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id="toc-Retrieval_inhibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motivated_forgetting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motivated_forgetting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Motivated forgetting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motivated_forgetting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State-dependent_remembering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State-dependent_remembering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 State-dependent remembering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State-dependent_remembering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amnesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amnesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Amnesia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amnesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_trauma_on_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Repression_(psychoanalysis)" title="Repression (psychoanalysis)">Repression (psychoanalysis)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Freud%27s_seduction_theory" title="Freud's seduction theory">Freud's seduction theory</a></div> Repressed memory is a controversial, and largely scientifically discredited, psychiatric phenomenon which involves an inability to <a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">recall autobiographical information</a>, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature.<a href="#cite_note-LoftusKetchum-1">[1]</a> The concept originated in <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalytic theory</a> where <a href="/wiki/Repression_(psychoanalysis)" title="Repression (psychoanalysis)">repression</a> is understood as a <a href="/wiki/Defense_mechanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense mechanism">defense mechanism</a> that excludes painful experiences and unacceptable impulses from consciousness.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Repressed memory is presently considered largely unsupported by research.<a href="#cite_note-LoftusKetchum-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> initially claimed the memories of historical <a href="/wiki/Childhood_trauma" title="Childhood trauma">childhood trauma</a> could be repressed, while unconsciously influencing present behavior and emotional responding; he later revised this belief. While the concept of repressed memories persisted through much of the 1990s, insufficient support exists to conclude that memories can become inconspicuously hidden in a way that is distinct from forgetting.<a href="#cite_note-McNally2004-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-mainstream-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid15279316-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Debunking-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17803876-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Otgaar-8">[8]</a> Historically, some psychoanalysts provided therapy based on the belief that alleged repressed memories could be recovered, however, rather than promoting the recovery of a real repressed memory, such attempts could result in the creation of entirely false memories.<a href="#cite_note-amicus-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-abc-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17803876-7">[7]</a> Subsequent accusations based on such "recovered memories" led to substantial harm of individuals implicated as perpetrators, sometimes resulting in false convictions and years of incarceration.<a href="#cite_note-LoftusKetchum-1">[1]</a> Due to a lack of evidence for the concept of repressed and recovered memories, mainstream clinical psychologists have stopped using these terms. Clinical psychologist <a href="/wiki/Richard_McNally" title="Richard McNally">Richard McNally</a> stated: "The notion that traumatic events can be repressed and later recovered is the most pernicious bit of folklore ever to infect psychology and psychiatry. It has provided the theoretical basis for 'recovered memory therapy'—the worst catastrophe to befall the mental health field since the lobotomy era."<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> discussed repressed memory in his 1896 essay, <a href="/wiki/The_Aetiology_of_Hysteria" title="The Aetiology of Hysteria">The Aetiology of Hysteria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-freud-12">[12]</a> One of the studies published in his essay involved a young woman referred to as <a href="/wiki/Anna_O." class="mw-redirect" title="Anna O.">Anna O.</a>, who had been treated by Freud's friend and colleague <a href="/wiki/Josef_Breuer" title="Josef Breuer">Josef Breuer</a>. Among her many ailments, Anna O. had stiff paralysis on the right side of her body. Freud hypothesized that her symptoms were attached to psychological traumas; the traumatic experiences had been repressed from her conscious mind, but reappeared as physical symptoms. Breuer used hypnosis to treat Anna O. She is reported to have gained slight mobility on her right side.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The concept received renewed interest in the 1970s in relation to <a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse" title="Child sexual abuse">child sexual abuse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-abc-10">[10]</a> Coming to be labelled The Recovered Memory Movement and Memory Wars<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> or The Memory War,<a href="#cite_note-:3-15">[15]</a> it became a major issue in <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">pop culture</a> during the 1980s and 1990s, connected to <a href="/wiki/Satanic_panic" title="Satanic panic">Satanic panic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a> and spawned a myriad of legal cases, controversies, and media.<a href="#cite_note-abc-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michelle_Remembers" title="Michelle Remembers">Michelle Remembers</a> (1980), a discredited book by Canadian psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Pazder" title="Lawrence Pazder">Lawrence Pazder</a> and his wife/former patient Michelle Smith about Smith's fabricated experiences with repressed memories of childhood Satantic rituals and abuse, gained widespread popularity that persisted after debunking,<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a> influenced subsequent claims,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> and received promotion from media including <a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geraldo_Rivera" title="Geraldo Rivera">Geraldo Rivera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sally_Jessy_Raphael" title="Sally Jessy Raphael">Sally Jesse Raphael</a>, and <a href="/wiki/20/20_(American_TV_program)" title="20/20 (American TV program)">20/20</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Starting in the 1980s, repressed memory legal cases increased rapidly.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> In 1989, a landmark legal case developed when George Franklin was charged and convicted in 1990 for the rape and murder of 8-year-old Susan Kay Nason on September 22, 1969, based on the account of his daughter, Eileen Franklin's recovered memories.<a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Originally sentenced to <a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment" title="Life imprisonment">life imprisonment</a>, a district court judge overturned the conviction in 1995 based on several trial errors including the unreliability of hypnosis that was used. Eileen Franklin would further accuse her father of raping and murdering 18-year-old Veronica Cascio and 17-year-old Paula Baxter. George Franklin was released in July 1996 after prosecutors announced they would not retry him, and in 2018, the DNA evidence linked Rodney Lynn Halbower to the Cascio and Baxter murders.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> He was convicted of both murders and sentenced to life in prison. In 1991, <a href="/wiki/People_(magazine)" title="People (magazine)">People magazine</a> featured <a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Van_Derbur" title="Marilyn Van Derbur">Marilyn Van Derbur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roseanne_Barr" title="Roseanne Barr">Roseanne Barr's</a> experiences with childhood abuse and repressed memory.<a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a> Van Derbur's oldest sister Gwen verified her account,<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> though Barr would later moderate her claims.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Such cases and reactions led to the definition of <a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">false memory syndrome</a> and establishment of the <a href="/wiki/False_Memory_Syndrome_Foundation" title="False Memory Syndrome Foundation">False Memory Syndrome Foundation</a> in 1992.<a href="#cite_note-:3-15">[15]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ramona_false_memory_case" title="Ramona false memory case">Ramona false memory case</a> in 1994 was another landmark case, where father Gary Ramona successfully sued for malpractice against Western Medical Center in <a href="/wiki/Anaheim,_California" title="Anaheim, California">Anaheim</a>, its chief of psychiatry Richard Rose, and therapist Marche Isabella, for implanting false memories of child abuse while treating his daughter Holly for <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa" title="Bulimia nervosa">bulimia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> It was also notable for being brought by a third party not involved in the <a href="/wiki/Doctor-patient_encounter" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor-patient encounter">doctor-patient relationship</a> and contributed to continued evaluation of the phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Skepticism and criticism of repressed memory continued to mount through the 1990s, 2000s, and beyond, emphasizing unreliability, false claims, and lack of examples in historical records.<a href="#cite_note-abc-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Issues">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_studies">Case studies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Case studies">edit</a>]</div> Psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/David_Corwin" title="David Corwin">David Corwin</a> has claimed that one of his cases provides evidence for the reality of repressed memories. This case involved a patient (the <a href="/wiki/Jane_Doe_case" title="Jane Doe case">Jane Doe case</a>) who, according to Corwin, had been seriously abused by her mother, had recalled the abuse at age six during therapy with Corwin, then eleven years later was unable to recall the abuse before memories of the abuse returned to her mind again during therapy.<a href="#cite_note-RecalledCSA-30">[30]</a> An investigation of the case by <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a> and Melvin Guyer, however, raised serious questions about many of the central details of the case as reported by Corwin, including whether or not Jane Doe was abused by her mother at all, suggesting that this may be a case of false memory for childhood abuse with the memory "created" during suggestive therapy at the time that Doe was six. Loftus and Guyer also found evidence that, following her initial "recall" of the abuse during therapy at age six, Doe had talked about the abuse during the eleven years in between the sessions of therapy, indicating that even if abuse had really occurred, memory for the abuse had not been repressed.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> More generally, in addition to the problem of false memories, this case highlights the critical dependence of repression-claims cases on the ability of individuals to recall whether or not they had previously been able to recall a traumatic event; as McNally has noted, people are notoriously poor at making that kind of judgment.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17803876-7">[7]</a> An argument that has been made against the validity of the phenomenon of repressed memories is that there is little (if any) discussion in the historical literature prior to the 19th century of phenomena that would qualify as examples of memory repression or dissociative amnesia.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In response to <a href="/wiki/Harrison_Pope" title="Harrison Pope">Harrison Pope</a>'s 2006 claim that no such examples exist, <a href="/wiki/Ross_E._Cheit" title="Ross E. Cheit">Ross Cheit</a>, a political scientist at <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>, cited the case of <a href="/wiki/Nina_(Dalayrac)" title="Nina (Dalayrac)">Nina</a>, a 1786 opera by the French composer <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Dalayrac" title="Nicolas Dalayrac">Nicolas Dalayrac</a>, in which the heroine, having forgotten that she saw her lover apparently killed in a duel, waits for him daily.<a href="#cite_note-brown1-34">[34]</a> Pope claims that even this single fictional description does not clearly meet all criteria for evidence of memory repression, as opposed to other phenomena of normal memory.<a href="#cite_note-Pope2-35">[35]</a> Despite the claims by proponents of the reality of memory repression that any evidence of the forgetting of a seemingly traumatic event qualifies as evidence of repression, research indicates that memories of <a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse" title="Child sexual abuse">child sexual abuse</a> and other traumatic incidents may sometimes be forgotten through normal mechanisms of memory.<a href="#cite_note-Mcnally1-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-JournalClinPsy-37">[37]</a> Evidence of the spontaneous recovery of <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_memories" title="Traumatic memories">traumatic memories</a> has been shown,<a href="#cite_note-chu-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Freyd-40">[40]</a> and recovered memories of traumatic childhood abuse have been corroborated;<a href="#cite_note-Skeptics-41">[41]</a> however, forgetting trauma does not necessarily imply that the trauma was repressed.<a href="#cite_note-Mcnally1-36">[36]</a> One situation in which the seeming forgetting, and later recovery, of a "traumatic" experience is particularly likely to occur is when the experience was not interpreted as traumatic when it first occurred, but then, later in life, was reinterpreted as an instance of early trauma.<a href="#cite_note-Mcnally1-36">[36]</a> A review by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alan_Sheflin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alan Sheflin (page does not exist)">Alan Sheflin</a> and Daniel Brown in 1996 found 25 previous studies of the subject of amnesia of childhood sexual abuse. All 25 "demonstrated amnesia in a subpopulation", including more recent studies with random sampling and prospective designs.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> On the other hand, in a 1998 editorial in the <a href="/wiki/British_Medical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="British Medical Journal">British Medical Journal</a> <a href="/wiki/Harrison_Pope" title="Harrison Pope">Harrison Pope</a> wrote that "on critical examination, the scientific evidence for repression crumbles." He continued, "asking individuals if they 'remember whether they forgot' is of dubious validity. Furthermore, in most retrospective studies corroboration of the traumatic event was either absent or fell below reasonable scientific standards."<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Authenticity">Authenticity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Authenticity">edit</a>]</div> Memories can be accurate, but they are not always accurate. For example, <a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_testimony" title="Eyewitness testimony">eyewitness testimony</a> even of relatively recent dramatic events is notoriously unreliable.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Memories of events are a mix of fact overlaid with emotions, mingled with interpretation and "filled in" with imaginings. Skepticism regarding the validity of a memory as factual detail is warranted.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22577300-45">[45]</a> For example, one study where victims of documented child abuse were reinterviewed many years later as adults, 38% of the women denied any memory of the abuse.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Various manipulations are considered to be able to implant false memories (sometimes called "pseudomemories"). Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a> has noted that some of the techniques that some therapists use in order to supposedly help the patients recover memories of early trauma (including such techniques as age regression, guided visualization, trance writing, dream work, body work, and hypnosis) are particularly likely to contribute to the creation of false or pseudo memories.<a href="#cite_note-loftus1993-47">[47]</a> Such therapy-created memories can be quite compelling for those who develop them, and can include details that make them seem credible to others.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In a now classic experiment by Loftus (widely known as the "Lost in the Mall" study), participants were given a booklet containing three accounts of real childhood events written by family members and a fourth account of a wholly fictitious event of being lost in a shopping mall. A quarter of the subjects reported remembering the fictitious event, and elaborated on it with extensive circumstantial detail.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> This experiment inspired many others, and in one of these, Porter et al. convinced about half of the participants that they had survived a vicious animal attack in childhood.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Critics of these experimental studies<a href="#cite_note-Crook-51">[51]</a> have questioned whether their findings generalize to memories for real-world trauma or to what occurs in psychotherapeutic contexts.<a href="#cite_note-Pope-52">[52]</a> However, when memories are "recovered" after long periods of amnesia, particularly when extraordinary means were used to secure the recovery of memory, it is now widely (but not universally) accepted that the memories have a high likelihood of being false, i.e. "memories" of incidents that had not actually occurred.<a href="#cite_note-Brandon-53">[53]</a> It is thus recognised by professional organizations that a risk of implanting false memories is associated with some similar types of therapy. The American Psychological Association advises: "...most leaders in the field agree that although it is a rare occurrence, a memory of early childhood abuse that has been forgotten can be remembered later; however, these leaders also agree that it is possible to construct convincing pseudomemories for events that never occurred."<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Not all therapists agree that false memories are a major risk of psychotherapy and they argue that this idea overstates the data and is untested.<a href="#cite_note-chu-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hammond-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dalenberg-56">[56]</a> Several studies have reported high percentages of the corroboration of recovered memories,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Van1995-58">[58]</a> and some authors have claimed that among skeptics of idea of recovered memory there is a "tendency to conceal or omit evidence of corroboration" of recovered memories.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> A difficult issue for the field is that there is no evidence that reliable discriminations can be made between true and false memories.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Some believe that memories "recovered" under <a href="/wiki/Hypnosis" title="Hypnosis">hypnosis</a> are particularly likely to be false.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> According to The Council on Scientific Affairs for the American Medical Association, recollections obtained during hypnosis can involve <a href="/wiki/Confabulations" class="mw-redirect" title="Confabulations">confabulations</a> and pseudomemories and appear to be less reliable than nonhypnotic recall.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Brown et al. estimate that 3 to 5% of laboratory subjects are vulnerable to post-event misinformation suggestions. They state that 5–8% of the general population is the range of high-hypnotizability. Twenty-five percent of those in this range are vulnerable to suggestion of pseudomemories for peripheral details, which can rise to 80% with a combination of other social influence factors. They conclude that the rates of memory errors run 0–5% in adult studies, 3–5% in children's studies and that the rates of false allegations of child abuse allegations run 4–8% in the general population.<a href="#cite_note-Hammond-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> Those who argue in favor of the validity of the phenomenon of repressed memory have identified three mechanisms of normal memory that may explain how memory repression may occur: retrieval inhibition, motivated forgetting, and state-dependent remembering.<a href="#cite_note-Otgaar-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Retrieval_inhibition">Retrieval inhibition</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Retrieval inhibition">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval inhibition</a> refers to a memory phenomenon where remembering some information causes forgetting of other information.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson1-64">[64]</a> Anderson and Green have argued that for a linkage between this phenomenon and memory repression; according to this view, the simple decision to not think about a traumatic event, coupled with active remembering of other related experiences (or less traumatic elements of the traumatic experience) may make memories for the traumatic experience itself less accessible to conscious awareness.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson2-65">[65]</a> However, two problems with this viewpoint have been raised: (1) the evidence for the basic phenomenon itself has not consistently replicated, and (2) the phenomenon does not meet all criteria that must be met to support memory repression theory, particularly the lack of evidence that this form of forgetting is particularly likely to occur in the case of traumatic experiences.<a href="#cite_note-Otgaar-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Motivated_forgetting">Motivated forgetting</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Motivated forgetting">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">motivated forgetting</a> phenomenon, which is also sometimes referred to as intentional or directed forgetting, refers to forgetting which is initiated by a conscious goal to forget particular information.<a href="#cite_note-Bad-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> In the classic intentional forgetting paradigm, participants are shown a list of words, but are instructed to remember certain words while forgetting others. Later, when tested on their memory for all of the words, recall and recognition is typically worse for the deliberately forgotten words.<a href="#cite_note-MacLeod-68">[68]</a> A problem for viewing motivated forgetting as a mechanism of memory repression is that there is no evidence that the intentionally forgotten information becomes, first, inaccessible and then, later, retrievable (as required by memory repression theory).<a href="#cite_note-Otgaar-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="State-dependent_remembering">State-dependent remembering</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: State-dependent remembering">edit</a>]</div> The term <a href="/wiki/State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent remembering</a> refers to the evidence that memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.<a href="#cite_note-girden-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Based upon her research with rats, Radulovic has argued that memories for highly stressful traumatic experiences may be stored in different neural networks than is the case with memories for non-stressful experiences, and that memories for the stressful experiences may then be inaccessible until the organism's brain is in a neurological state similar to the one that occurred when the stressful experience first occurred.<a href="#cite_note-Radulovic-71">[71]</a> At present, however, there is no evidence that what Radulovic found with rats occurs in the memory systems of humans, and it is not clear that human memories for traumatic experiences are typically "recovered" by placing the individual back in the mental state that was experienced during the original trauma. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amnesia">Amnesia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Amnesia">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a> is partial or complete loss of memory that goes beyond mere forgetting. Often it is temporary and involves only part of a person's experience. Amnesia is often caused by an injury to the brain, for instance after a blow to the head, and sometimes by psychological trauma. <a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">Anterograde amnesia</a> is a failure to remember new experiences that occur after damage to the brain; <a href="/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde amnesia</a> is the loss of memories of events that occurred before a trauma or injury. <a href="/wiki/Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">Dissociative amnesia</a> is defined in the <a href="/wiki/DSM-5" title="DSM-5">DSM-5</a> as the "inability to recall autobiographical information" that is (a) "traumatic or stressful in nature", (b) "inconsistent with ordinary forgetting", (c) "successfully stored", (d) involves a period of time when the patient is unable to recall the experience, (e) is not caused by a substance or neurological condition, and (f) is "always potentially reversible". McNally<a href="#cite_note-pmid17803876-7">[7]</a> and others<a href="#cite_note-Otgaar-8">[8]</a> have noted that this definition is essentially the same as the defining characteristics of memory repression, and that all of the reasons for questioning the reality of memory repression apply equally well to claims regarding dissociative amnesia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_trauma_on_memory">Effects of trauma on memory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effects of trauma on memory">edit</a>]</div> The essence of the theory of memory repression is that it is memories for traumatic experiences that are particularly likely to become unavailable to conscious awareness, even while continuing to exist at an unconscious level. A prominent more specific theory of memory repression, "<a href="/wiki/Betrayal_Trauma_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Betrayal Trauma Theory">Betrayal Trauma Theory</a>", proposes that memories for childhood abuse are the most likely to be repressed because of the intense emotional trauma produced by being abused by someone the child is dependent on for emotional and physical support; in such situations, according to this theory, dissociative amnesia is an adaptive response because it permits a relationship with the powerful abuser (whom the child is dependent upon) to continue in some form. Psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Bessel_van_der_Kolk" title="Bessel van der Kolk">Bessel van der Kolk</a><a href="#cite_note-Van1995-58">[58]</a> divided the effects of traumas on memory functions into four sets: <ul><li>Traumatic amnesia; this involves the loss of memories of traumatic experiences. The younger the subject and the longer the traumatic event is, the greater the chance of significant amnesia. He stated that subsequent retrieval of memories after traumatic amnesia is well documented in the literature, with documented examples following natural disasters and accidents, in combat soldiers, in victims of kidnapping, torture and concentration camp experiences, in victims of physical and sexual abuse, and in people who have committed murder.</li> <li>Global <a href="/wiki/Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">memory impairment</a>; this makes it difficult for subjects to construct an accurate account of their present and past history. "The combination of lack of autobiographical memory, continued dissociation and of meaning schemes that include victimization, helplessness and betrayal, is likely to make these individuals vulnerable to suggestion and to the construction of explanations for their trauma-related affects that may bear little relationship to the actual realities of their lives"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)" title="Dissociation (psychology)">Dissociative processes</a>; this refers to memories being stored as fragments and not as unitary wholes.</li> <li>Traumatic memories' <a href="/wiki/Sensory-motor_coupling" title="Sensory-motor coupling">sensorimotor</a> organization. Not being able to integrate traumatic memories seems to be linked to <a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">posttraumatic stress disorder</a> (PTSD).<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></li></ul> According to van der Kolk, memories of highly significant events are usually accurate and stable over time; aspects of traumatic experiences appear to get stuck in the mind, unaltered by time passing or experiences that may follow. The imprints of traumatic experiences appear to be different from those of nontraumatic events, perhaps because of alterations in attentional focusing or the fact that extreme emotional arousal interferes with memory.<a href="#cite_note-Van1995-58">[58]</a> van der Kolk and Fisler's hypothesis is that under extreme stress, the memory categorization system based in the hippocampus fails, with these memories kept as emotional and sensory states. When these traces are remembered and put into a personal narrative, they are subject to being condensed, contaminated and embellished upon. A significant problem for trauma theories of memory repression is the lack of evidence with humans that failures of recall of traumatic experiences result from anything other than normal processes of memory that apply equally well to memories for traumatic and non-traumatic events.<a href="#cite_note-Mcnally1-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17803876-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Otgaar-8">[8]</a> In addition, it is clear that, rather than being pushed out of consciousness, the difficulty with traumatic memories for most people is their inability to forget the traumatic event and the tendency for memories of the traumatic experience to intrude upon consciousness in problematic ways.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Evidence from psychological research suggests that most traumatic memories are well remembered over long periods of time. Autobiographical memories appraised as highly negative are remembered with a high degree of accuracy and detail.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> This observation is in line with psychological understanding of human memory, which explains that highly salient and distinctive events—common characteristics of negative traumatic experiences—are remembered well.<a href="#cite_note-Traumatic_impact_predicts_long-term-75">[75]</a> When experiencing highly emotional, stressful events, physiological and neurological responses, such as those involving the <a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a>, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, lead to more consolidated memories.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Evidence shows that stress enhances memory for aspects and details directly related to the stressful event.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Furthermore, behavioural and cognitive memory-enhancing responses, such as rehearsing or revisiting a memory in one's mind are also more likely when memories are highly emotional.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> When compared to positive events, memory for negative, traumatic experiences are more accurate, coherent, vivid, and detailed, and this trend persists over time.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> This sample of what is a vast body of evidence calls into question how it is possible that traumatic memories, which are typically remembered exceptionally well, might also be associated with patterns of extreme forgetting. The high quality remembering for traumatic events is not just a lab-based finding but has also been observed in real-life experiences, such as among survivors of child sexual abuse and war-related atrocities. For example, researchers who studied memory accuracy in child sexual abuse survivors 12 to 21 years after the event(s) ended found that the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder was positively correlated with the degree of memory accuracy.<a href="#cite_note-Traumatic_impact_predicts_long-term-75">[75]</a> Further, all persons who identified the child sexual abuse as the most traumatic event of their life, displayed highly accurate memory for the event. Similarly, in a study of World War II survivors, researchers found that participants who scored higher on posttraumatic stress reactions had war memories that were more coherent, personally consequential, and more rehearsed. The researchers concluded that highly distressing events can lead to subjectively clearer memories that are highly accessible.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_status">Legal status</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Legal status">edit</a>]</div> Serious issues arise when recovered but false memories result in public allegations; false complaints carry serious consequences for the accused. A special type of false allegation, <a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">false memory syndrome</a>, arises typically within therapy, when people report the "recovery" of childhood memories of previously unknown abuse. The influence of practitioners' beliefs and practices in the eliciting of false "memories" and of false complaints has come under particular criticism.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Some criminal cases have been based on a witness's testimony of recovered repressed memories, often of alleged childhood sexual abuse. In some jurisdictions, the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">statute of limitations</a> for child abuse cases has been extended to accommodate the phenomena of repressed memories as well as other factors. The repressed memory concept came into wider public awareness in the 1980s and 1990s followed by a reduction of public attention after a series of scandals, lawsuits, and license revocations.<a href="#cite_note-Robbins-82">[82]</a> A U.S. District Court accepted repressed memories as admissible evidence in a specific case.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Dalenberg argues that the evidence shows that recovered memory cases should be allowed to be prosecuted in court.<a href="#cite_note-Dalenberg-56">[56]</a> The apparent willingness of courts to credit the recovered memories of complainants but not the absence of memories by defendants has been commented on: "It seems apparent that the courts need better guidelines around the issue of dissociative amnesia in both populations."<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> In 1995, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled, in Franklin v. Duncan and Franklin v. Fox, Murray et al. (312 F3d. 423, see also 884 FSupp 1435, N.D. Calif.),<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> that repressed memory is not admissible as evidence in a legal action because of its unreliability, inconsistency, unscientific nature, tendency to be therapeutically induced evidence, and subject to influence by hearsay and suggestibility. The court overturned the conviction of a man accused of murdering a nine-year-old girl purely based upon the evidence of a 21-year-old repressed memory by a lone witness, who also held a complex personal grudge against the defendant.<a href="#cite_note-articles.sfgate.com-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> In a 1996 ruling, a U.S. District Court allowed repressed memories entered into evidence in court cases.<a href="#cite_note-USCourt1996-89">[89]</a> Jennifer Freyd writes that <a href="/wiki/Ross_E._Cheit" title="Ross E. Cheit">Ross E. Cheit</a>'s case of suddenly remembered sexual abuse is one of the most well-documented cases available for the public to see. Cheit prevailed in two lawsuits, located five additional victims and tape-recorded a confession.<a href="#cite_note-Freyd-40">[40]</a> On December 16, 2005, the Irish Court of Criminal Appeal issued a certificate confirming a Miscarriage of Justice to a former nun, <a href="/wiki/Nora_Wall" title="Nora Wall">Nora Wall</a> whose 1999 conviction for child rape was partly based on repressed-memory evidence. The judgement stated that:<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">There was no scientific evidence of any sort adduced to explain the phenomenon of "flashbacks" and/or "retrieved memory", nor was the applicant in any position to meet such a case in the absence of prior notification thereof.</blockquote> On August 16, 2010, the United States Second Circuit Court of Appeals in a case reversed the conviction that relied on claimed victim memories of childhood abuse stating that "The record here suggests a "reasonable likelihood" that Jesse Friedman was wrongfully convicted. The "new and material evidence" in this case is the post-conviction consensus within the social science community that suggestive memory recovery tactics can create false memories" (pg 27 FRIEDMAN v. REHAL Docket No. 08-0297). The ruling goes on to order all previous convictions and plea bargains relying in repressed memories using common memory recovered techniques be reviewed.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recovered_memory_therapy">Recovered memory therapy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Recovered memory therapy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Recovered_memory_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Recovered memory therapy">Recovered memory therapy</a></div> The term "recovered memory therapy" refers to the use of a range of <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a> methods that involve guiding the patient's attempts to recall memories of abuse that had previously been forgotten.<a href="#cite_note-lief-92">[92]</a> The term "recovered memory therapy" is not listed in <a href="/wiki/DSM-V" class="mw-redirect" title="DSM-V">DSM-V</a> nor is recovered memory therapy recommended by mainstream ethical and professional mental health associations.<a href="#cite_note-underwager1-93">[93]</a> Critics of recovered memory therapy note that the therapy can create <a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">false memories</a> through its use of powerful suggestion techniques.<a href="#cite_note-Pezdek-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-pezdek1999-95">[95]</a> It has also been found that patients who retract their claims—after deciding their recovered memories are false—may have <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a> due to the trauma of illusory memories.<a href="#cite_note-Lambert-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Summary">Summary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Summary">edit</a>]</div> The Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Child Abuse of the American Psychological Association reached five key conclusions:<a href="#cite_note-Working_Group-97">[97]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <ol><li>Controversies regarding adult recollections should not be allowed to obscure the fact that child sexual abuse is a complex and pervasive problem in America that has historically gone unacknowledged;</li> <li>Most people who were sexually abused as children remember all or part of what happened to them;</li> <li>It is possible for memories of abuse that have been forgotten for a long time to be remembered;</li> <li>It is also possible to construct convincing pseudo-memories for events that never occurred; and</li> <li>There are gaps in our knowledge about the processes that lead to accurate and inaccurate recollections of childhood abuse.</li></ol></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day-care_sex-abuse_hysteria" title="Day-care sex-abuse hysteria">Day-care sex-abuse hysteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder" title="Dissociative identity disorder">Dissociative identity disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanic_ritual_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Satanic ritual abuse">Satanic ritual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_evidence" title="Spectral evidence">Spectral evidence</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-LoftusKetchum-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LoftusKetchum_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LoftusKetchum_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LoftusKetchum_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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Open Court Pub Co. p. 360. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9271-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9271-6"><bdi>978-0-8126-9271-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Return+of+the+Furies%3A+An+Investigation+into+Recovered+Memory+Therapy&rft.pages=360&rft.pub=Open+Court+Pub+Co&rft.date=1994-10&rft.isbn=978-0-8126-9271-6&rft.aulast=Underwager&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rft.au=Wakefield%2C+Hollida&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepressed+memory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pezdek-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Pezdek_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoftusPickrell1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Loftus EF</a>, Pickrell JE (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081203033217/http://users.ecs.soton.ac.uk/harnad/Papers/Py104/loftusmem1.pdf">"The formation of false memories"</a> (PDF). Psychiatric Annals. 25 (12): 720–725. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3928%2F0048-5713-19951201-07">10.3928/0048-5713-19951201-07</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59286093">59286093</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.ecs.soton.ac.uk/harnad/Papers/Py104/loftusmem1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on December 3, 2008. Retrieved April 12, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+Annals&rft.atitle=The+formation+of+false+memories&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=720-725&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3928%2F0048-5713-19951201-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59286093%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Loftus&rft.aufirst=EF&rft.au=Pickrell%2C+JE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.ecs.soton.ac.uk%2Fharnad%2FPapers%2FPy104%2Floftusmem1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepressed+memory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pezdek1999-95"><a href="#cite_ref-pezdek1999_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPezdekHodge1999" class="citation journal cs1">Pezdek K, Hodge D (July–August 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/bfaber/CSP502/2-Pezdek-1999.pdf">"Planting false childhood memories: The role of event plausibility"</a> (PDF). Child Development. 70 (4): 887–895. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8624.00064">10.1111/1467-8624.00064</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Child+Development&rft.atitle=Planting+false+childhood+memories%3A+The+role+of+event+plausibility&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=887-895&rft.date=1999-07%2F1999-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-8624.00064&rft.aulast=Pezdek&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Hodge%2C+D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bcs.rochester.edu%2Fpeople%2Fbfaber%2FCSP502%2F2-Pezdek-1999.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepressed+memory" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Lambert-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Lambert_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambertLilienfeld2007" class="citation web cs1">Lambert K, Lilienfeld SO (October 1, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071025085306/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=4338D296-E7F2-99DF-3D7F5370B4FB5D10">"Brain Stains"</a>. Scientific American. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=4338D296-E7F2-99DF-3D7F5370B4FB5D10">the original</a> on October 25, 2007. Retrieved January 25, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brain+Stains&rft.pub=Scientific+American&rft.date=2007-10-01&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Lilienfeld%2C+SO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciam.com%2Farticle.cfm%3FchanID%3Dsa006%26articleID%3D4338D296-E7F2-99DF-3D7F5370B4FB5D10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepressed+memory" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Working_Group-97"><a href="#cite_ref-Working_Group_97-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Final conclusions of the American Psychological Association Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Child Abuse". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. 4 (4): 933–940. 1998. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1076-8971.4.4.933">10.1037/1076-8971.4.4.933</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology%2C+Public+Policy%2C+and+Law&rft.atitle=Final+conclusions+of+the+American+Psychological+Association+Working+Group+on+Investigation+of+Memories+of+Child+Abuse&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=933-940&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F1076-8971.4.4.933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARepressed+memory" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://colossalthoughts.com/6-steps-help-retrieve-repressed-memories/">Provides help for retrieving repressed memories</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_memory" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Memory" title="Template:Memory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Memory" title="Template talk:Memory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Memory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Memory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_memory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forgetting" title="Forgetting">Forgetting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">Motivated forgetting</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Repressed memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactive_memory" title="Transactive memory">Transactive memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="/wiki/State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levels_of_Processing_model" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Molaison" title="Henry Molaison">HM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_Cochrane" title="Kent Cochrane">KC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_N.A." title="Patient N.A.">NA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. McHugh">Paul R. McHugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_O%27Brien" title="Dominic O'Brien">Dominic O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Pridmore" title="Ben Pridmore">Ben Pridmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_Rossellius" title="Cosmos Rossellius">Cosmos Rossellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriy_Slyusarchuk" title="Andriy Slyusarchuk">Andriy Slyusarchuk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&oldid=1257521381">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Repressed_memory&oldid=1257521381</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Memory_disorders" title="Category:Memory disorders">Memory disorders</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychoanalytic_terminology" title="Category:Psychoanalytic terminology">Psychoanalytic terminology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Freudian_psychology" title="Category:Freudian psychology">Freudian psychology</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_October_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from October 2023">Articles with dead external links from October 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_July_2020" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from July 2020">Articles with dead external links from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_December_2016" title="Category:Use mdy dates from December 2016">Use mdy dates from December 2016</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 15 November 2024, at 10:19 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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