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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Political geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiographic_regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiographic_regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Physiographic regions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physiographic_regions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physiographic regions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physiographic_regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Regions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Himalayas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Himalayas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The Himalayas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Himalayas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Peninsular_Plateau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Peninsular_Plateau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>The Peninsular Plateau</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Peninsular_Plateau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ghats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ghats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Ghats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ghats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indo-Gangetic_plain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indo-Gangetic_plain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Indo-Gangetic plain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indo-Gangetic_plain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thar_Desert" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thar_Desert"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Thar Desert</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thar_Desert-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coastal_plains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coastal_plains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Coastal plains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coastal_plains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Natural resources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Natural_resources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Natural resources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Natural_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecological_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ecological resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Water_bodies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_bodies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Water bodies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_bodies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wetlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wetlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Wetlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wetlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arable_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arable_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Arable land</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arable_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Economic resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Minerals_and_ores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minerals_and_ores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Minerals and ores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minerals_and_ores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renewable_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renewable_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Renewable water</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renewable_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Energy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Climate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Geology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cratons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cratons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Cratons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cratons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of India</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">53 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="جغرافيا الهند – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جغرافيا الهند" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeograf%C3%ADa_de_la_India" title="Xeografía de la India – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xeografía de la India" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindistan_co%C4%9Frafiyas%C4%B1" title="Hindistan coğrafiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hindistan coğrafiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2" title="ভারতের ভূগোল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভারতের ভূগোল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भारत के भूगोल – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भारत के भूगोल" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="География на Индия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="География на Индия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_de_l%27%C3%8Dndia" title="Geografia de l'Índia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Geografia de l'Índia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie_Indie" title="Geografie Indie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Geografie Indie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indien#Geographie_und_Landesnatur" title="Indien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Indien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%B0%DE%91%DE%A8%DE%94%DE%A7%DE%8E%DE%AC_%DE%96%DE%AA%DE%A3%DE%AA%DE%83%DE%A7%DE%8A%DE%A9" title="އިންޑިޔާގެ ޖުޣުރާފީ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="އިންޑިޔާގެ ޖުޣުރާފީ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograf%C3%ADa_de_la_India" title="Geografía de la India – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Geografía de la India" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiako_geografia" title="Indiako geografia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Indiako geografia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="جغرافیای هند – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جغرافیای هند" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie_de_l%27Inde" title="Géographie de l'Inde – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géographie de l'Inde" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADreola%C3%ADocht_na_hIndia" title="Tíreolaíocht na hIndia – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tíreolaíocht na hIndia" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%8F%84%EC%9D%98_%EC%A7%80%EB%A6%AC" title="인도의 지리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인도의 지리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հնդկաստանի աշխարհագրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հնդկաստանի աշխարհագրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भारत का भूगोल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भारत का भूगोल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemljopis_Indije" title="Zemljopis Indije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zemljopis Indije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi_India" title="Geografi India – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Geografi India" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_dell%27India" title="Geografia dell'India – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geografia dell'India" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%95" title="גאוגרפיה של הודו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גאוגרפיה של הודו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%86" title="ಭಾರತದ ಭೌಗೋಳಿಕತೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭಾರತದ ಭೌಗೋಳಿಕತೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ინდოეთის გეოგრაფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ინდოეთის გეოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indijos_geografija" title="Indijos geografija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Indijos geografija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Географија на Индија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Географија на Индија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഇന്ത്യയുടെ ഭൂമിശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇന്ത്യയുടെ ഭൂമിശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भारताचा भूगोल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भारताचा भूगोल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi_India" title="Geografi India – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Geografi India" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%92%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9A%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6%E1%81%8F_%E1%80%95%E1%80%91%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9D%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="အိန္ဒိယနိုင်ငံ၏ ပထဝီဝင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အိန္ဒိယနိုင်ငံ၏ ပထဝီဝင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie_van_India" title="Geografie van India – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geografie van India" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भारतको भूगोल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भारतको भूगोल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%81%AE%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86" title="インドの地理 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="インドの地理" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindiston_geogr%D0%B0fiy%D0%B0si" title="Hindiston geogrаfiyаsi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Hindiston geogrаfiyаsi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2" title="ਭਾਰਤ ਦਾ ਭੂਗੋਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭਾਰਤ ਦਾ ਭੂਗੋਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_Indii" title="Geografia Indii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Geografia Indii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_da_%C3%8Dndia" title="Geografia da Índia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geografia da Índia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_Indiei" title="Geografia Indiei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Geografia Indiei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="География Индии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="География Индии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="भारतीयभूगोलम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="भारतीयभूगोलम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjeografia_e_Indis%C3%AB" title="Gjeografia e Indisë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjeografia e Indisë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija_Indije" title="Geografija Indije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Geografija Indije" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جوگرافیای ھیندستان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جوگرافیای ھیندستان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Географија Индије – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Географија Индије" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija_Indije" title="Geografija Indije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geografija Indije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intian_maantiede" title="Intian maantiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Intian maantiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiens_geografi" title="Indiens geografi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Indiens geografi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="இந்தியாவின் புவியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இந்தியாவின் புவியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B6_%E0%B0%AD%E0%B1%8C%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B3%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%82" title="భారతదేశ భౌగోళికం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భారతదేశ భౌగోళికం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%97" title="Географія Індії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Географія Індії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%DB%81" title="بھارت کا جغرافیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بھارت کا جغرافیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Ba_l%C3%BD_%E1%BA%A4n_%C4%90%E1%BB%99" title="Địa lý Ấn Độ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa lý Ấn Độ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86" title="印度地理 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="印度地理" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q838671#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_India" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Geography_of_India" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements 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.mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title">Geography of India</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:India_78.40398E_20.74980N.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/India_78.40398E_20.74980N.jpg/260px-India_78.40398E_20.74980N.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/India_78.40398E_20.74980N.jpg/390px-India_78.40398E_20.74980N.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/India_78.40398E_20.74980N.jpg/520px-India_78.40398E_20.74980N.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="958" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Satellite view of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">subcontinent</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Continent</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Geography_of_India&params=21_N_78_E_type:country"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">21°N</span> <span class="longitude">78°E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">21°N 78°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">21; 78</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">Ranked 7th</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"> • Total</th><td class="infobox-data">3,287,263 km<sup>2</sup> (1,269,219 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"> • Land</th><td class="infobox-data">91%</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"> • Water</th><td class="infobox-data">9%</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coastline</th><td class="infobox-data">7,516.6 km (4,670.6 mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Borders</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Land_borders" class="mw-redirect" title="Land borders">Total land borders</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-DBM_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DBM-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br />15,200 km (9,400 mi)<br /><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>:<br />4,096.70 km (2,545.57 mi)<br /> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">China (PRC)</a>:<br />3,488 km (2,167 mi)<br /><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>:<br />3,323 km (2,065 mi)<br /><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>:<br />1,751 km (1,088 mi)<br /><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>:<br />1,643 km (1,021 mi)<br /><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>:<br />699 km (434 mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Highest point</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kangchenjunga" title="Kangchenjunga">Kangchenjunga</a><br />8,586 m (28,169 ft)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Lowest point</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kuttanad" title="Kuttanad">Kuttanad</a><br />−2.2 m (−7.2 ft)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Longest river</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> (or Ganga)<br />2,525 km (1,569 mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Largest lake</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Loktak_Lake" title="Loktak Lake">Loktak Lake</a> (freshwater)<br />287 to 500 km<sup>2</sup> (111 to 193 sq mi)<br /><a href="/wiki/Chilika_Lake" title="Chilika Lake">Chilika Lake</a> (brackish water)<br />1,100 km<sup>2</sup> (420 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Exclusive economic zone</th><td class="infobox-data">2,305,143 km<sup>2</sup> (890,021 sq mi)</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> is situated north of the equator between 8°4' north (the <a href="/wiki/Mainland_India" title="Mainland India">mainland</a>) to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' east to 97°25' east longitude.<sup id="cite_ref-yearbook_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yearbook-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_outlying_territories_by_total_area" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries and outlying territories by total area">seventh-largest country in the world</a>, with a total area of 3,287,263 square kilometres (1,269,219 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-indiaEB_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indiaEB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India measures 3,214 km (1,997 mi) from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 mi) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 mi) and a coastline of 7,516.6 km (4,671 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-DBM_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DBM-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the south, India projects into and is bounded by the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>—in particular, by the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a> on the west, the <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakshadweep Sea">Lakshadweep Sea</a> to the southwest, the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a> on the east, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> proper to the south. The <a href="/wiki/Palk_Strait" title="Palk Strait">Palk Strait</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mannar" title="Gulf of Mannar">Gulf of Mannar</a> separate India from <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> to its immediate southeast, and the <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a> are some 125 kilometres (78 mi) to the south of India's <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakshadweep Islands">Lakshadweep Islands</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Maliku_Kandu" title="Maliku Kandu">Eight Degree Channel</a>. India's <a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a>, some 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) southeast of the mainland, share <a href="/wiki/Maritime_boundary" title="Maritime boundary">maritime borders</a> with <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. The southernmost tip of the Indian mainland (8°4′38″N, 77°31′56″E) is just south of <a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari" title="Kanyakumari">Kanyakumari</a>, while the southernmost point in India is <a href="/wiki/Indira_Point" title="Indira Point">Indira Point</a> on <a href="/wiki/Great_Nicobar_Island" title="Great Nicobar Island">Great Nicobar Island</a>. The northernmost point which is under Indian administration is Indira Col, Siachen Glacier.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India's <a href="/wiki/Territorial_waters" title="Territorial waters">territorial waters</a> extend into the sea to a distance of 12 <a href="/wiki/Nautical_mile" title="Nautical mile">nautical miles</a> (13.8 mi; 22.2 km) from the coast baseline.<sup id="cite_ref-waters_extent_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waters_extent-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India has the 18th largest <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclusive Economic Zone">Exclusive Economic Zone</a> of 2,305,143 km<sup>2</sup> (890,021 sq mi). </p><p>The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayan mountain range</a>, where the country borders <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>. Its <a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_border" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Pakistani border">western border with Pakistan</a> lies in the <a href="/wiki/Karakoram_range" class="mw-redirect" title="Karakoram range">Karakoram</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Himalayas" title="Western Himalayas">Western Himalayan ranges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjab_Plain" title="Punjab Plain">Punjab Plains</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Thar Desert</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rann_of_Kutch" title="Rann of Kutch">Rann of Kutch</a> salt marshes. In the far northeast, the <a href="/wiki/Chin_Hills" title="Chin Hills">Chin Hills</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kachin_Hills" title="Kachin Hills">Kachin Hills</a>, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma. On the east, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh%E2%80%93India_border" title="Bangladesh–India border">its border</a> with <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> is largely defined by the <a href="/wiki/Khasi_Hills" title="Khasi Hills">Khasi Hills</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mizo_Hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizo Hills">Mizo Hills</a>, and the watershed region of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="not clear how the "watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain" defines the India-Bangladesh border; most rivers of the region flow right across the border, no? (May 2011)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> is the longest river originating in India. The <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a>–<a href="/wiki/Brahmaputra_River" title="Brahmaputra River">Brahmaputra</a> system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan Plateau</a> occupies most of southern India. <a href="/wiki/Kangchenjunga" title="Kangchenjunga">Kangchenjunga</a>, in the Indian state of <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>, is the highest point in India at 8,586 m (28,169 ft) and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="List of highest mountains">world's third highest peak</a>. The climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to <a href="/wiki/Alpine_climate" title="Alpine climate">alpine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tundra_climate" title="Tundra climate">tundra</a> in the upper regions of the Himalayas. Geologically, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> lies on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Plate">Indian Plate</a>, the northern part of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Australian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Australian Plate">Indo-Australian Plate</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geological_development">Geological development</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Himalaya-formation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Himalaya-formation.gif/220px-Himalaya-formation.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="399" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Himalaya-formation.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="234" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>The Indian Plate</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology of India</a></div> <p>India is situated entirely on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Plate">Indian Plate</a>, a major <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plate</a> that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent <a href="/wiki/Gondwanaland" class="mw-redirect" title="Gondwanaland">Gondwanaland</a> (ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent of <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangea</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Indo-Australian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Australian Plate">Indo-Australian plate</a> is subdivided into the Indian and <a href="/wiki/Australian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Plate">Australian plates</a>. About 90 million years ago, during the late <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous Period</a>, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm/year (6 in/yr).<sup id="cite_ref-AII_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AII-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 50 to 55 million years ago, in the <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene Epoch</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic Era</a>, the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of 2,000 to 3,000 km (1,243 to 1,864 mi), having moved faster than any other known plate. In 2007, German geologists determined that the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland.<sup id="cite_ref-EUREKA_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EUREKA-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collision with the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian Plate">Eurasian Plate</a> along the modern border between India and Nepal formed the <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogenic belt</a> that created the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>. As of 2009<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geography_of_India&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm/yr (2 in/yr), while the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian Plate">Eurasian Plate</a> is moving north at only 2 cm/yr (0.8 in/yr). India is thus referred to as the "fastest continent".<sup id="cite_ref-EUREKA_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EUREKA-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 cm/yr (1.6 in/yr). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_geography">Political geography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">States and union territories of India</a></div> <p>India is divided into 28 States (further subdivided into <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_districts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Indian districts">districts</a>) and 8 <a href="/wiki/Union_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Union territories">union territories</a> including the National capital territory (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>). India's borders run a total length of 15,200 km (9,400 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-DBM_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DBM-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to the <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_Line" title="Radcliffe Line">Radcliffe Line</a>, which was created in 1947 during <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a>. Its western border with Pakistan extends up to 3,323 km (2,065 mi), dividing the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab region">Punjab region</a> and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the <a href="/wiki/Rann_of_Kutch" title="Rann of Kutch">Rann of Kutch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DBM_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DBM-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This border runs along the Indian states and union territories of <a href="/wiki/Ladakh" title="Ladakh">Ladakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both nations delineated a <a href="/wiki/Line_of_Control" title="Line of Control">Line of Control</a> (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered areas of the <a href="/wiki/Kashmir_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmir region">Kashmir region</a>. India claims the whole of the former princely state of <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(princely_state)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)">Jammu and Kashmir</a>, which includes areas now administered by Pakistan and China, which according to India are illegally occupied areas.<sup id="cite_ref-DBM_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DBM-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>India's border with Bangladesh runs 4,096.70 km (2,545.57 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-DBM_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DBM-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meghalaya" title="Meghalaya">Meghalaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tripura" title="Tripura">Tripura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mizoram" title="Mizoram">Mizoram</a> are the states which share the border with Bangladesh.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before 2015, there were 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India were on Bangladeshi soil.<sup id="cite_ref-HINDU_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HINDU-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These <a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93Bangladesh_enclaves" title="India–Bangladesh enclaves">enclaves</a> were eventually exchanged in order to simplify the border.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the exchange, India lost roughly 40 km<sup>2</sup> (9,900 acres) to Bangladesh.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Line_of_Actual_Control" title="Line of Actual Control">Line of Actual Control</a> (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People's Republic of China. It traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states and union territories of <a href="/wiki/Ladakh" title="Ladakh">Ladakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal Pradesh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ONE_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ONE-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to 1,643 km (1,021 mi) along the eastern <a href="/wiki/Borders_of_India" title="Borders of India">borders of India</a>'s northeastern states viz. <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nagaland" title="Nagaland">Nagaland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mizoram" title="Mizoram">Mizoram</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Located amidst the Himalayan range, India's border with Bhutan runs 699 km (434 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-DBM_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DBM-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal Pradesh</a> are the states which share the border with Bhutan.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The border with <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> runs 1,751 km (1,088 mi) along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India.<sup id="cite_ref-DBM_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DBM-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a> are the states which share the border with Nepal.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Siliguri_Corridor" title="Siliguri Corridor">Siliguri Corridor</a>, narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiographic_regions">Physiographic regions</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Physical_Map_of_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Physical_Map_of_India.jpg/220px-Physical_Map_of_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Physical_Map_of_India.jpg/330px-Physical_Map_of_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Physical_Map_of_India.jpg/440px-Physical_Map_of_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4724" data-file-height="4960" /></a><figcaption>Physical map of India with various physiographic divisions</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regions">Regions</h3></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Physiographic_regions_of_India"></span><span class="anchor" id="Physiographic_regions"></span> India can be divided into six <a href="/wiki/Physiographic_regions_of_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiographic regions of the world">physiographic regions</a>. They are: </p> <ul><li>Northern Mountains: <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a></li> <li>Peninsular Plateau: contains mountain ranges (<a href="/wiki/Aravalli_Range" title="Aravalli Range">Aravalli</a>, Vindhayachal and <a href="/wiki/Satpura_Range" title="Satpura Range">Satpura</a> ranges), <a href="/wiki/Ghat" title="Ghat">ghats</a> (Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats) and plateaus (Malwa Plateau, Chhota Nagpur Plateau, Southern Garanulite terrain, <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan Plateau</a> and Kutch Kathiawar plateau).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a> or The Northern Plains</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Thar Desert</a></li> <li>Coastal Plains: Eastern Ghat folds and Western Ghats folds</li> <li>Islands- The <a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> islands.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Himalayas">The Himalayas</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KedarRange.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A shining white snow-clad range, framed against a turquoise sky. In the middle ground, a ridge descends from the right to form a saddle in the centre of the photograph, partly in shadow. In the near foreground, a loop of a road is seen." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/KedarRange.jpg/220px-KedarRange.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/KedarRange.jpg/330px-KedarRange.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/KedarRange.jpg/440px-KedarRange.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kedarnath_(mountain)" title="Kedarnath (mountain)">Kedarnath range</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Garhwal_Himalayas" title="Garhwal Himalayas">Garhwal Himalayas</a> in India.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader"><a href="/wiki/Kangchenjunga" title="Kangchenjunga">Kangchenjunga</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:159px;max-width:159px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:117px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kangch-Goechala.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kangch-Goechala.jpg/157px-Kangch-Goechala.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kangch-Goechala.jpg/236px-Kangch-Goechala.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kangch-Goechala.jpg/314px-Kangch-Goechala.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:179px;max-width:179px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:117px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kangchenjunga_East_Face_from_Zemu_Glacier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kangchenjunga_East_Face_from_Zemu_Glacier.jpg/177px-Kangchenjunga_East_Face_from_Zemu_Glacier.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kangchenjunga_East_Face_from_Zemu_Glacier.jpg/266px-Kangchenjunga_East_Face_from_Zemu_Glacier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kangchenjunga_East_Face_from_Zemu_Glacier.jpg/354px-Kangchenjunga_East_Face_from_Zemu_Glacier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Kangchenjunga" title="Kangchenjunga">Kangchenjunga</a>, the third <a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="List of highest mountains">highest mountain in the world</a>, near the <a href="/wiki/Zemu_Glacier" title="Zemu Glacier">Zemu Glacier</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sikkim,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikkim, India">Sikkim, India</a>.</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a></div> <p>An arc of mountains consisting of the Himalayas, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Patkai" title="Patkai">Patkai</a> ranges define the northern frontiers of the Indian subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were formed by the <a href="/wiki/Destructive_boundary" class="mw-redirect" title="Destructive boundary">ongoing tectonic plates collision</a> of the Indian and <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian Plate">Eurasian plates</a>. The mountains in these ranges include some of the world's tallest mountains which act as a barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains flow through the fertile Indo–Gangetic plains. These mountains form the boundary between two <a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">biogeographic realms</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> <a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic realm</a> that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical <a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalayan realm</a> which includes South Asia, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and Indonesia.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Himalayas in India extend from <a href="/wiki/Ladakh" title="Ladakh">Ladakh</a> in the north to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. Several Himalayan <a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_India" title="List of mountains in India">peaks in India</a> rise above 7,000 m (23,000 ft), including <a href="/wiki/Kanchenjunga" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanchenjunga">Kanchenjunga</a> (8,598 m (28,209 ft)) on the <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>–<a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> border, and <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Devi" title="Nanda Devi">Nanda Devi</a> (7,816 m (25,643 ft)) in the <a href="/wiki/Garhwal_Himalayas" title="Garhwal Himalayas">Garhwal Himalayas</a> of Uttarakhand. The <a href="/wiki/Snow_line" title="Snow line">snow line</a> ranges between 6,000 m (20,000 ft) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in Ladakh. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid <a href="/wiki/Katabatic_wind" title="Katabatic wind">katabatic winds</a> flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Karakoram" title="Karakoram">Karakoram</a> range runs through Ladakh. The range is about 500 km (310 mi) in length and the most heavily <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciated</a> part of the world outside of the polar regions. The <a href="/wiki/Siachen_Glacier" title="Siachen Glacier">Siachen Glacier</a> at 76 km (47 mi) ranks as the world's second longest glacier outside the polar regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Measurements_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Measurements-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shyok" class="mw-redirect" title="Shyok">Shyok</a> rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalayas.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Patkai" title="Patkai">Patkai</a>, or Purvanchal, are situated near India's eastern border with Burma. They were created by the same tectonic processes which led to the formation of the Himalayas. The physical features of the Patkai mountains are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: the Patkai–Bum, the <a href="/wiki/Garo_Hills" title="Garo Hills">Garo</a>–<a href="/wiki/Khasi_Hills" title="Khasi Hills">Khasi</a>–<a href="/wiki/Jaintia_Hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaintia Hills">Jaintia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lushai_hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Lushai hills">Lushai hills</a>. The Garo–Khasi range lies in Meghalaya. <a href="/wiki/Mawsynram" title="Mawsynram">Mawsynram</a>, a village near <a href="/wiki/Cherrapunji" title="Cherrapunji">Cherrapunji</a> lying on the <a href="/wiki/Windward" class="mw-redirect" title="Windward">windward</a> side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manduvalley1_coolspark.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Manduvalley1_coolspark.jpg/220px-Manduvalley1_coolspark.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Manduvalley1_coolspark.jpg/330px-Manduvalley1_coolspark.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Manduvalley1_coolspark.jpg/440px-Manduvalley1_coolspark.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Vindhyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vindhyas">Vindhyas</a> in central India</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Peninsular_Plateau">The Peninsular Plateau</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg/220px-Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg/330px-Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg/440px-Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a> near Matheran</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dry_deciduous_Jungles_at_Ramatheertham_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Dry_deciduous_Jungles_at_Ramatheertham_03.jpg/220px-Dry_deciduous_Jungles_at_Ramatheertham_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Dry_deciduous_Jungles_at_Ramatheertham_03.jpg/330px-Dry_deciduous_Jungles_at_Ramatheertham_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Dry_deciduous_Jungles_at_Ramatheertham_03.jpg/440px-Dry_deciduous_Jungles_at_Ramatheertham_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Dry deciduous and thorny forests of plateau regions in India</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Peninsular India">Peninsular India</a></div> <p>This is a large region of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> located between the <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a>, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the <a href="/wiki/Narmada_River" title="Narmada River">Narmada River</a>.Having once constituted a segment of the ancient continent of <a href="/wiki/Gondwanaland" class="mw-redirect" title="Gondwanaland">Gondwanaland</a>, this land is the oldest and most stable in India. </p> <ul><li>Mountain ranges (clockwise from top-left) <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Aravali_Range" class="mw-redirect" title="Aravali Range">Aravali Range</a></b> is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan from northeast to southwest direction, extending approximately 800 km (500 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>, ending near <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>. The highest peak in this range is <a href="/wiki/Guru_Shikhar" title="Guru Shikhar">Guru Shikhar</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Abu" title="Mount Abu">Mount Abu</a>, rising to 1,722 m (5,650 ft), lying near the border with Gujarat.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient <a href="/wiki/Fold_mountain" class="mw-redirect" title="Fold mountain">fold mountain</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The range rose in a <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> event called the Aravali–Delhi <a href="/wiki/Orogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Orogen">orogen</a>. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian <a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">craton</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Marwar" title="Marwar">Marwar</a> segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Vindhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Vindhya">Vindhya</a> range</b>, lies north of Satpura range and east of Aravali range, runs across most of central India, extending 1,050 km (650 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-manorama2_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average elevation of these hills is from 300 to 600 m (980 to 1,970 ft) and rarely goes above 700 metres (2,300 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-manorama2_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geographically, it separates <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">Northern</a> India from <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">Southern</a> India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges at <a href="/wiki/Mirzapur" title="Mirzapur">Mirzapur</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Satpura_Range" title="Satpura Range">Satpura Range</a></b>, lies south of Vindhya range and east of Aravali range, begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs east across <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarh" title="Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a>. It extends 900 km (560 mi) with many peaks rising above 1,000 m (3,300 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-manorama2_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is triangular in shape, with its apex at <a href="/wiki/Ratnapuri,_India" title="Ratnapuri, India">Ratnapuri</a> and the two sides being parallel to the <a href="/wiki/Tapti_River" title="Tapti River">Tapti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Narmada_River" title="Narmada River">Narmada</a> rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama3_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east–west ranges divide the Indo–Gangetic plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of River Narmada.</li></ul></li> <li>Plateaus (clockwise from top-left) <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Malwa_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Malwa Plateau">Malwa Plateau</a></b> is spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The average elevation of the Malwa plateau is 500 metres, and the landscape generally slopes towards the north. Most of the region is drained by the <a href="/wiki/Chambal_River" title="Chambal River">Chambal River</a> and its tributaries; the western part is drained by the upper reaches of the <a href="/wiki/Mahi_River" title="Mahi River">Mahi River</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chhota_Nagpur_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Chhota Nagpur Plateau">Chhota Nagpur Plateau</a></b> is situated in eastern India, covering much of Jharkhand and adjacent parts of Odisha, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. Its total area is approximately 65,000 km<sup>2</sup> (25,000 sq mi) and is made up of three smaller plateaus—the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest, with an average elevation of 700 m (2,300 ft). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the <a href="/wiki/Chota_Nagpur_dry_deciduous_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forest">Chhota Nagpur dry deciduous forests</a>. Vast reserves of metal ores and <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> have been found in the Chota Nagpur plateau. <b>Southern Garanulite terrain</b>: Covers South India especially <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> excluding western and eastern ghats.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan Plateau</a></b>, also called Deccan Trapps, is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million km<sup>2</sup> (730,000 sq mi). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600 m (980 to 1,970 ft). The average elevation of the plateau is 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level. The surface slopes from 3,000 feet (910 m) in the west to 1,500 feet (460 m) in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-HSW_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSW-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the <a href="/wiki/Godavari_River" title="Godavari River">Godavari</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Krishna_River" title="Krishna River">Krishna</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kaveri" title="Kaveri">Kaveri</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mahanadi_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahanadi River">Mahanadi</a> which drain into the Bay of Bengal. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of <a href="/wiki/Deciduous" title="Deciduous">deciduous</a> broadleaf forest. Climate in the Deccan ranges from hot summers to mild winters.</li> <li><b>Kutch Kathiawar plateau</b> is located in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> state. The <a href="/wiki/Kathiawar" title="Kathiawar">Kathiawar</a> peninsula in western Gujarat is bounded by the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambat. The natural vegetation in most of the peninsula is <a href="/wiki/Xeric_scrub" class="mw-redirect" title="Xeric scrub">xeric scrub</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_thorn_scrub_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern thorn scrub forests">Northwestern thorn scrub forests</a> ecoregion.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ghats">Ghats</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kollimalai_Kundrugal.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Kollimalai_Kundrugal.JPG/220px-Kollimalai_Kundrugal.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Kollimalai_Kundrugal.JPG/330px-Kollimalai_Kundrugal.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Kollimalai_Kundrugal.JPG/440px-Kollimalai_Kundrugal.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Kolli Hills of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Konkan_-_Western_Ghats_-_Scenes_from_India%27s_Konkan_Railway_104.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Konkan_-_Western_Ghats_-_Scenes_from_India%27s_Konkan_Railway_104.JPG/220px-Konkan_-_Western_Ghats_-_Scenes_from_India%27s_Konkan_Railway_104.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Konkan_-_Western_Ghats_-_Scenes_from_India%27s_Konkan_Railway_104.JPG/330px-Konkan_-_Western_Ghats_-_Scenes_from_India%27s_Konkan_Railway_104.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Konkan_-_Western_Ghats_-_Scenes_from_India%27s_Konkan_Railway_104.JPG/440px-Konkan_-_Western_Ghats_-_Scenes_from_India%27s_Konkan_Railway_104.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="753" /></a><figcaption>Western Ghats</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pond_at_Punyagiri_temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Pond_at_Punyagiri_temple.jpg/220px-Pond_at_Punyagiri_temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Pond_at_Punyagiri_temple.jpg/330px-Pond_at_Punyagiri_temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Pond_at_Punyagiri_temple.jpg/440px-Pond_at_Punyagiri_temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Dry Evergreen Forests along the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a></figcaption></figure><p>The word <i>ghati</i> (<a href="/wiki/Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a>: <span lang="hi">घाटी</span>) means valley.<sup id="cite_ref-ghatimean1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ghatimean1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a>, Hindi, <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a>, <i>ghat</i> is a term used to identify a difficult passage over a mountain.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such passage is the <a href="/wiki/Bhor_Ghat" title="Bhor Ghat">Bhor Ghat</a> that connects the towns <a href="/wiki/Khopoli" title="Khopoli">Khopoli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khandala" class="mw-redirect" title="Khandala">Khandala</a>, on <a href="/wiki/National_Highway_4_(India,_old_numbering)" title="National Highway 4 (India, old numbering)">NH 4</a> about 80 kilometres (50 mi) north of <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>. <a href="/wiki/Charmadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Charmadi">Charmadi</a> Ghat of Karnataka is also notable. In many cases, the term is used to refer to a mountain range itself, as in the <i><a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a></i>. 'Ghattam' in Malayalam also refers to mountain ranges when used with the name of the ranges being addressed (e.g., paschima ghattam for Western Ghats), while the passage road would be called a 'churam'. <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a> on the east coast of India and <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a> on the west coast of India are the largest ghats in pensular India.<sup id="cite_ref-RWH_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RWH-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a> also known as <i>Sahyadri</i> (Benevolent Mountains) run along the western edge of India's <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan Plateau</a> and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a>. The range covers an area of 140,000 km<sup>2</sup> in a stretch of 1,600 km (990 mi) parallel to the western coast of the <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> <a href="/wiki/Peninsula" title="Peninsula">peninsula</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-manorama3_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from south of the <a href="/wiki/Tapti_River" title="Tapti River">Tapti River</a> near the Gujarat–Maharashtra border and across <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>. to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-Western_Ghats_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Western_Ghats-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average elevation is around 1,000 m (3,300 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-manorama3_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anai_Mudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Anai Mudi">Anai Mudi</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Anaimalai_Hills" title="Anaimalai Hills">Anaimalai Hills</a> 2,695 m (8,842 ft) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> and is one of the eight "hottest hot-spots" of biological diversity in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is sometimes called the Great <a href="/wiki/Escarpment" title="Escarpment">Escarpment</a> of India.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a biodiversity hotspot that contains a large proportion of the country's flora and fauna; many of which are only found here and nowhere else in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>, Western Ghats are older than Himalayan mountains. It also influences Indian monsoon weather patterns by intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-west during late summer.<sup id="cite_ref-Western_Ghats_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Western_Ghats-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A total of thirty-nine properties including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve forests were designated as world heritage sites - twenty in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, ten in <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, five in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> and four in <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marathi_people#Ghati_people" title="Marathi people">Ghati people</a>, literally means the <i>people of hills or ghats (valleys)</i>, is an <a href="/wiki/Exonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym">exonym</a> used for the marathi people specially those from the villages in <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a>, often in pejorative terms.<sup id="cite_ref-ghati2_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ghati2-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ghati1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ghati1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ghati3_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ghati3-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a> are a discontinuous range of mountains along <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>'s eastern coast, which have been eroded and quadrisected by the four major rivers of southern India, the <a href="/wiki/Godavari_River" title="Godavari River">Mahanadi, Godavari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krishna_River" title="Krishna River">Krishna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kaveri_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaveri River">Kaveri</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These mountains extend from West Bengal to <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a> through <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> in the south passing some parts of <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Wayanad_district" title="Wayanad district">Wayanad region</a> of Kerala. Parts of the <a href="/wiki/Coastal_plain" title="Coastal plain">coastal plains</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Coast" title="Coromandel Coast">Coromandel Coast</a> region, lie between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in height.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama3_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Nilgiri_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Nilgiri mountains">Nilgiri</a> hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats. <a href="/wiki/Arma_Konda" title="Arma Konda">Arma Konda</a> (1,690 m (5,540 ft)) in Andhra Pradesh is the tallest peak in Eastern Ghats.<sup id="cite_ref-Pletcher2013_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pletcher2013-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Eastern Ghats are older than the Western Ghats, and have a complex geologic history related to the assembly and breakup of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a> and the assembly of the <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> supercontinent. The Eastern Ghats are made up of <a href="/wiki/Charnockite" title="Charnockite">charnockites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a> <a href="/wiki/Gneiss" title="Gneiss">gneiss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khondalite" title="Khondalite">khondalites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphic">metamorphic</a> <a href="/wiki/Gneiss" title="Gneiss">gneisses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quartzite" title="Quartzite">quartzite</a> rock formations. The structure of the Eastern Ghats includes <a href="/wiki/Thrust_fault" title="Thrust fault">thrusts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strike-slip_fault" class="mw-redirect" title="Strike-slip fault">strike-slip faults</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all along its range. <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">Limestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">bauxite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a> are found in the Eastern Ghats hill ranges.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indo-Gangetic_plain">Indo-Gangetic plain</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IndoGangeticPlain_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/IndoGangeticPlain_Map.png/220px-IndoGangeticPlain_Map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/IndoGangeticPlain_Map.png/330px-IndoGangeticPlain_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/IndoGangeticPlain_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption>Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kalinagar_Floods_B.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Kalinagar_Floods_B.JPG/220px-Kalinagar_Floods_B.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Kalinagar_Floods_B.JPG/330px-Kalinagar_Floods_B.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Kalinagar_Floods_B.JPG/440px-Kalinagar_Floods_B.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption>Many areas remain flooded during the heavy rains brought by <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> in the Indian state of <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Gangetic plain">Indo-Gangetic plain</a></div> <p>The Indo-Gangetic<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> plains, also known as the <i>Great Plains</i> are large <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_plain" title="Alluvial plain">alluvial plains</a> dominated by three main rivers, the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganges_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges River">Ganges</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brahmaputra" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmaputra">Brahmaputra</a>. They run parallel to the Himalayas, from <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a> in the west to <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a> in the east, drain most of northern and eastern India and extend into Pakistan. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 km<sup>2</sup> (270,000 sq mi). The major rivers in this region are the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra along with their main tributaries—<a href="/wiki/Yamuna_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamuna River">Yamuna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chambal_River" title="Chambal River">Chambal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gomti_River" title="Gomti River">Gomti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghaghara_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghaghara River">Ghaghara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kosi_River" title="Kosi River">Kosi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sutlej_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutlej River">Sutlej</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ravi_River" title="Ravi River">Ravi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beas_River" title="Beas River">Beas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chenab_River" title="Chenab River">Chenab</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tista_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tista River">Tista</a>—as well as the rivers of the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_Delta" title="Ganges Delta">Ganges Delta</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Meghna_River" title="Meghna River">Meghna</a>. </p><p>The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Bhabar" title="Bhabar">Bhabar</a> belt is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by streams. As the <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a> of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The Bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between 6 and 15 km (3.7 and 9.3 mi).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tarai" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarai">Tarai</a> belt lies south of the adjacent Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife.</li> <li>The <b>Bangar</b> belt consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits.</li> <li>The <b>Khadar</b> belt lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.</li></ul> <p>The <b>Indo-Gangetic belt</b> is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted <a href="/wiki/Alluvium" title="Alluvium">alluvium</a> formed by the deposition of <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a> by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> through <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a>. The area is also rich in <a href="/wiki/Ground_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground water">ground water</a> sources. The plains are one of the world's most <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">intensely farmed</a> areas. The main crops grown are <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, which are grown in <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">rotation</a>. Other important crops grown in the region include <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thar_Desert">Thar Desert</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thar_desert_Rajasthan_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Thar_desert_Rajasthan_India.jpg/220px-Thar_desert_Rajasthan_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Thar_desert_Rajasthan_India.jpg/330px-Thar_desert_Rajasthan_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Thar_desert_Rajasthan_India.jpg/440px-Thar_desert_Rajasthan_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Thar desert, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Thar Desert</a></div> <p>The Thar Desert (also known as <i>the deserts</i>) is by some calculations the world's seventh largest desert, by some others the tenth.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of 200,000 to 238,700 km<sup>2</sup> (77,200 to 92,200 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The desert continues into Pakistan as the <a href="/wiki/Cholistan_Desert" title="Cholistan Desert">Cholistan Desert</a>. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, covering 61% of its geographic area. </p><p>About 10 percent of this region consists of sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can range from 0 °C (32 °F) in the winter to over 50 °C (122 °F) during the summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July–September southwest monsoon that brings 100 to 500 mm (3.9 to 19.7 in) of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from 30 to 120 metres (98 to 394 ft) below the ground level.<sup id="cite_ref-KAUL_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KAUL-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm (4.7 in) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.8 in) eastward. The only river in this region is Luni. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier may have a hard pan of clay, <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>. </p><p>In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes. The Kutch city of <a href="/wiki/Bhuj" title="Bhuj">Bhuj</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Epicentre" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicentre">epicentre</a> of the <a href="/wiki/2001_Gujarat_earthquake" title="2001 Gujarat earthquake">2001 Gujarat earthquake</a>, which claimed the lives of more than 1,337 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes.<sup id="cite_ref-USGS_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/1993_Latur_earthquake" title="1993 Latur earthquake">1993 Latur earthquake</a> in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000.<sup id="cite_ref-IIRS_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IIRS-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other areas have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coastal_plains">Coastal plains</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:(Bay_of_Bengal)_Beach_View_from_Tenneti_Park_07.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/%28Bay_of_Bengal%29_Beach_View_from_Tenneti_Park_07.JPG/220px-%28Bay_of_Bengal%29_Beach_View_from_Tenneti_Park_07.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/%28Bay_of_Bengal%29_Beach_View_from_Tenneti_Park_07.JPG/330px-%28Bay_of_Bengal%29_Beach_View_from_Tenneti_Park_07.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/%28Bay_of_Bengal%29_Beach_View_from_Tenneti_Park_07.JPG/440px-%28Bay_of_Bengal%29_Beach_View_from_Tenneti_Park_07.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2718" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Visakhapatnam" title="Visakhapatnam">Visakhapatnam</a> beach view, Bay of Bengal, <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Varkala_beach.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Varkala_beach.JPG/220px-Varkala_beach.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Varkala_beach.JPG/330px-Varkala_beach.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Varkala_beach.JPG/440px-Varkala_beach.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1004" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Varkala" title="Varkala">Varkala</a> beach on <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>'s coast, <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a></figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coastal_India" title="Coastal India">Coastal India</a></div> <p>The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a> and the oceanic boundary of India. It stretches from <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> in the south to <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a> in the east. The <a href="/wiki/Mahanadi_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahanadi river">Mahanadi</a>, Godavari, Kaveri, and <a href="/wiki/Krishna_River" title="Krishna River">Krishna</a> rivers drain these plains. The temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds 30 °C (86 °F), and is coupled with high levels of <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a>. The region receives both the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon#Northeast_monsoon" title="Monsoon">northeast monsoon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southwest_monsoon#Southwest_monsoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest monsoon">southwest monsoon</a> rains. The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between 1,000 and 3,000 mm (39 and 118 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130 km (62 and 81 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-RWH_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RWH-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plains are divided into six regions—the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas, the <a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari" title="Kanyakumari">Kanyakumari</a> coast, the <a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Coast" title="Coromandel Coast">Coromandel Coast</a>, and sandy coastal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a> and the Arabian Sea, ranging from 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing, usually perennial, and empty into <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuaries</a>. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapti, Narmada, <a href="/wiki/Mandovi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandovi">Mandovi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zuari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuari">Zuari</a>. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast_moist_forests" title="Malabar Coast moist forests">Malabar Coast moist forests</a> constitute a unique ecoregion. The Western Coastal Plain can be divided into two parts, the <a href="/wiki/Konkan" title="Konkan">Konkan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islands">Islands</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andaman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Andaman.jpg/220px-Andaman.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Andaman.jpg/330px-Andaman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Andaman.jpg/440px-Andaman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="681" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of the Andaman Islands</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_India" title="List of islands of India">List of islands of India</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a> are India's two major island formations and are classified as <a href="/wiki/Union_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Territory">union territories</a>. </p><p>The <b>Lakshadweep</b> Islands lie 200 to 440 km (120 to 270 mi) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea with an area of 32 km<sup>2</sup> (12 sq mi). They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 35 islands and islets. </p><p>The <b>Andaman and Nicobar</b> Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and 94° east longitude.<sup id="cite_ref-ani1_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ani1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They consist of 572 islands, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> coast running in a north–south axis for approximately 910 km. They are located 1,255 km (780 mi) from <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a> (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 mi) from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Negrais" title="Cape Negrais">Cape Negrais</a> in Burma.<sup id="cite_ref-ani1_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ani1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The territory consists of two island groups, the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Islands" title="Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nicobar_Islands" title="Nicobar Islands">Nicobar Islands</a>. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of 572 islands which run in a north–south axis for around 910 km. The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km<sup>2</sup> (2,380 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of 1,765 km<sup>2</sup> (681 sq mi). India's only active volcano, <a href="/wiki/Barren_Island_(Andaman_Islands)" title="Barren Island (Andaman Islands)">Barren Island</a> is situated here. It last erupted in 2017. The <a href="/wiki/Narcondum" class="mw-redirect" title="Narcondum">Narcondum</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Dormant_volcano" class="mw-redirect" title="Dormant volcano">dormant volcano</a> and there is a <a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">mud volcano</a> at <a href="/wiki/Baratang" class="mw-redirect" title="Baratang">Baratang</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indira_Point" title="Indira Point">Indira Point</a>, India's southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E, and lies just 189 km (117 mi) from the Indonesian island of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, to the southeast. The highest point is <a href="/wiki/Mount_Thullier" title="Mount Thullier">Mount Thullier</a> at 642 m (2,106 ft). </p><p>Other significant islands in India include <a href="/wiki/Diu,_India" title="Diu, India">Diu</a>, a former <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> colony; <a href="/wiki/Majuli" title="Majuli">Majuli</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a river island of the Brahmaputra; <a href="/wiki/Elephanta_Island" title="Elephanta Island">Elephanta</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bombay_Harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay Harbour">Bombay Harbour</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Sriharikota" title="Sriharikota">Sriharikota</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Barrier_island" title="Barrier island">barrier island</a> in Andhra Pradesh. <a href="/wiki/Salsette_Island" title="Salsette Island">Salsette Island</a> is India's most populous island on which the city of <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a> (Bombay) is located. Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the <a href="/wiki/Marine_National_Park,_Gulf_of_Kutch" title="Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch">Marine National Park</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_resources">Natural resources</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources_of_India" title="Natural resources of India">Natural resources of India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bhagirathi_River_at_Gangotri.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bhagirathi_River_at_Gangotri.JPG/220px-Bhagirathi_River_at_Gangotri.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bhagirathi_River_at_Gangotri.JPG/330px-Bhagirathi_River_at_Gangotri.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bhagirathi_River_at_Gangotri.JPG/440px-Bhagirathi_River_at_Gangotri.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bhagirathi_River" title="Bhagirathi River">Bhagirathi River</a> at <a href="/wiki/Gangotri" title="Gangotri">Gangotri</a>, source river of the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a></figcaption></figure><p>Major resource-based industries of India are <a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">fisheries</a>, agriculture, mining, and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_product" title="Petroleum product">petroleum products</a> . <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> has the 18th-largest <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">exclusive economic zone</a> (EEZ) in the world with a total size of 2,305,143 km<sup>2</sup> (890,021 sq mi). It includes the <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> island group in the <a href="/wiki/Laccadive_Sea" title="Laccadive Sea">Laccadive Sea</a> off the southwestern coast of India and the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Sea" title="Andaman Sea">Andaman Sea</a>. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecological_resources">Ecological resources</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> was ranked seventh among the list of countries most affected by <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temperature rises on the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a> are causing <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Himalayan glaciers to retreat</a>, threatening the flow rate of the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brahmaputra_River" title="Brahmaputra River">Brahmaputra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a> and other major rivers. A 2007 <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature" title="World Wide Fund for Nature">World Wide Fund for Nature</a> (WWF) report states that the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a> may run dry for the same reason.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Severe landslides and floods are projected to become increasingly common in such states as <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temperatures in India have risen by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1901 and 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to some current projections, the number and severity of <a href="/wiki/Drought_in_India" title="Drought in India">droughts in India</a> will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ecological disasters, such as a 1998 <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a> event that killed off more than 70% of corals in the reef ecosystems off <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Islands" title="Andaman Islands">Andamans</a> and was brought on by elevated ocean temperatures tied to global warming, are also projected to become increasingly common.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Water_bodies">Water bodies</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rivers_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Rivers of India">Rivers of India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Teestavalley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Teestavalley.jpg/220px-Teestavalley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Teestavalley.jpg/330px-Teestavalley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Teestavalley.jpg/440px-Teestavalley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/National_highways_of_India" title="National highways of India">National Highway</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_National_Highways_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of National Highways in India">31A</a> winds along the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Teesta_River" title="Teesta River">Teesta River</a> near <a href="/wiki/Kalimpong" title="Kalimpong">Kalimpong</a> (<a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>), in the <a href="/wiki/Darjeeling" title="Darjeeling">Darjeeling</a> Himalayan hill region.</figcaption></figure> <p>India has around 14,500 km of inland navigable waterways.<sup id="cite_ref-IWAI_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IWAI-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are twelve rivers which are classified as major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000 km<sup>2</sup> (976,000 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-manorama3_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All major rivers of India <a href="/wiki/Source_(river_or_stream)" class="mw-redirect" title="Source (river or stream)">originate</a> from one of the three main <a href="/wiki/Water_divide" class="mw-redirect" title="Water divide">watersheds</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-manorama3_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges</li> <li>Vindhya and Satpura range in central India</li> <li>Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India</li></ul> <p>The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year. The other two river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. The Himalayan rivers that flow westward into <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jhelum_River" title="Jhelum River">Jhelum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chenab_River" title="Chenab River">Chenab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ravi_River" title="Ravi River">Ravi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beas_River" title="Beas River">Beas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sutlej" title="Sutlej">Sutlej</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama4_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama4-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a>-<a href="/wiki/Brahmaputra_River" title="Brahmaputra River">Brahmaputra</a>-<a href="/wiki/Meghna_River" title="Meghna River">Meghana</a> system has the largest catchment area of about 1,600,000 km<sup>2</sup> (620,000 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-Elhance1999_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elhance1999-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ganges_Basin" title="Ganges Basin">Ganges Basin</a> alone has a catchment of about 1,100,000 km<sup>2</sup> (420,000 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-manorama3_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ganges originates from the <a href="/wiki/Gangotri_Glacier" title="Gangotri Glacier">Gangotri Glacier</a> in Uttarakhand.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama4_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama4-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama3_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gomti" class="mw-redirect" title="Gomti">Gomti</a> rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the plains.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama3_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Brahmaputra originates in <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">China</a>, where it is known as the <a href="/wiki/Yarlung_Tsangpo_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yarlung Tsangpo River">Yarlung Tsangpo River</a>) (or "Tsangpo"). It enters India in the far-eastern state of <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal Pradesh</a>, then flows west through <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a>. The Brahmaputra merges with the Ganges in Bangladesh, where it is known as the <a href="/wiki/Jamuna_River_(Bangladesh)" title="Jamuna River (Bangladesh)">Jamuna River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama3_28-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannica_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chambal_River" title="Chambal River">Chambal</a>, another tributary of the Ganges, via the Yamuna, originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward-flowing rivers from this watershed are the <a href="/wiki/Narmada_River" title="Narmada River">Narmada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tapti_River" title="Tapti River">Tapi</a>, which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="10% of the what total outflow? paragraph also a bit confusing—easy to read it as saying the Narmada and Tapi are tributaries of the Chambal. (May 2011)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Papikondalu_view_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Papikondalu_view_04.jpg/220px-Papikondalu_view_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Papikondalu_view_04.jpg/330px-Papikondalu_view_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Papikondalu_view_04.jpg/440px-Papikondalu_view_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Godavari_River" title="Godavari River">Godavari River</a> at <a href="/wiki/Papi_Hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Papi Hills">Papi Hills</a></figcaption></figure> <p>(The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the through <a href="/wiki/Godavari_River" title="Godavari River">Godavari River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krishna_River" title="Krishna River">Krishna River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kaveri_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaveri River">Kaveri River</a>, all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow).<sup id="cite_ref-manorama4_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama4-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements of people in such areas. </p><p>Major gulfs include the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Cambay" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf of Cambay">Gulf of Cambay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Kutch" title="Gulf of Kutch">Gulf of Kutch</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mannar" title="Gulf of Mannar">Gulf of Mannar</a>. Straits include the <a href="/wiki/Palk_Strait" title="Palk Strait">Palk Strait</a>, which separates India from Sri Lanka; the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Degree_Channel" title="Ten Degree Channel">Ten Degree Channel</a>, which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands; and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island to the south. Important capes include the <a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari" title="Kanyakumari">Kanyakumari</a> (formerly called Cape Comorin), the southern tip of mainland India; <a href="/wiki/Indira_Point" title="Indira Point">Indira Point</a>, the southernmost point in India (on <a href="/wiki/Great_Nicobar" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Nicobar">Great Nicobar</a> Island); <a href="/wiki/Rama%27s_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Rama's Bridge">Rama's Bridge</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Point_Calimere" title="Point Calimere">Point Calimere</a>. The Arabian Sea lies to the west of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean lie to the east and south, respectively. Smaller seas include the <a href="/wiki/Laccadive_Sea" title="Laccadive Sea">Laccadive Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Sea" title="Andaman Sea">Andaman Sea</a>. There are four <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and the Gulf of Kutch.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama5_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama5-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important lakes include <a href="/wiki/Sambhar_Lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Sambhar Lake">Sambhar Lake</a>, the country's largest saltwater lake in Rajasthan, <a href="/wiki/Vembanad_Lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Vembanad Lake">Vembanad Lake</a> in Kerala, <a href="/wiki/Kolleru_Lake" title="Kolleru Lake">Kolleru Lake</a> in Andhra Pradesh, <a href="/wiki/Loktak_Lake" title="Loktak Lake">Loktak Lake</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dal_Lake" title="Dal Lake">Dal Lake</a> in Kashmir, <a href="/wiki/Chilka_Lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilka Lake">Chilka Lake</a> (lagoon lake) in Odisha, and <a href="/wiki/Sasthamkotta_Lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasthamkotta Lake">Sasthamkotta Lake</a> in Kerala. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wetlands">Wetlands</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunderbans_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Sunderbans_map.png/220px-Sunderbans_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Sunderbans_map.png/330px-Sunderbans_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Sunderbans_map.png/440px-Sunderbans_map.png 2x" data-file-width="3666" data-file-height="2831" /></a><figcaption>A map of the Indian <a href="/wiki/Sunderbans" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunderbans">Sunderbans</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pichavaram_Mangrove.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pichavaram_Mangrove.jpg/220px-Pichavaram_Mangrove.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pichavaram_Mangrove.jpg/330px-Pichavaram_Mangrove.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pichavaram_Mangrove.jpg/440px-Pichavaram_Mangrove.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2832" data-file-height="2128" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pichavaram" title="Pichavaram">Pichavaram</a> Mangroves, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></figcaption></figure> <p>India's <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks.<sup id="cite_ref-yearbook1_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yearbook1-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. The mangrove area covers a total of 4,461 km<sup>2</sup> (1,722 sq mi),<sup id="cite_ref-yearbook2_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yearbook2-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. Prominent mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the <a href="/wiki/Sundarbans" title="Sundarbans">Sundarbans</a> delta, the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Kutch" title="Gulf of Kutch">Gulf of Kutch</a> and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama5_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama5-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sundarbans" title="Sundarbans">Sundarbans</a> delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Sundarbans is a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>, but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the <a href="/wiki/Sundarbans_National_Park" title="Sundarbans National Park">Sundarbans National Park</a> (India). The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Its most famous inhabitant is the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_tiger" title="Bengal tiger">Bengal tiger</a>. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rann_of_Kutch" title="Rann of Kutch">Rann of Kutch</a> is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> province of Pakistan. It occupies a total area of 27,900 km<sup>2</sup> (10,800 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-NG_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NG-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turn into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arable_land">Arable land</h4></div> <p>India's arable land area of 1,597,000 km<sup>2</sup> (394.6 million acres) is the second largest in the world, after the United States. Its gross irrigated crop area of 826,000 km<sup>2</sup> (215.6 million acres) is the largest in the world, followed by US and China.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the 160 million hectares of cultivated land in India, about 39 million hectare can be irrigated by groundwater wells and an additional 22 million hectares by irrigation canals.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2010, only about 35% of agricultural land in India was reliably irrigated.<sup id="cite_ref-wbirrig_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wbirrig-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 2/3rd cultivated land in India is dependent on <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_of_South_Asia" title="Monsoon of South Asia">monsoons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_resources">Economic resources</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Minerals_and_ores">Minerals and ores</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad,_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg/220px-Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg/330px-Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg/440px-Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1023" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Coal mine in <a href="/wiki/Jharkhand" title="Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>India is the world's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings.<sup id="cite_ref-MINES_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MINES-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India ranks second amongst the world's largest producers of barite and chromite.<sup id="cite_ref-MINES_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MINES-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. India is the third-largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EE2_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EE2-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MINES_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MINES-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the fifth-largest producer of bauxite, second largest of crude steel as of February 2018 replacing Japan, the seventh-largest of <a href="/wiki/Manganese_ore" class="mw-redirect" title="Manganese ore">manganese ore</a> and the eighth-largest of aluminium.<sup id="cite_ref-MINES_75-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MINES-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone.<sup id="cite_ref-CIA_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CIA-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India possesses 24% of the world's known and economically viable <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, which is mined along shores of Kerala.<sup id="cite_ref-WNA_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WNA-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gold had been mined in the now-defunct <a href="/wiki/Kolar_Gold_Fields" title="Kolar Gold Fields">Kolar Gold Fields</a> in Karnataka.<sup id="cite_ref-Rediff_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rediff-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Renewable_water">Renewable water</h4></div> <p>India's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8 km<sup>3</sup> a year.<sup id="cite_ref-EE_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EE-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its annual supply of usable and replenishable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres.<sup id="cite_ref-OT_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OT-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only 35% of groundwater resources are being utilised.<sup id="cite_ref-OT_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OT-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country's major rivers and waterways.<sup id="cite_ref-IWAI_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IWAI-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Groundwater supplies 40% of water in India's irrigation canals. 56% of the land is arable and used for agriculture. Black soils are moisture-retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soils have a wide diffusion of iron content.<sup id="cite_ref-krishi_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krishi-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Energy">Energy</h4></div> <p>Most of India's estimated 5.4 billion barrels (860,000,000 m<sup>3</sup>) in oil reserves are located in the <a href="/wiki/Mumbai_High_Field" title="Mumbai High Field">Mumbai High</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upper_Assam_division" title="Upper Assam division">upper Assam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambay_Shale_Formation" title="Cambay Shale Formation">Cambay</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Krishna_Godavari_Basin" title="Krishna Godavari Basin">Krishna-Godavari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kaveri" title="Kaveri">Cauvery</a> basins.<sup id="cite_ref-EE2_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EE2-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet of <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha.<sup id="cite_ref-EE2_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EE2-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> is mined in Andhra Pradesh. India has 400 medium-to-high enthalpy <a href="/wiki/Thermal_spring" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal spring">thermal springs</a> for producing <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal energy</a> in seven areas—the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada-Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanic <a href="/wiki/Barren_Island,_Andaman_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Barren Island, Andaman Islands">Barren Island</a>.)<sup id="cite_ref-IIT_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IIT-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate">Climate</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_IND_present.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Koppen-Geiger_Map_IND_present.svg/370px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_IND_present.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Koppen-Geiger_Map_IND_present.svg/555px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_IND_present.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Koppen-Geiger_Map_IND_present.svg/740px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_IND_present.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1361" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>India's <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="Köppen climate classification">Köppen climate classification</a> map<sup id="cite_ref-Peel_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is based on temperature, precipitation and their seasonality.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Climate_of_India" title="Climate of India">Climate of India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climatic_regions_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Climatic regions of India">Climatic regions of India</a></div> <p>Based on the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="Köppen climate classification">Köppen system</a>, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, <a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">alpine tundra</a> and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. The nation has four seasons: winter (January–February), summer (March–May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June–September) and a post-monsoon period (October–December).<sup id="cite_ref-manorama4_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama4-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid <a href="/wiki/Katabatic_wind" title="Katabatic wind">katabatic winds</a> flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer" title="Tropic of Cancer">Tropic of Cancer</a>—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures can exceed 40 °C (104 °F) during the day. The coastal regions exceed 30 °C (86 °F) coupled with high levels of <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a>. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed 45 °C (113 °F). The rain-bearing <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was 51 °C (124 °F) in Phalodi, Rajasthan.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And the lowest was −60 °C (−76 °F) in Dras, Jammu and Kashmir.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geology">Geology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology of India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detrital_rocks_of_Tirumala_Hills_Ghatroad_Tirupati.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Detrital_rocks_of_Tirumala_Hills_Ghatroad_Tirupati.JPG/220px-Detrital_rocks_of_Tirumala_Hills_Ghatroad_Tirupati.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Detrital_rocks_of_Tirumala_Hills_Ghatroad_Tirupati.JPG/330px-Detrital_rocks_of_Tirumala_Hills_Ghatroad_Tirupati.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Detrital_rocks_of_Tirumala_Hills_Ghatroad_Tirupati.JPG/440px-Detrital_rocks_of_Tirumala_Hills_Ghatroad_Tirupati.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2734" data-file-height="1796" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eparchaean_Unconformity" title="Eparchaean Unconformity">Eparchaean Unconformity</a> of Detrital rocks of Tirumala Hills, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a></figcaption></figure> <p>India's geological features are classified based on their era of formation.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama6_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama6-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama6_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama6-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama6_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama6-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Traps" title="Deccan Traps">Deccan Traps</a> formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result of <a href="/wiki/Subaerial" title="Subaerial">sub-aerial</a> volcanic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama6_88-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama6-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:India-geology-map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/India-geology-map.png/220px-India-geology-map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/India-geology-map.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>Geological regions of India</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</a> imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama6_88-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama6-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Gondwana system is seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and Assam.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama6_88-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama6-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> system is found over central India. The Andaman and Nicobar Island are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes.<sup id="cite_ref-manorama6_88-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manorama6-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Himalayas were formed by the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by one centimetre each year. </p><p>Soils in India can be classified into eight categories: alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid and desert, saline and alkaline and peaty and organic soils.<sup id="cite_ref-IA_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IA-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fao_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fao-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India, constituting 80% of the total land surface.<sup id="cite_ref-fao_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fao-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is derived from the deposition of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to the Assam valley.<sup id="cite_ref-fao_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fao-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alluvial soil are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric.<sup id="cite_ref-fao_90-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fao-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/National_Disaster_Management_Authority_(India)" title="National Disaster Management Authority (India)">National Disaster Management Authority</a> says that 60% of Indian landmass is prone to <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> and 8% susceptible to cyclone risks. </p><p>Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.<sup id="cite_ref-krishi_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krishi-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These contain high percentage of clay and are moisture retentive.<sup id="cite_ref-fao_90-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fao-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Red soils are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Aravallis.<sup id="cite_ref-krishi_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krishi-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.<sup id="cite_ref-fao_90-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fao-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-krishi_82-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krishi-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall. Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter called <a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cratons">Cratons</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:India_topo_big.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/India_topo_big.jpg/220px-India_topo_big.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/India_topo_big.jpg/330px-India_topo_big.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/India_topo_big.jpg/440px-India_topo_big.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3042" data-file-height="2933" /></a><figcaption>Topography of India</figcaption></figure> <p><span class="anchor" id="Craton"></span><span class="anchor" id="Cratons_of_India"></span><span class="anchor" id="Indian_Craton"></span><span class="anchor" id="Indian_Shield"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malani_Igneous_Suite_Jodhpur_near_Mehrangarh_Fort.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Malani_Igneous_Suite_Jodhpur_near_Mehrangarh_Fort.jpg/220px-Malani_Igneous_Suite_Jodhpur_near_Mehrangarh_Fort.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Malani_Igneous_Suite_Jodhpur_near_Mehrangarh_Fort.jpg/330px-Malani_Igneous_Suite_Jodhpur_near_Mehrangarh_Fort.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Malani_Igneous_Suite_Jodhpur_near_Mehrangarh_Fort.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="151" /></a><figcaption> Malani Igneous Suite, largest in India and third largest igneous suite in the world, at Jodhpur near <a href="/wiki/Mehrangarh_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehrangarh Fort">Mehrangarh Fort</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">Cratons</a> are a specific kind of <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> made up of a top layer called <a href="/wiki/Platform_(geology)" title="Platform (geology)">platform</a> and an older layer called <a href="/wiki/Basement_(geology)" title="Basement (geology)">basement</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Shield_(geology)" title="Shield (geology)">shield</a> is the part of a craton where basement rock crops out of the ground, and it is relatively the older and more stable section, unaffected by <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cratonm2_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cratonm2-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cratonm1_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cratonm1-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Indian Craton can be divided into five major cratons as such: </p> <ul><li>Aravalli Craton (Marwar-Mewar Craton or Western Indian Craton): Covers <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Tosham_Hill_range" title="Tosham Hill range">western</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Haryana" title="South Haryana">southern</a> <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>. It comprises Mewar Craton in the east and Marwar Craton in the west. It is limited by the <i>Great Boundary Fault</i> in the east, sandy Thar Desert in the <a href="/wiki/Thar_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Thar desert">Thar desert</a> in the west, Indo-ganetic alluvium in the north, <a href="/wiki/Son_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Son River">Son</a>-<a href="/wiki/Narmada_River" title="Narmada River">Narmada</a>-<a href="/wiki/Tapti_River" title="Tapti River">Tapti</a> in the south. It mainly has <a href="/wiki/Quartzite" title="Quartzite">quartzite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pelite" title="Pelite">pelite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greywacke" title="Greywacke">greywacke</a> and extinct volcanos exposed in <a href="/wiki/Aravalli-Delhi_Orogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Aravalli-Delhi Orogen">Aravalli-Delhi Orogen</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jodhpur_Group_%E2%80%93_Malani_Igneous_Suite_Contact" title="Jodhpur Group – Malani Igneous Suite Contact">Malani Igneous Suite</a> is the largest in India and third largest <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous</a> suite in the world.</li> <li>Bundelkand Craton, covers 26,00 km<sup>2</sup> in the <a href="/wiki/Bundelkhand" title="Bundelkhand">Bundelkhand</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a> and forms the basis of the Malwa Plateau. It is limited by the <a href="/wiki/Aravalli_Range" title="Aravalli Range">Aravalli</a> in the west, Narmada river and Satpura range in the south, and Indo-Gantetic alluvium in the north. It is similar to the Aravali Craton, which used to be a single craton before being divided into two with the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Hindoli" title="Hindoli">Hindoli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahakoshal" title="Mahakoshal">Mahakoshal</a> belts at the margins of two cratons.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharwar_Craton" title="Dharwar Craton">Dharwar Craton</a> (Karnataka Craton), 3.4 - 2.6 Ga, <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>-<a href="/wiki/Greenstone_belt" title="Greenstone belt">greenstone</a> terrain covers the state of <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a> and parts of eastern and southern <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a> state, and forms the basis of the southern end of the Deccan Plateau. In 1886 it was divided into two tectonic blocks, namely Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) and Western Dharwar Craton (WDC).</li> <li>Singhbhum Craton, 4,000 km<sup>2</sup> area which primarily covers <a href="/wiki/Jharkhand" title="Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a> as well as parts of <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Telangana" title="Telangana">Telangana</a> and eastern Maharashtra. It is limited by the Chhota Nagpur Plateau to the north, Eastern Ghats to the southeast, Bastar Craton to southwest and alluvium plain to the east.</li> <li>Bastar Craton (Bastar-Bhandara Craton), primarily covers <a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarh" title="Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a> and forms the basis of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. It is a remnant of 3.4-3.0 Ga old <a href="/wiki/Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite">TTG</a> <a href="/wiki/Gneiss" title="Gneiss">gneisses</a> of five types. It is subdivided into Kotri-Dongagarh <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">Orogen</a> and the Rest of Bastar Craton. It is limited by three <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">rifts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Godavari" class="mw-redirect" title="Godavari">Godavari</a> rift in southwest, <a href="/wiki/Narmada" class="mw-redirect" title="Narmada">Narmada</a> rift in northwest and <a href="/wiki/Mahanadi" title="Mahanadi">Mahanadi</a> rift in northeast.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/32px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/48px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/64px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_India" title="Borders of India">Borders of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_India" title="Climate change in India">Climate change in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disputed_territories_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of disputed territories of India">Disputed territories of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_India" title="List of extreme points of India">List of extreme points of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_India" title="Exclusive economic zone of India">Exclusive economic zone of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disputed_territories_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of disputed territories of India">List of disputed territories of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_India" title="Outline of India">Outline of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_villages_in_India" title="Category:Lists of villages in India">Category:Lists of villages in India</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-DBM-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DBM_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBM_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBM_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBM_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBM_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBM_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBM_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBM_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180307151308/https://mha.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/anual_report_18082017.pdf">"Annual Report 2016-17, Ministry of Home Affairs"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mha.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/anual_report_18082017.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Annual+Report+2016-17%2C+Ministry+of+Home+Affairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmha.gov.in%2Fsites%2Fupload_files%2Fmha%2Ffiles%2Fanual_report_18082017.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yearbook-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-yearbook_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Yearbook">India Yearbook</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-indiaEB-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-indiaEB_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India">"India"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150508084916/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=India&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F285248%2FIndia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span> Total area includes disputed territories not under Indian control.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_Glance/area.aspx">"India at a Glance: Area"</a>. <i>Ministry of Home Affairs: Government of India</i>. 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201231115452/https://censusindia.gov.in/census_data_2001/india_at_glance/area.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 31 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oneindia.in&rft.atitle=Another+Chinese+intrusion+in+Sikkim&rft.date=2012-06-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.oneindia.in%2F2008%2F06%2F19%2Fanother-chinese-intrusion-in-sikkim.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/Indo-Myanmar-1011.pdf">http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/Indo-Myanmar-1011.pdf</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/Indo-Bhutan-1011.pdf">http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/Indo-Bhutan-1011.pdf</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/Indo-Nepal-270813.pdf">http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/Indo-Nepal-270813.pdf</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakerChapman2002" class="citation cs2">Baker, Kathleen M.; Chapman, Graham P. (11 March 2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G-KIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10"><i>The Changing Geography of Asia</i></a>, Routledge, pp. 10–, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-93384-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-93384-6"><bdi>978-1-134-93384-6</bdi></a>, <q>This greater India is well defined in terms of topography; it is the Indian sub-continent, hemmed in by the Himalayas on the north, the Hindu Khush in the west and the Arakanese in the east.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Changing+Geography+of+Asia&rft.pages=10-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002-03-11&rft.isbn=978-1-134-93384-6&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Kathleen+M.&rft.au=Chapman%2C+Graham+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG-KIAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Measurements-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Measurements_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Measurements are from recent imagery, generally supplemented with Russian 1:200,000 scale topographic mapping as well as Jerzy Wala, <i>Orographical Sketch Map: Karakoram: Sheets 1 & 2</i>, Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, Zurich, 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041212061106/http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf">"Physical divisions"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 12 December 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Physical+divisions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nios.ac.in%2FSecSoccour%2FEnglish%2FLesson07.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDale_HoibergIndu_Ramchandani2000" class="citation book cs1">Dale Hoiberg; Indu Ramchandani (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kpd9lLY_0-IC&pg=PA92"><i>Students' Britannica India</i></a>. Popular Prakashan. pp. 92–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-760-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-760-5"><bdi>978-0-85229-760-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Students%27+Britannica+India&rft.pages=92-93&rft.pub=Popular+Prakashan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-85229-760-5&rft.au=Dale+Hoiberg&rft.au=Indu+Ramchandani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKpd9lLY_0-IC%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuptaAloka_Parasher-SenDorairajan_Balasubramanian2000" class="citation book cs1">Gupta, Harsh K; Aloka Parasher-Sen; Dorairajan Balasubramanian (2000). <i>Deccan Heritage</i>. Orient Blackswan. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7371-285-9" title="Special:BookSources/81-7371-285-9"><bdi>81-7371-285-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deccan+Heritage&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Orient+Blackswan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=81-7371-285-9&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Harsh+K&rft.au=Aloka+Parasher-Sen&rft.au=Dorairajan+Balasubramanian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma1987" class="citation book cs1">Sharma, Hari Shanker (1987). <i>Tropical geomorphology: a morphogenetic study of Rajasthan</i>. Concept. p. 295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7022-041-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-7022-041-6"><bdi>81-7022-041-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tropical+geomorphology%3A+a+morphogenetic+study+of+Rajasthan&rft.pages=295&rft.pub=Concept&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=81-7022-041-6&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Hari+Shanker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-manorama2-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-manorama2_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama2_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama2_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India – The Country)". <i>Manorama Year Book</i>. Malayala Manorama: 516. 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0542-5778">0542-5778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Manorama+Year+Book&rft.atitle=Manorama+Yearbook+2006+%28India+%E2%80%93+The+Country%29&rft.pages=516&rft.date=2006&rft.issn=0542-5778&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Indian geographical journal</i>. Vol. 46. Indian Geographical Society. 1971. p. 52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indian+geographical+journal&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Indian+Geographical+Society&rft.date=1971&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-manorama3-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-manorama3_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama3_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama3_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama3_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama3_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama3_28-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama3_28-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama3_28-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama3_28-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama3_28-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India – The Country)</i>. p. 517.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manorama+Yearbook+2006+%28India+%E2%80%93+The+Country%29&rft.pages=517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HSW-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HSW_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090108230839/http://geography.howstuffworks.com/asia/the-deccan-plateau.htm">"The Deccan Plateau"</a>. How Stuff Works. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geography.howstuffworks.com/asia/the-deccan-plateau.htm">the original</a> on 8 January 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 November</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Deccan+Plateau&rft.pub=How+Stuff+Works&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeography.howstuffworks.com%2Fasia%2Fthe-deccan-plateau.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ghatimean1-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ghatimean1_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/hindi-english/%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80">Ghati meaning</a>, Hindi-English Collins dictionary.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090124025354/http://navneet.com/mainpage/contactus.asp"><i>Navneet Marathi English Dictionary</i></a>. Mumbai 400028: Navneet Publications (India) Limited. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Eastern+Coastal+Plain&rft.pub=Rainwaterharvesting.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rainwaterharvesting.org%2Feco%2Fecp.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Western_Ghats-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Western_Ghats_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Western_Ghats_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342">"Western Ghats"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180704212953/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342">Archived</a> from the original on 4 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Western+Ghats&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F1342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton2006" class="citation journal cs1">Clayton, Pamela (November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181123154240/https://www.hindimetyari.com/2018/10/drishti-ias-geography-notes-free-pdf.html">"Introduction"</a>. <i>Literacy in Kerala</i>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hindimetyari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hindimetyari (page does not exist)">Hindimetyari</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86389-068-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86389-068-7"><bdi>0-86389-068-7</bdi></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+India&rft.atitle=UN+designates+Western+Ghats+as+world+heritage+site&rft.date=2012-07-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesofindia.indiatimes.com%2Fhome%2Fenvironment%2Fflora-fauna%2FUN-designates-Western-Ghats-as-world-heritage-site%2Farticleshow%2F14595602.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMigon2010" class="citation book cs1">Migon, Piotr (12 May 2010). <i>Geomorphological Landscapes of the World</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+India&rft.atitle=39+sites+in+Western+Ghats+get+world+heritage+status&rft.date=2012-07-03&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Clara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesofindia.indiatimes.com%2Fcity%2Fmumbai%2F39-sites-in-Western-Ghats-get-world-heritage-status%2Farticleshow%2F14622091.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ghati2-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ghati2_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bBG_QmivOWgC&dq=ghati+people&pg=PA110">>Bombay Teachers and the Cultural Role of Cities</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230905035554/https://books.google.com/books?id=bBG_QmivOWgC&dq=ghati+people&pg=PA110">Archived</a> 5 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Page 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ghati1-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ghati1_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.firstpost.com/living/of-ghati-bhaiyya-and-yandu-gundu-mumbai-has-huge-diversity-in-its-pejoratives-2640836.html">Of 'ghati', 'bhaiyya' & 'yandu gundu': Mumbai has huge diversity in its pejoratives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230905035556/https://www.firstpost.com/living/of-ghati-bhaiyya-and-yandu-gundu-mumbai-has-huge-diversity-in-its-pejoratives-2640836.html">Archived</a> 5 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, First Post, 26 Feb 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ghati3-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ghati3_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guruprasad Datar, 2018, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zcxYDwAAQBAJ&dq=ghati+people&pg=PT90">Stereotypes</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230905035559/https://books.google.com/books?id=zcxYDwAAQBAJ&dq=ghati+people&pg=PT90">Archived</a> 5 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPullaiahD.Muralidhara_Rao2002" class="citation book cs1">Pullaiah, Thammineni; D.Muralidhara Rao (2002). 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Sci</i>. <b>11</b> (5): 1633–1644. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007HESS...11.1633P">2007HESS...11.1633P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fhess-11-1633-2007">10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1027-5606">1027-5606</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrol.+Earth+Syst.+Sci.&rft.atitle=Updated+world+map+of+the+K%C3%B6ppen%E2%80%93Geiger+climate+classification&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1633-1644&rft.date=2007&rft.issn=1027-5606&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5194%2Fhess-11-1633-2007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007HESS...11.1633P&rft.au=Peel%2C+M.+C.+and+Finlayson%2C+B.+L.+and+McMahon%2C+T.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net%2F11%2F1633%2F2007%2Fhess-11-1633-2007.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span> <i>(direct: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1633/2007/hess-11-1633-2007.pdf">Final Revised Paper</a>)</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y_GMTXRtxJ8C&pg=PA65"><i>Climate Change: Myths and Realities</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Channel+NewsAsia&rft.atitle=India+sets+new+heat+record+as+temperatures+soar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.channelnewsasia.com%2Fnews%2Fasiapacific%2Findia-sets-new-heat%2F2802184.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBinayak2017" class="citation web cs1">Binayak, Poonam (30 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/dras-the-worlds-second-coldest-inhabited-place/">"Dras: The World's Second Coldest Inhabited Place"</a>. <i>Culture Trip</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210118072154/https://theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/dras-the-worlds-second-coldest-inhabited-place/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Culture+Trip&rft.atitle=Dras%3A+The+World%27s+Second+Coldest+Inhabited+Place&rft.date=2017-08-30&rft.aulast=Binayak&rft.aufirst=Poonam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheculturetrip.com%2Fasia%2Findia%2Farticles%2Fdras-the-worlds-second-coldest-inhabited-place%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-manorama6-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-manorama6_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama6_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama6_88-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama6_88-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama6_88-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama6_88-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manorama6_88-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Manorama Yearbook 2006 </i>(India – Geology)<i><span></span></i>. p. 521.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manorama+Yearbook+2006+%28India+%E2%80%93+Geology%29&rft.pages=521&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IA-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IA_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiaagronet.com/indiaagronet/soil_management/Soil_mgmt.htm">"India Agronet – Soil Management"</a>. Indiagronet.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070625143107/http://www.indiaagronet.com/indiaagronet/soil_management/Soil_mgmt.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=India+Agronet+%E2%80%93+Soil+Management&rft.pub=Indiagronet.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiaagronet.com%2Findiaagronet%2Fsoil_management%2FSoil_mgmt.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fao-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fao_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fao_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fao_90-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fao_90-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fao_90-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fao_90-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0257e/A0257E02.htm">"Fertilizer use by crop in India"</a>. <i>U.S. Food and Agriculture Organization</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071105080712/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0257e/A0257E02.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Food+and+Agriculture+Organization&rft.atitle=Fertilizer+use+by+crop+in+India&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2Fdocrep%2F009%2Fa0257e%2FA0257E02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cratonm2-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cratonm2_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slideshare.net/pramodgpramod/cratons-of-india">Cratons of India</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210912162139/https://www.slideshare.net/pramodgpramod/cratons-of-india">Archived</a> 12 September 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cratonm1-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cratonm1_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mem.lyellcollection.org/content/43/1/151">Cratons of India</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190116100217/http://mem.lyellcollection.org/content/43/1/151">Archived</a> 16 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, lyellcollection.org.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Yearbook" class="citation book cs1"><i>India Yearbook 2007</i>. Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. Of India. 2007. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-230-1423-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-230-1423-4"><bdi>978-81-230-1423-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+Yearbook+2007&rft.pub=Publications+Division%2C+Ministry+of+Information+%26+Broadcasting%2C+Govt.+Of+India&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-230-1423-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Geography_of_India" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Geography of India">Geography of India</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh1971" class="citation book cs1">Singh, R.L. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indianculture.gov.in/india-regional-geography"><i>India A Regional Geography</i></a>. National Geographical Society of India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8185273181" title="Special:BookSources/978-8185273181"><bdi>978-8185273181</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211109181953/https://www.indianculture.gov.in/india-regional-geography">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+A+Regional+Geography&rft.pub=National+Geographical+Society+of+India&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-8185273181&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=R.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indianculture.gov.in%2Findia-regional-geography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagSengupta1992" class="citation book cs1">Nag, Prithvish; Sengupta, Smita (1992). <i>Geography of India</i>. Concept Publishing Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8170223849" title="Special:BookSources/978-8170223849"><bdi>978-8170223849</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geography+of+India&rft.pub=Concept+Publishing+Co&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-8170223849&rft.aulast=Nag&rft.aufirst=Prithvish&rft.au=Sengupta%2C+Smita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpateLearmonth1967" class="citation book cs1">Spate, O.H.K.; Learmonth, A.T.A. (1967). <i>India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography</i>. Methuen Publishing Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138290723" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138290723"><bdi>978-1138290723</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+and+Pakistan%3A+A+General+and+Regional+Geography&rft.pub=Methuen+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-1138290723&rft.aulast=Spate&rft.aufirst=O.H.K.&rft.au=Learmonth%2C+A.T.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPal1998" class="citation book cs1">Pal, Saroj K. (1998). <i>Physical Geography of India: A Study in Regional Earth Sciences</i>. Sangam Books Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0863117510" title="Special:BookSources/978-0863117510"><bdi>978-0863117510</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Geography+of+India%3A+A+Study+in+Regional+Earth+Sciences&rft.pub=Sangam+Books+Ltd&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0863117510&rft.aulast=Pal&rft.aufirst=Saroj+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKale2014" class="citation book cs1">Kale, Vishwas S. (2014). <i>Landscapes and Landforms of India (World Geomorphological Landscapes)</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9402400298" title="Special:BookSources/978-9402400298"><bdi>978-9402400298</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Landscapes+and+Landforms+of+India+%28World+Geomorphological+Landscapes%29&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-9402400298&rft.aulast=Kale&rft.aufirst=Vishwas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanyal2015" class="citation book cs1">Sanyal, Sanjeev (2015). <i>The Incredible History of India's Geography</i>. Penguin Books Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0143333661" title="Special:BookSources/978-0143333661"><bdi>978-0143333661</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Incredible+History+of+India%27s+Geography&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Ltd&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0143333661&rft.aulast=Sanyal&rft.aufirst=Sanjeev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalfour1976" class="citation book cs1">Balfour, E (1976). <i>Encyclopaedia Asiatica: Comprising Indian Subcontinent, Eastern and Southern Asia</i>. Cosmo Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7020-325-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-7020-325-2"><bdi>81-7020-325-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Asiatica%3A+Comprising+Indian+Subcontinent%2C+Eastern+and+Southern+Asia&rft.pub=Cosmo+Publications&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=81-7020-325-2&rft.aulast=Balfour&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllaby1998" class="citation book cs1">Allaby, M (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/floods00alla"><i>Floods</i></a>. Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-3520-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-3520-2"><bdi>0-8160-3520-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Floods&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8160-3520-2&rft.aulast=Allaby&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffloods00alla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNash2002" class="citation book cs1">Nash, JM (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elniounlocking00nash"><i>El Niño: Unlocking the Secrets of the Master Weather Maker</i></a>. Warner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-446-52481-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-446-52481-6"><bdi>0-446-52481-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+Ni%C3%B1o%3A+Unlocking+the+Secrets+of+the+Master+Weather+Maker&rft.pub=Warner&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-446-52481-6&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=JM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felniounlocking00nash&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060222060614/http://library.thinkquest.org/28853/terrain.htm">"Land and Natural Resources"</a>. <i>Terrain</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28853/terrain.htm">the original</a> on 22 February 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Terrain&rft.atitle=Land+and+Natural+Resources&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.thinkquest.org%2F28853%2Fterrain.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+of+India" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_of_India_by_state_or_territory" style="text-align:left;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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title="Template talk:Geography of India by state or territory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_of_India_by_state_or_territory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography of India by state or territory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_of_India_by_state_or_territory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geography of India</a> by state or territory</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Andhra_Pradesh" title="Geography of Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Geography of Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Assam" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Assam">Assam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Bihar" title="Geography of Bihar">Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Chhattisgarh" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Goa" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Goa">Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Gujarat" title="Geography of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Haryana" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Haryana">Haryana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="Geography of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Jharkhand" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Karnataka" title="Geography of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Kerala" title="Geography of Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Madhya_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Maharashtra" title="Geography of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Manipur" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Manipur">Manipur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Meghalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Meghalaya">Meghalaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mizoram" title="Geography of Mizoram">Mizoram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Nagaland" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Nagaland">Nagaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Odisha" title="Geography of Odisha">Odisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Punjab,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Punjab, India">Punjab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Rajasthan" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Sikkim" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Sikkim">Sikkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Geography of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Telangana" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Telangana">Telangana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Tripura" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Tripura">Tripura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Geography of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Uttarakhand" title="Geography of Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_West_Bengal" title="Geography of West Bengal">West Bengal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Union_territory" title="Union territory">Union territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Chandigarh" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Chandigarh">Chandigarh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli_and_Daman_and_Diu" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu">Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Delhi">Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Jammu and Kashmir">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Ladakh" title="Geography of Ladakh">Ladakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Lakshadweep" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Puducherry_(union_territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Puducherry (union territory)">Puducherry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_of_India" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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title="Fossil Parks of India">Fossil Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_plate" title="Indian plate">Indian plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Geological_Monuments_of_India" title="National Geological Monuments of India">Geological Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stones_of_India" title="Stones of India">Stones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monuments_of_National_Importance_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Monuments of National Importance of India">National monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_groves_of_India" title="Sacred groves of India">Sacred Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains#India" title="Sacred mountains">Sacred Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River#Sacred" title="River">Sacred Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_India" title="Tourism in India">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="World Heritage Sites in India">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landforms_of_India" title="Landforms of India">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_India" title="List of beaches in India">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_India" title="Borders of India">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_India" title="Coastal India">Coasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_India" title="List of canals in India">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_India" title="Exclusive economic zone of India">ECZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_India" title="List of extreme points of India">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of glaciers of India">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_and_union_territories_by_highest_point" title="List of Indian states and union territories by highest point">Highest point by states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_India" title="List of islands of India">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of lakes in India">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_India" title="List of mountains in India">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_passes_of_India" title="List of mountain passes of India">Mountain passes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_major_rivers_of_India" title="List of major rivers of India">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_in_India" title="List of valleys in India">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_India" title="List of volcanoes in India">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_in_India" title="List of waterfalls in India">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of regions of India">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_India" title="Northwest India">Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India" title="East India">East India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_India" class="mw-redirect" title="West India">West India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_India" title="Central India">Central India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of regions of India">Geographical regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Coastal_Plains" title="Eastern Coastal Plains">Eastern Coastal Plains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Circars" title="Northern Circars">Circars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Coast" title="Coromandel Coast">Coromandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utkal_Plains" title="Utkal Plains">Utkal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Himalaya">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Himalaya">Himachal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Himalayas" title="Great Himalayas">Himadri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sivalik_Hills" title="Sivalik Hills">Sivalik</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Thar Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Coastal_Plains" title="Western Coastal Plains">Western Coastal Plains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canara" class="mw-redirect" title="Canara">Canara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkan_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Konkan Coast">Konkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathiawar" title="Kathiawar">Kathiawar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Kutch">Kutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">States and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Autonomous administrative divisions of India">Autonomous areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_divisions_in_India" title="List of divisions in India">Divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_India" title="List of districts in India">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_India_by_population" title="List of cities in India by population">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_India_by_population" title="List of towns in India by population">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipalities of India">Municipalities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_India" title="Environment of India">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_classification_of_India" title="Biogeographic classification of India">Biogeographic classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_India" title="Climate of India">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_India" title="List of ecoregions in India">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_India" title="Environmental issues in India">Environmental Issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_India" title="Fauna of India">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_India" title="Flora of India">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forests_in_India" title="List of forests in India">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_India" title="Protected areas of India">Protected Areas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere_reserves_of_India" title="Biosphere reserves of India">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_forests_of_India" title="Communal forests of India">Communal forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_areas_of_India" title="Conservation areas of India">Conservation areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_reserves_and_community_reserves_of_India" title="Conservation reserves and community reserves of India">Conservation and community reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Elephant#Elephant_reserves" title="Project Elephant">Elephant reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ramsar_sites_in_India" title="List of Ramsar sites in India">Ramsar Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_forests_and_protected_forests_of_India" title="Reserved forests and protected forests of India">Reserved and protected forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_reserves_of_India" title="Tiger reserves of India">Tiger reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_sanctuaries_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildlife sanctuaries of India">Wildlife sanctuaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_India" title="Wildlife of India">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="India_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:India_topics" title="Template:India topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:India_topics" title="Template talk:India topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:India_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:India topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="India_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">India topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_India" title="List of years in India">Years</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in India">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Linguistic history of India">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paper_currency_in_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of paper currency in Indian subcontinent">Paper currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_India" title="Postage stamps and postal history of India">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_on_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavana_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavana Kingdom">Yavana Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Mauryan_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid–Mauryan war">Seleucid–Mauryan war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Marathas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">European trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_War" title="Bengal War">Bengal War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Late modern">Late modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princely state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Plassey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">1857 rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India#History" title="Rail transport in India">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India_under_the_British_Raj" title="Economy of India under the British Raj">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief,_India" title="Commander-in-Chief, India">Commander-in-Chief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamindar#British_era" title="Zamindar">Zamindari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Renaissance" title="Bengal Renaissance">Bengal Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1909" title="Indian Councils Act 1909">Political reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">1943 famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Republic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_integration_of_India" title="Political integration of India">Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="India and the Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Year_Plans_of_India" title="Five-Year Plans of India">Five-Year Plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts" title="Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts">Indo-Pakistani wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India" title="Green Revolution in India">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Flood">White Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxalite">Naxal Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smiling_Buddha" title="Smiling Buddha">Smiling Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Space programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(India)" title="The Emergency (India)">The Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Peace_Keeping_Force" title="Indian Peace Keeping Force">Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">History of India (1947–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Economic liberalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pokhran-II" title="Pokhran-II">Pokhran-II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="COVID-19 pandemic in India">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology_of_India" title="Category:Geology of India">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_Parks_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil Parks of India">Fossil Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Plate">Indian Plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heritage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Geological_Monuments_of_India" title="National Geological Monuments of India">National Geological Monuments of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_groves_of_India" title="Sacred groves of India">Sacred groves of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains#India" title="Sacred mountains">Sacred mountains of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River#Sacred" title="River">Sacred rivers of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stones_of_India" title="Stones of India">Stones of India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_India" title="Environment of India">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_classification_of_India" title="Biogeographic classification of India">Biogeographic classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere_reserves_of_India" title="Biosphere reserves of India">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_India" title="Climate of India">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_India" title="Climate change in India">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_India" title="List of earthquakes in India">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_India" title="List of ecoregions in India">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_India" title="Environmental issues in India">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_India" title="Fauna of India">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forests_in_India" title="List of forests in India">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_India" title="Flora of India">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_India" title="Protected areas of India">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_India" title="Wildlife of India">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wildlife_sanctuaries_of_India" title="List of wildlife sanctuaries of India">sanctuaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_India" title="List of beaches in India">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_India" title="List of canals in India">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_India" title="Coastal India">Coasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_India" title="Exclusive economic zone of India">ECZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_India" title="List of extreme points of India">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of glaciers of India">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_and_union_territories_by_highest_point" title="List of Indian states and union territories by highest point">Highest point by states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_India" title="List of islands of India">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_India" title="List of lakes of India">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_India" title="List of mountains in India">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_passes_of_India" title="List of mountain passes of India">Mountain passes</a></li> <li>Plains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Coastal_Plains" title="Eastern Coastal Plains">Eastern coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Coastal_Plains" title="Western Coastal Plains">Western coastal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_India" title="List of rivers of India">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_in_India" title="List of valleys in India">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_India" title="List of volcanoes in India">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of waterfalls of India">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_India" title="Central India">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India" title="East India">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_India" title="Northwest India">Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest India">Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast India">Southeast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_India" title="Western India">West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Autonomous administrative divisions of India">Autonomous administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_India" title="Template:Borders of India">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_India_by_population" title="List of towns in India by population">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_India_by_population" title="List of cities in India by population">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_India" title="List of districts in India">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_governance_in_India" title="Municipal governance in India">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">States and union territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monuments_of_National_Importance_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Monuments of National Importance of India">National monuments of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature worship</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian-origin religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="World Heritage Sites in India">World Heritage Sites in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Culture of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_India" title="Tourism in India">Tourism in India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agencies_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of agencies of the government of India">Agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_India" title="Energy policy of India">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_India" title="Foreign relations of India">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_India" title="Parliament of India">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lok_Sabha" title="Lok Sabha">Lok Sabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajya_Sabha" title="Rajya Sabha">Rajya Sabha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_India" title="Vice President of India">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Council_of_Ministers" title="Union Council of Ministers">Union Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India" title="Civil Services of India">Civil Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Secretary_(India)" title="Cabinet Secretary (India)">Cabinet Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_India" title="State governments of India">State governments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_India" title="State legislative assemblies of India">State legislative assemblies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_councils_of_India" title="State legislative councils of India">State legislative councils</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(India)" title="Governor (India)">Governors, Lieutenant Governors and Administrators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_minister_(India)" title="Chief minister (India)">Chief Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_secretary_(India)" title="Chief secretary (India)">Chief Secretaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code" title="Indian Penal Code">Penal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India" title="Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India">Fundamental rights, principles and duties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_India" title="Human rights in India">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in India">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_courts_of_India" title="High courts of India">High Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_courts_of_India" title="District courts of India">District Courts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_India" title="Law enforcement in India">Enforcement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Federal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_Security_Force" title="Border Security Force">Border Security Force (BSF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Industrial_Security_Force" title="Central Industrial Security Force">Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Reserve_Police_Force" title="Central Reserve Police Force">Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Tibetan_Border_Police" title="Indo-Tibetan Border Police">Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Guard" title="National Security Guard">National Security Guard (NSG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Force" title="Railway Protection Force">Railway Protection Force (RPF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sashastra_Seema_Bal" title="Sashastra Seema Bal">Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Protection_Group" title="Special Protection Group">Special Protection Group (SPG)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_intelligence_agencies" title="List of Indian intelligence agencies">Intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Police_Research_and_Development" title="Bureau of Police Research and Development">Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Central Bureau of Investigation">Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorate_of_Revenue_Intelligence" title="Directorate of Revenue Intelligence">Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate" title="Enforcement Directorate">Enforcement Directorate (ED)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_Bureau_(India)" title="Intelligence Bureau (India)">Intelligence Bureau (IB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Council_(India)" title="National Security Council (India)">Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotics_Control_Bureau" title="Narcotics Control Bureau">Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Investigation_Agency" title="National Investigation Agency">National Investigation Agency (NIA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_Analysis_Wing" title="Research and Analysis Wing">Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forces" title="Indian Armed Forces">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Navy" title="Indian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Air_Force" title="Indian Air Force">Air Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_India" title="Censorship in India">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationality_law" title="Indian nationality law">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_India" title="Elections in India">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_India" title="Democracy in India">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationalism" title="Indian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India" title="List of political parties in India">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scandals_in_India" title="List of scandals in India">Scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">Scheduled groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_India" title="Secularism in India">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_political_participation_in_India" title="Women's political participation in India">Women in politics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India" title="Economy of India">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_India" title="List of companies of India">Companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BSE_SENSEX" title="BSE SENSEX">BSE SENSEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIFTY_50" title="NIFTY 50">NIFTY 50</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(India)" title="Ministry of Finance (India)">Ministry of Finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_(India)" title="Minister of Finance (India)">Finance ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(India)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)">Ministry of Commerce and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finance_Commission" title="Finance Commission">Finance Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Advisory_Council" title="Economic Advisory Council">Economic Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Statistics_Office_(India)" title="Central Statistics Office (India)">Central Statistical Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Board_of_India" title="Securities and Exchange Board of India">Securities and Exchange Board of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate" title="Enforcement Directorate">Enforcement Directorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_debt_of_India" title="External debt of India">External debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_India" title="Foreign trade of India">Foreign trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_India" title="Foreign direct investment in India">Foreign direct investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign-exchange_reserves_of_India" title="Foreign-exchange reserves of India">Foreign exchange reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remittances_to_India" title="Remittances to India">Remittances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_India" title="Taxation in India">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidies_in_India" title="Subsidies in India">Subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_licensing_in_India" title="Industrial licensing in India">Industrial licensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voluntary_Guidelines_on_Social,_Environmental_and_Economic_Responsibilities_of_Business" title="National Voluntary Guidelines on Social, Environmental and Economic Responsibilities of Business">Voluntary guidelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NITI_Aayog" title="NITI Aayog">NITI Aayog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make_in_India" title="Make in India">Make in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmanirbhar_Bharat" title="Atmanirbhar Bharat">Atmanirbhar Bharat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee" title="Indian rupee">Indian rupee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee_sign" title="Indian rupee sign">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_rupee" title="History of the rupee">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_rate_history_of_the_Indian_rupee" title="Exchange rate history of the Indian rupee">Historical Forex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rupee" title="Digital rupee">Digital rupee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_paisa" title="Indian paisa">Paisa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="Reserve Bank of India">Reserve Bank of India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_the_Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="List of governors of the Reserve Bank of India">Governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_Government_Mint" title="India Government Mint">Mint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflation_in_India" title="Inflation in India">Inflation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Financial services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_India" title="Banking in India">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_India" title="Insurance in India">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi_Commodity_Exchange" title="Multi Commodity Exchange">Multi Commodity Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gold_(Control)_Act,_1968" title="The Gold (Control) Act, 1968">Bullion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_black_money" title="Indian black money">Black money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombay_Stock_Exchange" title="Bombay Stock Exchange">Bombay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Stock_Exchange_of_India" title="National Stock Exchange of India">National</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development_in_India" title="Economic development in India">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Liberalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licence_Raj" title="Licence Raj">Licence Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India" title="Green Revolution in India">Green revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schemes_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of schemes of the government of India">Government initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_numbering_system" title="Indian numbering system">Numbering system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indians_by_net_worth" title="List of Indians by net worth">By net worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_India" title="Income in India">Income</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">Poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_labour_law" title="Indian labour law">Labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_India" title="Pensions in India">Pensions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Employees%27_Provident_Fund_Organisation" title="Employees' Provident Fund Organisation">EPFO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pension_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="National Pension Scheme">NPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Provident_Fund_(India)" title="Public Provident Fund (India)">PPF</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Andhra_Pradesh" title="Economy of Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Assam" title="Economy of Assam">Assam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Bihar" title="Economy of Bihar">Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Delhi" title="Economy of Delhi">Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Goa" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Goa">Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Gujarat" title="Economy of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Haryana" title="Economy of Haryana">Haryana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="Economy of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Jammu and Kashmir">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Jharkhand" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Karnataka" title="Economy of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Kerala" title="Economy of Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ladakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Ladakh">Ladakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Madhya_Pradesh" title="Economy of Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Maharashtra" title="Economy of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Mizoram" title="Economy of Mizoram">Mizoram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Odisha" title="Economy of Odisha">Odisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Punjab,_India" title="Economy of Punjab, India">Punjab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Rajasthan" title="Economy of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Economy of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Telangana" title="Economy of Telangana">Telangana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Uttarakhand" title="Economy of Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Economy of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_West_Bengal" title="Economy of West Bengal">West Bengal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_India" title="Agriculture in India">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry_in_India" title="Animal husbandry in India">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_in_India" title="Fishing in India">Fishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_India" title="Automotive industry in India">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_India" title="Chemical industry in India">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_India" title="Construction industry of India">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_industry_of_India" title="Defence industry of India">Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_India" title="Energy in India">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India" title="Electricity sector in India">Electricity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India" title="Nuclear power in India">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industry_in_India" title="Oil and gas industry in India">Oil and gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_India" title="Wind power in India">Wind</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_and_semiconductor_manufacturing_industry_in_India" title="Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India">Electronics and semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_industry_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Entertainment industry in India">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_India" title="Forestry in India">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_India" title="Gambling in India">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_India" title="Healthcare in India">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_India" title="List of hospitals in India">Hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_in_India" title="Information technology in India">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of India">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_India" title="Cinema of India">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting_in_India" title="FM broadcasting in India">FM Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_India" title="Television in India">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_industry_in_India" title="Printing industry in India">Printing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_India" title="Mining in India">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_India" title="Coal in India">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">Iron and Steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_India" title="Pharmaceutical industry in India">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry_in_India" title="Pulp and paper industry in India">Pulp and paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retailing_in_India" title="Retailing in India">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_India" title="Science and technology in India">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_in_India" title="Biotechnology in India">Biotechnology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_industry_of_India" title="Space industry of India">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_India" title="Textile industry in India">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_India" title="Tourism in India">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_India" title="Transport in India">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_India" title="Aviation in India">Aviation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_India" title="Civil aviation in India">Civil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ports_in_India" title="List of ports in India">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India" title="Rail transport in India">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_India" title="Roads in India">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electricity_organisations_in_India" title="List of electricity organisations in India">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_sector_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Power sector in India">Power</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulator</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_Regulatory_and_Development_Authority" title="Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority">IRDAI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="Reserve Bank of India">RBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEBI" class="mw-redirect" title="SEBI">SEBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Board_of_India" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India">IBBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension_Fund_Regulatory_and_Development_Authority" title="Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority">PFRDA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Company_Law_Tribunal" title="National Company Law Tribunal">NCLT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Company_Law_Appellate_Tribunal" title="National Company Law Appellate Tribunal">NCLAT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_for_Industrial_and_Financial_Reconstruction" title="Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction">BIFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Board_of_India" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India">IBBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Code,_2016" title="Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016">IBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securitisation_and_Reconstruction_of_Financial_Assets_and_Enforcement_of_Security_Interest_Act,_2002" title="Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, 2002">SARFESI Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income-tax_Act,_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="Income-tax Act, 1961">Income Tax Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companies_Act,_2013" class="mw-redirect" title="Companies Act, 2013">Companies Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_Regulation_Act,_1949" title="Banking Regulation Act, 1949">Banking Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_Act,_1938" title="Insurance Act, 1938">Insurance Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Exchange_Management_Act" title="Foreign Exchange Management Act">FEMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mumbai_Consensus" title="Mumbai Consensus">Mumbai Consensus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Society and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">Caste system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_India" title="Corruption in India">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_India" title="Crime in India">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_India" title="List of universities in India">Universities in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_colleges_in_India" title="List of medical colleges in India">Medical colleges in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_in_India" title="List of law schools in India">Law colleges in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education_in_India" title="Engineering education in India">Engineering colleges in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_relations_in_India" title="Ethnic relations in India">Ethnic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_India" title="Health in India">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_by_life_expectancy_at_birth" title="List of Indian states by life expectancy at birth">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_India" title="Literacy in India">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_India" title="Prisons in India">Prisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issue#India" title="Social issue">Socio-economic issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_India" title="Standard of living in India">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_India" title="Women in India">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_India" title="Sexuality in India">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_India" title="Youth in India">Youth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_entertainment_in_India" title="Arts and entertainment in India">Arts and entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_blogosphere" title="Indian blogosphere">Blogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_India" title="Cinema of India">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_comics" title="Indian comics">Comics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Webcomics_in_India" title="Webcomics in India">Webcomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_cuisine" title="Indian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_wine" title="Indian wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_dance" title="Indian classical dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_India" title="Clothing in India">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_India" title="Folklore of India">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_India" title="List of festivals in India">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_India" title="Mass media in India">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_India" title="Television in India">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_India" title="Music of India">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_painting" title="Indian painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_physical_culture" title="Indian physical culture">Physical culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_India" title="Public holidays in India">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent">Sculpture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_tallest_statues_in_India" title="List of the tallest statues in India">tallest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_India" title="Sport in India">Sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_games_of_India" title="Traditional games of India">Traditional</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_of_South_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:GeoSouthAsia" title="Template:GeoSouthAsia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:GeoSouthAsia" title="Template talk:GeoSouthAsia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:GeoSouthAsia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:GeoSouthAsia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_of_South_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Geography of <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mountains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Himalayas" title="Eastern Himalayas">Eastern Himalayas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Mountains_(Bhutan)" title="Black Mountains (Bhutan)">Black Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dundwa_Range" title="Dundwa Range">Dundwa Range</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Himalayas" title="Great Himalayas">Great Himalayas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight-thousander" title="Eight-thousander">Eight-thousander</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Himalayan_Range" title="Lower Himalayan Range">Lesser Himalayas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sivalik_Hills" title="Sivalik Hills">Sivalik Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Himalayas" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Himalayas">Tibetan Himalayas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Himalayas" title="Western Himalayas">Western Himalayas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garhwal_Range" class="mw-redirect" title="Garhwal Range">Garhwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kishtwar_Himalaya" title="Kishtwar Himalaya">Kishtwar Himalaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margalla_Hills" title="Margalla Hills">Margalla Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakh_Range" title="Ladakh Range">Ladakh Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanskar_Range" title="Zanskar Range">Zanskar Range</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulaiman_Mountains" title="Sulaiman Mountains">Sulaiman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toba_Kakar_Range" class="mw-redirect" title="Toba Kakar Range">Toba Kakar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambanad_Hills" title="Ambanad Hills">Ambanad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaimalai_Hills" title="Anaimalai Hills">Anaimalai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biligiriranga_Hills" title="Biligiriranga Hills">Biligiriranga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardamom_Hills" title="Cardamom Hills">Cardamom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilgiri_Mountains" title="Nilgiri Mountains">Nilgiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satmala_Range" title="Satmala Range">Satmala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selbari_Range" title="Selbari Range">Selbari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palani_Hills" title="Palani Hills">Palani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peaks_in_the_Western_Ghats" title="List of peaks in the Western Ghats">Peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirumoorthy_hills" title="Thirumoorthy hills">Thirumoorthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimbakeshwar_Range" title="Trimbakeshwar Range">Trimbakeshwar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biligiriranga_Hills" title="Biligiriranga Hills">Bilgiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhamalai" title="Bodhamalai">Bodhamalai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chitteri_Hills" title="Chitteri Hills">Chitteri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erramala" title="Erramala">Erramala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhamardan_Hills" title="Gandhamardan Hills">Gandhamardan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garhjat_Hills" title="Garhjat Hills">Garhjat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javadi_Hills" title="Javadi Hills">Javadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalrayan_Hills" title="Kalrayan Hills">Kalrayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolli_Hills" title="Kolli Hills">Kolli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nallamala_Hills" title="Nallamala Hills">Nallamalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niyamgiri" title="Niyamgiri">Niyamgiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pachaimalai_Hills" title="Pachaimalai Hills">Pachaimalai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palkonda_Hills" title="Palkonda Hills">Palkonda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seshachalam_Hills" title="Seshachalam Hills">Seshachalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simhachalam_Hill_Range" title="Simhachalam Hill Range">Simhachalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servarayan_Hills" title="Servarayan Hills">Servarayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirumalai_Hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirumalai Hills">Sirumalai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velikonda_Range" title="Velikonda Range">Velikonda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aravalli_Range" title="Aravalli Range">Aravalli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garo_Hills" title="Garo Hills">Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaintia_Hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaintia Hills">Jaintia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakoram" title="Karakoram">Karakoram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khasi_Hills" title="Khasi Hills">Khasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lushai_Hills" title="Lushai Hills">Lushai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naga_Hills" title="Naga Hills">Naga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purvanchal_Range" title="Purvanchal Range">Purvanchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satpura_Range" title="Satpura Range">Satpura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindhya_Range" title="Vindhya Range">Vindhya</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plateaus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Balochistan" title="Balochistan">Balochistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chota_Nagpur_Plateau" title="Chota Nagpur Plateau">Chota Nagpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladakh" title="Ladakh">Ladakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysore_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Mysore Plateau">Mysore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malwa" title="Malwa">Malwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pothohar_Plateau" title="Pothohar Plateau">Pothohar</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deserts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thal_Desert" title="Thal Desert">Thal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Thar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lowlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganges_Basin" title="Ganges Basin">Ganges Basin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganges-Brahmaputra_Delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta">Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjab_Plain" title="Punjab Plain">Punjab Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundarbans" title="Sundarbans">Sundarbans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Basin" title="Indus Basin">Indus Basin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Delta">Indus Delta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_India" title="Coastal India">Coastal India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="East Coast of India">East Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Coast" title="Coromandel Coast">Coromandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utkal_Plains" title="Utkal Plains">Utkal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="West Coast of India">West Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canara" class="mw-redirect" title="Canara">Canara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkan" title="Konkan">Konkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rann_of_Kutch" title="Rann of Kutch">Rann of Kutch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terai" title="Terai">Terai</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water-bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Andaman_Sea" title="Andaman Sea">Andaman Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laccadive_Sea" title="Laccadive Sea">Laccadive Sea</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majuli" title="Majuli">Majuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamban_Island" title="Pamban Island">Pamban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atolls_of_the_Maldives" title="Atolls of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Islands of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Afghanistan" title="Geography of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Bangladesh" title="Geography of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Bhutan" title="Geography of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Maldives" title="Geography of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Nepal" title="Geography of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Pakistan" title="Geography of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Geography of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By <a href="/wiki/Regions_of_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of South Asia">region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Central South Asia">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_South_Asia" title="Littoral South Asia">Littoral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Island_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Island South Asia">Island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_South_Asia" title="Northern South Asia">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_South_Asia" title="Northwestern South Asia">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_South_Asia" title="Eastern South Asia">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_South_Asia" title="Southern South Asia">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwestern South Asia">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern South Asia">Southeastern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_of_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_of_Asia" title="Template:Geography of Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_of_Asia" title="Template talk:Geography of Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_of_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography of Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_of_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Asia" title="Geography of Asia">Geography of Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Afghanistan" title="Geography of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Armenia" title="Geography of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Azerbaijan" title="Geography of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Bahrain" title="Geography of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Bangladesh" title="Geography of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Bhutan" title="Geography of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Brunei" title="Geography of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Cambodia" title="Geography of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Cyprus" title="Geography of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_East_Timor" title="Geography of East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Egypt" title="Geography of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Georgia_(country)" title="Geography of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Indonesia" title="Geography of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iran" title="Geography of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Israel" title="Geography of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Japan" title="Geography of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Jordan" title="Geography of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Kazakhstan" title="Geography of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_North_Korea" title="Geography of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_South_Korea" title="Geography of South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Kuwait" title="Geography of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Kyrgyzstan" title="Geography of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Laos" title="Geography of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Lebanon" title="Geography of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Malaysia" title="Geography of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Maldives" title="Geography of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mongolia" title="Geography of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Myanmar" title="Geography of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Nepal" title="Geography of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Oman" title="Geography of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Pakistan" title="Geography of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Philippines" title="Geography of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Qatar" title="Geography of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Russia" title="Geography of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Geography of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Singapore" title="Geography of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Geography of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Tajikistan" title="Geography of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Thailand" title="Geography of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Turkey" title="Geography of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Turkmenistan" title="Geography of Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Geography of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Uzbekistan" title="Geography of Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Vietnam" title="Geography of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Yemen" title="Geography of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Abkhazia" title="Geography of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Geography of the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="Geography of the British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Hong_Kong" title="Geography of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Macau" title="Geography of Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" 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