the+Arts%2C+Together+with+a+Historical+and+Statistical+Review+of+the+Industry&rft.aulast=Ingalls&rft.aufirst=Walter+Renton&rft.au=Ingalls%2C%26%2332%3BWalter+Renton&rft.date=1902&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B142%E2%80%936&rft.pub=The+Engineering+and+Mining+Journal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRhNDAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Lide2006-234"><a href="#cite_ref-Lide2006_234-0">↑</a> David R. Lide, ed. (2006). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-0487-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-0487-3">978-0-8493-0487-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Craddock-235">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Craddock_235-0">235.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Craddock_235-1">235.1</a> Craddock, P.T. and Eckstein, K (2003) "Production of Brass in Antiquity by Direct Reduction" in Craddock, P.T. and Lang, J. (eds) Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages London: British Museum pp. 226–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-MindatBrasses-236"><a href="#cite_ref-MindatBrasses_236-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.mindat.org/min-6830.html">https://www.mindat.org/min-6830.html</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-MindatZincites-237">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-MindatZincites_237-0">237.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MindatZincites_237-1">237.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MindatZincites_237-2">237.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MindatZincites_237-3">237.3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.mindat.org/min-4410.html">http://www.mindat.org/min-4410.html</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vigue-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Vigue_238-0">↑</a> F. Vigué; E. Tournié; J.-P. Faurie (January 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=4915124">"Zn(Mg)BeSe-based p-i-n photodiodes operating in the blue-violet and near-ultraviolet spectral range"</a>. Applied Physics Letters 76 (2): 242-4. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.125715">10.1063/1.125715</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=4915124">http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=4915124</a>. Retrieved 2013-06-01.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Zn%28Mg%29BeSe-based+p-i-n+photodiodes+operating+in+the+blue-violet+and+near-ultraviolet+spectral+range&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.aulast=F.+Vigu%C3%A9&rft.au=F.+Vigu%C3%A9&rft.au=E.+Tourni%C3%A9&rft.au=J.-P.+Faurie&rft.date=January+2000&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=242-4&rft_id=info:doi/10.1063%2F1.125715&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D4915124&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-madehow-239"><a href="#cite_ref-madehow_239-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Zirconium.html">"Zirconium, In: How Products Are Made"</a>. Advameg Inc. 2007. Retrieved 2008-03-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Zirconium%2C+In%3A+How+Products+Are+Made&rft.pub=Advameg+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.madehow.com%2FVolume-1%2FZirconium.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nostrand-240"><a href="#cite_ref-Nostrand_240-0">↑</a> Glenn D. Considine, ed (2005). Zirconium, In: Van Nostrand's Encyclopedia of Chemistry. New York: Wylie-Interscience. pp. 1778–1779. ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-61525-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-61525-5">978-0-471-61525-5</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zirconium%2C+In%3A+%27%27Van+Nostrand%27s+Encyclopedia+of+Chemistry%27%27&rft.date=2005&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1778%E2%80%931779&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wylie-Interscience&rft.isbn=978-0-471-61525-5&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Lide2007-241"><a href="#cite_ref-Lide2007_241-0">↑</a> David R. Lide, ed (2007). Zirconium, In: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 4. New York: CRC Press. p. 42.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zirconium%2C+In%3A+%27%27CRC+Handbook+of+Chemistry+and+Physics%27%27&rft.date=2007&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B42&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2527938"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Winter2007" class="citation web cs1">Mark Winter (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webelements.com/webelements/properties/text/image-flash/electroneg-pauling.html">"Electronegativity (Pauling)"</a>. University of Sheffield. Retrieved 2008-03-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electronegativity+%28Pauling%29&rft.pub=University+of+Sheffield&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Mark+Winter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.webelements.com%2Fwebelements%2Fproperties%2Ftext%2Fimage-flash%2Felectroneg-pauling.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikiversity.org%3AUser%3AMarshallsumter%2FRadiation+astronomy%2FAlloys" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">↑</a> Schnell I; Albers RC (January 2006). "Zirconium under pressure: phase transitions and thermodynamics". Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 18 (5): 16. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0953-8984%2F18%2F5%2F001">10.1088/0953-8984/18/5/001</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Zirconium+under+pressure%3A+phase+transitions+and+thermodynamics&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physics%3A+Condensed+Matter&rft.aulast=Schnell+I&rft.au=Schnell+I&rft.au=Albers+RC&rft.date=January+2006&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=16&rft_id=info:doi/10.1088%2F0953-8984%2F18%2F5%2F001&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Lambert-244"><a href="#cite_ref-Lambert_244-0">↑</a> David L. Lambert; Verne V. Smith; Maurizio Busso; Roberto Gallino; Oscar Straniero (September 1, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995ApJ...450..302L">"The Chemical Composition of Red Giants. IV. The Neutron Density at the s-Process Site"</a>. The Astrophysical Journal 450 (09): 302-17. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F176141">10.1086/176141</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995ApJ...450..302L">http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995ApJ...450..302L</a>. Retrieved 2013-08-01.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Chemical+Composition+of+Red+Giants.+IV.+The+Neutron+Density+at+the+s-Process+Site&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.aulast=David+L.+Lambert&rft.au=David+L.+Lambert&rft.au=Verne+V.+Smith&rft.au=Maurizio+Busso&rft.au=Roberto+Gallino&rft.au=Oscar+Straniero&rft.date=September+1%2C+1995&rft.volume=450&rft.issue=09&rft.pages=302-17&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086%2F176141&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F1995ApJ...450..302L&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-nubase-245">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-nubase_245-0">245.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nubase_245-1">245.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nubase_245-2">245.2</a> Audi, G; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A. H. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hal.in2p3.fr/in2p3-00014184">"Nubase2003 Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties"</a>. Nuclear Physics A 729 (1): 3–128. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001">10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://hal.in2p3.fr/in2p3-00014184">http://hal.in2p3.fr/in2p3-00014184</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nubase2003+Evaluation+of+Nuclear+and+Decay+Properties&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Physics+A&rft.aulast=Audi%2C+G&rft.au=Audi%2C+G&rft.au=Bersillon%2C%26%2332%3BO.&rft.au=Blachot%2C%26%2332%3BJ.&rft.au=Wapstra%2C%26%2332%3BA.+H.&rft.date=2003&rft.volume=729&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3%E2%80%93128&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhal.in2p3.fr%2Fin2p3-00014184&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Conover-246">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Conover_246-0">246.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conover_246-1">246.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conover_246-2">246.2</a> Emily Conover (January 7, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/weird-type-zirconium-soaks-neutrons-sponge?utm_source=email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=latest-newsletter-v2">A weird type of zirconium soaks up neutrons like a sponge</a>. Science News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/weird-type-zirconium-soaks-neutrons-sponge?utm_source=email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=latest-newsletter-v2">https://www.sciencenews.org/article/weird-type-zirconium-soaks-neutrons-sponge?utm_source=email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=latest-newsletter-v2</a>. Retrieved 9 January 2019.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+weird+type+of+zirconium+soaks+up+neutrons+like+a+sponge&rft.aulast=Emily+Conover&rft.au=Emily+Conover&rft.date=January+7%2C+2019&rft.pub=Science+News&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.org%2Farticle%2Fweird-type-zirconium-soaks-neutrons-sponge%3Futm_source%3Demail%26utm_medium%3Demail%26utm_campaign%3Dlatest-newsletter-v2&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:User:Marshallsumter/Radiation_astronomy/Alloys">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Shusterman-247"><a href="#cite_ref-Shusterman_247-0">↑</a> Jennifer A. Shusterman; Nicholas D. Scielzo; Keenan J. Thomas; Eric B. Norman; Suzanne E. Lapi; C. Shaun Loveless Nickie J. Peters, J. David Robertson, Dawn A. Shaughnessy & Anton P. Tonchev (7 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0838-z.epdf?referrer_access_token=dHufYV4FNXVsGEZyZ6g46dRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0Mc5ChkkjTroRA03db24PlRo5oLvqS_cQqr3Ff-LqPf8ZW9FUa-GytgPnedZFlJA3sJHCPQ-Wb0LQHgUooFhbXFT2u0gCjThP3WjpB7tVio9JlGs_SyStggLGcHQu7l_hT2N2TYQtXDBqInN55QTO7c3rRCffeqfGp9nOYIDqm3LtP2DriqXGv9cFWQjji220S1F_HyMnoVXS8PYQKna8D8JsxmnGI5DENoTSqjSgCoRCc8rj1Fc9iU2JqJ1KGsMmzESD_APHFsnyOGfnXNr1URBD6edhDX5R8Ax1g0rQo0mTNUjtaJyadTVh12QnoMqcg%3D&tracking_referrer=www.sciencenews.org">"The surprisingly large neutron capture cross-section of 88Zr"</a>. Nature 18 (838): 10. doi:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0838-z">10.1038/s41586-018-0838-z</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0838-z.epdf?referrer_access_token=dHufYV4FNXVsGEZyZ6g46dRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0Mc5ChkkjTroRA03db24PlRo5oLvqS_cQqr3Ff-LqPf8ZW9FUa-GytgPnedZFlJA3sJHCPQ-Wb0LQHgUooFhbXFT2u0gCjThP3WjpB7tVio9JlGs_SyStggLGcHQu7l_hT2N2TYQtXDBqInN55QTO7c3rRCffeqfGp9nOYIDqm3LtP2DriqXGv9cFWQjji220S1F_HyMnoVXS8PYQKna8D8JsxmnGI5DENoTSqjSgCoRCc8rj1Fc9iU2JqJ1KGsMmzESD_APHFsnyOGfnXNr1URBD6edhDX5R8Ax1g0rQo0mTNUjtaJyadTVh12QnoMqcg%3D&tracking_referrer=www.sciencenews.org">https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0838-z.epdf?referrer_access_token=dHufYV4FNXVsGEZyZ6g46dRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0Mc5ChkkjTroRA03db24PlRo5oLvqS_cQqr3Ff-LqPf8ZW9FUa-GytgPnedZFlJA3sJHCPQ-Wb0LQHgUooFhbXFT2u0gCjThP3WjpB7tVio9JlGs_SyStggLGcHQu7l_hT2N2TYQtXDBqInN55QTO7c3rRCffeqfGp9nOYIDqm3LtP2DriqXGv9cFWQjji220S1F_HyMnoVXS8PYQKna8D8JsxmnGI5DENoTSqjSgCoRCc8rj1Fc9iU2JqJ1KGsMmzESD_APHFsnyOGfnXNr1URBD6edhDX5R8Ax1g0rQo0mTNUjtaJyadTVh12QnoMqcg%3D&tracking_referrer=www.sciencenews.org</a>. Retrieved 9 January 2019.<span class="Z3988" 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<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Aerometeors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Aerometeors (page does not exist)">Aerometeor astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alpha_particles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alpha particles (page does not exist)">Alpha-particle astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Asteroids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Asteroids (page does not exist)">Asteroid astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Astronomy (page does not exist)">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Astrophysics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Astrophysics (page does not exist)">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Atomics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Atomics (page does not exist)">Atomic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Baryons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Baryons (page does not exist)">Baryon astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beta-particles_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beta-particles astronomy (page does not exist)">Beta-particles astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blue_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Blue astronomy (page does not exist)">Blue astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Clouds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Clouds (page does not exist)">Cloud astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Colors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Colors (page does not exist)">Color astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Cosmic_rays" title="Radiation/Cosmic rays">Cosmic ray astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Cryometeors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors (page does not exist)">Cryometeor astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyan_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyan astronomy (page does not exist)">Cyan astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Electromagnetics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Electromagnetics (page does not exist)">Electromagnetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electron astronomy (page does not exist)">Electron astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Fieries&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Fieries (page does not exist)">Fiery meteor astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Galaxies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Galaxies (page does not exist)">Galaxy astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Galaxy_clusters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Galaxy clusters (page does not exist)">Galaxy cluster astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Gamma_rays&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays (page does not exist)">Gamma-ray astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Gravitationals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals (page does not exist)">Gravitational radiation astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Green_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Green astronomy (page does not exist)">Green astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Hadrons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Hadrons (page does not exist)">Hadron astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/High-velocity_galaxies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/High-velocity galaxies (page does not exist)">High-velocity galaxy astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Hydrometeors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Hydrometeors (page does not exist)">Hydrometeor astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Hypervelocity_stars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Hypervelocity stars (page does not exist)">Hypervelocity stellar astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infrared_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Infrared astronomy (page does not exist)">Infrared astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Kuiper_belts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Kuiper belts (page does not exist)">Kuiper belt astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Lithometeors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Lithometeors (page does not exist)">Lithometeor astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical astronomy">Mathematical astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Mesons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Mesons (page does not exist)">Meson astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Meteoroids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Meteoroids (page does not exist)">Meteoroid astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Meteors" title="Radiation/Meteors">Meteor astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Showers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Showers (page does not exist)">Meteor-shower astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microwave_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microwave astronomy (page does not exist)">Microwave astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Millimeters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Millimeters (page does not exist)">Millimeter-wave astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Minerals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Minerals (page does not exist)">Mineral astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Muon_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muon astronomy (page does not exist)">Muon astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Nebulas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Nebulas (page does not exist)">Nebula astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Neutrals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Neutrals (page does not exist)">Neutrals astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neutrino astronomy (page does not exist)">Neutrino astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Neutrons" title="Radiation/Neutrons">Neutron astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Objects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Objects (page does not exist)">Object astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Optical astronomy (page does not exist)">Optical astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orange_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Orange astronomy (page does not exist)">Orange astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Planets&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Planets (page does not exist)">Planetary astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Plasmas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Plasmas (page does not exist)">Plasma-meteor astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positron_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Positron astronomy (page does not exist)">Positron astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proton astronomy (page does not exist)">Proton astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radar_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radar astronomy (page does not exist)">Radar astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Astronomy" title="Radiation/Astronomy">Radiation astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation chemistry (page does not exist)">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Detectors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Detectors (page does not exist)">Radiation detectors</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_entities&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation entities (page does not exist)">Radiation entities</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_geography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation geography (page does not exist)">Radiation geography</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation history (page does not exist)">Radiation history</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_mathematics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation mathematics (page does not exist)">Radiation mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radio astronomy (page does not exist)">Radio astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Red astronomy (page does not exist)">Red astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Rocks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Rocks (page does not exist)">Rock astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Satellites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Satellites (page does not exist)">Satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Scattered_disks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Scattered disks (page does not exist)">Scattered disk astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Synchrotrons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Synchrotrons (page does not exist)">Synchrotron astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_binary" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar binary">Solar binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Source astronomy">Source astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Spectroscopy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Spectroscopy (page does not exist)">Spectroscopic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Standard_candles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Standard candles (page does not exist)">Standard candle astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_fission" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fission">Star fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star-forming_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Star-forming region">Star-forming region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_active_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar active region">Stellar active region</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Submillimeters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters (page does not exist)">Submillimeter astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Subatomics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Subatomics (page does not exist)">Subatomic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superluminal_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Superluminal astronomy (page does not exist)">Superluminal astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Telescopes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Telescopes (page does not exist)">Telescopes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Theory (page does not exist)">Theoretical radiation astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ultraviolet astronomy (page does not exist)">Ultraviolet astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Violet_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Violet astronomy (page does not exist)">Violet astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Visual astronomy (page does not exist)">Visual astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=X-ray_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="X-ray astronomy (page does not exist)">X-ray astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yellow astronomy (page does not exist)">Yellow astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#1DACD6;;width:1%;background:#1DACD6; color:#000000;">Laboratories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#00BFFF;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Analysis/Laboratory" title="Radiation/Analysis/Laboratory">Analytical astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony_laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmogony laboratory">Cosmogony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratering_laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Cratering laboratory">Cratering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_orbits" title="Electric orbits">Electric orbits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_heating/Laboratory" title="Electron beam heating/Laboratory">Electron beam heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxies/Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Galaxies/Laboratory">Galaxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_medium/Laboratory" title="Intergalactic medium/Laboratory">Intergalactic medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locating_the_Sun" class="mw-redirect" title="Locating the Sun">Locating the Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field_reversals/Laboratory" title="Magnetic field reversals/Laboratory">Magnetic field reversal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meteorites/Laboratory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meteorites/Laboratory (page does not exist)">Meteorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrinos_from_the_Sun" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrinos from the Sun">Neutrinos from the Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrum_of_Vega" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectrum of Vega">Spectrum of Vega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_candles/Laboratory" title="Standard candles/Laboratory">Standard candles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_precession" title="Vertical precession">Vertical precession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_classification_of_a_star" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray classification of a star">X-ray classification of a star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_trigonometric_parallax/Laboratory" title="X-ray trigonometric parallax/Laboratory">X-ray trigonometric parallax</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#1DACD6;;width:1%;background:#1DACD6; color:#000000;">Lessons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#08E8DE;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_blue_source_in_Bo%C3%B6tes" class="mw-redirect" title="First blue source in Boötes">First blue source in Boötes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_cyan_source_in_Caelum" class="mw-redirect" title="First cyan source in Caelum">First cyan source in Caelum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources/First_gamma-ray_source_in_Triangulum_Australe" title="Sources/First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe">First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources/First_green_source_in_Tucana" title="Sources/First green source in Tucana">First green source in Tucana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources/First_infrared_source_in_Crux" title="Sources/First infrared source in Crux">First infrared source in Crux</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_neutron_source_in_Volans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First neutron source in Volans (page does not exist)">First neutron source in Volans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_orange_source_in_Cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="First orange source in Cancer">First orange source in Cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_positron_source_in_Phoenix&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First positron source in Phoenix (page does not exist)">First positron source in Phoenix</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_radio_source_in_Pisces&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First radio source in Pisces (page does not exist)">First radio source in Pisces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_red_source_in_Canis_Major" class="mw-redirect" title="First red source in Canis Major">First red source in Canis Major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_submillimeter_source_in_Carina" class="mw-redirect" title="First submillimeter source in Carina">First submillimeter source in Carina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_superluminal_source_in_Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="First superluminal source in Indus">First superluminal source in Indus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources/First_ultraviolet_source_in_Sagittarius" title="Sources/First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius">First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_violet_source_in_Leo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First violet source in Leo (page does not exist)">First violet source in Leo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_X-ray_source_in_Apus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First X-ray source in Apus (page does not exist)">First X-ray source in Apus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_X-ray_source_in_Andromeda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First X-ray source in Andromeda (page does not exist)">First X-ray source in Andromeda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_yellow_source_in_Aquila&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First yellow source in Aquila (page does not exist)">First yellow source in Aquila</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#1DACD6;;width:1%;background:#1DACD6; color:#000000;">Problem sets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#00BFFF;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum_and_energy" title="Angular momentum and energy">Angular momentum and energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_densities" title="Column densities">Column densities</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_circuits&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cosmic circuits (page does not exist)">Cosmic circuits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_phantoms" title="Energy phantoms">Energy phantoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furlongs_per_fortnight" title="Furlongs per fortnight">Furlongs per fortnight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck%27s_equation" title="Planck's equation">Planck's equation</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Problem_set&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Problem set (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/Problem set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_dosage" title="Radiation dosage">Radiation dosage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_astromathematics_problems" title="Radiation astromathematics problems">Radiation astromathematics problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrographs" title="Spectrographs">Spectrographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_jumping" title="Star jumping">Star jumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation/Problem_set" title="Synchrotron radiation/Problem set">Synchrotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescopes_and_cameras" title="Telescopes and cameras">Telescopes and cameras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unknown_coordinate_systems" title="Unknown coordinate systems">Unknown coordinate systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unusual_units" title="Unusual units">Unusual units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vectors_and_coordinates" title="Vectors and coordinates">Vectors and coordinates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#1DACD6;;width:1%;background:#1DACD6; color:#000000;">Quiz section miniresources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#08E8DE;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Active_galactic_nuclei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei (page does not exist)">Active galactic nuclei astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Astronomy (page does not exist)">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Backgrounds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds (page does not exist)">Background astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Baryons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Baryons (page does not exist)">Baryon astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Colors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Colors (page does not exist)">Color astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Comets&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Comets (page does not exist)">Cometary astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Craters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Craters (page does not exist)">Craters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_astronomical_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="First astronomical sources">First astronomical sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_astronomical_X-ray_source" class="mw-redirect" title="First astronomical X-ray source">First astronomical X-ray source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Galaxies">Galaxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergalactic medium">Intergalactic medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar medium">Interstellar medium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Lightnings&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Lightnings (page does not exist)">Lightning astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meteorites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meteorites (page does not exist)">Meteorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Meteors" title="Radiation/Meteors">Meteor astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Molecules&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Molecules (page does not exist)">Molecule astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Oort_clouds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Oort clouds (page does not exist)">Oort cloud astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Opticals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Opticals (page does not exist)">Optical astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Particles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Particles (page does not exist)">Particle astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Radars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Radars (page does not exist)">Radar astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Reds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Reds (page does not exist)">Red astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocky-object_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocky-object astronomy (page does not exist)">Rocky-object astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Stars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Stars (page does not exist)">Stellar astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Subatomics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Subatomics (page does not exist)">Subatomics astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Tauons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Tauons (page does not exist)">Tauon astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#1DACD6;;width:1%;background:#1DACD6; color:#000000;">Quizzes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#00BFFF;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Acoustics/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Acoustics/Quiz (page does not exist)">Acoustic astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Active_galactic_nuclei/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei/Quiz (page does not exist)">Active galactic nuclei quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Aerometeors/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Aerometeors/Quiz (page does not exist)">Aerometeor astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Alpha_particles/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Alpha particles/Quiz (page does not exist)">Alpha-particle astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Asteroids/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Asteroids/Quiz (page does not exist)">Asteroid astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_observatories/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical observatories/Quiz">Astronomical observatories/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Astronomy (page does not exist)">Astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics/Quiz" title="Astrophysics/Quiz">Astrophysics/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Atomics/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Atomics/Quiz (page does not exist)">Atomic astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_astronomy/Quiz" title="Background astronomy/Quiz">Background astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Baryons/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Baryons/Quiz (page does not exist)">Baryon astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Beta_particles/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Beta particles/Quiz (page does not exist)">Beta-particles astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blue_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Blue astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Blue astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Clouds/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Clouds/Quiz (page does not exist)">Cloud astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Colors/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Colors/Quiz (page does not exist)">Color astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Comets/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Comets/Quiz (page does not exist)">Cometary astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic-ray_astronomy/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic-ray astronomy/Quiz">Cosmic-ray astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony/Quiz" title="Cosmogony/Quiz">Cosmogony/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crater_astronomy/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Crater astronomy/Quiz">Crater astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Cryometeors/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors/Quiz (page does not exist)">Cryometeor astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyan_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyan astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Cyan astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Electromagnetics/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Electromagnetics/Quiz (page does not exist)">Electromagnetic astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Electromagnetics/Quiz" title="Radiation/Electromagnetics/Quiz">Electromagnetic radiation/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electron astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Electron astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Fieries/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Fieries/Quiz (page does not exist)">Fiery-meteor astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_astronomical_source/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First astronomical source/Quiz (page does not exist)">First astronomical source/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_astronomical_X-ray_source/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First astronomical X-ray source/Quiz (page does not exist)">First astronomical X-ray source/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxies/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Galaxies/Quiz">Galaxies/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Galaxy_clusters/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Galaxy clusters/Quiz (page does not exist)">Galaxy cluster astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma-ray_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamma-ray astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Gamma-ray astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Green_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Green astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Green astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Gravitationals/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals/Quiz (page does not exist)">Gravitational astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Hadrons/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Hadrons/Quiz (page does not exist)">Hadron astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/High-velocity_galaxies/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/High-velocity galaxies/Quiz (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/High-velocity galaxies/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Hydrometeors/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Hydrometeors/Quiz (page does not exist)">Hydrometeor astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Hypervelocity_stars/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Hypervelocity stars/Quiz (page does not exist)">Hypervelocity stars quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infrared_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Infrared astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Infrared astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_medium/Quiz" title="Intergalactic medium/Quiz">Intergalactic medium/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium/Quiz" title="Interplanetary medium/Quiz">Interplanetary medium/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium/Quiz" title="Interstellar medium/Quiz">Interstellar medium/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Kuiper_belts/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Kuiper belts/Quiz (page does not exist)">Kuiper belt astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Lightnings/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Lightnings/Quiz (page does not exist)">Lightning astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Lithometeors/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Lithometeors/Quiz (page does not exist)">Lithometeor astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_astronomy/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical astronomy/Quiz">Mathematical astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Mesons/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Mesons/Quiz (page does not exist)">Meson astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_astronomy/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteor astronomy/Quiz">Meteor astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meteorites/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meteorites/Quiz (page does not exist)">Meteorites/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Meteoroids/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Meteoroids/Quiz (page does not exist)">Meteoroid astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Meteors/Quiz" title="Radiation/Meteors/Quiz">Meteor radiation/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Showers/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Showers/Quiz (page does not exist)">Meteor-shower astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microwave_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microwave astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Microwave astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Minerals/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Minerals/Quiz (page does not exist)">Minerals astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Molecules/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Molecules/Quiz (page does not exist)">Molecule astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Muon_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muon astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Muon astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Nebulas/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Nebulas/Quiz (page does not exist)">Nebula quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Neutrals/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Neutrals/Quiz (page does not exist)">Neutrals astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutrino_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neutrino astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Neutrino astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_astronomy/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron astronomy/Quiz">Neutron astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Oort_clouds/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Oort clouds/Quiz (page does not exist)">Oort cloud astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optical_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Optical astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Optical astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orange_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Orange astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Orange astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Particles/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Particles/Quiz (page does not exist)">Particle astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Planets/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Planets/Quiz (page does not exist)">Planetary astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Plasmas/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Plasmas/Quiz (page does not exist)">Plasma-meteors quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Positron_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Positron astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Positron astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proton astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Proton astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radar_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radar astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Radar astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Quiz" title="Radiation/Quiz">Radiation/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_detectors/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation detectors/Quiz">Radiation detectors/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_entities/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation entities/Quiz (page does not exist)">Radiation entities/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_geography/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation geography/Quiz (page does not exist)">Radiation geography/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_history/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation history/Quiz (page does not exist)">Radiation history/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_mathematics/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation mathematics/Quiz (page does not exist)">Radiation mathematics/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation/Meteors/Quiz" title="Radiation/Meteors/Quiz">Radiation meteors/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_satellites/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation satellites/Quiz">Radiation satellites/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_telescopes/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation telescopes/Quiz">Radiation telescopes/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radio_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radio astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Radio astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Red astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Red astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Rocks/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Rocks/Quiz (page does not exist)">Rock astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rocky-object_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rocky-object astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Rocky-object astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Scattered_disks/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Scattered disks/Quiz (page does not exist)">Scattered disk astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_binary/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar binary/Quiz">Solar binary/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_astronomy/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Source astronomy/Quiz">Source astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Standard_candles/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Standard candles/Quiz (page does not exist)">Radiation astronomy/Standard candles/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_fission/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fission/Quiz">Star fission/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star-forming_region/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Star-forming region/Quiz">Star-forming region/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_active_region/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar active region/Quiz">Stellar active region/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Stars/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Stars/Quiz (page does not exist)">Stellar astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_science/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar science/Quiz">Stellar science/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_surface_fusion/Quiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar surface fusion/Quiz">Stellar surface fusion/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Subatomics/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Subatomics/Quiz (page does not exist)">Subatomic astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submillimeter_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Submillimeter astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Submillimeter astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superluminal_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Superluminal astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Superluminal astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Synchrotrons/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Synchrotrons/Quiz (page does not exist)">Synchrotron astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_astronomy/Tauons/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiation astronomy/Tauons/Quiz (page does not exist)">Tauon astronomy quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_astronomy/Quiz" title="Theoretical astronomy/Quiz">Theoretical astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_radiation_astronomy/Quiz" title="Theoretical radiation astronomy/Quiz">Theoretical radiation astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ultraviolet astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Ultraviolet astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Violet_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Violet astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Violet astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Visual_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Visual astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Visual astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=X-ray_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="X-ray astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">X-ray astronomy/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_trigonometric_parallax/Quiz" title="X-ray trigonometric parallax/Quiz">X-ray trigonometric parallax/Quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_astronomy/Quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yellow astronomy/Quiz (page does not exist)">Yellow astronomy/Quiz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#1DACD6;;width:1%;background:#1DACD6; color:#000000;">Hourlies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#08E8DE;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Principles_of_radiation_astronomy/Hourly_1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principles of radiation astronomy/Hourly 1 (page does not exist)">Hourly 1</a> - resources 1-16</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Principles_of_radiation_astronomy/Hourly_2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principles of radiation astronomy/Hourly 2 (page does not exist)">Hourly 2</a> - resources 17-32</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Principles_of_radiation_astronomy/Hourly_3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principles of radiation astronomy/Hourly 3 (page does not exist)">Hourly 3</a> - resources 22-48</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#1DACD6;;width:1%;background:#1DACD6; color:#000000;">Major examinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#00BFFF;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Principles_of_radiation_astronomy/Midterm_quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principles of radiation astronomy/Midterm quiz (page does not exist)">Midterm quiz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Principles_of_radiation_astronomy/Final_quiz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principles of radiation astronomy/Final quiz (page does not exist)">Final quiz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#1DACD6;;width:1%;background:#1DACD6; color:#000000;">Course offerings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#08E8DE;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Principles_of_radiation_astronomy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principles of radiation astronomy (page does not exist)">Principles of radiation astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Principles_of_radiation_astronomy/Syllabus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principles of radiation astronomy/Syllabus (page does not exist)">Syllabus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Principles_of_radiation_astronomy/Syllabus/Spring&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principles of radiation astronomy/Syllabus/Spring (page does not exist)">Syllabus/Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Principles_of_radiation_astronomy/Syllabus/Fall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principles of radiation astronomy/Syllabus/Fall (page does not exist)">Syllabus/Fall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation_astronomy_resources" title="Template:Radiation astronomy resources">Radiation astronomy resources</a>}}{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Repellor_vehicle" title="Template:Repellor vehicle">Repellor vehicle</a>}}<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2670095">.mw-parser-output .ombox{margin:4px 0;border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);box-sizing:border-box;color:var(--color-base,#202122)}.mw-parser-output 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