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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Blust's_reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blust's_reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Blust's reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blust's_reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wolff's_reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wolff's_reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Wolff's reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wolff's_reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_overview_of_reconstructions_for_Proto-Austronesian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_overview_of_reconstructions_for_Proto-Austronesian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Historical overview of reconstructions for Proto-Austronesian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_overview_of_reconstructions_for_Proto-Austronesian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sound changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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markers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interrogatives_and_case_markers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Affixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Affixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduplication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduplication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Reduplication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduplication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Vocabulary subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colors_and_directions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colors_and_directions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Colors and directions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colors_and_directions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monosyllabic_roots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monosyllabic_roots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Monosyllabic roots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monosyllabic_roots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div 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class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Proto-Austronesian language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_protoaustronesio" title="Idioma protoaustronesio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma protoaustronesio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-austron%C3%A9sien" title="Proto-austronésien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Proto-austronésien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8%EB%A1%9C%EB%84%A4%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84%EC%A1%B0%EC%96%B4" title="오스트로네시아조어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오스트로네시아조어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harshen_Proto-Austronesian" title="Harshen Proto-Austronesian – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Harshen Proto-Austronesian" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_a_Proto-Austronesio" title="Pagsasao a Proto-Austronesio – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao a Proto-Austronesio" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Proto-Austronesia" title="Bahasa Proto-Austronesia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Proto-Austronesia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_proto-austronesiana" title="Lingua proto-austronesiana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua proto-austronesiana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Austronesia_Purba" title="Bahasa Austronesia Purba – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Austronesia Purba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%AD%E3%83%8D%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E7%A5%96%E8%AA%9E" title="オーストロネシア祖語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オーストロネシア祖語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E5%8D%97%E5%B3%B6%E8%AA%9E" title="原始南島語 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="原始南島語" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E5%8D%97%E5%B3%B6%E8%AA%9E" title="原始南島語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="原始南島語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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class="infobox-above" style="background-color: pink;">Proto-Austronesian</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color: pink;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><b>PAN</b></li><li><b>PAn</b></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reconstruction of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Formosa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(main island of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 4000 BCE</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3500 BCE</span></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Lower-order reconstructions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Atayalic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Atayalic language">Proto-Atayalic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Bunun_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proto-Bunun language (page does not exist)">Proto-Bunun</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-East_Formosan_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proto-East Formosan language (page does not exist)">Proto-East Formosan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Malayo-Polynesian_language" title="Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language">Proto-Malayo-Polynesian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Northwest_Formosan_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proto-Northwest Formosan language (page does not exist)">Proto-Northwest Formosan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Paiwan_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proto-Paiwan language (page does not exist)">Proto-Paiwan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Puyuma_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proto-Puyuma language (page does not exist)">Proto-Puyuma</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Rukai_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proto-Rukai language (page does not exist)">Proto-Rukai</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tsouic_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proto-Tsouic language (page does not exist)">Proto-Tsouic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Western_Plains_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proto-Western Plains language (page does not exist)">Proto-Western Plains</a></span></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Proto-Austronesian</b> (commonly abbreviated as <b>PAN</b> or <b>PAn</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a>. It is the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">reconstructed</a> ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a>, one of the world's major <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</a>. Proto-Austronesian is assumed to have begun to diversify <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 4000 BCE</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3500 BCE</span> in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust13_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust13-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lower-level reconstructions have also been made, and include <a href="/wiki/Proto-Malayo-Polynesian_language" title="Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language">Proto-Malayo-Polynesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Oceanic_language" title="Proto-Oceanic language">Proto-Oceanic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Polynesian_language" title="Proto-Polynesian language">Proto-Polynesian</a>. Recently, linguists such as <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Ross_(linguist)" title="Malcolm Ross (linguist)">Malcolm Ross</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Pawley" title="Andrew Pawley">Andrew Pawley</a> have built large lexicons for Proto-Oceanic and Proto-Polynesian. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proto-Austronesian is reconstructed by constructing sets of correspondences among consonants in the various Austronesian languages, according to the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>. Although in theory the result should be unambiguous, in practice given the large number of languages there are numerous disagreements, with various scholars differing significantly on the number and nature of the phonemes in Proto-Austronesian. In the past, some disagreements concerned whether certain correspondence sets were real or represent sporadic developments in particular languages. For the currently remaining disagreements, however, scholars generally accept the validity of the correspondence sets but disagree on the extent to which the distinctions in these sets can be projected back to proto-Austronesian or represent innovations in particular sets of daughter languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blust's_reconstruction"><span id="Blust.27s_reconstruction"></span>Blust's reconstruction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Blust's reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below are Proto-Austronesian <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> reconstructed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Blust" title="Robert Blust">Robert Blust</a>, a professor of linguistics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_at_Manoa" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii at Manoa">University of Hawaii at Manoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A total of 25 Proto-Austronesian consonants, 4 vowels, and 4 <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> were reconstructed. However, Blust acknowledges that some of the reconstructed consonants are still controversial and debated. </p><p>The symbols below are frequently used in reconstructed Proto-Austronesian words. </p> <ul><li>*C: <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">voiceless alveolar affricate</a></li> <li>*c: <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless palatal affricate">voiceless palatal affricate</a></li> <li>*q: <a href="/wiki/Uvular_stop" title="Uvular stop">uvular</a></li> <li>*z: <a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_affricate" title="Voiced palatal affricate">voiced palatal affricate</a></li> <li>*D: <a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced retroflex stop">voiced retroflex stop</a></li> <li>*j: <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalized</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced velar stop">voiced velar stop</a></li> <li>*S: <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">voiceless alveolar fricative</a></li> <li>*N: <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalized</a> <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar lateral">alveolar lateral</a></li> <li>*r: <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar trill">alveolar trill</a></li> <li>*R: <a href="/wiki/Uvular_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Uvular trill">uvular trill</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto:" align="center"> <caption><b>Proto-Austronesian Consonants (Blust, 2009)</b> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Unvoiced stop</a> </th> <td colspan="2">p <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">t <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">k <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">q <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Voiced stop</a> </th> <td colspan="2">b <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">d <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">D <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced retroflex plosive">ɖ</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">g <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span>; j <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">ɡʲ</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td colspan="2">m <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">n <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">ñ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">ŋ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">S <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">s <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">h <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">C <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">c <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless palatal affricate">c͡ç</a>/</span>, z <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_affricate" title="Voiced palatal affricate">ɟ͡ʝ</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">l <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">N <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced palatal lateral approximant">ʎ</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">r <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">R <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_trill" title="Voiced uvular trill">ʀ</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td colspan="2">w <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">y <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>*D only appears in final position, *z/*c/*ñ only in initial and medial position, while *j is restricted to medial and final position. </p><p>The Proto-Austronesian <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> are a, i, u, and ə. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" align="center" width="30%"> <caption><b>Proto-Austronesian Vowels (Blust, 2009)</b><sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Height </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a></b> </th> <td colspan="2"><b>i</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><b>u</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a></b> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><b>ə</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a></b> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><b>a</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a>, which are diachronic sources of individual vowels, are: </p> <ul><li>*-ay</li> <li>*-aw</li> <li>*-uy</li> <li>*-iw</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wolff's_reconstruction"><span id="Wolff.27s_reconstruction"></span>Wolff's reconstruction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Wolff's reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2010, John Wolff published his Proto-Austronesian reconstruction in <i>Proto-Austronesian phonology with glossary</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wolff reconstructs a total of 19 consonants, 4 vowels (*i, *u, *a, *e, where *e = <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span>), 4 diphthongs (*ay, *aw, *iw, *uy), and syllabic stress. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto:" align="center"> <caption><b>Proto-Austronesian Consonants (Wolff)</b> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Unvoiced stop</a> </th> <td colspan="2">p <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">t <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">c <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/c/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">k <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">q <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/q/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Voiced stop</a>/<a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2">b <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">d <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">j <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɟ/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">g <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">ɣ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʁ/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td colspan="2">m <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">n <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">ŋ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Voiceless fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">s <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">h <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">l <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> </td> <td colspan="2">ɬ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʎ/</span><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td colspan="2">w <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">y <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following table shows how Wolff's Proto-Austronesian phonemic system differs from Blust's system. </p> <div style="overflow:auto;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Wolff's and Blust's PAn phonemes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Blust </th> <td>*p</td> <td>*t</td> <td>*C</td> <td>*c</td> <td>*k</td> <td>*q</td> <td>*b</td> <td>*‑D</td> <td style="border-style: solid none solid solid;">*d‑ *‑d‑</td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none;">*‑d</td> <td>*z‑ *‑z‑</td> <td>*‑j- *‑j</td> <td>*g‑</td> <td>*‑g- *‑g</td> <td>*R</td> <td>*m</td> <td>*n</td> <td>*N</td> <td>*ñ</td> <td>*ŋ</td> <td>*l</td> <td>*r</td> <td>*s</td> <td>*S</td> <td>*h</td> <td>*w</td> <td>*y </td></tr> <tr> <th>Wolff </th> <td>*p</td> <td colspan="2">*t</td> <td><i>rejected</i></td> <td>*k</td> <td>*q</td> <td>*b</td> <td style="border-style: solid none solid solid;">*‑d</td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none;">*d‑ *‑d‑</td> <td style="border-style: solid none solid solid;">*‑j</td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none;">*j‑ *‑j‑</td> <td colspan="2">*g</td> <td><i>rejected</i></td> <td>*ɣ</td> <td>*m</td> <td>*n</td> <td colspan="2">*ɬ</td> <td>*ŋ</td> <td>*l</td> <td><i>rejected</i></td> <td>*c</td> <td>*s</td> <td>*h</td> <td>*w</td> <td>*y </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_overview_of_reconstructions_for_Proto-Austronesian">Historical overview of reconstructions for Proto-Austronesian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Historical overview of reconstructions for Proto-Austronesian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Malcolm Ross,<sup id="cite_ref-ross_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ross-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the following aspects of Blust's system are uncontroversial: the labials (p b m w); the velars k ŋ; y; R; the vowels; and the above four diphthongs. There is some disagreement about the postvelars (q ʔ h) and the velars g j, and about whether there are any more diphthongs; however, in these respects, Ross and Blust are in agreement. The major disagreement concerns the system of <a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">coronal consonants</a>. The following discussion is based on Ross (1992).<sup id="cite_ref-ross_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ross-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Otto_Dempwolff" title="Otto Dempwolff">Otto Dempwolff</a>'s reconstruction of Proto-Malayo-Polynesian from the 1930s included: </p> <ul><li>Dental t d n l</li> <li>Retroflex ṭ ḍ ḷ</li> <li>Palatal t' d' n'</li> <li>Palatal k' g'</li></ul> <p>Dyen (1963), including data from the Formosan languages, expanded Dempwolff's set of coronal consonants: </p> <ul><li>t split into t and C</li> <li>n split into n and L/N</li> <li>d' split and renotated as z and Z</li> <li>t' split into s<sub>1</sub> and s<sub>2</sub></li> <li>ḷ ṭ ḍ n' k' g' h renotated as r T D ñ c j q</li></ul> <p>Tsuchida (1976),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> building on Dyen's system: </p> <ul><li>Further split d into D<sub>1</sub> D<sub>2</sub> D<sub>3</sub> D<sub>4</sub>. He also believed that Dyen's c (Dempwolff's k') could not be reconstructed for Proto-Austronesian (he also split Dyen's w into w W and q into q Q, which were not accepted by later scholars.)</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Otto_Christian_Dahl" title="Otto Christian Dahl">Dahl</a> reduced Tsuchida's consonants into: </p> <ul><li>D<sub>1</sub> D<sub>2</sub> D<sub>3</sub> D<sub>4</sub> into d<sub>3</sub> d<sub>2</sub> d<sub>1</sub> d<sub>3</sub> (with the new d<sub>3</sub> reflecting the combination of the old D<sub>1</sub> and D<sub>4</sub>) and combined Dyen's S X x into a single phoneme S. He did accept Dyen's c but did not accept his T D. (He also renotated a number of phonemes in ways that were not generally accepted by later scholars.)</li></ul> <p>Blust based his system on a combination of Dyen, Tsuchida and Dahl, and attempted to reduce the total number of phonemes. He accepted Dahl's reduction of Dyen's S X x into S but did not accept either Tsuchida's or Dahl's split of Dyen's d; in addition, he reduced Dyen's s<sub>1</sub> s<sub>2</sub> to a single phoneme s. While accepting Dyen's c, he was hesitant about T and D (more recently, Blust appears to have accepted D but rejected T, and also rejected Z). </p><p>Ross likewise attempted to reduce the number of phonemes, but in a different way: </p> <ul><li>He accepts Dahl's d<sub>1</sub> d<sub>2</sub> d<sub>3</sub> and also Z (eventually rejected by Blust). He notes that the distinction between d<sub>1</sub> and d<sub>2</sub> d<sub>3</sub> is only reconstructable for the Formosan language groups <a href="/wiki/Amis_language" title="Amis language">Amis</a>, Proto-Puyuma and Proto-Paiwan, and only Proto-Paiwan has a three-way distinction among d<sub>1</sub> d<sub>2</sub> d<sub>3</sub>; contrarily the distinction between Z and d<sub>1</sub> is reconstructable only for Proto-Rukai and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, but not any of the previous three groups. However, he still believes (contra Blust) that the distinction among these phonemes is an inheritance from Proto-Austronesian rather than an innovation in the respective groups.</li> <li>He notes that d<sub>1</sub> occurs only morpheme-initially, while r occurs only morpheme-non-initially, and as a result combines the two.</li> <li>He does not accept the phonemes c z ñ in Proto-Austronesian, and asserts that none of them are "readily reconstructable" outside of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Malayo-Polynesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Malayo-Polynesian">Proto-Malayo-Polynesian</a>. Furthermore, while he believes that ñ was a general innovation in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, c and z "are reflected differently from PMP [Proto-Malayo-Polynesian] *s and *d only in a fairly limited area of western Indo-Malaysia and appear to be the results of local developments".</li> <li>He also reconstructs the coronals somewhat differently. He believes that C S l d<sub>3</sub> were all retroflex (respectively, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʂ/;<span class="wrap"> </span>/ʂ/<span class="wrap"> </span>or<span class="wrap"> </span>/ʃ/;<span class="wrap"> </span>/ɭ/<span class="wrap"> </span>or<span class="wrap"> </span>/ɽ/;<span class="wrap"> </span>/ɖ/</span>), and s and L (Blust's N) were dental /s/ and /l/, as opposed to Blust's reconstruction as dental and palatal, respectively. According to Ross, this is based on their outcomes in the <a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>; although their outcomes as dental/palatal is geographically more distributed, it occurs only in <a href="/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Malayo-Polynesian languages">Malayo-Polynesian</a>, which represent a single clade with respect to the Formosan languages.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sound_changes">Sound changes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sound changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages#Sound_changes" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages § Sound changes</a></div> <p>As Proto-Austronesian transitioned to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Oceanic_language" title="Proto-Oceanic language">Proto-Oceanic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Polynesian_language" title="Proto-Polynesian language">Proto-Polynesian</a>, the phonemic inventories were continually reduced by merging formerly distinct sounds into one sound. Three mergers were observed in the Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian transition, while nine were observed for the Proto-Oceanic to Proto-Polynesian transition. Thus, Proto-Austronesian has the most elaborate sound system, while Proto-Polynesian has the fewest phonemes. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_language" title="Hawaiian language">Hawaiian language</a> is famous for having only eight consonants, while <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Māori</a> has only ten consonants. This is a sharp reduction from the 19–25 consonants of the Proto-Austronesian language that was originally spoken on <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. </p><p>Blust also observed the following mergers and sound changes between Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Austronesian and<br />Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Sound Changes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th> <th>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>*C/t </td> <td>*t </td></tr> <tr> <td>*N/n </td> <td>*n </td></tr> <tr> <td>*S/h </td> <td>*h </td></tr> <tr> <td>*eS<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*ah </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>However, according to Wolff (2010:241),<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proto-Malayo-Polynesian's development from Proto-Austronesian only included the following three sound changes. </p> <ul><li>PAn *ɬ > PMP *ñ, l, n</li> <li>PAn *s > PMP *h</li> <li>PAn *h > PMP *Ø</li></ul> <p>Proto-Oceanic merged even more phonemes. This is why modern-day <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_languages" title="Polynesian languages">Polynesian languages</a> have some of the most restricted consonant inventories in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian and<br />Proto-Oceanic Sound Changes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian </th> <th>Proto-Oceanic </th></tr> <tr> <td>*b/p </td> <td>*p </td></tr> <tr> <td>*mb/mp </td> <td>*b </td></tr> <tr> <td>*c/s/z/j </td> <td>*s </td></tr> <tr> <td>*nc/nd/nz/nj </td> <td>*j </td></tr> <tr> <td>*g/k </td> <td>*k </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ŋg/ŋk </td> <td>*g </td></tr> <tr> <td>*d/r </td> <td>*r </td></tr> <tr> <td>*e/-aw </td> <td>*o </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-i/uy/iw </td> <td>*i </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Unusual sound changes that occurred within the Austronesian language family include:<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *w <i>or</i> *b > <a href="/wiki/Sundanese_language" title="Sundanese language">Sundanese</a> c- or -nc-</li> <li>Proto-Oceanic *w <i>or</i> *y > p in <a href="/wiki/Khehek_language" title="Khehek language">Levei Khehek</a></li> <li>Proto-Oceanic *r <i>or</i> *R > g͡ʟ in <a href="/wiki/Hiw_language" title="Hiw language">Hiw</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Proto-Polynesian *l <i>or</i> *r > ŋg (via *ɣ or *ʁ) in <a href="/wiki/Rennellese_language" title="Rennellese language">Rennellese</a></li> <li>Proto-Polynesian *t > k in Hawaiian, <a href="/wiki/Samoan_language" title="Samoan language">Samoan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ontong_Java_language" title="Ontong Java language">Ontong Java</a> (after *k > ʔ)<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_order">Word order</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Word order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proto-Austronesian is a verb-initial language (including <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">VSO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–object–subject">VOS</a> word orders), as most <a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a>, all <a href="/wiki/Philippine_languages" title="Philippine languages">Philippine languages</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Bornean_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bornean languages">Bornean languages</a>, all Austronesian dialects of <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, and all <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_languages" title="Polynesian languages">Polynesian languages</a> are verb-initial.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, most Austronesian (many of which are <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_languages" title="Oceanic languages">Oceanic</a>) languages of <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a> are <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">SVO</a>, or verb-medial, languages. <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">SOV</a>, or verb-final, word order is considered to be typologically unusual for Austronesian languages, and is only found in various Austronesian languages of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> and to a more limited extent, the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a>. This is because SOV word order is very common in the non-Austronesian <a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">Papuan languages</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voice_system">Voice system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Voice system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Austronesian languages of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> are also well known for their unusual <a href="/wiki/Morphosyntactic_alignment" title="Morphosyntactic alignment">morphosyntactic alignment</a>, which is known as the <a href="/wiki/Symmetrical_voice" title="Symmetrical voice">symmetrical voice</a> (also known as the Austronesian alignment). This alignment was also present in the Proto-Austronesian language. Unlike Proto-Austronesian, however, Proto-Oceanic syntax does not make use of the focus morphology present in Austronesian-aligned languages such as the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_languages" title="Philippine languages">Philippine languages</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_languages" title="Polynesian languages">Polynesian languages</a>, verbal morphology is relatively simple, while the main unit in a sentence is the phrase rather than the word. </p><p>Below is a table of John Wolff's Proto-Austronesian voice system from Blust (2009:433).<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wolff's "four-voice" system was derived from evidence in various Formosan and Philippine languages. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Austronesian voice system </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Independent <br />(non-past) </th> <th>Independent <br />(past) </th> <th>Future-general <br />action </th> <th>Dependent </th> <th>Subjunctive </th></tr> <tr> <th>Actor voice </th> <td>-um- </td> <td>-inum- </td> <td>? </td> <td>ø </td> <td>-a </td></tr> <tr> <th>Direct passive </th> <td>-en </td> <td>-in- </td> <td>r- -en </td> <td>-a </td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <th>Local passive </th> <td>-an </td> <td>-in-an </td> <td>r- -an </td> <td>-i </td> <td>-ay </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental passive </th> <td>Si- </td> <td>Si- -in- (?) </td> <td>? </td> <td>-an (?) </td> <td>? </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>However, Ross (2009)<sup id="cite_ref-Ross2009_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross2009-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> notes that what may be the most divergent languages, <a href="/wiki/Tsou_language" title="Tsou language">Tsou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rukai_language" title="Rukai language">Rukai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Puyuma_language" title="Puyuma language">Puyuma</a>, are not addressed by this reconstruction, which therefore cannot claim to be alignment system of the protolanguage of the entire family. He calls the unit to which this reconstruction applies <b>Nuclear Austronesian</b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interrogatives_and_case_markers">Interrogatives and case markers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Interrogatives and case markers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following table compares Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian question words. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian question words </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>English </th> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th> <th>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>what </td> <td>*(n)-anu </td> <td>*apa </td></tr> <tr> <td>who </td> <td>*(si)-ima </td> <td>*i-sai </td></tr> <tr> <td>where </td> <td>*i-nu </td> <td>*i nu </td></tr> <tr> <td>when </td> <td>*ija-n </td> <td>*p-ijan </td></tr> <tr> <td>how </td> <td>*(n)-anu </td> <td>*ku(j)a </td></tr> <tr> <td>how much </td> <td>*pijax </td> <td>*pija </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Currently, the most complete reconstruction of the Proto-Austronesian <a href="/wiki/Case_marker" class="mw-redirect" title="Case marker">case marker</a> system is offered by <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Ross_(linguist)" title="Malcolm Ross (linguist)">Malcolm Ross</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reconstructed case markers are as follows: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto:" align="center"> <caption>Proto-Austronesian case markers </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Common nouns </th> <th>Singular<br />personal nouns </th> <th>Plural<br />personal nouns </th></tr> <tr> <th>Neutral </th> <td>*[y]a, *u </td> <td>*i </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*k-a </td> <td>*k-u </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*n-a, *n-u </td> <td>*n-i </td> <td>*n-i-a </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*C-a, *C-u </td> <td>*C-i </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Oblique </th> <td>*s-a, *s-u </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*d-a </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Important Proto-Austronesian grammatical words include the ligature *na and locative *i.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> are often hard to separate in the Austronesian languages, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_languages" title="Philippine languages">Philippine languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because the morphology of the verbs often affects how the rest of the sentence would be constructed (i.e., syntax). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affixes">Affixes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Affixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below are some Proto-Austronesian <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infix" title="Infix">infixes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a>) reconstructed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Blust" title="Robert Blust">Robert Blust</a>. For instance, *pa- was used for non-stative (i.e., dynamic) causatives, while *pa-ka was used for stative causatives (Blust 2009:282). Blust also noted a p/m pairing phenomenon in which many affixes have both <i>p-</i> and <i>m-</i> forms. This system is especially elaborate in the <a href="/wiki/Thao_language" title="Thao language">Thao language</a> of Taiwan.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto:" width="50%"> <caption>Proto-Austronesian Affixes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Affix </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <td>*ka- </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Inchoative" class="mw-redirect" title="Inchoative">inchoative</a> (Formosan only), <a href="/wiki/Stative" class="mw-redirect" title="Stative">stative</a>, past time, accompanied action/person, abstract noun formative, manner in which an action is carried out, past participle </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ma- </td> <td>stative, future time (Formosan only) </td></tr> <tr> <td>*maka- </td> <td>abilitative/aptative </td></tr> <tr> <td>*maki/paki </td> <td>petitive (petitioning for something)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*mi- </td> <td>possession (Formosan only) </td></tr> <tr> <td>*mu- </td> <td>movement<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*pa(-ka-) </td> <td>causative </td></tr> <tr> <td>*pi- </td> <td>causative of location </td></tr> <tr> <td>*pu- </td> <td>causative of movement </td></tr> <tr> <td>*qali/kali- </td> <td>sensitive connection with the spirit world<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*Sa- </td> <td>instrumental noun </td></tr> <tr> <td>*Si- </td> <td>instrumental voice </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-an </td> <td>instrumental voice: imperative </td></tr> <tr> <td>*Sika- </td> <td>ordinal numeral </td></tr> <tr> <td>*taʀ-/ta- </td> <td>sudden, unexpected, or accidental action </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-um- </td> <td>actor voice: transitivity, etc. </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-in- </td> <td>perfective, nominalizer </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-ar- </td> <td>plural </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-an </td> <td>locative voice </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-i </td> <td>locative voice: imperative </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-en </td> <td>patient voice </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-a </td> <td>patient voice: imperative </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-ay </td> <td>future </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ka- -an </td> <td>adversative passive, abstract nouns </td></tr> <tr> <td>-ta </td> <td>1st person plural inclusive, genitive suffix </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A verbal prefix *paRi- is also reconstructed (albeit at the lower level of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian"><abbr title="Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian">PEMP</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian</span>), for “reciprocal or collective action”;<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is particularly developed in <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_languages" title="Oceanic languages">Oceanic languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduplication">Reduplication</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reduplication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>CV (consonant + vowel) <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a> is very common among the Austronesian languages. In Proto-Austronesian, Ca-reduplicated (consonant + /a/) numbers were used to count humans, while the non-reduplicated sets were used to count non-human and inanimate objects. CV-reduplication was also used to nominalize verbs in Proto-Austronesian. In Ilocano, CV-reduplication is used to pluralize nouns. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">Reduplication</a> patterns include (Blust 2009): </p> <ul><li>Full reduplication</li> <li>Full reduplication plus affixation</li> <li>Full reduplication minus the coda</li> <li>Full reduplication minus the last vowel</li> <li>Full reduplication with vocalic or consonantal change, or both</li> <li>Full reduplication with consecutive identical syllables</li> <li>Prefixal foot reduplication/leftward reduplication</li> <li>Suffixal foot reduplication/rightward reduplication</li> <li>CVC-reduplication</li> <li>CV-reduplication (marks durative aspect, collectivity, or intensity in Bunun; future in Tagalog)</li> <li>CV-reduplication plus affixation</li> <li>Ca-reduplication (used to derive human-counting numerals and deverbal instrumental nouns in Thao and Puyuma)</li> <li>Extensions of fixed segmentism</li> <li>Reduplicative infixes</li> <li>Suffixal syllable reduplication</li></ul> <p>Other less common patterns are (Blust 2009): </p> <ul><li>Vacuous reduplication (occurs in Paamese)</li> <li>Full reduplication minus the initial (occurs in Anejom of southern Vanuatu)</li> <li>Full reduplication plus an initial glide (occurs in Kosraean)</li> <li>Partial reduplication minus initial glottal stop (occurs in Rennellese)</li> <li>True CV-reduplication (occurs in Pangasinan)</li> <li>Rightward trisyllabic reduplication (occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Manam_language" title="Manam language">Manam language</a>)</li> <li>Double reduplication (occurs in Woleaian)</li> <li>Triplication (only in the <a href="/wiki/Thao_language" title="Thao language">Thao language</a>)</li> <li>Serial reduplication (only in the <a href="/wiki/Thao_language" title="Thao language">Thao language</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_personal_pronouns" title="Austronesian personal pronouns">Austronesian personal pronouns</a></div> <p>The Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a> below were reconstructed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Blust" title="Robert Blust">Robert Blust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Pronouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type of Pronoun </th> <th>English </th> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th> <th>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>1s. </td> <td>"I" </td> <td>*i-aku </td> <td>*i-aku </td></tr> <tr> <td>2s. </td> <td>"you/thou" </td> <td>*i-(ka)Su </td> <td>*i-kahu </td></tr> <tr> <td>3s. </td> <td>"he/she/it" </td> <td>*si-ia </td> <td>*si-ia </td></tr> <tr> <td>1p. (inclusive) </td> <td>"we (and you)" </td> <td>*i-(k)ita </td> <td>*i-(k)ita </td></tr> <tr> <td>1p. (exclusive) </td> <td>"we (but not you)" </td> <td>*i-(k)ami </td> <td>*i-(k)ami </td></tr> <tr> <td>2p. </td> <td>"you all" </td> <td>*i-kamu </td> <td>*i-kamu, ihu </td></tr> <tr> <td>3p. </td> <td>"they" </td> <td>*si-ida </td> <td>*si-ida </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 2006, <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Ross_(linguist)" title="Malcolm Ross (linguist)">Malcolm Ross</a> also proposed seven different pronominal categories for persons. The categories are listed below, with the Proto-Austronesian first person singular ("I") given as examples.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Neutral (e.g., PAN *i-aku)</li> <li>Nominative 1 (e.g., PAN *aku)</li> <li>Nominative 2 (e.g., PAN *=ku, *[S]aku)</li> <li>Accusative (e.g., PAN *i-ak-ən)</li> <li>Genitive 1 (e.g., PAN *=[a]ku)</li> <li>Genitive 2 (e.g., PAN *(=)m-aku)</li> <li>Genitive 3 (e.g., PAN *n-aku)</li></ol> <p>The following is from Ross' 2002 proposal of the Proto-Austronesian pronominal system, which contains five categories, including the free (i.e., independent or unattached), free polite, and three genitive categories.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto:" align="center"> <caption>Proto-Austronesian Personal Pronouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Free </th> <th>Free polite </th> <th>Genitive 1 </th> <th>Genitive 2 </th> <th>Genitive 3 </th></tr> <tr> <th>1s. </th> <td>*[i-]aku </td> <td>– </td> <td>*=ku </td> <td>*maku </td> <td>*n-aku </td></tr> <tr> <th>2s. </th> <td>*[i-]Su </td> <td>*[i-]ka-Su </td> <td>*=Su </td> <td>*miSu </td> <td>*ni-Su </td></tr> <tr> <th>3s. </th> <td>*s(i)-ia </td> <td>– </td> <td>(*=ia) </td> <td>– </td> <td>*n(i)-ia </td></tr> <tr> <th>1p. (excl.) </th> <td>*i-ami </td> <td>*[i-]k-ami </td> <td>*=mi </td> <td>*mami </td> <td>*n(i)-ami </td></tr> <tr> <th>1p. (incl.) </th> <td>*([i])ita </td> <td>*[i-]k-ita </td> <td>*=ta </td> <td>*mita </td> <td>*n-ita </td></tr> <tr> <th>2p. </th> <td>*i-amu </td> <td>*[i-]k-amu </td> <td>*=mu </td> <td>*mamu </td> <td>*n(i)-amu </td></tr> <tr> <th>3p. </th> <td>*si-da </td> <td>– </td> <td>(*=da) </td> <td>– </td> <td>*ni-da </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proto-Austronesian vocabulary relating to agriculture and other technological innovations include:<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>*pajay: <a href="/wiki/Oryza_sativa" title="Oryza sativa">rice plant</a></li> <li>*beRas: <a href="/wiki/White_rice" title="White rice">husked rice</a></li> <li>*Semay: <a href="/wiki/Cooked_rice" title="Cooked rice">cooked rice</a></li> <li>*qayam: bird (means "domesticated animal" in PMP)</li> <li>*manuk: chicken (PMP *manu-manuk means "bird")</li> <li>*babuy: pig</li> <li>*qaNuaŋ: <a href="/wiki/Carabao" title="Carabao">carabao</a></li> <li>*kuden: clay cooking pot</li> <li>*SadiRi: housepost</li> <li>*busuR: bow</li> <li>*panaq: flight of an arrow</li> <li>*bubu: fish trap</li> <li>*tulaNi: bamboo <a href="/wiki/Nose_flute" title="Nose flute">nose flute</a></li></ul> <p>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian innovations include: </p> <ul><li>*puqun: base of a tree; origin, cause</li> <li>*sumpit: blowpipe</li> <li>*haRezan: notched log ladder (used to enter pile dwellings)</li> <li>*taytay: bamboo suspension bridge (POc *tete "ladder, bridge")</li> <li>*kaka: elder same sex sibling</li> <li>*huaji: younger same sex sibling</li> <li>*ñaRa: brother of a woman</li> <li>*betaw: sister of a man</li></ul> <p>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian also has several words for house: </p> <ul><li>*balay (house, building for public use)</li> <li>*Rumaq (house, family dwelling)</li> <li>*banua (land, village, house, country, sky, heaven) – hence <i><a href="/wiki/Vanua" title="Vanua">vanua</a></i> and <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi">whenua</i></span> (as in <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi"><a href="/wiki/Tangata_whenua" title="Tangata whenua">tangata whenua</a></i></span>)</li> <li>*lepaw (granary)</li> <li>*kamaliR (bachelors' clubhouse)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Body parts </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Body part </th> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th> <th>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian </th> <th>Proto-Oceanic </th> <th>Proto-Polynesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>hand </td> <td>*(qa)lima </td> <td>*(qa)lima </td> <td>*lima </td> <td>*lima </td></tr> <tr> <td>leg, foot </td> <td>*qaqay </td> <td>*qaqay </td> <td>*waqe </td> <td>*waqe </td></tr> <tr> <td>head </td> <td>*qulu </td> <td>*qulu </td> <td>*qulu, *bwatu(k) </td> <td>*qulu </td></tr> <tr> <td>eye </td> <td>*maCa </td> <td>*mata </td> <td>*mata </td> <td>*mata </td></tr> <tr> <td>ear </td> <td>*Caliŋa </td> <td>*taliŋa </td> <td>*taliŋa </td> <td>*taliŋa </td></tr> <tr> <td>nose </td> <td>*mujiŋ </td> <td>*ijuŋ </td> <td>*isuŋ </td> <td>*isu </td></tr> <tr> <td>mouth </td> <td>*ŋusu </td> <td>*baqbaq </td> <td>*papaq </td> <td>*ŋutu </td></tr> <tr> <td>blood </td> <td>*daRaq </td> <td>*daRaq </td> <td>*draRaq </td> <td>*toto </td></tr> <tr> <td>liver </td> <td>*qaCay </td> <td>*qatay </td> <td>*qate </td> <td>*qate </td></tr> <tr> <td>bone </td> <td>*CuqelaN </td> <td>*tuqelaŋ </td> <td>*suri </td> <td>*hui </td></tr> <tr> <td>skin </td> <td>*qaNiC </td> <td>*kulit </td> <td>*kulit </td> <td>*kili </td></tr> <tr> <td>back </td> <td>*likud </td> <td>*likud </td> <td>*muri, *takuRu </td> <td>*tuqa </td></tr> <tr> <td>belly </td> <td>*tiaN </td> <td>*tian, *kempuŋ </td> <td>*tian </td> <td>*manawa </td></tr> <tr> <td>intestines </td> <td>*Cinaqi </td> <td>*tinaqi </td> <td>*tinaqi </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>breast </td> <td>*susu </td> <td>*susu </td> <td>*susu </td> <td>*susu, *huhu </td></tr> <tr> <td>shoulder </td> <td>*qabaRa </td> <td>*qabaRa </td> <td>*(qa)paRa </td> <td>*uma </td></tr> <tr> <td>neck </td> <td>*liqeR </td> <td>*liqeR </td> <td>*Ruqa, *liqoR </td> <td>*ua </td></tr> <tr> <td>hair </td> <td>*bukeS </td> <td>*buhek </td> <td>*raun ni qulu </td> <td>*lau-qulu </td></tr> <tr> <td>tooth </td> <td>*nipen </td> <td>*ipen, *nipen </td> <td>*nipon, *lipon </td> <td>*nifo </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Kinship terms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Kinship </th> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th> <th>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian </th> <th>Proto-Oceanic </th> <th>Proto-Polynesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>person, human being </td> <td>*Cau </td> <td>*tau </td> <td>*taumataq </td> <td>*taŋata </td></tr> <tr> <td>mother </td> <td>*t-ina </td> <td>*t-ina </td> <td>*tina </td> <td>*tinana </td></tr> <tr> <td>father </td> <td>*t-ama </td> <td>*t-ama </td> <td>*tama </td> <td>*tamana </td></tr> <tr> <td>child </td> <td>*aNak </td> <td>*anak </td> <td>*natu </td> <td>*tama </td></tr> <tr> <td>man, male </td> <td>*ma-Ruqanay </td> <td>*laki, *ma-Ruqanay </td> <td>*mwaRuqane </td> <td>*taqane </td></tr> <tr> <td>woman, female </td> <td>*bahi </td> <td>*bahi </td> <td>*pine, *papine </td> <td>*fafine </td></tr> <tr> <td>house </td> <td>*Rumaq </td> <td>*Rumaq, *balay, *banua </td> <td>*Rumwaq </td> <td>*fale </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Animals">Animals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Common animals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Animal </th> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th> <th>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian </th> <th>Proto-Oceanic </th> <th>Proto-Polynesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>dog </td> <td>*asu </td> <td>*asu </td> <td>– </td> <td>*kuli </td></tr> <tr> <td>bird </td> <td>*qayam </td> <td>*qayam, *manuk<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>*manuk </td> <td>*manu </td></tr> <tr> <td>snake </td> <td>*SulaR </td> <td>*hulaR, *nipay </td> <td>*mwata </td> <td>*ŋata </td></tr> <tr> <td>louse </td> <td>*kuCu </td> <td>*kutu </td> <td>*kutu </td> <td>*kutu </td></tr> <tr> <td>fish </td> <td>*Sikan </td> <td>*hikan </td> <td>*ikan </td> <td>*ika </td></tr> <tr> <td>chicken </td> <td>*manuk </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Selected animal names<sup id="cite_ref-ACD_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACD-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>No.</th> <th>Common name</th> <th>Scientific name</th> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>6845</td> <td>the <a href="/wiki/Formosan_rock_monkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Formosan rock monkey">Formosan rock monkey</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Macaca_cyclopis" class="mw-redirect" title="Macaca cyclopis">Macaca cyclopis</a></i></td> <td>*luCuŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td>7228</td> <td>deer sp.</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Cervus" title="Cervus">Cervus</a></i> sp., either the <a href="/wiki/Sika_deer" title="Sika deer">sika deer</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sambar_deer" title="Sambar deer">sambar deer</a></td> <td>*benan </td></tr> <tr> <td>7187</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Formosan_blind_mole" class="mw-redirect" title="Formosan blind mole">Formosan blind mole</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Talpa_insularis" class="mw-redirect" title="Talpa insularis">Talpa insularis</a></i></td> <td>*mumu </td></tr> <tr> <td>709</td> <td>a dove</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Ducula" class="mw-redirect" title="Ducula">Ducula</a></i> spp.?</td> <td>*baRuj </td></tr> <tr> <td>7127</td> <td>omen bird</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Alcippe_(bird)" title="Alcippe (bird)">Alcippe</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*SiSiN </td></tr> <tr> <td>234</td> <td>termite, white ant</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Isoptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Isoptera">Isoptera</a></td> <td>*aNay </td></tr> <tr> <td>6861</td> <td>jungle leech</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Haemadipsa" title="Haemadipsa">Haemadipsa</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*-matek </td></tr> <tr> <td>6862</td> <td>jungle leech</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Haemadipsa" title="Haemadipsa">Haemadipsa</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*qaNi-matek </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plants">Plants</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Selected plant names<sup id="cite_ref-ACD_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACD-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>No.</th> <th>Common name</th> <th>Scientific name</th> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>8465</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bracket_fungus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bracket fungus">bracket fungus</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Polyporus" title="Polyporus">Polyporus</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*kulaC </td></tr> <tr> <td>8795</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Broomcorn_millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Broomcorn millet">broomcorn millet</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Panicum_miliaceum" class="mw-redirect" title="Panicum miliaceum">Panicum miliaceum</a></i></td> <td>*baCaR </td></tr> <tr> <td>10249</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Castor_bean" class="mw-redirect" title="Castor bean">castor bean</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Ricinus_communis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ricinus communis">Ricinus communis</a></i></td> <td>*katawa </td></tr> <tr> <td>10710</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Elephant_grass" title="Elephant grass">elephant grass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miscanthus" title="Miscanthus">miscanthus</a> grass</td> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Themeda_gigantea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Themeda gigantea (page does not exist)">Themeda gigantea</a></i></td> <td>*Caŋelaj </td></tr> <tr> <td>6569</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Formosan_maple" class="mw-redirect" title="Formosan maple">Formosan maple</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Liquidambar_formosana" title="Liquidambar formosana">Liquidambar formosana</a></i></td> <td>*daRa₁ </td></tr> <tr> <td>6629</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Loquat" title="Loquat">loquat</a> tree and fruit</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Eriobotrya_deflexa" class="mw-redirect" title="Eriobotrya deflexa">Eriobotrya deflexa</a></i></td> <td>*Ritu </td></tr> <tr> <td>7254</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mulberry" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry">mulberry</a> tree and fruit</td> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Morus_formosensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Morus formosensis (page does not exist)">Morus formosensis</a></i></td> <td>*taNiud </td></tr> <tr> <td>4614</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rattan" title="Rattan">rattan</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Calamus_(palm)" title="Calamus (palm)">Calamus</a></i> sp.</td> <td>*quay </td></tr> <tr> <td>6568</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Soapberry" title="Soapberry">soapberry</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Sapindus_mukorossi" title="Sapindus mukorossi">Sapindus mukorossi</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sapindus_saponaria" title="Sapindus saponaria">Sapindus saponaria</a></i></td> <td>*daqu₂ </td></tr> <tr> <td>7166</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stinging_nettle" class="mw-redirect" title="Stinging nettle">stinging nettle</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Laportea" title="Laportea">Laportea</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*laCeŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td>4900</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Imperata_cylindrica" title="Imperata cylindrica">sword grass</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Imperata_cylindrica" title="Imperata cylindrica">Imperata cylindrica</a></i></td> <td>*Riaq </td></tr> <tr> <td>6689</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Imperata_cylindrica" title="Imperata cylindrica">sword grass</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Imperata_cylindrica" title="Imperata cylindrica">Imperata cylindrica</a></i></td> <td>*Rimeja </td></tr> <tr> <td>7070</td> <td>a hairy vine</td> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pueraria_hirsuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pueraria hirsuta (page does not exist)">Pueraria hirsuta</a></i></td> <td>*baSay </td></tr> <tr> <td>484</td> <td>giant crinum lily, spider lily</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Crinum_asiaticum" title="Crinum asiaticum">Crinum asiaticum</a></i></td> <td>*bakuŋ₁ </td></tr> <tr> <td>4039</td> <td>Caesarweed, Congo jute</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Urena_lobata" title="Urena lobata">Urena lobata</a></i></td> <td>*puluC </td></tr> <tr> <td>6560</td> <td>Chinese sumac, nutgall tree</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Rhus_semialata" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhus semialata">Rhus semialata</a></i></td> <td>*beRuS </td></tr> <tr> <td>6587</td> <td>aromatic litsea, may chang</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Litsea_cubeba" title="Litsea cubeba">Litsea cubeba</a></i></td> <td>*maqaw </td></tr> <tr> <td>6630</td> <td>Indian lettuce</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Lactuca_indica" title="Lactuca indica">Lactuca indica</a></i></td> <td>*Samaq </td></tr> <tr> <td>6630</td> <td>sow thistle</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Sonchus_oleraceus" title="Sonchus oleraceus">Sonchus oleraceus</a></i></td> <td>*Samaq </td></tr> <tr> <td>6697</td> <td>a plant</td> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aralia_decaisneana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aralia decaisneana (page does not exist)">Aralia decaisneana</a></i></td> <td>*tanaq </td></tr> <tr> <td>6818</td> <td>European black nightshade</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Solanum_nigrum" title="Solanum nigrum">Solanum nigrum</a></i></td> <td>*SameCi </td></tr> <tr> <td>7082</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Reed_(plant)" title="Reed (plant)">reed</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Phragmites" title="Phragmites">Phragmites</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*qaReNu </td></tr> <tr> <td>7084</td> <td>a plant</td> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Begonia_aptera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Begonia aptera (page does not exist)">Begonia aptera</a></i></td> <td>*qanus₁ </td></tr> <tr> <td>7418</td> <td>fireweed, burnweed</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Erechtites" title="Erechtites">Erechtites</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*Sina </td></tr> <tr> <td>12731</td> <td>Chinese elder</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Sambucus_formosana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sambucus formosana">Sambucus formosana</a></i></td> <td>*Nayad </td></tr> <tr> <td>8455</td> <td>a plant with roots that are pounded and put in rivers to stun fish</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Derris_elliptica" title="Derris elliptica">Derris elliptica</a></i></td> <td>*tuba </td></tr> <tr> <td>7191</td> <td>a plant, <a href="/wiki/Sesame" title="Sesame">sesame</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Sesamum_indicum" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesamum indicum">Sesamum indicum</a></i></td> <td>*Samud </td></tr> <tr> <td>12683</td> <td>a small tree bearing round, green fruit</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Ehretia" title="Ehretia">Ehretia</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*kaNawaS </td></tr> <tr> <td>611</td> <td>a thorny vine</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Smilax" title="Smilax">Smilax</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*baNaR </td></tr> <tr> <td>619</td> <td>a thorny vine</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Smilax" title="Smilax">Smilax</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*baNaw </td></tr> <tr> <td>4243</td> <td>fragrant manjack</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Cordia_dichotoma" title="Cordia dichotoma">Cordia dichotoma</a></i></td> <td>*qaNuNaŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td>7114</td> <td>chinaberry tree</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Melia_azedarach" title="Melia azedarach">Melia azedarach</a></i></td> <td>*baŋaS </td></tr> <tr> <td>12726</td> <td>bishop wood</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Bischofia_javanica" title="Bischofia javanica">Bischofia javanica</a></i></td> <td>*CuquR </td></tr> <tr> <td>12811</td> <td>a tree</td> <td><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zelkova_formosana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zelkova formosana (page does not exist)">Zelkova formosana</a></i></td> <td>*teRebeS </td></tr> <tr> <td>12773</td> <td>a tree, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mahogany" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese mahogany">Chinese mahogany</a> or <a href="/wiki/Philippine_mahogany" title="Philippine mahogany">Philippine mahogany</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Shorea_maxwelliana" title="Shorea maxwelliana">Shorea maxwelliana</a></i></td> <td>*buleS </td></tr> <tr> <td>6682</td> <td>a tree: the <a href="/wiki/Camphor_laurel" class="mw-redirect" title="Camphor laurel">camphor laurel</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Cinnamomum" title="Cinnamomum">Cinnamomum</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*dakeS </td></tr> <tr> <td>7233</td> <td>an evergreen tree</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Acacia_confusa" title="Acacia confusa">Acacia confusa</a></i>?</td> <td>*tuquN </td></tr> <tr> <td>9776</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Bambusa_spinosa" title="Bambusa spinosa">Bambusa spinosa</a></i>?</td> <td>*kawayan </td></tr> <tr> <td>1046</td> <td>bamboo of very large diameter</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Dendrocalamus" title="Dendrocalamus">Dendrocalamus</a></i> sp.?</td> <td>*betuŋ₁ </td></tr> <tr> <td>6559</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">banana</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Musa_sapientum" class="mw-redirect" title="Musa sapientum">Musa sapientum</a></i></td> <td>*beNbeN </td></tr> <tr> <td>6693</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Betel_nut" class="mw-redirect" title="Betel nut">betel nut</a></td> <td>nut of <i><a href="/wiki/Areca_catechu" title="Areca catechu">Areca catechu</a></i></td> <td>*Sawiki </td></tr> <tr> <td>1223</td> <td>cane grass</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Miscanthus" title="Miscanthus">Miscanthus</a></i> sp.</td> <td>*biRaSu </td></tr> <tr> <td>6620</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cucumber" title="Cucumber">cucumber</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Cucumis_sativus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cucumis sativus">Cucumis sativus</a></i></td> <td>*baRat₂ </td></tr> <tr> <td>6621</td> <td>cultivated <a href="/wiki/Taro" title="Taro">taro</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Colocasia_esculenta" class="mw-redirect" title="Colocasia esculenta">Colocasia esculenta</a></i></td> <td>*Cali </td></tr> <tr> <td>8750</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a> sp.</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Setaria_italica" class="mw-redirect" title="Setaria italica">Setaria italica</a></i> (?)</td> <td>*zawa₂ </td></tr> <tr> <td>811</td> <td>millet sp., probably <a href="/wiki/Foxtail_millet" title="Foxtail millet">foxtail millet</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Setaria_italica" class="mw-redirect" title="Setaria italica">Setaria italica</a></i></td> <td>*beCeŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td>3089</td> <td>plant sp.</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Diospyros_discolor" class="mw-redirect" title="Diospyros discolor">Diospyros discolor</a></i></td> <td>*kamaya </td></tr> <tr> <td>2054</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Saccharum_officinarum" title="Saccharum officinarum">Saccharum officinarum</a></i></td> <td>*CebuS </td></tr> <tr> <td>7952</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Saccharum_officinarum" title="Saccharum officinarum">Saccharum officinarum</a></i></td> <td>*tebuS </td></tr> <tr> <td>7304</td> <td>the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_cypress" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese cypress">Japanese cypress</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Chamaecyparis_obtusa" title="Chamaecyparis obtusa">Chamaecyparis obtusa</a></i></td> <td>*baŋun₁ </td></tr> <tr> <td>12687</td> <td>the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_raspberry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Japanese raspberry (page does not exist)">Japanese raspberry</a></td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Rubus_parvifolius" title="Rubus parvifolius">Rubus parvifolius</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Rubus_taiwanianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubus taiwanianus">Rubus taiwanianus</a></i></td> <td>*RiNuk </td></tr> <tr> <td>4722</td> <td>tree with sticky fruits</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Cordia" title="Cordia">Cordia</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*quNuNaŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td>1601</td> <td>type of slender bamboo</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Schizostachyum" title="Schizostachyum">Schizostachyum</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*buluq₂ </td></tr> <tr> <td>1218</td> <td>wild <a href="/wiki/Taro" title="Taro">taro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alocasia" title="Alocasia">elephant's ear</a> or itching taro</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Alocasia" title="Alocasia">Alocasia</a></i> spp.</td> <td>*biRaq₁ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colors_and_directions">Colors and directions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Colors and directions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below are colors in reconstructed Proto-Austronesian, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, Proto-Oceanic, and Proto-Polynesian.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pawley_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pawley-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first three have been reconstructed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Blust" title="Robert Blust">Robert Blust</a>, while the Proto-Polynesian words given below were reconstructed by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Pawley" title="Andrew Pawley">Andrew Pawley</a>. Proto-Polynesian displays many innovations not found in the other proto-languages. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Colors </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Color </th> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th> <th>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian </th> <th>Proto-Oceanic </th> <th>Proto-Polynesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>white </td> <td>*ma-puNi </td> <td>*ma-putiq </td> <td>*ma-puteq </td> <td>*tea </td></tr> <tr> <td>black </td> <td>*ma-CeŋeN </td> <td>*ma-qitem </td> <td>*ma-qetom </td> <td>*quli(-quli) </td></tr> <tr> <td>red </td> <td>*ma-puteq </td> <td>*ma-iRaq </td> <td>*meRaq </td> <td>*kula </td></tr> <tr> <td>yellow </td> <td>– </td> <td>*ma-kunij </td> <td>*aŋo </td> <td>*reŋareŋa, *felo(-felo) </td></tr> <tr> <td>green </td> <td>*mataq </td> <td>*mataq </td> <td>*karakarawa </td> <td>*mata (?) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Proto-Austronesians used two types of directions, which are the land-sea axis and the monsoon axis. The cardinal directions of north, south, east, and west developed among the Austronesian languages only after contact with the Europeans. For the land-sea axis, upstream/uphill and inland, as well as downstream/downhill and seaward, are synonym pairs. This has been proposed as evidence that Proto-Austronesians used to live on a mainland, since the sea would be visible from all angles on small islands.<sup id="cite_ref-Blust09_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>*daya: inland (also upstream/uphill)</li> <li>*lahud: seaward (also downstream/downhill)</li> <li>*SabaRat: west monsoon</li> <li>*timuR: east monsoon</li> <li>*qamiS: north wind</li></ul> <p>In Kavalan, Amis, and Tagalog, the reflexes of *timuR mean "south" or "south wind," while in the languages of the southern Philippines and Indonesia it means "east" or "east wind." </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ilocano_language" title="Ilocano language">Ilocano</a>, <span title="Ilocano-language text"><i lang="ilo">dáya</i></span> and <span title="Ilocano-language text"><i lang="ilo">láud</i></span> respectively mean "east" and "west," while in <a href="/wiki/Puyuma_language" title="Puyuma language">Puyuma</a>, <span title="Puyuma-language text"><i lang="pyu">ɖaya</i></span> and <span title="Puyuma-language text"><i lang="pyu">ɭauɖ</i></span> respectively mean "west" and "east."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because the Ilocano homeland is the west coast of northern Luzon, while the Puyuma homeland is on the eastern coast of southern Taiwan. Among the Bontok, Kankanaey, and Ifugaw languages of northern Luzon, the reflexes of *daya mean "sky" because they already live in some of the highest elevations in the Philippines (Blust 2009:301). </p><p>Also, the <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> reflex of *lahud is <span title="Malay (macrolanguage)-language text"><i lang="ms">laut</i></span>, which means "sea", used as directions <span title="Malay (macrolanguage)-language text"><i lang="ms">timur laut</i></span> (means "northeast", <i>timur</i> = "east") and <span title="Malay (macrolanguage)-language text"><i lang="ms">barat laut</i></span> (means "northwest", <i>barat</i> = "west"). Meanwhile, *daya only performs in <span title="Malay (macrolanguage)-language text"><i lang="ms">barat daya</i></span>, which means "southwest". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerals">Numerals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Numerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below are reconstructed Proto-Austronesian, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, Proto-Oceanic, and Proto-Polynesian numbers from the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Note that *lima 'five', ultimately the root for 'hand', is not found for 'five' in some Formosan languages, such as Pazeh, Saisiat, Luilang, Favorlang and Taokas; numerals cognate with Proto-Malayo-Polynesian 6–10 are found in Amis, Basay, Bunun, Kanakanabu, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Saaroa and Tsou. Pazeh, Favorlang, Saisiat and Taokas reflect *RaCep 'five'. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Laurent Sagart</a> suggests that this was the PAn root, replaced by *lima in a lineage that lead to the remaining languages, rather than the reverse, because it seems to be retained in proto-Malayo-Polynesian in the forms 7, 8, 9, which appear to be disyllabic contractions of additive phrases attested from some of the western Formosan languages, especially Pazeh: Pazeh <i>xaseb-uza</i> 'six' (literally 'five-one'); <i>xaseb-i-dusa</i> 'seven' ('five-and-two'), with the <i>bidu</i> cognate with PMP *pitu; <i>xaseb-a-turu</i> 'eight' ('five-and-three'), with the <i>baturu</i> cognate with PMP *walu; <i>xaseb-i-supat</i> 'nine' ('five-and-four'), with the <i>supa</i> (< PAn *Sepat 'four') cognate with PMP *Siwa.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Numerals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Number </th> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th> <th>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian </th> <th>Proto-Oceanic </th> <th>Proto-Polynesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>one </td> <td>*esa, *isa </td> <td>*esa, *isa </td> <td>*sa-kai, *ta-sa, *tai, *kai </td> <td>*taha </td></tr> <tr> <td>two </td> <td>*duSa </td> <td>*duha </td> <td>*rua </td> <td>*rua </td></tr> <tr> <td>three </td> <td>*telu </td> <td>*telu </td> <td>*tolu </td> <td>*tolu </td></tr> <tr> <td>four </td> <td>*Sepat </td> <td>*epat </td> <td>*pat, *pati, *pani </td> <td>*faa </td></tr> <tr> <td>five </td> <td>*RaCep > *lima </td> <td>*lima </td> <td>*lima </td> <td>*lima </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Proto-Austronesian language had different sets of numerals for non-humans ("set A") and humans ("set B") (Blust 2009:279). Cardinal numerals for counting humans are derived from the non-human numerals through Ca-reduplication. This bipartite numeral system is found in Thao, Puyuma, Yami, Chamorro, and various other languages (however, Paiwan uses <span title="Paiwan-language text"><i lang="pwn">ma-</i></span> and <span title="Paiwan-language text"><i lang="pwn">manə-</i></span> to derive human numerals). In many Philippine languages such as Tagalog, the two numeral systems are merged (Blust 2009:280–281). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Basic numerals vs. human numerals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Number </th> <th>Set A </th> <th>Set B </th> <th>Tagalog </th></tr> <tr> <td>one </td> <td>*isa </td> <td>*? </td> <td><span title="Tagalog-language text"><i lang="tl">isa</i></span> (A) </td></tr> <tr> <td>two </td> <td>*duSa </td> <td>*da-duSa </td> <td><span title="Tagalog-language text"><i lang="tl">dalawa</i></span> (B) </td></tr> <tr> <td>three </td> <td>*telu </td> <td>*ta-telu </td> <td><span title="Tagalog-language text"><i lang="tl">tatlo</i></span> (B) </td></tr> <tr> <td>four </td> <td>*Sepat </td> <td>*Sa-Sepat </td> <td><span title="Tagalog-language text"><i lang="tl">apat</i></span> (B) </td></tr> <tr> <td>five </td> <td>*lima </td> <td>*la-lima </td> <td><span title="Tagalog-language text"><i lang="tl">lima</i></span> (A) </td></tr> <tr> <td>six </td> <td>*enem </td> <td>*a-enem </td> <td><span title="Tagalog-language text"><i lang="tl">anim</i></span> (B) </td></tr> <tr> <td>seven </td> <td>*pitu </td> <td>*pa-pitu </td> <td><span title="Tagalog-language text"><i lang="tl">pito</i></span> (A) </td></tr> <tr> <td>eight </td> <td>*walu </td> <td>*wa-walu </td> <td><span title="Tagalog-language text"><i lang="tl">walo</i></span> (A) </td></tr> <tr> <td>nine </td> <td>*Siwa </td> <td>*Sa-Siwa </td> <td><span title="Tagalog-language text"><i lang="tl">(siyam)</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ten </td> <td>*sa-puluq </td> <td>*? </td> <td><span title="Tagalog-language text"><i lang="tl">sampu</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Proto-Austronesian also used *Sika- to derive <a href="/wiki/Ordinal_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinal numerals">ordinal numerals</a> (Blust 2009:281). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below are reconstructed Proto-Austronesian, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, Proto-Oceanic, and Proto-Polynesian verbs from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170503020518/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/">Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Verbs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Verb </th> <th>Proto-Austronesian </th> <th>Proto-Malayo-Polynesian </th> <th>Proto-Oceanic </th> <th>Proto-Polynesian </th></tr> <tr> <td>to walk </td> <td>*Nakaw </td> <td>*lakaw, paNaw </td> <td>*lako, pano </td> <td>*fano </td></tr> <tr> <td>to swim </td> <td>*Naŋuy </td> <td>*naŋuy </td> <td>*kakaRu </td> <td>*kaukau </td></tr> <tr> <td>to know </td> <td>*bajaq </td> <td>*taqu </td> <td>*taqu </td> <td>*qiloa </td></tr> <tr> <td>to think </td> <td>*nemnem </td> <td>*demdem </td> <td>*rodrom </td> <td>*manatu </td></tr> <tr> <td>to sleep </td> <td>*tuduR </td> <td>*tuduR </td> <td>*turuR </td> <td>*mohe </td></tr> <tr> <td>to stand </td> <td>*diRi </td> <td>*diRi, *tuqud </td> <td>*tuqur </td> <td>*tuqu </td></tr> <tr> <td>to sew </td> <td>*taSiq </td> <td>*tahiq, *zaqit </td> <td>*saqit, *turi </td> <td>*tui </td></tr> <tr> <td>to die, be dead </td> <td>*m-aCay </td> <td>*m-atay </td> <td>*mate </td> <td>*mate </td></tr> <tr> <td>to choose </td> <td>*piliq </td> <td>*piliq </td> <td>*piliq </td> <td>*fili </td></tr> <tr> <td>to fly </td> <td>*layap </td> <td>*layap, Rebek </td> <td>*Ropok </td> <td>*lele </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monosyllabic_roots">Monosyllabic roots</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Monosyllabic roots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following are monosyllabic Proto-Austronesian roots reconstructed by John Wolff (Wolff 1999).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <p><b>Forms which can be reconstructed as monosyllables with a great deal of certainty</b> </p> <ul><li>*baw 'up, above'</li> <li>*bay 'woman'</li> <li>*beg 'spool, wind'</li> <li>*bit 'carry in fingers'</li> <li>*buñ '<a href="/wiki/Fontanelle" title="Fontanelle">fontanelle</a>'</li> <li>*but 'pluck out'</li> <li>*dem 'think, brood'</li> <li>*gem 'first, hold in fist'</li> <li>*ɣiq 'Imperata cylindrica'</li> <li>*kan 'eat' <ul><li>*si-kan 'fish, what is eaten with staple'</li> <li>*pa-kan 'feed, weft'</li> <li>*paN-kan 'eat, feed'</li></ul></li> <li>*kub <ul><li>*kubkub 'cover over'</li> <li>*takub 'cover over in a cupped way' (where *ta- is a fossilized prefix)</li></ul></li> <li>*lid <ul><li>*belit 'wind'</li> <li>*bilid 'wind, twist, or fold s.t. over'</li> <li>*pulid 'turn round'</li></ul></li> <li>*luk 'concave bend'</li> <li>*lum 'ripe'</li> <li>*nem 'six'</li> <li>*ñam 'taste'</li> <li>*ñeŋ 'look, stare'</li> <li>*ŋa 'agape (mouth)' <ul><li>*kaŋa 'be open (as mouth)'</li> <li>*baŋa 'gap, stand open'</li> <li>*binaŋa (< -in- + baŋa) / *minaŋa 'mouth of river'</li> <li>*beŋa 'be agape'</li> <li>*búŋa 'flower'</li> <li>*paŋa 'forking'</li> <li>*ʃaŋa 'branch'</li></ul></li> <li>*pan 'bait'</li> <li>*pat 'four'</li> <li>*peʃ 'squeeze, deflate'</li> <li>*pit <ul><li>*kepit 'pinched together'</li></ul></li> <li>*pu 'grandparent/child'</li> <li>*put 'blow'</li> <li>*ʃaw 'wash, rinse off, dunk'</li> <li>*ʃay 'who?'</li> <li>*ʃek 'stuff, fill chock full'</li> <li>*ʃeŋ 'stop up'</li> <li>*ʃep 'suck'</li> <li>*ʃuk 'go in, through'</li> <li>*taw 'man'</li> <li>*tay 'bridge' <ul><li>*matay 'die'</li> <li>*patay 'dead, kill'</li></ul></li> <li>*tuk 'strike, peck, beak'</li></ul> <p><b>Sequences which are likely (or may have been) monosyllabic roots, but cannot be unequivocally reconstructed</b> </p> <ul><li>*baŋ 'fly'</li> <li>*bu 'fish trap'</li> <li>*buʃ 'puff, blow out' (not well attested; most monosyllables occur in Oceanic languages)</li> <li>*dañ 'old (of things)'</li> <li>*daŋ 'heat near a fire'</li> <li>*dem 'dark, cloudy' <ul><li>*padem 'extinguish'</li></ul></li> <li>*diʃ 'cut, lance'</li> <li>*ka 'elder sibling'</li> <li>*kid 'file, rasp'</li> <li>*lag 'spread out' <ul><li>*belag 'spread out'</li> <li>*pálag 'palm of hand'</li> <li>*qelag 'wing'</li></ul></li> <li>*laŋ 'placed lengthwise' <ul><li>*galaŋ 'wedge, s.t. placed underneath to support'</li> <li>*halaŋ 'lie athwart, bar, be an obstacle'</li></ul></li> <li>*leb 'for water to come over s.t.'</li> <li>*lem – reflexes variously mean 'night' or 'darkness'</li> <li>*luñ <ul><li>*luluñ 'roll up'</li> <li>*baluñ 'fold over, wrap'</li></ul></li> <li>*muɣuɣ 'gargle, rinse out mouth' (monosyllabic status is weak)</li> <li>*pak 'make a sound of 'pak', wings (from the sound)'</li> <li>*tan 'set trap'</li> <li>*taʃ 'top'</li> <li>*tuk 'top, summit'</li> <li>*tun 'lead on a rope'</li></ul> <p><b>Reconstructed doubled monosyllables phonologically but which cannot be proven to be monosyllabic roots</b> </p> <ul><li>*baba 'carry on back'</li> <li>*bakbak 'remove outer layer of skin, bark'</li> <li>*baqbaq 'mouth'</li> <li>*bañbañ 'kind of reed used for mats, Donax canniformis'</li> <li>*bekbek 'pulverize'</li> <li>*biɣbiɣ 'lips (lip-like growth)'</li> <li>*biŋbiŋ 'hold, guide'</li> <li>*biʃbiʃ 'sprinkle'</li> <li>*buɣ(buɣ) 'broken into small pieces'</li> <li>*buñbuñ 'down, body hair' (only in Taiwan and the Philippines; probably not PAn)</li> <li>*dabdab 'set fire to'</li> <li>*dakdak 'slam s.t. down' (only in the Philippines)</li> <li>*dasdas 'chest'</li> <li>*debdeb 'chest'</li> <li>*diŋdiŋ 'wall'</li> <li>*diqdiq 'boil'</li> <li>*gapgap 'feel, grope'</li> <li>*ɣaʃɣaʃ 'scratched'</li> <li>*idid 'move rapidly in small motions' (e.g., 'fan')</li> <li>*jutjut 'pull at'</li> <li>*kaŋkaŋ 'spread the legs' (only in the Philippines and western Indonesia) <ul><li>*bakaŋ 'bow-legged'</li> <li>*kaqkaq 'split, torn, with intestines'</li> <li>*keŋkeŋ 'rigid, tight'</li></ul></li> <li>*kepkep 'clasp' <ul><li>*dakep 'catch'</li> <li>*ʃikep 'catch s.t. moving, tight'</li></ul></li> <li>*kiskis 'scrape off'</li> <li>*kiʃkiʃ 'grate, file'</li> <li>*kudkud 'grate, rasp, scratch out'</li> <li>*kañuskus 'fingernail'</li> <li>*kuʃkuʃ 'rub, scrape'</li> <li>*laplap 'flapping, loose (like skin on newborn)' (only in Paiwan and Philippine languages)</li> <li>*mekmek 'fragments'</li> <li>*neknek 'gnat, fruit fly'</li> <li>*nemnem 'think'</li> <li>*palaqpaq 'frond'</li> <li>*pejpej 'press together'</li> <li>*ququ 'crab'</li> <li>*sapsap 'grope'</li> <li>*ʃaʃa 'collect palm leaves for thatching'</li> <li>*ʃakʃak 'beat, chop'</li> <li>*ʃelʃel 'regret'</li> <li>*ʃelʃel 'insert, cram in'</li> <li>*ʃiʃi 'kind of mollusk'</li> <li>*ʃikʃik 'search through thoroughly (as for lice)'</li> <li>*ʃuʃu 'breast, teat'</li> <li>*ʃuɣʃuɣ 'follow behind'</li> <li>*ʃuŋʃuŋ 'go against' (only in the Philippines and western Indonesia)</li> <li>*taktak 'fall, drop'</li> <li>*tamtam 'smack lips' or taste'</li> <li>*taʃtaʃ 'rent, break thread' <ul><li>*bútaʃ 'hole'</li> <li>*ɣetaʃ 'break through, break open'</li> <li>*teʃteʃ 'rip open'</li></ul></li> <li>*tutu 'strike'</li> <li>*waqwaq 'channel'</li> <li>*witwit 'swinging to and fro'</li></ul> <p><b>Sequences which occur as final syllables over a wide area but which cannot be reconstructed as a monosyllabic root</b> </p> <ul><li>*buk <ul><li>*dabuk 'ashes'</li> <li>*dábuk 'beat to pulp'</li> <li>*ɣabuk 'pulverized'</li> <li>*qabuk 'dust'</li></ul></li> <li>*bun 'dew mist' <ul><li>*bun 'heap, stack'</li> <li>*subun 'heap, pile'</li> <li>*timbun / *tábun (?) 'heap'</li> <li>*ɣábun 'fog'</li></ul></li> <li>*buq 'add, increase' <ul><li>*tubuq 'grow, shoot'</li></ul></li> <li>*duŋ 'protect, shelter'</li> <li>*ket <ul><li>*deket 'near'</li> <li>*jeket 'stick'</li> <li>*ñiket / ñaŋket 'sticky'</li> <li>*ñiket 'sticky substance'</li> <li>*siket 'tie'</li></ul></li> <li>*kuŋ <ul><li>*bekuŋ 'arch'</li> <li>*dekuŋ 'bent'</li> <li>*leŋkuŋ 'bent'</li></ul></li> <li>*kup <ul><li>*aŋkup 'put in cupped hands'</li> <li>*tukup 'cover'</li></ul></li> <li>*kut <ul><li>*dakut 'take in hand'</li> <li>*ɣakut 'tie together'</li> <li>*ʃaŋkut 'caught on a hook'</li></ul></li> <li>*laq <ul><li>*telaq / *kelaq 'crack' or 'split'</li> <li>*belaq 'cleft'</li></ul></li> <li>*liŋ <ul><li>*baliŋ 'wind around, turn s.t. around'</li> <li>*biliŋ 'turning round'</li> <li>*giliŋ 'roll over s.t.'</li> <li>*guliŋ 'roll up'</li> <li>*paliŋ 'wind around' or 'turn body'</li></ul></li> <li>*liw <ul><li>*baliw 'return, go back'</li> <li>*ʃaliw 'give in exchange'</li></ul></li> <li>*luʃ 'slip' or 'slippery' or 'smooth'</li> <li>*naw <ul><li>*línaw 'calm, unroiled'</li> <li>*tiqenaw 'clear'</li></ul></li> <li>*ŋaw <ul><li>*baŋaw 'bedbug'</li> <li>*láŋaw 'fly'</li> <li>*tuŋaw 'kind of mite causing itch'</li></ul></li> <li>*ŋet <ul><li>*qaŋet 'warm'</li> <li>*ʃeŋet 'sharp, stinger'</li> <li>*ʃeŋet 'acrid in smell'</li></ul></li> <li>*paɣ 'be flat' <ul><li>*dampaɣ / *lampaɣ / *dapaɣ / *lapaɣ 'be flat'</li> <li>*sampaɣ 'mat, spread out'</li></ul></li> <li>*puŋ 'cluster, bunch'</li> <li>*taɣ <ul><li>*dataɣ 'flat area'</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_personal_pronouns" title="Austronesian personal pronouns">Austronesian personal pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_alignment" class="mw-redirect" title="Austronesian alignment">Austronesian alignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossilized_affixes_in_Austronesian_languages" title="Fossilized affixes in Austronesian languages">Fossilized affixes in Austronesian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Malayo-Polynesian_language" title="Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language">Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Philippine_language" title="Proto-Philippine language">Proto-Philippine language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Oceanic_language" title="Proto-Oceanic language">Proto-Oceanic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Polynesian_language" title="Proto-Polynesian language">Proto-Polynesian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Austroasiatic_language" title="Proto-Austroasiatic language">Proto-Austroasiatic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_language" title="Proto-Hmong–Mien language">Proto-Hmong–Mien language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman_language" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman language">Proto-Tibeto-Burman language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Blust13-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blust13_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBlustAustralian_National_University._Pacific_Linguistics2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Blust" title="Robert Blust">Blust, Robert</a>; Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/1885/10191"><i>The Austronesian languages: Revised Edition</i></a>. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1885%2F10191">1885/10191</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-92218-507-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-92218-507-5"><bdi>978-1-92218-507-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Austronesian+languages%3A+Revised+Edition&rft.pub=Pacific+Linguistics%2C+Research+School+of+Pacific+and+Asian+Studies%2C+The+Australian+National+University&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1885%2F10191&rft.isbn=978-1-92218-507-5&rft.aulast=Blust&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Australian+National+University.+Pacific+Linguistics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F1885%2F10191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Austronesian+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blust09-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blust09_2-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlustAustralian_National_University._Pacific_Linguistics2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Blust" title="Robert Blust">Blust, Robert</a>; Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uYspAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Austronesian languages</i></a>. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85883-602-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85883-602-0"><bdi>978-0-85883-602-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Austronesian+languages&rft.pub=Pacific+Linguistics%2C+Research+School+of+Pacific+and+Asian+Studies%2C+The+Australian+National+University&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-85883-602-0&rft.aulast=Blust&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Australian+National+University.+Pacific+Linguistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuYspAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Austronesian+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolff, John U. 2010. Proto-Austronesian Phonology with Glossary. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolff uses <span class="nowrap">⟨ɬ⟩</span> (which in IPA stands for a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_lateral_fricatives" title="Voiceless dental and alveolar lateral fricatives">voiceless alveolar lateral fricative</a>) to represent the proto-sound which he assumes to have been a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced palatal lateral approximant">palatal lateral</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced palatal lateral approximant">ʎ</a>]</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ross-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ross_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ross_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Ross_(linguist)" title="Malcolm Ross (linguist)">Ross, Malcolm D.</a> (Summer 1992), "The Sound of Proto-Austronesian: An Outsider's View of the Formosan Evidence", <i>Oceanic Linguistics</i>, <b>31</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">23–</span>64, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3622965">10.2307/3622965</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3622965">3622965</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanic+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+Sound+of+Proto-Austronesian%3A+An+Outsider%27s+View+of+the+Formosan+Evidence&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E64&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3622965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3622965%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Austronesian+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tsuchida, Shigeru 1976. Reconstruction of proto-Tsouic phonology. Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Monograph Series, no. 5. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Technically this is still part of the *S > *h sound change. The difference is that the preceding vowel changes as well.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrançois2010" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Fran%C3%A7ois_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre François (linguist)">François, Alexandre</a> (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/848679">"Phonotactics and the prestopped velar lateral of Hiw: Resolving the ambiguity of a complex segment"</a>, <i>Phonology</i>, <b>27</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">393–</span>434, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0952675710000205">10.1017/s0952675710000205</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62628417">62628417</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phonology&rft.atitle=Phonotactics+and+the+prestopped+velar+lateral+of+Hiw%3A+Resolving+the+ambiguity+of+a+complex+segment&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E393-%3C%2Fspan%3E434&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0952675710000205&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A62628417%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F848679&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Austronesian+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlust2004" class="citation journal cs1">Blust, R. A. (2004). "*t to k: An Austronesian Sound Change Revisited". <i>Oceanic Linguistics</i>. <b>43</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">365–</span>410. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fol.2005.0001">10.1353/ol.2005.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143013834">143013834</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanic+Linguistics&rft.atitle=%2At+to+k%3A+An+Austronesian+Sound+Change+Revisited&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E365-%3C%2Fspan%3E410&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fol.2005.0001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143013834%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Blust&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Austronesian+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ross2009-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ross2009_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ross, Malcolm. 2009. "Proto Austronesian verbal morphology: A reappraisal." In Alexander Adelaar and Andrew Pawley (eds.). <i>Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: a festschrift for Robert Blust</i>. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Only found in the central and southern Philippines as well as some parts of Borneo and Sulawesi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Found in the Formosan languages and possibly also in Cebuano.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Used with insects, rainbows, storm/natural phenomena, various plant/animal names, etc.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acd.clld.org/cognatesets/27339">entry *paRi-</a> in <a href="#acd">Blust, Trussel & Smith (2023)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPawley1973" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Pawley" title="Andrew Pawley">Pawley, Andrew</a> (1973). "Some problems in Proto-Oceanic grammar". <i>Oceanic Linguistics</i>. <b>12</b> (1/2): <span class="nowrap">103–</span>188. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3622854">10.2307/3622854</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3622854">3622854</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanic+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Some+problems+in+Proto-Oceanic+grammar&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E103-%3C%2Fspan%3E188&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3622854&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3622854%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pawley&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Austronesian+language" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Ross_(linguist)" title="Malcolm Ross (linguist)">Ross, Malcolm</a> (2006). <i>Reconstructing the case-marking and personal pronoun systems of Proto Austronesian</i>. In Henry Y. Chang and Lillian M. Huang and <a href="/wiki/Dah-an_Ho" class="mw-redirect" title="Dah-an Ho">Dah-an Ho</a>, eds, Streams Converging into an Ocean: Festschrift in Honor of Professor Paul Jen-kuei Li on His 70th Birthday, 521–564. Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">PMP *qayam means ;domesticated animal', PMP *manuk means 'domesticated fowl, chicken', and PMP *manu-manuk means 'bird'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ACD-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ACD_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACD_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#acd">Blust, Trussel & Smith (2023)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pawley-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pawley_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPawley" class="citation web cs1">Pawley, Andrew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170413021014/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=658">"Proto-Oceanic and Proto-Polynesian Reconstructions for Modified Swadesh 200 Meaning List, Without Supporting Cognate Sets"</a>. <i>Unpublished list, 2009</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=658">the original</a> on 2017-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Unpublished+list%2C+2009&rft.atitle=Proto-Oceanic+and+Proto-Polynesian+Reconstructions+for+Modified+Swadesh+200+Meaning+List%2C+Without+Supporting+Cognate+Sets&rft.aulast=Pawley&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flanguage.psy.auckland.ac.nz%2Faustronesian%2Flanguage.php%3Fid%3D658&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Austronesian+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cauquelin, Josiane. 1991. Dictionnaire Puyuma–Français. Paris: Ecole française d'Extrême Orient.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170503020518/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/">"Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/">the original</a> on 2017-05-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Austronesian+Basic+Vocabulary+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flanguage.psy.auckland.ac.nz%2Faustronesian%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Austronesian+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurent Sagart (2004) The Higher Phylogeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadai</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolff, John. 1999. "The monosyllabic roots of Proto-Austronesian." In Elizabeth Zeitoun and Paul Jen-kuei Li, eds. 1999. <i>Selected papers from the Eighth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics</i>, 139–194. Taipei, Taiwan: Academia Sinica.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Adelaar, A. (2005). The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar: A historical perspective. In A. Adelaar, & N. P. Himmelmann (Eds.), <i>The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar</i>. New York: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1286-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1286-1">978-0-7007-1286-1</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-68153-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-68153-7">978-0-415-68153-7</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-82112-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-82112-1">978-0-203-82112-1</a></li> <li>Bouchard-Côtéa, A., Hallb, D., Griffithsc, T. L., & Kleinb, D. (2012). Automated reconstruction of ancient languages using probabilistic models of sound change <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/02/05/1204678110.abstract">[1]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">PNAS</a>, December 22, 2012.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Blust" title="Robert Blust">Blust, Robert</a> (1999). Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: Some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics. In Zeitoun, E., & Li, P. J-K. (Eds.), <i>Selected Papers From the 8th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics</i>. Taipei: Academica Sinica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170409095340/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=280">https://web.archive.org/web/20170409095340/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=280</a></li> <li>Blust, R. A. (2009). <i>The Austronesian Languages</i>. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85883-602-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85883-602-0">978-0-85883-602-0</a>.</li> <li>Cohen, E. M. K. (1999). <i>Fundaments of Austronesian Roots and Etymology</i>. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.</li> <li>Greenhill, S. J., Blust. R, & Gray, R. D. (2008). The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database: From Bioinformatics to Lexomics. Evolutionary Bioinformatics, 4:271–283. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170503020518/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/">https://web.archive.org/web/20170503020518/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/</a></li> <li>Wolff, John U. (2010). <i>Proto-Austronesian Phonology with Glossary</i>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="acd" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Blust" title="Robert Blust">Blust, Robert</a>; Trussel, Stephen; Smith, Alexander D. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acd.clld.org/">"The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary Online"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 Jan</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Austronesian+Comparative+Dictionary+Online&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Blust&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Trussel%2C+Stephen&rft.au=Smith%2C+Alexander+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facd.clld.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Austronesian+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dahl, Otto Christian. 1976. <i>Proto-Austronesian</i> (2nd, revised edition). Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series, No. 15. London: Curzon Press.</li> <li>Dahl, Otto Christian. 1981. <i>Early phonetic and phonemic changes in Austronesian</i>. Oslo: Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Austronesian_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170409095340/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=280">ABVD: Proto-Austronesian (Blust)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130426170317/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=718">ABVD: Proto-Austronesian (Zorc)</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130426145530/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=269">ABVD: Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (Blust)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110520125430/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=721">ABVD: Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (Zorc)</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130426170342/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=267">ABVD: Proto-Central Eastern Malayo Polynesian (Blust)</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130426170348/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=268">ABVD: Proto-Central Malayo Polynesian (Blust)</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110520041915/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=270">ABVD: Proto-Oceanic (Blust)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110520213227/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=665">ABVD: Proto-Oceanic (Pawley)</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130426145600/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=340">ABVD: Proto-Micronesian (Bender)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170413021014/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=658">ABVD: Proto-Polynesian (Pawley)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19991011025952/http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/8908/firemount/austroframes.html">Fire Mountain Presents-A Comparison of Austronesian Languages-Foreword</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Austronesian_languages" title="Template talk:Austronesian languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Austronesian_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Austronesian languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Austronesian_languages222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rukai_language" title="Rukai language">Rukai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsouic_languages" title="Tsouic languages">Tsouic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Formosan_languages" title="Northern Formosan languages">Northern Formosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Formosan_languages" title="East Formosan languages">East Formosan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Malayo-Polynesian languages">Malayo-Polynesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Sumatran*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Sumatra%E2%80%93Barrier_Islands_languages" title="Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages">Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_language" title="Nasal language">Nasal</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampung_language" title="Lampung language">Lampung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurese_language" title="Madurese language">Madurese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bali%E2%80%93Sasak%E2%80%93Sumbawa_languages" title="Bali–Sasak–Sumbawa languages">Bali–Sasak–Sumbawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philippine_languages" title="Philippine languages">Philippine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batanic_languages" title="Batanic languages">Batanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Luzon_languages" title="Northern Luzon languages">Northern Luzon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Luzon_languages" title="Central Luzon languages">Central Luzon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mindoro_languages" title="Northern Mindoro languages">Northern Mindoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Central_Philippine_languages" title="Greater Central Philippine languages">Greater Central Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalamian_languages" title="Kalamian languages">Kalamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mindanao_languages" title="South Mindanao languages">South Mindanao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangiric_languages" title="Sangiric languages">Sangiric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minahasan_languages" title="Minahasan languages">Minahasan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greater Barito*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barito_languages" title="Barito languages">Barito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basap_language" title="Basap language">Basap</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_North_Borneo_languages" title="Greater North Borneo languages">Greater North Borneo</a>*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>North Borneo * <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sabahan_languages" title="Sabahan languages">Sabahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sarawakan_languages" title="North Sarawakan languages">North Sarawakan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanau%E2%80%93Kajang_languages" title="Melanau–Kajang languages">Melanau–Kajang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayan%E2%80%93Murik_languages" title="Kayan–Murik languages">Kayan–Murik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Dayak_languages" title="Land Dayak languages">Land Dayak</a></li> <li>Malayo–Chamic *</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundanese_language" title="Sundanese language">Sundanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejang_language" title="Rejang language">Rejang</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moklenic_languages" title="Moklenic languages">Moklenic</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celebic_languages" title="Celebic languages">Celebic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bungku%E2%80%93Tolaki_languages" title="Bungku–Tolaki languages">Bungku–Tolaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muna%E2%80%93Buton_languages" title="Muna–Buton languages">Muna–Buton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saluan%E2%80%93Banggai_languages" title="Saluan–Banggai languages">Saluan–Banggai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomini%E2%80%93Tolitoli_languages" title="Tomini–Tolitoli languages">Tomini–Tolitoli</a>*</li> <li>Kaili–Wolio*</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Sulawesi_languages" title="South Sulawesi languages">South Sulawesi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makassar_languages" title="Makassar languages">Makassar</a></li> <li>Seko–Badaic*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_South_Sulawesi_languages" title="Northern South Sulawesi languages">Northern South Sulawesi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Central Malayo-Polynesian languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bima_language" title="Bima language">Bima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumba%E2%80%93Flores_languages" title="Sumba–Flores languages">Sumba–Flores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flores%E2%80%93Lembata_languages" title="Flores–Lembata languages">Flores–Lembata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selaru_languages" title="Selaru languages">Selaru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kei%E2%80%93Tanimbar_languages" title="Kei–Tanimbar languages">Kei–Tanimbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aru_languages" title="Aru languages">Aru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timoric_languages" title="Timoric languages">Timoric</a></li> <li>Kowiai?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Maluku_languages" title="Central Maluku languages">Central Maluku</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central%E2%80%93Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Halmahera%E2%80%93West_New_Guinea_languages" title="South Halmahera–West New Guinea languages">SHWNG</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raja_Ampat%E2%80%93South_Halmahera_languages" title="Raja Ampat–South Halmahera languages">Halmahera Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenderawasih_languages" title="Cenderawasih languages">Cenderawasih</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_languages" title="Oceanic languages">Oceanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Islands_languages" title="Admiralty Islands languages">Admiralty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Matthias_languages" title="St. Matthias languages">St. Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temotu_languages" title="Temotu languages">Temotu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Solomonic_languages" title="Southeast Solomonic languages">Southeast Solomonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_languages" title="Micronesian languages">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Pacific_languages" title="Central Pacific languages">Central Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Oceanic_languages" title="Western Oceanic languages">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meso-Melanesian_languages" title="Meso-Melanesian languages">Meso-Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_New_Guinea_languages" title="North New Guinea languages">North New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_Tip_languages" title="Papuan Tip languages">Papuan Tip</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Oceanic_languages" title="Southern Oceanic languages">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Vanuatu <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Vanuatu_languages" title="North Vanuatu languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Vanuatu_languages" title="Central Vanuatu languages">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Vanuatu_languages" title="South Vanuatu languages">South</a></li></ul></li> <li>Loyalties–New Caledonia</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>* indicates proposed status</li> <li>? indicates classification dispute</li> <li>† indicates <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct status</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" 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