CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of Poland (1939–1945) - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"643b026f-e313-488b-8bdb-e8632814e3dc","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_Poland_(1939–1945)","wgTitle":"History of Poland (1939–1945)","wgCurRevisionId":1275331596,"wgRevisionId":1275331596,"wgArticleId":350111,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from July 2023","Articles with permanently dead external links","CS1 errors: missing periodical","CS1: unfit URL","Articles with Lithuanian-language sources (lt)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata", "Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages","Articles containing Polish-language text","CS1 errors: generic name","Poland in World War II","History of Poland by period","1939 in Poland","1940s in Poland","Modern history of Poland","Military history of Poland during World War II","World War II occupied territories","Politics of World War II","20th century in Poland"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_Poland_(1939–1945)","wgRelevantArticleId":350111,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["extendedconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"}, "wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q2552993","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready", "jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.17"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg/1200px-Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1027"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg/800px-Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="685"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg/640px-Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="548"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of Poland (1939–1945) - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-History_of_Poland_1939–1945 rootpage-History_of_Poland_1939–1945 skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages">Special pages</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Before_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Before the war </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Before_the_war-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Before the war subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Before_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rearmament_and_first_annexations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rearmament_and_first_annexations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Rearmament and first annexations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rearmament_and_first_annexations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_of_the_Munich_Agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_of_the_Munich_Agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Aftermath of the Munich Agreement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_of_the_Munich_Agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_alliances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_alliances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Military alliances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_alliances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_and_Soviet_invasions_of_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_and_Soviet_invasions_of_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 German and Soviet invasions of Poland </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-German_and_Soviet_invasions_of_Poland-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle German and Soviet invasions of Poland subsection </button> <ul id="toc-German_and_Soviet_invasions_of_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-German_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 German invasion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Soviet invasion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 End of campaign </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupation_of_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupation_of_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Occupation of Poland </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Occupation_of_Poland-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Occupation of Poland subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Occupation_of_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-German-occupied_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German-occupied_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 German-occupied Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German-occupied_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet-occupied_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet-occupied_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Soviet-occupied Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet-occupied_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collaboration_with_the_occupiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collaboration_with_the_occupiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Collaboration with the occupiers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collaboration_with_the_occupiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance_in_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance_in_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Resistance in Poland </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Resistance_in_Poland-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Resistance in Poland subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Resistance_in_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Armed_resistance_and_the_Underground_State" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armed_resistance_and_the_Underground_State"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Armed resistance and the Underground State </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armed_resistance_and_the_Underground_State-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_Operation_Barbarossa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_Operation_Barbarossa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 After Operation Barbarossa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_Operation_Barbarossa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation_Tempest_and_the_Warsaw_Uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_Tempest_and_the_Warsaw_Uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Operation Tempest and the Warsaw Uprising </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation_Tempest_and_the_Warsaw_Uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Holocaust_in_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Holocaust_in_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 The Holocaust in Poland </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Holocaust_in_Poland-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The Holocaust in Poland subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_Holocaust_in_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jews_in_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jews_in_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Jews in Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jews_in_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nazi_persecution_and_elimination_of_ghettos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nazi_persecution_and_elimination_of_ghettos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Nazi persecution and elimination of ghettos </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nazi_persecution_and_elimination_of_ghettos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extermination_of_Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extermination_of_Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Extermination of Jews </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extermination_of_Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efforts_to_save_Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efforts_to_save_Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Efforts to save Jews </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efforts_to_save_Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polish-Ukrainian_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polish-Ukrainian_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Polish-Ukrainian conflict </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Polish-Ukrainian_conflict-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Polish-Ukrainian conflict subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Polish-Ukrainian_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_cleansing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_cleansing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Ethnic cleansing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_cleansing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government-in-Exile,_communist_victory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government-in-Exile,_communist_victory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Government-in-Exile, communist victory </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-in-Exile,_communist_victory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government-in-Exile, communist victory subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government-in-Exile,_communist_victory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Polish_government_in_France_and_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polish_government_in_France_and_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Polish government in France and Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polish_government_in_France_and_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polish_Army's_evacuation_from_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polish_Army's_evacuation_from_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Polish Army's evacuation from the Soviet Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polish_Army's_evacuation_from_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_shadow_of_Soviet_offensive,_death_of_Prime_Minister_Sikorski" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_shadow_of_Soviet_offensive,_death_of_Prime_Minister_Sikorski"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 In the shadow of Soviet offensive, death of Prime Minister Sikorski </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_shadow_of_Soviet_offensive,_death_of_Prime_Minister_Sikorski-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_of_Government-in-Exile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_of_Government-in-Exile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Decline of Government-in-Exile </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_of_Government-in-Exile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_and_Polish-communist_victory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_and_Polish-communist_victory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Soviet and Polish-communist victory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_and_Polish-communist_victory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polish_state_reestablished_with_new_borders_and_under_Soviet_domination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polish_state_reestablished_with_new_borders_and_under_Soviet_domination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Polish state reestablished with new borders and under Soviet domination </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Polish_state_reestablished_with_new_borders_and_under_Soviet_domination-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Polish state reestablished with new borders and under Soviet domination subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Polish_state_reestablished_with_new_borders_and_under_Soviet_domination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poland's_war_losses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland's_war_losses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Poland's war losses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland's_war_losses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beginnings_of_communist_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings_of_communist_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Beginnings of communist government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginnings_of_communist_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allied_determinations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allied_determinations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Allied determinations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allied_determinations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecution_of_opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecution_of_opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Persecution of opposition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecution_of_opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet-controlled_Polish_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet-controlled_Polish_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Soviet-controlled Polish state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet-controlled_Polish_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of Poland (1939–1945)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" > 16 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7_(1939-1945)" title="تاريخ بولندا (1939-1945) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ بولندا (1939-1945)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8A%D0%B2_%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Полша във Втората световна война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Полша във Втората световна война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poola_Teises_maailmas%C3%B5jas" title="Poola Teises maailmasõjas – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Poola Teises maailmasõjas" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Polonia_(1939-1945)" title="Historia de Polonia (1939-1945) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Polonia (1939-1945)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_Pologne_pendant_la_Seconde_Guerre_mondiale" title="Histoire de la Pologne pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de la Pologne pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Polandia_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Sejarah Polandia (1939–1945) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Polandia (1939–1945)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonia_nella_seconda_guerra_mondiale" title="Polonia nella seconda guerra mondiale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Polonia nella seconda guerra mondiale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="פולין במלחמת העולם השנייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פולין במלחמת העולם השנייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polen_tijdens_de_Tweede_Wereldoorlog" title="Polen tijdens de Tweede Wereldoorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Polen tijdens de Tweede Wereldoorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%DA%89_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_(%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B3%DB%B9-%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B4%DB%B5_%D8%B2%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87)" title="د پولنډ تاریخ (۱۹۳۹-۱۹۴۵ زکلونه) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د پولنډ تاریخ (۱۹۳۹-۱۹۴۵ زکلونه)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Polski_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Historia Polski (1939–1945) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Polski (1939–1945)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_Pol%C3%B3nia_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="História da Polónia (1939–1945) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da Polónia (1939–1945)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Poloniei_(1939-1945)" title="Istoria Poloniei (1939-1945) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria Poloniei (1939-1945)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of Poland (1939–1945)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%99%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83" title="Пољска у Другом светском рату – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пољска у Другом светском рату" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%89%D1%96_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Історія Польщі (1939–1945) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Польщі (1939–1945)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2552993#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)">Read</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)&action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)&oldid=1275331596" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%931945%29&id=1275331596&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Poland_%281939%25E2%2580%25931945%29">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Poland_%281939%25E2%2580%25931945%29">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%931945%29&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2552993" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#extended" title="This article is extended-confirmed-protected"><img alt="Extended-protected article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period of Polish history during World War II</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Poland" title="Category:History of Poland">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">History of Poland</a></th> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, publisher Carolo Allard, 1696"><img alt="Map of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, publisher Carolo Allard, 1696" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg/240px-Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg/360px-Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg/480px-Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2093" data-file-height="1792" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polonophile" title="Polonophile">Polonophile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Poland" title="Flag of Poland">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Name of Poland">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland" title="Coat of arms of Poland">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_monarchs" title="List of Polish monarchs">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish_Army" title="History of the Polish Army">Military history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Poland" title="List of wars involving Poland">Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Poland" title="Territorial evolution of Poland">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Polish_statehood" title="Template:Polish statehood">Statehood</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_and_protohistory_of_Poland" title="Prehistory and protohistory of Poland">Prehistory and protohistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age_Poland" title="Stone Age Poland">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_and_Iron_Age_Poland" title="Bronze and Iron Age Poland">Bronze and Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland_in_antiquity" title="Poland in antiquity">Antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_tribes" title="Polish tribes">Polish tribes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of Poland in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Poland in the Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Christianization</a></li></ul> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Piast dynasty">Piast period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">10th century–1385</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Jagiellonian_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty">Jagiellonian period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1385–1572</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_in_the_early_modern_period_(1569%E2%80%931795)" title="History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)">Early modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1569%E2%80%931648)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)">Early elective monarchy</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1572–1648</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1648%E2%80%931764)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)">Deluge and decline</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1648–1764</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1764%E2%80%931795)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–1795)">Three partitions</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1764–1795</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1795%E2%80%931918)" title="History of Poland (1795–1918)">Partitioned Poland</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1795–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_World_War_I" title="History of Poland during World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1914–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1918%E2%80%931939)" title="History of Poland (1918–1939)">Second Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1918–1939</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">World War II</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1939–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Communist Poland</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1945–1989</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Contemporary</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1989%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Poland (1989–present)">Third Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1989–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_history" title="Timeline of Polish history">Timeline of Polish history</a> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Poland" title="Portal:Poland">Poland portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Poland" title="Template:History of Poland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Poland" title="Template talk:History of Poland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Poland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Poland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">history of Poland</a> from 1939 to 1945 encompasses primarily the period from the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invasion of Poland</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> to the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">German–Soviet non-aggression pact</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> was invaded by Nazi Germany on 1 September 1939 and by the Soviet Union <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">on 17 September</a>. The campaigns ended in early October with Germany and the Soviet Union <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Boundary_and_Friendship_Treaty" title="German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty">dividing and annexing the whole of Poland</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Axis attack on the Soviet Union</a> in the summer of 1941, the entirety of <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland was occupied by Germany</a>, which proceeded to advance its <a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">racial and genocidal policies</a> across Poland. Under the two occupations, Polish citizens suffered enormous human and material losses. According to the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">Institute of National Remembrance</a> estimates, about 5.6 million Polish citizens died due to the German occupation and about 150,000 due to the Soviet occupation.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> were singled out by the Germans for a quick and total annihilation and about 90 percent of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Polish Jews</a> (nearly three million) were murdered as part of the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>. Jews, <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani people</a> and prisoners of many other ethnicities were killed en masse at Nazi <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sobib%C3%B3r_extermination_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Sobibór extermination camp">Sobibór</a>. Ethnic Poles were subjected to both Nazi German and Soviet persecution. The Germans killed an estimated two million ethnic Poles. <a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a> contemplated turning the remaining majority of Poles into <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slave labor</a> and annihilating those perceived as "<a href="/wiki/Untermensch" title="Untermensch">undesirable</a>". <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">massacres of Poles</a> and to a lesser extent <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a> were perpetrated in western <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> (prewar Polish <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a>) from 1943. The <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Ukrainian Insurgent Army</a> participated. In September 1939, the Polish government officials sought refuge in <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, but their subsequent internment there prevented the intended continuation abroad as the government of Poland. General <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Sikorski" title="Władysław Sikorski">Władysław Sikorski</a>, a former prime minister, arrived in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, where a replacement <a href="/wiki/Polish_Government-in-Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Government-in-Exile">Polish Government-in-Exile</a> was soon formed. After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">fall of France</a>, the government was evacuated to <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_West" title="Polish Armed Forces in the West">Polish armed forces</a> were reconstituted and fought alongside the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Western Allies</a> in France, Britain and elsewhere. A <a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Resistance movement</a> began organizing in Poland in 1939, soon after the invasions. Its <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Armed_Struggle" title="Union of Armed Struggle">largest military component</a> was a part of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Underground_State" title="Polish Underground State">Polish Underground State</a> network and became known as the <a href="/wiki/Home_Army" title="Home Army">Home Army</a>. The whole clandestine structure was formally directed by the Government-in-Exile through its <a href="/wiki/Government_Delegation_for_Poland" title="Government Delegation for Poland">delegation</a> resident in Poland. There were also <a href="/wiki/Bataliony_Ch%C5%82opskie" class="mw-redirect" title="Bataliony Chłopskie">peasant</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Armed_Forces" title="National Armed Forces">right-wing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armia_Ludowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Ludowa">leftist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Combat_Organization" title="Jewish Combat Organization">Jewish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet</a> partisan organizations. Among the failed anti-German uprisings were the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a>. The aim of the Warsaw Uprising was to prevent domination of Poland by the Soviet Union. In order to cooperate with the Soviet Union after <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, Sikorski, an important war ally of the West, negotiated in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> and they <a href="/wiki/Sikorski%E2%80%93Mayski_agreement" title="Sikorski–Mayski agreement">agreed to form a Polish army in the Soviet Union</a>, intended to fight on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> alongside the Soviets. The "<a href="/wiki/Anders%27_Army" title="Anders' Army">Anders' Army</a>" was instead taken to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> in 1942 and then to <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>. Further efforts to continue the Polish-Soviet cooperation had failed because of disagreements over borders, the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Katyn_massacre" title="Katyn massacre">Katyn massacre</a> of Polish <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a> perpetrated by the Soviets, and the <a href="/wiki/1943_Gibraltar_B-24_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="1943 Gibraltar B-24 crash">death of General Sikorski</a>. Afterwards, in a process seen by many Poles as a <a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a>, the Polish Government-in-Exile gradually ceased being a recognized partner in the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied coalition</a>. Stalin pursued a strategy of facilitating the formation of a Polish government independent of (and in opposition to) the exile government in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> by empowering the <a href="/wiki/Communism_in_Poland" title="Communism in Poland">Polish communists</a>. Among Polish communist organizations established during the war were the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Workers%27_Party" title="Polish Workers' Party">Polish Workers' Party</a> in occupied Poland and the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Polish_Patriots" title="Union of Polish Patriots">Union of Polish Patriots</a> in Moscow. In late 1943 a new <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_East#Berling's_Army:_1943–1945" title="Polish Armed Forces in the East">Polish army</a> was formed in the Soviet Union to fight together with the Soviets. At the same time Stalin worked on co-opting the Western Allies (the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> led by President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> led by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>), who, in terms of practical implementations, conformed to Stalin's views on Poland's borders and future government. The fate of Poland was determined in a series of negotiations that included the conferences in <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam</a>. In 1944, the Polish Government-in-Exile approved and the underground in Poland undertook unilateral <a href="/wiki/Council_of_National_Unity" title="Council of National Unity">political</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">military actions</a> aimed at establishing an independent Polish authority, but the efforts were thwarted by the Soviets. The Polish communists founded the <a href="/wiki/State_National_Council" title="State National Council">State National Council</a> in 1943/44 in occupied <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="Polish Committee of National Liberation">Polish Committee of National Liberation</a> in July 1944 in <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, after the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Soviet army</a>. The Soviet Union kept the eastern half of prewar Poland, granting Poland instead the greater southern portion of the eliminated German <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a> and shifting the country west to the <a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Oder–Neisse line</a>, at the expense of Germany. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Before_the_war">Before the war</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rearmament_and_first_annexations">Rearmament and first annexations</h3></div> After the death of <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a> in 1935, the <a href="/wiki/Sanation" title="Sanation">Sanation</a> government of <a href="/wiki/Pi%C5%82sudski%27s_colonels" title="Piłsudski's colonels">his political followers</a>, along with President <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Mo%C5%9Bcicki" title="Ignacy Mościcki">Ignacy Mościcki</a>, embarked on a military reform and rearmament of the Polish Army in the face of the changing political climate in Europe. Thanks in part to a financial loan from France, Poland's new <a href="/wiki/Central_Industrial_Region_(Poland)" title="Central Industrial Region (Poland)">Central Industrial Region</a> participated in the project from 1936 in an attempt to catch-up with the advanced weapons development by Poland's richer neighbors. Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck" title="Józef Beck">Józef Beck</a> continued to resist the growing pressure on Poland from the West to cooperate with the Soviet Union in order to contain Germany.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_978-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_153-156-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159-4">[4]</a> Against the rapidly growing German military force, Poland not only possessed no comparable quantity of technical resources, but also lacked the knowledge and concepts of developing modern warfare.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167-5">[5]</a> Also in 1935, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> announced and expanded the hitherto secret <a href="/wiki/German_rearmament" title="German rearmament">German rearmament</a> contrary to the provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> – the foundation of the post-<a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> international order. Unable to prevent Hitler's <a href="/wiki/Remilitarization_of_the_Rhineland" class="mw-redirect" title="Remilitarization of the Rhineland">remilitarization of the Rhineland</a>, the United Kingdom and France also pursued rearmament. Meanwhile, German territorial expansion into central Europe began in earnest with the <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a> of <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> in March 1938. Poland dispatched special diversionary groups to the <a href="/wiki/Teschen_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Teschen conflict">disputed Zaolzie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Czech_lands" title="Czech lands">Czech</a> <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a>) area in hope of expediting the breakup of <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> and regaining the territory. The <a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a> of 30 September 1938 was followed by Germany's incorporation of the <a href="/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a>. Faced with the threat of a total annexation of Czechoslovakia, the Western Powers endorsed the German partition of the country.<a href="#cite_note-Overy_294-295-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_483–490-7">[7]</a> Poland insistently sought a great power status but was not invited to participate in the Munich conference. Minister Beck, disappointed with the lack of recognition, issued an ultimatum on the day of the Munich Agreement to the government of Czechoslovakia, demanding an immediate return to Poland of the contested Zaolzie border region. The distressed Czechoslovak government complied, and Polish military units <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_border_conflicts" title="Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts">took over the area</a>. The move was negatively received in both the West and the Soviet Union, and it contributed to the worsening of the geopolitical situation of Poland. In November, the Polish government also annexed a small border region in dispute with the newly autonomous state of <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a> and gave its support to <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>'s expansion into <a href="/wiki/Carpatho-Ukraine" title="Carpatho-Ukraine">Carpatho-Ukraine</a>, located within the now federal Czechoslovakia.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_483–490-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zgórniak_409-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zgórniak_410-412-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath_of_the_Munich_Agreement">Aftermath of the Munich Agreement</h3></div> The Munich Agreement of 1938 did not last for long. In March 1939 the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">German occupation of Czechoslovakia</a> began with the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravia</a>, leaving Slovakia as a German puppet state. <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> was <a href="/wiki/1939_German_ultimatum_to_Lithuania" title="1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania">forced to give up</a> its <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Region" title="Klaipėda Region">Klaipėda Region</a> (Memelland). Formal demands were made for the return of the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Free City of Danzig</a> to Germany, even though its status was guaranteed by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. In early 1939 Hitler proposed Poland an alliance on German terms, with an expectation of compliance. The Polish government would have to agree to Danzig's incorporation by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">the Reich</a> and to an extraterritorial highway passage connecting <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a> with the rest of Germany through the so-called <a href="/wiki/Polish_Corridor" title="Polish Corridor">Polish Corridor</a> (an area linking the Polish mainland with the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>). Poland would join an <a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">anti-Soviet alliance</a> and coordinate its foreign policy with Germany, thus becoming a client state. The independence-minded Polish government was alarmed and a British guarantee of Poland's independence was issued on 31 March 1939. Reacting to this act and to Poland's effective rejection of the German demands, Hitler renounced the existing <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Polish_declaration_of_non-aggression" title="German–Polish declaration of non-aggression">German–Polish declaration of non-aggression</a> on April 28.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_991-998-10">[10]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MolotovRibbentropStalin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/MolotovRibbentropStalin.jpg/250px-MolotovRibbentropStalin.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/MolotovRibbentropStalin.jpg/375px-MolotovRibbentropStalin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/MolotovRibbentropStalin.jpg/500px-MolotovRibbentropStalin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2386" data-file-height="2932" /></a><figcaption>Soviet Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> signs the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>. Behind him stand (left) Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Joachim von Ribbentrop</a> of Germany and (right) <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_pact" title="Non-aggression pact">non-aggression pact</a> had a secret protocol attached in which arrangements were made for a partition of Poland's territory.</figcaption></figure> In August 1939 negotiations took place in Moscow, launched by the competing Allied-Soviet and Nazi-Soviet working groups, each attempting to enlist Stalin's powerful army on their side. By the evening of 23 August 1939, Germany's offer was accepted by default, because the Polish leaders' refusal to cooperate militarily with the Soviets prevented the possibility of the alternate outcome. The <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> of <a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_pact" title="Non-aggression pact">non-aggression</a> was signed. In anticipation of an attack and occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany, the pact had secret provisions attached, which delineated carving up parts of Eastern Europe into <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">spheres of influence</a> of the two signatories. The dividing line was running through the territory of east-central Poland. The "desirability of the maintenance of an independent Polish State" was left to mutually agreed "further political developments" read the text, which was discovered years later.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159-4">[4]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#endnote_lnone">[l]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_alliances">Military alliances</h3></div> The Soviet Union, having its own reasons to fear the German eastward expansionism, repeatedly negotiated with France and the United Kingdom, and through them made an offer to Poland of an anti-German alliance, similar to the earlier one made to Czechoslovakia. The British and the French sought the formation of a powerful political-military bloc, comprising the Soviet Union, Poland and <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> in the east, and France and Britain in the west.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159-4">[4]</a> As of May 1939, the Soviet conditions for signing an agreement with Britain and France were as follows: the right of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> troops to pass through Polish territory, the termination of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Romanian_alliance" title="Polish–Romanian alliance">Polish–Romanian alliance</a>, and the limitation of the British guarantee to Poland to cover only Poland's western frontier with Germany. The Polish leaders believed that once on Polish territory the Soviet troops would not leave and throughout 1939 refused to agree to any arrangement which would allow Soviet troops to enter Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_44-48-11">[11]</a> The Polish unwillingness to accept the Soviet dangerous offer of free entry is illustrated by the quote of Marshal <a href="/wiki/Edward_Rydz-%C5%9Amig%C5%82y" title="Edward Rydz-Śmigły">Edward Rydz-Śmigły</a>, commander-in-chief of the Polish armed forces, who said: "With the Germans we run the risk of losing our liberty. With the Russians we will lose our soul".<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The attitude of the Polish leadership was also reflected by Foreign Minister Józef Beck, who, apparently confident in the French and British declarations of support, asserted that the security of Poland was not going to be guaranteed by a "Soviet or any other Russia". The Soviets then turned to concluding the German offer of a treaty and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was signed. The Soviet-Nazi cooperation had been making progress since May 1939, when <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> became the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)">minister of foreign affairs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_991-998-10">[10]</a> The German military used a system of automated code for the secret transfer of messages based on the <a href="/wiki/Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma machine</a>. The constantly generated and altered code scheme was broken by Polish mathematicians led by <a href="/wiki/Marian_Rejewski" title="Marian Rejewski">Marian Rejewski</a> and the discovery was shared with the French and the British before the outbreak of the war. <a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis_of_the_Enigma" title="Cryptanalysis of the Enigma">Cryptanalysis of the Enigma</a> was an immensely important Polish contribution to the war effort, as it was continued throughout the war in Britain and deprived the unsuspecting Germans of secrecy in their crucial communications.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_38-40-13">[13]</a> At the end of August, the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Polish_military_alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Polish military alliance">Polish-British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franco-Polish_alliance_(1921)" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Polish alliance (1921)">Polish-French alliance</a> obligations were updated. Poland, surrounded by the Nazi-led coalition, was under partial military mobilization but poorly prepared for war.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159-4">[4]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_pnone">[p]</a> Full (general) mobilization was prevented by the pressure from the British and French governments, who sought a last-minute peaceful solution to the imminent Polish-German conflict. On 1 September 1939, Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany. Britain and France, bound by military alliances with Poland, declared war on Germany two days later.<a href="#cite_note-Overy_294-295-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zgórniak_418-420-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_56-58-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="German_and_Soviet_invasions_of_Poland">German and Soviet invasions of Poland</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet invasion of Poland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slovak_invasion_of_Poland" title="Slovak invasion of Poland">Slovak invasion of Poland</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_invasion">German invasion</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_infantry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/27/Polish_infantry.jpg/300px-Polish_infantry.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/27/Polish_infantry.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="383" data-file-height="259" /></a><figcaption>Polish infantry in action during the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a> in September 1939</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_Army_Warsaw_1939.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Polish_Army_Warsaw_1939.jpg/300px-Polish_Army_Warsaw_1939.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Polish_Army_Warsaw_1939.jpg/450px-Polish_Army_Warsaw_1939.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Polish_Army_Warsaw_1939.jpg/600px-Polish_Army_Warsaw_1939.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="975" /></a><figcaption>Polish anti-aircraft artillery in September 1939</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1939_set_of_maps_illustrating_the_German_invasion_of_Poland_in_World_War_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/1939_set_of_maps_illustrating_the_German_invasion_of_Poland_in_World_War_II.jpg/220px-1939_set_of_maps_illustrating_the_German_invasion_of_Poland_in_World_War_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/1939_set_of_maps_illustrating_the_German_invasion_of_Poland_in_World_War_II.jpg/330px-1939_set_of_maps_illustrating_the_German_invasion_of_Poland_in_World_War_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/1939_set_of_maps_illustrating_the_German_invasion_of_Poland_in_World_War_II.jpg/440px-1939_set_of_maps_illustrating_the_German_invasion_of_Poland_in_World_War_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="13082" data-file-height="8251" /></a><figcaption>"Poland: A Military Autopsy" American map</figcaption></figure> On 1 September 1939, without a formal <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war" title="Declaration of war">declaration of war</a>, Nazi Germany <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invaded Poland</a> using the pretext of the <a href="/wiki/Gleiwitz_incident" title="Gleiwitz incident">Gleiwitz incident</a>, a provocation (one of many)<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_171-174-16">[16]</a> staged by the Germans, who claimed that Polish troops attacked a post along the <a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Poland_border" title="Germany–Poland border">German–Polish border</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_991-998-10">[10]</a> During the following days and weeks the technically, logistically and numerically superior German forces rapidly advanced into the Polish territory.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183-17">[17]</a> Secured by the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet troops also invaded Poland on 17 September 1939. Before the end of the month, most of Poland was divided between the Germans and the Soviets.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189-18">[18]</a> The Polish military did not anticipate the German attack. After 1926, Józef Piłsudski led the military to discontinue defense preparations of the western border. They were resumed in March 1939.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_druga_wojna_37–38-19">[19]</a> Afterwards the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces" title="Polish Armed Forces">Polish Armed Forces</a> were <a href="/wiki/Polish_army_order_of_battle_in_1939" title="Polish army order of battle in 1939">organized for the defense of the country</a>. According to the historian Andrzej Leon Sowa, the technical and organizational level of the Polish forces corresponded to that of the World War I period.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_495–498-20">[20]</a> The armed forces' strategic position was made more hopeless by the recent <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">German occupation of Czechoslovakia</a>. Poland was now surrounded on three sides by the German territories of <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomerania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> and East Prussia, and the German-controlled Czechoslovakia.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a> The newly formed <a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovak Republic (1939–45)">Slovak state</a> assisted their German allies by attacking Poland from the south.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167-5">[5]</a> The Polish forces were blockaded on the Baltic Coast by the German navy. The Polish public, conditioned by government propaganda, was not aware of the gravity of the situation and expected a quick and easy victory of the Polish-French-British alliance.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_59-66-22">[22]</a> The German "concept of annihilation" (<a href="/wiki/Vernichtungsgedanke" title="Vernichtungsgedanke">Vernichtungsgedanke</a>) that later evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a> ("lightning war") provided for rapid advance of <a href="/wiki/Panzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Panzer">Panzer</a> (armoured) divisions, dive bombing (to break up troop concentrations and destroy airports, railways and stations, roads, and bridges, which resulted in the killing of large numbers of refugees crowding the transportation facilities), and aerial bombing of undefended cities to sap civilian morale.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a> Deliberate bombing of civilians took place on a massive scale from the first day of the war, also in areas far removed from any other military activity.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_59-66-22">[22]</a> The German forces, ordered by Hitler to act with the harshest cruelty, massively engaged in murder of Polish civilians.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_229-230-23">[23]</a> The Polish army, air force and navy had insufficient modern equipment to match the onslaught.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_174-177-24">[24]</a> Each of Germany's five armies involved in attacking Poland was accompanied by a special security group charged with terrorizing the Polish population; some of the <a href="/wiki/Volksdeutsche" title="Volksdeutsche">Polish citizens of German nationality</a> had been trained in Germany to help with the invasion, forming the so-called <a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">fifth column</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a> Many German leaders in Poland and communist activists were interned by the Polish authorities after 1 September.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_171-174-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_174-177-24">[24]</a> 10–15,000 ethnic Germans were arrested and force marched toward <a href="/wiki/Kutno" title="Kutno">Kutno</a> soon after the beginning of the hostilities. Of them about 2,000 were killed by angry Poles, and other instances of killing ethnic Germans took place elsewhere. Many times greater numbers of Polish civilians had been killed by the <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> throughout the "September Campaign".<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_69-76-25">[25]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Bzura-horse_artillery.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Battle_of_Bzura-horse_artillery.gif/350px-Battle_of_Bzura-horse_artillery.gif" decoding="async" width="350" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Battle_of_Bzura-horse_artillery.gif/525px-Battle_of_Bzura-horse_artillery.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Battle_of_Bzura-horse_artillery.gif/700px-Battle_of_Bzura-horse_artillery.gif 2x" data-file-width="751" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption>Polish cavalry at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bzura" title="Battle of the Bzura">Battle of the Bzura</a></figcaption></figure> 58 German divisions, including 9 Panzer divisions, were deployed against Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_215-26">[26]</a> Germany commanded 1.5 million men, 187,000 motor vehicles, 15,000 artillery pieces, 2,600 tanks, 1,300 armored vehicles, 52,000 machine guns and 363,000 horses. 1,390 <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> warplanes were used to attack Polish targets. On 1 September the German navy positioned its old <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleship</a> <a href="/wiki/SMS_Schleswig-Holstein" title="SMS Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a> to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Westerplatte" title="Battle of Westerplatte">shell Westerplatte</a>, a section of the Free City of Danzig, a defended enclave separate from the main city and awarded to Poland by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. 53 navy ships were designated for action against Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_171-174-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_499–504-27">[27]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Antoni_Czubi%C5%84ski" title="Antoni Czubiński">Antoni Czubiński</a>, 1.2 million Polish troops had been mobilized, but some did not even have rifles. There were 30 infantry divisions, 11 cavalry brigades, 31 light artillery regiments, 10 heavy artillery regiments and 6 aerial regiments. They possessed 3,600 artillery pieces (mostly regular, with only a few hundred of anti-armor or anti-aircraft units), and 600 tanks,<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167-5">[5]</a> of which 120 were of the advanced <a href="/wiki/7TP" title="7TP">7TP</a>-type. The air force regiments included 422 aircraft,<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167-5">[5]</a> including 160 <a href="/wiki/PZL_P.11" title="PZL P.11">PZL P.11c</a>, 31 <a href="/wiki/PZL_P.7" title="PZL P.7">PZL P.7a</a> and 20 P.11a fighters, 120 <a href="/wiki/PZL.23_Kara%C5%9B" title="PZL.23 Karaś">PZL.23 Karaś</a> reconnaissance-bombers, and 45 <a href="/wiki/PZL.37_%C5%81o%C5%9B" title="PZL.37 Łoś">PZL.37 Łoś</a> medium bombers. The Polish-made P-series fighter planes were becoming obsolete; state-of-the art P-24s were built but sold abroad to generate currency. Łoś bombers were modern and fast.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_52-56-28">[28]</a> The navy's participation was limited by the withdrawal of major ships to the United Kingdom to prevent their destruction, and their linking up with the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> (known as the <a href="/wiki/Peking_Plan" title="Peking Plan">Peking Plan</a>). The navy consisted of four destroyers (of which three had left for England),<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167-5">[5]</a> one minelayer, five submarines, and some smaller vessels, including six new minesweepers. Although the UK and France declared war on Germany on 3 September, <a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">little movement took place on the western front</a>. The offensive in the West that the Poles understood they were promised was not materializing,<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_995,_1000-1001-29">[29]</a> and, according to <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a>, it was not even immediately feasible or practical.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a> Because of the Western inaction, of the secret protocols of the German-Soviet treaty, and other factors including its own poor intelligence, the Polish government was initially not fully aware of the degree of the country's isolation and the hopelessness of its situation.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167-5">[5]</a> The combined British and French forces were strong in principle, but not ready for an offensive for a number of reasons. The few limited air raids attempted by the British were ineffective and caused losses of life and equipment. Dropping propaganda leaflets had henceforth become their preferred course of action, to the dismay of the Polish public, which was led to believe that a real war on two fronts and a defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Third Reich</a> were coming.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_177-180-30">[30]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_kid_in_the_ruins_of_Warsaw_September_1939.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Polish_kid_in_the_ruins_of_Warsaw_September_1939.jpg/225px-Polish_kid_in_the_ruins_of_Warsaw_September_1939.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Polish_kid_in_the_ruins_of_Warsaw_September_1939.jpg/338px-Polish_kid_in_the_ruins_of_Warsaw_September_1939.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Polish_kid_in_the_ruins_of_Warsaw_September_1939.jpg/450px-Polish_kid_in_the_ruins_of_Warsaw_September_1939.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption>Survivor of <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Warsaw_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Warsaw in World War II">bombing of Warsaw</a></figcaption></figure> The several Polish armies were defending the country in three main concentrations of troops, which had no territorial command structure of their own and operated directly under orders from Marshal <a href="/wiki/Edward_Rydz-%C5%9Amig%C5%82y" title="Edward Rydz-Śmigły">Edward Rydz-Śmigły</a>; it turned out to be a serious logistical shortcoming.<a href="#cite_note-Zgórniak_448-31">[31]</a> The armies were positioned along the border in a semicircle, which provided for weak defense, because the Germans concentrated their forces in the chosen directions of attacks.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167-5">[5]</a> The German armored corps quickly thwarted all attempts of organized resistance and by 3–4 September the Polish border defenses were broken along all the axes of attack. Crowds of civilian refugees fleeing to the east blocked roads and bridges. The Germans were also able to circumvent other concentrations of the Polish military and arrive in the rear of Polish formations.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_174-177-24">[24]</a> As the Polish armies were being destroyed or in retreat, the Germans took <a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa" title="Częstochowa">Częstochowa</a> on 4 September, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kielce" title="Kielce">Kielce</a> on 6 September. The Polish government was evacuated to <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a> and the supreme military commander Rydz-Śmigły left Warsaw on the night of 6 September and moved in the eastern direction toward <a href="/wiki/Brest,_Belarus" title="Brest, Belarus">Brześć</a>. General <a href="/wiki/Walerian_Czuma" title="Walerian Czuma">Walerian Czuma</a> took over and organized the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Warsaw_(1939)" title="Siege of Warsaw (1939)">defense of the capital city</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183-17">[17]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Halik_Kochanski" title="Halik Kochanski">Halik Kochanski</a>, Rydz-Śmigły fled the capital and the Polish high command failed its army.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_69-76-25">[25]</a> Rydz-Śmigły's departure had disastrous effects on both the morale of the Polish armed forces and on his ability to exercise effective overall command.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_86-90-32">[32]</a> The Germans began surrounding Warsaw on 9 September.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a> City president <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Starzy%C5%84ski" title="Stefan Starzyński">Stefan Starzyński</a> played an especially prominent role in its defense.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183-17">[17]</a> The campaign's greatest <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bzura" title="Battle of the Bzura">Battle of the Bzura</a> was fought west of the middle <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> on 9–21 September. Heavy fighting took place also at a number of other locations, including the area of <a href="/wiki/Tomasz%C3%B3w_Lubelski" title="Tomaszów Lubelski">Tomaszów Lubelski</a> (until 26 September), and a determined <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lw%C3%B3w_(1939)" title="Battle of Lwów (1939)">defense of Lwów</a> was mounted (against the German forces until 22 September, when the defenders surrendered to the Soviets upon their arrival). On 13 September, Marshal Rydz-Śmigły ordered all Polish forces to withdraw toward the so-called <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Bridgehead" title="Romanian Bridgehead">Romanian Bridgehead</a> in southeastern Poland, next to the Romanian and Soviet borders, the area he designated to be the final defense bastion.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_499–504-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_504–511-33">[33]</a> On 11 September, foreign minister <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck" title="Józef Beck">Józef Beck</a> asked France to grant asylum to the Polish government and Romania to allow the transfer of the government members through its territory. On 12 September, the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_Supreme_War_Council" title="Anglo-French Supreme War Council">Anglo-French Supreme War Council</a> deliberating in <a href="/wiki/Abbeville" title="Abbeville">Abbeville</a>, France concluded that the Polish military campaign had already been resolved and that there was no point in launching an anti-German relief expedition. The Polish leaders were unaware of the decision and still expected a Western offensive.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_invasion">Soviet invasion</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soviet_invasion_on_Poland_1939.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Soviet_invasion_on_Poland_1939.jpg/220px-Soviet_invasion_on_Poland_1939.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Soviet_invasion_on_Poland_1939.jpg/330px-Soviet_invasion_on_Poland_1939.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Soviet_invasion_on_Poland_1939.jpg 2x" data-file-width="371" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet invasion of Poland</a>, September 1939</figcaption></figure> From 3 September Germany urged the Soviet Union to engage its troops against the Polish state,<a href="#cite_note-Schulenburg-34">[34]</a> but the Soviet command kept stalling,<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a> waiting for the outcome of the German-Polish confrontation<a href="#cite_note-Schulenburg-34">[34]</a> and to see what the French and the British were going to do.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_76-80-35">[35]</a> The Soviet Union assured Germany that the Red Army advance into Poland would follow later at an appropriate time.<a href="#cite_note-Schulenburg-34">[34]</a> For the optimal "political motivation" (a collapse of Poland having taken place), Molotov wished to hold the Soviet intervention until the fall of Warsaw, but the city's capture by the Germans was being delayed due to its determined <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Warsaw_(1939)" title="Siege of Warsaw (1939)">defense effort</a> (until September 27). The Soviet troops marched on 17 September into Poland, which the Soviet Union claimed to be by then non-existent anyway (according to the historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Overy" title="Richard Overy">Richard Overy</a>, Poland was defeated by Germany within two weeks from 1 September).<a href="#cite_note-Overy_294-295-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schulenburg-34">[34]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet invasion of Poland</a> was justified by the Soviets by their own security concerns and by the need to protect the ethnically <a href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">Belarusian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainian</a> populations.<a href="#cite_note-Piotrowski-36">[36]</a> The invasion was coordinated with the movement of the German army,<a href="#cite_note-Schulenburg-34">[34]</a> and met limited resistance from the Polish forces. The Polish military formations available in the eastern part of the country were ordered by the high command, who were then at the Romanian border,<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189-18">[18]</a> to avoid engaging the Soviets,<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_76-80-35">[35]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_cnone">[c]</a> but some fighting between Soviet and Polish units did take place (such as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Szack" title="Battle of Szack">Battle of Szack</a> fought by the <a href="/wiki/Border_Protection_Corps" title="Border Protection Corps">Border Protection Corps</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Militera-37">[37]</a> The Soviet forces moved west (to the <a href="/wiki/Bug_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Bug River">Bug River</a>) and south to fill the area allotted to them by the secret protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. They took steps to block the potential Polish evacuation routes into <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, Romania and <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a> About 13.4 million Polish citizens lived in the areas seized by the Soviet Union. Of those, about 8.7 million were Ukrainians, Belarusians and Jews. The minorities' relations with the Polish authorities were generally bad and many of their members greeted and supported the arriving Red Army troops as liberators.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_189-191-38">[38]</a> The British and French responses to the "not unexpected" Soviet encroachment were muted.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_504–511-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_76-80-35">[35]</a> Had it not been for the Soviet-German treaty and the Soviet invasion, all of prewar Poland would have likely been captured by Nazi Germany already in 1939.<a href="#cite_note-Czula_Jalta-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_campaign">End of campaign</h3></div> The Nazi-Soviet treaty process was continued with the <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Frontier_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Soviet Frontier Treaty">German–Soviet Frontier Treaty</a> signed on 28 September. It adjusted and finalized the territorial division, placing <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> within the Soviet sphere and moving the Soviet-German agreed boundary east from the Vistula to the Bug River,<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_94-97-40">[40]</a> and authorized further joint action to control occupied Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a> An idea of retaining a residual Polish state, considered earlier, was abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-Schulenburg-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_189-191-38">[38]</a> The Polish government and military high command retreated to the southeast <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Bridgehead" title="Romanian Bridgehead">Romanian Bridgehead</a> territory and crossed into neutral Romania on the night of 17 September. From Romania on 18 September President <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Mo%C5%9Bcicki" title="Ignacy Mościcki">Ignacy Mościcki</a> and Marshal Rydz-Śmigły issued declarations and orders, which violated their status of persons passing through a neutral country. Germany pressured Romania not to allow the Polish authorities to depart (their intended destination was France) and the group was interned. The Polish ambassador in Romania helped General <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Sikorski" title="Władysław Sikorski">Władysław Sikorski</a>, a member of the Polish opposition who was refused a military assignment and also entered Romania, to acquire departure documents and the general left for France.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189-18">[18]</a> Resistance continued in many places. Warsaw was eventually bombed into submission. The event that served as a trigger for its surrender on 27 September was the bombing damage to the water supply system caused by deliberate targeting of the waterworks.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_86-90-32">[32]</a> Warsaw suffered the greatest damage and civilian losses (40,000 killed), already in September 1939.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_80-84-41">[41]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_snone">[s]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Modlin_Fortress" title="Modlin Fortress">Modlin Fortress</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Modlin" title="Battle of Modlin">capitulated on 29 September</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hel" title="Battle of Hel">Battle of Hel</a> continued until 2 October, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kock_(1939)" title="Battle of Kock (1939)">Battle of Kock</a> was fought until 4 October.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189-18">[18]</a> In the country's woodlands, army units began underground resistance almost at once.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Dobrza%C5%84ski" title="Henryk Dobrzański">Major "Hubal"</a> and his regiment pioneered this movement. During the September Campaign, the Polish Army lost about 66,000 troops on the German front; about 400,000 became prisoners of Germany and about 230,000 of the Soviet Union.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_enone">[e]</a> 80,000 managed to leave the country. 16,600 German soldiers were killed and 3,400 were missing. 1000 German tanks or armored vehicles and 600 planes were destroyed. The Soviet Army lost between 2,500 and 3,000 soldiers, while 6,000 to 7,000 Polish defenders were killed in the east. Over 12,000 Polish citizens executed by the Nazis were among the approximate 100,000 civilian victims of the campaign.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_504–511-33">[33]</a> Several Polish Navy ships reached the United Kingdom and tens of thousands of soldiers escaped through Hungary, Romania, Lithuania and <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> to continue the fight.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a> Many Poles took part in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a>, and, allied with the British forces, in other operations (see <a href="/wiki/Polish_contribution_to_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish contribution to World War II">Polish contribution to World War II</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_255–256-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occupation_of_Poland">Occupation of Poland</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png/250px-Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png/375px-Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png/500px-Occupation_of_Poland_1939.png 2x" data-file-width="2479" data-file-height="3354" /></a><figcaption>Poland was <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partitioned</a> in 1939 as agreed by Germany and the Soviet Union in <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Frontier_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Soviet Frontier Treaty">their treaty</a>; division of Polish territories in 1939–41</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Occupation_of_Poland_1941.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Occupation_of_Poland_1941.png/250px-Occupation_of_Poland_1941.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Occupation_of_Poland_1941.png/375px-Occupation_of_Poland_1941.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Occupation_of_Poland_1941.png/500px-Occupation_of_Poland_1941.png 2x" data-file-width="2487" data-file-height="3307" /></a><figcaption>Changes in administration of Polish territories following the 1941 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">German invasion of the Soviet Union</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Poland (1939–45)">Occupation of Poland (1939–45)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Administrative_division_of_Polish_territories_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative division of Polish territories during World War II">Administrative division of Polish territories during World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_occupied_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II">War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polish_culture_during_World_War_II" title="Polish culture during World War II">Polish culture during World War II</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German-occupied_Poland">German-occupied Poland</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nazi_crimes_against_the_Polish_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi crimes against the Polish nation">Nazi crimes against the Polish nation</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">The Holocaust in Poland</a></div> The greatest extent of depredations and terror inflicted on and suffered by the Poles resulted from the German occupation. The most catastrophic series of events was the extermination of the Jews known as the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">Holocaust</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_257-44">[44]</a> About one-sixth of Polish citizens lost their lives in the war,<a href="#cite_note-expatica-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-szma-46">[46]</a> and most of the civilian losses resulted from various targeted, deliberate actions. The German plan involved not only the annexation of Polish territory but also a total destruction of Polish culture and the Polish nation (<a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a>).<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Under the terms of two decrees by Hitler (8 October and 12 October 1939), large areas of western Poland were annexed to Germany. These included all the territories which Germany had lost under the 1919 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Corridor" title="Polish Corridor">Polish Corridor</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Prussia" title="West Prussia">West Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a>, but also a large, indisputably Polish area east of these territories, including the city of <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a>. The annexed areas of Poland were divided into the following administrative units: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reichsgau_Wartheland" title="Reichsgau Wartheland">Reichsgau Wartheland</a> (initially Reichsgau <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Posen</a>), which included the entire <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a> <a href="/wiki/Voivodeship" title="Voivodeship">Voivodeship</a>, most of the Łódź Voivodeship, five counties of the <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomeranian</a> Voivodeship, and one county of the Warsaw Voivodeship;</li> <li>the remaining area of the Pomeranian Voivodeship, which was incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Reichsgau_Danzig-West_Prussia" title="Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia">Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia</a> (initially Reichsgau Westpreussen);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciechan%C3%B3w" title="Ciechanów">Ciechanów</a> District (Regierungsbezirk Zichenau) consisting of five northern counties of the Warsaw Voivodeship (<a href="/wiki/P%C5%82ock" title="Płock">Płock</a>, <a href="/wiki/P%C5%82o%C5%84sk" title="Płońsk">Płońsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sierpc" title="Sierpc">Sierpc</a>, Ciechanów and <a href="/wiki/M%C5%82awa" title="Mława">Mława</a>), which became a part of <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Upper_Silesia" title="East Upper Silesia">Katowice District</a> (Regierungsbezirk Kattowitz) or, unofficially, East <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a> (Ost-Oberschlesien), which included the <a href="/wiki/Silesian_Voivodeship_(1920%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Silesian Voivodeship (1920–39)">Silesian Voivodeship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sosnowiec" title="Sosnowiec">Sosnowiec</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C4%99dzin" title="Będzin">Będzin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chrzan%C3%B3w" title="Chrzanów">Chrzanów</a>, <a href="/wiki/O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim" title="Oświęcim">Oświęcim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zawiercie" title="Zawiercie">Zawiercie</a> counties, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Olkusz" title="Olkusz">Olkusz</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBywiec" title="Żywiec">Żywiec</a> counties, which became a part of the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Upper_Silesia" title="Province of Upper Silesia">Province of Upper Silesia</a>.</li></ul> The area of these annexed territories was 92,500 square kilometres and the population was about 10.6 million,<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a> a great majority of whom were Poles. In <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomeranian</a> districts German summary courts sentenced to death 11,000 Poles in late 1939 and early 1940.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a> A total of 30,000 Poles were executed there already in 1939, with an additional 10,000 in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland" title="Greater Poland">Greater Poland</a> and 1500 in <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569-48">[48]</a> Jews were expelled from the annexed areas and placed in ghettos such as the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a> or the <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź Ghetto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_167-168-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_309-311-50">[50]</a> Catholic priests became targets of campaigns of murder and deportation on a mass scale.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_376-377-51">[51]</a> The population in the annexed territories was subjected to intense <a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">racial screening</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanisation" title="Germanisation">Germanisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a> The Poles experienced property confiscations and severe discrimination; 100,000 were removed from the port city of <a href="/wiki/Gdynia" title="Gdynia">Gdynia</a> alone already in October 1939.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_167-168-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_309-311-50">[50]</a> In 1939–40, many Polish citizens were deported to other Nazi-controlled areas, especially the <a href="/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">General Government</a>, or to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">concentration camps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_309-311-50">[50]</a> With the clearing of some western Poland regions for German resettlement, the Nazis initiated the policies of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1034-1035-52">[52]</a> About one million Poles were forcibly removed from their dwellings and replaced with over 386,000 ethnic Germans brought from distant places.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569-48">[48]</a> (see also: <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Poles_by_Nazi_Germany" title="Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany">Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany</a>) Under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> and the <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_Frontier_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Soviet Frontier Treaty">German–Soviet Frontier Treaty</a>, the Soviet Union annexed all Polish territory east of the line of the rivers <a href="/wiki/Pisa_(river)" title="Pisa (river)">Pisa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narew" title="Narew">Narew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bug_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Bug River">Bug</a> and <a href="/wiki/San_(river)" title="San (river)">San</a>, except for the area around <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> (known in Polish as Wilno), which was given to <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Suwa%C5%82ki" title="Suwałki">Suwałki</a> region, which was annexed by Germany. These territories were largely inhabited by <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarusians</a>, with minorities of <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> (for numbers see <a href="/wiki/Curzon_Line" title="Curzon Line">Curzon Line</a>). The total area, including the area given to Lithuania, was 201,000 square kilometres, with a population of 13.2 million.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a> A small strip of land that was a part of <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> before 1914 was given to <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-011-13,_Hans_Frank.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-011-13%2C_Hans_Frank.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-011-13%2C_Hans_Frank.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-011-13%2C_Hans_Frank.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-011-13%2C_Hans_Frank.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-011-13%2C_Hans_Frank.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-011-13%2C_Hans_Frank.jpg 2x" data-file-width="571" data-file-height="791" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a></figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">German attack on the Soviet Union</a> in June 1941, the Polish territories previously occupied by the Soviets were organized as follows: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bezirk_Bialystok" class="mw-redirect" title="Bezirk Bialystok">Bezirk Bialystok</a> (District of <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a>), which included the Białystok, <a href="/wiki/Bielsk_Podlaski" title="Bielsk Podlaski">Bielsk Podlaski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grajewo" title="Grajewo">Grajewo</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C5%81om%C5%BCa" title="Łomża">Łomża</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sok%C3%B3%C5%82ka" title="Sokółka">Sokółka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vawkavysk" title="Vawkavysk">Wołkowysk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grodno" title="Grodno">Grodno</a> counties, was "attached" to (but not incorporated into) East Prussia;</li> <li>Bezirke Litauen und Weißrussland – the Polish part of White Russia (today western <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>) and the Vilnius province were incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland" title="Reichskommissariat Ostland">Reichskommissariat Ostland</a>;</li> <li>Bezirk Wolhynien-Podolien – the Polish <a href="/wiki/Wo%C5%82y%C5%84_Voivodeship_(1921%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–39)">Province of Volhynia</a>, was incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ukraine" title="Reichskommissariat Ukraine">Reichskommissariat Ukraine</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Galicia" title="District of Galicia">Distrikt Galizien</a>, East <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a>, was incorporated into the General Government and became its fifth district.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_165-53">[53]</a></li></ul> The remaining block of territory was placed under a German administration called the <a href="/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">General Government</a> (in German Generalgouvernement für die besetzten polnischen Gebiete), with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>. It became a part of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Germanic_Reich" title="Greater Germanic Reich">Greater Germany</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">Grossdeutsches Reich</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Overy_298-299-54">[54]</a> The General Government was originally subdivided into four districts, Warsaw, <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radom" title="Radom">Radom</a>, and Kraków, to which East Galicia and a part of Volhynia were added as a district in 1941.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">[55]</a> (For more detail on the territorial division of this area see <a href="/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">General Government</a>.) The General Government was the nearest to Germany proper part of the planned <a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a> or German "living space" in the east, and constituted the beginning of the implementation of the Nazi <a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">grandiose and genocidal human engineering scheme</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_167-168-49">[49]</a> A German lawyer and prominent Nazi, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a>, was appointed Governor-General of the General Government on 26 October 1939. Frank oversaw the segregation of the Jews into <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghettos</a> in the larger cities, including Warsaw, and the use of Polish civilians for compulsory labour in German war industries. Some Polish institutions, including the police (the number of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Blue_Police" title="Blue Police">Blue Police</a> reached about 12,500 in 1943), were preserved in the General Government. Over 40,000 Poles worked in the General Government's administration, supervised by over 10,000 Germans.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569-48">[48]</a> Political activity was prohibited and only basic Polish education was allowed. University professors in Kraków were sent to a concentration camp and in Lviv were shot.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_99,_261-56">[56]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_dnone">[d]</a> Ethnic Poles were to be gradually eliminated. The Jews, intended for a <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">more immediate extermination</a>, were herded into ghettos and severely repressed. The <a href="/wiki/Judenrat" title="Judenrat">Jewish councils</a> in the ghettos had to follow the German policies. Many Jews escaped to the Soviet Union (they were among the estimated 300,000 to 400,000 refugees that arrived there from German-occupied Poland)<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_119-124-57">[57]</a> and some were <a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">sheltered by Polish families</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Public_execution_of_54_Poles_in_Ro%C5%BCki_(1942).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Public_execution_of_54_Poles_in_Ro%C5%BCki_%281942%29.jpg/220px-Public_execution_of_54_Poles_in_Ro%C5%BCki_%281942%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Public_execution_of_54_Poles_in_Ro%C5%BCki_%281942%29.jpg/330px-Public_execution_of_54_Poles_in_Ro%C5%BCki_%281942%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Public_execution_of_54_Poles_in_Ro%C5%BCki_%281942%29.jpg/440px-Public_execution_of_54_Poles_in_Ro%C5%BCki_%281942%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2495" data-file-height="2488" /></a><figcaption>Public execution of 54 Poles in <a href="/wiki/Ro%C5%BCki,_Masovian_Voivodeship" title="Rożki, Masovian Voivodeship">Rożki</a> village, 1942</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Black_Book_of_Poland_(21%E2%80%9324).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/The_Black_Book_of_Poland_%2821%E2%80%9324%29.jpg/220px-The_Black_Book_of_Poland_%2821%E2%80%9324%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/The_Black_Book_of_Poland_%2821%E2%80%9324%29.jpg/330px-The_Black_Book_of_Poland_%2821%E2%80%9324%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/The_Black_Book_of_Poland_%2821%E2%80%9324%29.jpg/440px-The_Black_Book_of_Poland_%2821%E2%80%9324%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1027" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Photos from <a href="/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Poland" title="The Black Book of Poland">The Black Book of Poland</a>, published in London in 1942 by the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Government-in-Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Government-in-Exile">Polish Government-in-Exile</a></figcaption></figure> The population in the General Government's territory was initially about 11.5 million in an area of 95,500 km2,<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a> but this increased as about 860,000 Poles and Jews were expelled from the German-annexed areas and "resettled" in the General Government. After <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, the General Government's area was 141,000 km2, with 17.4 million inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">[55]</a> Tens of thousands were murdered in the German campaign of extermination of the Polish <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a> and other elements thought likely to resist (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tannenberg" title="Operation Tannenberg">Operation Tannenberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_AB-Aktion_in_Poland" title="German AB-Aktion in Poland">Aktion AB</a>). Catholic clergy were commonly imprisoned or otherwise persecuted; many were murdered in concentration camps.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_112-119-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_124-128-59">[59]</a> Tens of thousands of members of the resistance and others were tortured and executed at the <a href="/wiki/Pawiak" title="Pawiak">Pawiak</a> prison in Warsaw.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_337-60">[60]</a> From 1941, disease and hunger also began to reduce the population, as the exploitation of resources and labor, terror and Germanisation reached greater intensity after the attack on the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_257-44">[44]</a> Poles were also deported in large numbers to work as forced labor in Germany, or taken to concentration camps.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a> About two million were transported to Germany to work as slaves and many died there.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">[55]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_inone">[i]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roundup_(history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundup (history)">Łapanka</a> or random roundup, on streets or elsewhere, was one of the methods practiced by the Nazis to catch prisoners for labor.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_263-268-61">[61]</a> Several hundred Wehrmacht brothels, for which local non-German women were forcibly recruited, operated throughout the Reich.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_339-62">[62]</a> In contrast to Nazi policies in occupied <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, the Germans treated the Poles with intense hostility and all Polish state property and private industrial concerns were taken over by the German state.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_344-345-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_407-64">[64]</a> Poland was plundered and subjected to extreme economic exploitation throughout the war period.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_97-103-65">[65]</a> The future fate of Poland and Poles was stipulated in Generalplan Ost, a Nazi plan to engage in <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> and ethnic cleansing of the territories occupied by Germany in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> in order to exterminate the Slavic peoples. Tens of millions were to be eliminated, others resettled in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> or turned into slave populations.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">[55]</a> The cleared territories were to be resettled by Germans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapoutot2018341–345-66">[66]</a> A trial evacuation of all Poles was attempted in the <a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Zamość">Zamość</a> region in 1942 and 1943. 121,000 Poles were removed from their villages and replaced with 10,000 German settlers.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_268-271-67">[67]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Lebensborn" title="Lebensborn">Lebensborn</a> program, about 200,000 Polish children were kidnapped by the Germans to be tested for racial characteristics that would make them suitable for Germanisation. Of that number (many were found unsuitable and killed), only between 15% and 20% were returned to Poland after the war.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_268-271-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_323-324-68">[68]</a> When German occupation extended to the eastern Kresy territories after they were taken from the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941, the Nazis unleashed there their genocidal anti-Jewish policies. They conducted terror campaigns directed against ethnic Poles, including especially such groups as intelligentsia or Catholic clergy. Ethnic Ukrainians, Belarusians and Lithuanians, while themselves subjected to brutal occupation, generally received more favorable treatment from the Nazis. Their nationalists and others were used by the occupant in actions against ethnic Poles or allowed to conduct anti-Polish activities themselves. Members of all four ethnicities were encouraged to act against the Jews and participated in <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> and other instances of killing of Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_601–606-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mędykowski_Warszawski_Pogromy-70">[70]</a> Different segments of Polish society experienced different degrees of suffering under the German occupation. Residents of rural villages and small towns generally did better than big city dwellers, while the <a href="/wiki/Polish_landed_gentry" title="Polish landed gentry">land-owning class</a> (ziemiaństwo or <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a>), privileged in <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">independent Poland</a>, prospered also during the war.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_600-71">[71]</a> In the postwar <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a>, the International Military Tribunal stated: "The wholesale extermination of Jews and also of Poles had all the characteristics of genocide in the biological meaning of this term".<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> According to a 2009 estimate by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">Institute of National Remembrance</a> (IPN), between 5.62 million and 5.82 million Polish citizens (including <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Polish Jews</a>) died as a result of the German occupation.<a href="#cite_note-expatica-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-szma-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet-occupied_Poland">Soviet-occupied Poland</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_repressions_of_Polish_citizens_(1939%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–46)">Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–46)</a></div> By the end of the Soviet invasion, the Soviet Union took 50.1% of the territory of Poland (195,300 km2), with 12,662,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a> Population estimates vary; one analysis gives the following numbers in regard to the ethnic composition of these areas at the time: 38% Poles, 37% Ukrainians, 14.5% Belarusians, 8.4% Jews, 0.9% Russians and 0.6% Germans. There were also 336,000 refugees from the areas occupied by Germany, most of them Jews (198,000).<a href="#cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">[73]</a> Areas occupied by the Soviet Union were <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_Poland_annexed_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union">annexed to Soviet territory</a>, with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_Region" title="Vilnius Region">Wilno/Vilnius region</a>, which <a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania#Soviet_occupation" title="History of Lithuania">was transferred</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Republic of Lithuania</a>. The majority of Polish-speaking inhabitants of the Vilnius region soon found themselves subjected to the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanization" title="Lithuanization">Lithuanization</a> policies of the Lithuanian authorities, which led to lasting ethnic conflicts in the area.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_569–570-74">[74]</a> Lithuania, including the contested Vilnius area, was itself <a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania#Soviet_occupation" title="History of Lithuania">incorporated by the Soviet Union</a> in the summer of 1940 and became the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic</a>. The Soviets considered the <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a> territories (prewar eastern Poland) to be colonized by the Poles and the Red Army was proclaimed a liberator of the conquered nationalities. Many Jews, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Lithuanians shared that point of view and cooperated with the new authorities in repressing the Poles.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_119-124-57">[57]</a> The Soviet administrators used slogans about <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class struggle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">dictatorship of the proletariat</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Roszkowski-75">[75]</a> as they applied the policies of <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sovietization" title="Sovietization">Sovietization</a> in occupied eastern Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Sowietyzacja-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Relocation-77">[77]</a> On 22 and 26 October 1939, the Soviets <a href="/wiki/Elections_to_the_People%27s_Assemblies_of_Western_Ukraine_and_Western_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections to the People's Assemblies of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus">staged elections</a> to Moscow-controlled <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet" title="Supreme Soviet">Supreme Soviets</a> (legislative bodies) of the newly created provinces of <a href="/wiki/Western_Ukraine" title="Western Ukraine">Western Ukraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="West Belarus">Western Byelorussia</a> to legitimize the Soviet rule.<a href="#cite_note-Revolution-78">[78]</a> The new assemblies subsequently called for the incorporation into the Soviet Union, and the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union</a> annexed the two territories to the already existing <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Soviet republics</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic</a>) on 2 November.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_119-124-57">[57]</a> All institutions of the dismantled Polish state were closed down and reopened with new directors who were mostly Russian and in rare cases Ukrainian or Polish.<a href="#cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lviv_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Lviv University">Lviv University</a> and other schools restarted anew as Soviet institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">[73]</a> Some departments, such as law and humanities were abolished; new subjects, including <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> were taught by the reorganized departments. Tuition was free and monetary stipends were offered to students.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_124-128-59">[59]</a> The Soviet authorities attempted to remove all signs of Polish existence and activity in the area.<a href="#cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">[73]</a> On 21 December, the <a href="/wiki/Polish_z%C5%82oty" title="Polish złoty">Polish currency</a> was withdrawn from circulation with limited exchange to the newly introduced <a href="/wiki/Ruble" title="Ruble">ruble</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lanckoronska-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578-80">[80]</a> In schools, Polish language books were burned.<a href="#cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">[73]</a> All the media became controlled by Moscow. Soviet occupation implemented a <a href="/wiki/Police_state" title="Police state">police state</a> type political regime,<a href="#cite_note-Dutton-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Parrish-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rutland-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kravchenko-84">[84]</a> based on terror. All Polish parties and organisations were disbanded. Only the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Ukraine" title="Communist Party of Ukraine">communist party</a> and subordinate organisations were allowed to exist. Soviet teachers in schools encouraged children to spy on their parents.<a href="#cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">[73]</a> Ukrainian and Belarusian social organizations, closed by the Polish government in the 1930s, were reopened. In schools, the language of instruction was changed to Ukrainian or Belarusian.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_124-128-59">[59]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Greek Catholic</a> churches were persecuted, lost many estates, seminaries and affiliated social organizations, but kept most of their primary facilities (houses of worship) open and were able to provide religious services and organize pilgrimages. Priests were discriminated against by the authorities and subjected to high taxes, drafts into military service, arrests and deportations.<a href="#cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578-80">[80]</a> Many enterprises were taken over by the state or failed, small trade and production shops had to join <a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">cooperatives</a>, but only a small proportion of <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasant</a> agriculture was made <a href="/wiki/Collective_farming" title="Collective farming">collective</a> (over ten percent of the arable area) by the start of the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">war with Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578-80">[80]</a> Among the industrial installations dismantled and sent east were most of the <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a> textile industry factories.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_124-128-59">[59]</a> The results of the Soviet economic policies soon resulted in serious difficulties, as shops lacked goods, food was scarce and people were threatened by <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">[73]</a> Nevertheless, the conditions were better under the Soviets than in the German-run <a href="/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">General Government</a>. The industry was developed in Lviv and elsewhere and unemployment was officially eliminated by the spring of 1940. The living standards, following the initial collapse, kept gradually improving, many services were free or inexpensive and the poor and people with technical education fared better than under the Polish rule. The cities, of which Lviv and Białystok were particularly well-maintained by the Soviet authorities, were in much better shape than the countryside. The situation was very difficult for the Polish retirees, deprived of their pensions, and for the tens of thousands of war refugees who fled German-occupied Poland and settled in the eastern cities.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578-80">[80]</a> According to the Soviet law of 29 November 1939,<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_119-124-57">[57]</a> all residents of the annexed area, referred to as citizens of former Poland,<a href="#cite_note-Karta-85">[85]</a> automatically acquired the Soviet citizenship. Residents were still required and pressured to consent<a href="#cite_note-Gross-citizenship-86">[86]</a> and those who opted out (most Poles did not want to give up the Polish citizenship)<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a> were threatened with repatriation to Nazi controlled territories of Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Piotrowski-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Revolution-2-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gitelman-88">[88]</a> The Soviets exploited past ethnic tensions between Poles and other ethnic groups, inciting and encouraging violence against Poles by calling upon the minorities to "rectify the wrongs they had suffered during twenty years of Polish rule".<a href="#cite_note-Gross_p35-89">[89]</a> The hostile propaganda resulted in instances of bloody repression.<a href="#cite_note-Sowieckie_represje-90">[90]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Katyn_massacre_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Katyn_massacre_1.jpg/220px-Katyn_massacre_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Katyn_massacre_1.jpg/330px-Katyn_massacre_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Katyn_massacre_1.jpg/440px-Katyn_massacre_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>One of the mass graves of the <a href="/wiki/Katyn_massacre" title="Katyn massacre">Katyn massacre</a> (spring 1940), exhumed in 1943. The number of victims is estimated at 22,000, with a lower limit of confirmed dead of 21,768. Of them 4,421 were from Kozelsk, 3,820 from Starobelsk, 6,311 from Ostashkov, and 7,305 from Byelorussian and Ukrainian prisons.<a href="#cite_note-ipn_eng_katyn_decision-91">[91]</a></figcaption></figure> Parts of the Ukrainian population initially welcomed the end of Polish rule<a href="#cite_note-Piotr_p199-92">[92]</a> and the phenomenon was strengthened by a <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a>. The Soviet authorities also started a limited collectivisation campaign.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578-80">[80]</a> There were large groups of prewar Polish citizens, notably Jewish youth, and, to a lesser extent, Ukrainian peasants, who saw the Soviet power as an opportunity to start political or social activity outside of their traditional ethnic or cultural groups. Their enthusiasm faded with time as it became clear that the Soviet repressions affected everybody.<a href="#cite_note-From_Peace-93">[93]</a> The organisation of Ukrainians desiring independent Ukraine (the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Ukrainian_Nationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists">OUN</a>) was persecuted as "anti-Soviet".<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_119-124-57">[57]</a> A rule of terror was started by the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> and other Soviet agencies. The first victims were the approximately 230,000 Polish <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners of war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189-18">[18]</a> The Soviet Union had not signed any international convention on <a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">rules of war</a> and they were denied the status of prisoners of war. When the Soviets conducted recruitment activities among the Polish military, an overwhelming majority of the captured officers refused to cooperate; they were considered enemies of the Soviet Union and a decision was made by the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Politburo" title="Politburo">Politburo</a> (5 March 1940) to secretly execute them (22,000 officers and others).<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_druga_wojna_68-94">[94]</a> The officers and a large number of ordinary soldiers<a href="#cite_note-IPN_decision-95">[95]</a> were then murdered (see <a href="/wiki/Katyn_massacre" title="Katyn massacre">Katyn massacre</a>) or sent to <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chodakiewicz-96">[96]</a> Of the 10,000–12,000 Poles sent to <a href="/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma">Kolyma</a> in 1940–41, mostly POWs, only 583 men survived, released in 1941–42 to join the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_East" title="Polish Armed Forces in the East">Polish Armed Forces in the East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Terror policies were also applied to the civilian population. The Soviet authorities regarded service for the prewar Polish state as a "crime against revolution"<a href="#cite_note-Grudzinski-98">[98]</a> and "counter-revolutionary activity",<a href="#cite_note-Anders-99">[99]</a> and subsequently started arresting large numbers of Polish <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>, politicians, civil servants and scientists, but also ordinary people suspected of posing a threat to the Soviet rule. Schoolchildren as young as 10 or 12 years old who laughed at Soviet propaganda presented in schools were sent into prisons, sometimes for as long as 10 years.<a href="#cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">[73]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wanda_Wasilewska_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Wanda_Wasilewska_2.JPG/220px-Wanda_Wasilewska_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Wanda_Wasilewska_2.JPG/330px-Wanda_Wasilewska_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Wanda_Wasilewska_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wanda_Wasilewska" title="Wanda Wasilewska">Wanda Wasilewska</a></figcaption></figure> The prisons soon became severely overcrowded with detainees suspected of anti-Soviet activities and the NKVD had to open dozens of ad hoc prison sites in almost all towns of the region.<a href="#cite_note-Revolution-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-From_Peace-93">[93]</a> The wave of arrests led to the forced resettlement of large categories of people (<a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">kulaks</a>, Polish civil servants, forest workers, university professors or <a href="/wiki/Osadnik" title="Osadnik">osadniks</a>, for instance) to the Gulag <a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labor camps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Relocation-77">[77]</a> An estimated 30–40 thousand Polish citizens were held at the labor camps in 1939–1941.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578-80">[80]</a> The Polish and formerly Polish citizens, a large proportion of whom were ethnic minorities, were deported mostly in 1940, typically to northern Russia, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_136-139-100">[100]</a> According to the NKVD data, of the 107,000 Polish citizens of different ethnicities arrested by June 1941, 39,000 were tried and sentenced for various transgressions, including 1200 given death sentences. At that time, 40,000 were imprisoned in NKVD prisons and about 10,000 of them were murdered by the Soviets during prison evacuation after the German attack.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_592-101">[101]</a> Among the Poles who decided to cooperate with the Soviet authorities were <a href="/wiki/Wanda_Wasilewska" title="Wanda Wasilewska">Wanda Wasilewska</a>, who was allowed to publish a Polish language periodical in <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Berling" title="Zygmunt Berling">Zygmunt Berling</a>, who from 1940 led a small group of Polish officers working on the concept of formation of a Polish division in the Soviet Union. Wasilewska, an informal leader of Polish communists, was received by Stalin at the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Kremlin">Kremlin</a> on 28 June 1940. The event marked the beginning of the reorientation of Soviet policies with respect to Poles, which would have momentous consequences for the next half-century and beyond. The Soviets undertook a number of conciliatory measures, such as organizing celebrations of the 85th anniversary of the death of the poet <a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Adam Mickiewicz</a> in November 1940 in Moscow, Lviv, and at other concentrations of the Polish population, or expanding Polish language general and higher education activities in Soviet-controlled territories. Wasilewska and Berling pushed for the Polish division again in September 1942, but Soviet permission for building a Soviet-allied Polish armed force was granted only after the break in diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Government-in-Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Government-in-Exile">Polish Government-in-Exile</a> in April 1943.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_376-383-102">[102]</a> Unlike in German-occupied Poland, where open cooperation with the occupier was rare among the Polish elites, many Polish intellectuals, artists, literary figures, and journalists cooperated with the Soviets and their activity often included participation in <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Soviet propaganda</a> undertakings.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_581-103">[103]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sikorski%E2%80%93Mayski_agreement" title="Sikorski–Mayski agreement">Sikorski–Mayski agreement</a>, in the summer of 1941, the exiled Poles were released under the declared amnesty. Many thousands trekked south to join the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Anders%27_Army" title="Anders' Army">Polish Army</a>, but thousands were too weak to complete the journey or perished soon afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_153-162-104">[104]</a> According to a 2009 estimate by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">IPN</a>, around 150,000 Polish citizens died as a result of the Soviet occupation.<a href="#cite_note-expatica-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-szma-46">[46]</a> The number of deportees was estimated at around 320,000.<a href="#cite_note-expatica-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-szma-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collaboration_with_the_occupiers">Collaboration with the occupiers</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_in_German-occupied_Poland" title="Collaboration in German-occupied Poland">Collaboration in German-occupied Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chod%C5%BAmy_na_roboty_rolne_do_Niemiec.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chod%C5%BAmy_na_roboty_rolne_do_Niemiec.jpg/300px-Chod%C5%BAmy_na_roboty_rolne_do_Niemiec.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chod%C5%BAmy_na_roboty_rolne_do_Niemiec.jpg/450px-Chod%C5%BAmy_na_roboty_rolne_do_Niemiec.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chod%C5%BAmy_na_roboty_rolne_do_Niemiec.jpg/600px-Chod%C5%BAmy_na_roboty_rolne_do_Niemiec.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption>German recruitment poster: "Let's do agricultural work in Germany: report immediately to your <a href="/wiki/Vogt" class="mw-redirect" title="Vogt">Vogt</a>"</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Poland (1939–45)">occupied Poland</a>, there was no official collaboration at either the political or economic level.<a href="#cite_note-CT-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-KPF-106">[106]</a> The occupying powers intended permanent elimination of Polish governing structures and ruling elites and therefore did not seek this kind of cooperation.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_97-103-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_192-193-107">[107]</a> The Poles were not given positions of significant authority.<a href="#cite_note-CT-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-KPF-106">[106]</a> The vast majority of the prewar citizenry collaborating with the Nazis came from the <a href="/wiki/German_minority_in_Poland" title="German minority in Poland">German minority in Poland</a>, the members of which were offered several classes of the German <a href="/wiki/Volksdeutsche" title="Volksdeutsche">Volksdeutsche</a> ID. During the war, there were about 3 million former Polish citizens of German origin who signed the official <a href="/wiki/Volksliste" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksliste">Deutsche Volksliste</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KPF-106">[106]</a> Depending on a definition of collaboration (and of a Polish citizen, including the ethnicity and minority status considerations), scholars estimate the number of "Polish collaborators" at around several thousand in a population of about 35 million.<a href="#cite_note-CT-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-KPF-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-JC-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lukas-109">[109]</a> The estimate is based primarily on the number of death sentences for treason by the <a href="/wiki/Underground_court" title="Underground court">Underground court</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Underground_State" title="Polish Underground State">Polish Underground State</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JC-108">[108]</a> The underground courts sentenced 10,000 Poles, including 200 death sentences.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_275-276-110">[110]</a> John Connelly quoted a Polish historian (<a href="/wiki/Leszek_Gondek" title="Leszek Gondek">Leszek Gondek</a>) calling the phenomenon of Polish collaboration "marginal" and wrote that "only relatively small percentage of Polish population engaged in activities that may be described as collaboration when seen against the backdrop of European and world history".<a href="#cite_note-JC-108">[108]</a> Some researchers give much higher numbers of collaborators, especially when it comes to denouncing Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Maciorowski_God_sent-111">[111]</a> In October 1939, the Nazis ordered a <a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">mobilization</a> of the prewar <a href="/wiki/Policja" class="mw-redirect" title="Policja">Polish police</a> to the service of the occupational authorities. The policemen were to report for duty or face the death penalty.<a href="#cite_note-Hempel_2-112">[112]</a> The so-called <a href="/wiki/Blue_Police" title="Blue Police">Blue Police</a> was formed. At its peak in 1943, it numbered around 16,000.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_275-276-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-encholo-113">[113]</a> Its primary task was to act as a regular police force and to deal with criminal activities, but they were also used by the Germans in combating smuggling and patrolling the <a href="/wiki/Ghettos_in_Nazi-occupied_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe">Jewish ghettos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_275-276-110">[110]</a> Many individuals in the Blue Police followed German orders reluctantly, often disobeyed them or even risked death acting against them.<a href="#cite_note-Piotrowski-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Paulsson-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hempel-115">[115]</a> Many members of the Blue Police were <a href="/wiki/Double_agent" title="Double agent">double agents</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Polish resistance</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Paczkowski-2-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-PWN-117">[117]</a> a large percentage cooperated with the <a href="/wiki/Home_Army" title="Home Army">Home Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_275-276-110">[110]</a> Some of its officers were ultimately awarded the <a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a> awards for saving Jews.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> However, the moral position of Polish policemen were often compromised by a necessity for cooperation, or even <a href="/wiki/Collaborationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborationism">collaboration</a>, with the occupier.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_112-119-58">[58]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Timothy_D._Snyder" class="mw-redirect" title="Timothy D. Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a>, acting in their capacity as a collaborationist force, the Blue Police may have killed more than 50,000 Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Polacy_wobec_Holocaustu-119">[119]</a> The police assisted the Nazis at tasks such as rounding up Poles for forced labor in Germany.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_263-268-61">[61]</a> During Nazi Germany's <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a> against the Soviet Union in June 1941, the German forces quickly overran the eastern half of Poland controlled by the Red Army since 1939. New <a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat" title="Reichskommissariat">Reichskommissariats</a> were formed across the <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a> <a href="/wiki/Macroregion" title="Macroregion">macroregion</a>. As the Soviet-German war progressed, the Home Army fought against both invaders, including the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet partisans</a>, who often considered the Polish underground as enemies on a par with the Germans and from June 1943 were authorized by their command to denounce them to the Nazis. Due to the intensified, by the fall of 1943, warfare between the Home Army and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans_in_Poland" title="Soviet partisans in Poland">Soviet partisans in Poland</a>, a few Polish commanders accepted weapons and ammunition from the Germans to fight the communist forces.<a href="#cite_note-Chod-120">[120]</a> In 1944, the Germans clandestinely armed some regional AK units operating in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Navahrudak" class="mw-redirect" title="Navahrudak">Navahrudak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>. This AK-Nazi cooperation was condemned by General <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Sosnkowski" title="Kazimierz Sosnkowski">Kazimierz Sosnkowski</a>, commander-in-chief in the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Government-in-Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Government-in-Exile">Polish Government-in-Exile</a>, who ordered the responsible officers <a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">court-martialed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_637–640-121">[121]</a> The AK turned these weapons against the Nazis during the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ostra_Brama" title="Operation Ostra Brama">Operation Ostra Brama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-zizas19421944-122">[122]</a> Such arrangements were purely tactical and did not evidence the type of ideological collaboration as shown by the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy regime</a> in France, the <a href="/wiki/Quisling_regime" title="Quisling regime">Quisling regime</a> in Norway,<a href="#cite_note-Piotrowski-36">[36]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Ukrainian_Nationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists">OUN</a> leadership in <a href="/wiki/District_of_Galicia" title="District of Galicia">Distrikt Galizien</a>.<a href="#cite_note-yadvashem-Pohl-123">[123]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Piotrowski_(sociologist)" title="Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)">Tadeusz Piotrowski</a> quotes <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rothschild" title="Joseph Rothschild">Joseph Rothschild</a> as saying: "The Polish Home Army (AK) was by and large untainted by collaboration" and that "the honor of AK as a whole is beyond reproach".<a href="#cite_note-Piotrowski-36">[36]</a> The former prime minister of Poland <a href="/wiki/Leon_Koz%C5%82owski" title="Leon Kozłowski">Leon Kozłowski</a> was released from a Soviet prison and crossed into the German zone of occupation in October 1941. However, his reasons and the context of his action are not known.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_521–535-124">[124]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_S._Paulsson" title="Gunnar S. Paulsson">Gunnar S. Paulsson</a> estimates that in Warsaw the number of Polish citizens collaborating with the Nazis during the occupation might have been around "1 or 2 percent".<a href="#cite_note-Paulsson-114">[114]</a> Fugitive Jews (and members of the resistance) were handed over to the <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> by the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Szmalcownik" title="Szmalcownik">szmalcowniks</a>", who received financial rewards.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1021-125">[125]</a> Soon after the German takeover of the town of <a href="/wiki/Jedwabne" title="Jedwabne">Jedwabne</a> in July 1941, the <a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne pogrom</a> took place. The exact circumstances of what happened during the pogrom are not clear and vigorously debated. According to the investigation by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">Institute of National Remembrance</a>, completed in 2002, at least 340 members of Jewish families were rounded up by or in the presence of the German <a href="/wiki/Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Ordnungspolizei</a>. They were locked in a barn which was then set on fire by Polish residents of Jedwabne.<a href="#cite_note-Jedwabne_POLIN-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Polish_Town_Still_Tries-127">[127]</a> By several accounts, this was done under German duress.<a href="#cite_note-Tomasz_Strzembosz-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resistance_in_Poland">Resistance in Poland</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Polish resistance movement in World War II</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armed_resistance_and_the_Underground_State">Armed resistance and the Underground State</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Polish resistance movement in World War II</a> was the largest in all of occupied Europe.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Resistance to the German occupation began almost at once and included <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a>. Centrally commanded military conspiratorial activity was started with the <a href="/wiki/Service_for_Poland%27s_Victory" title="Service for Poland's Victory">Service for Poland's Victory</a> (Służba Zwycięstwu Polski) organization, established on 27 September 1939. Poland's prewar political parties also resumed activity.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">[42]</a> The Service was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Government-in-Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Government-in-Exile">Polish Government-in-Exile</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Armed_Struggle" title="Union of Armed Struggle">Union of Armed Struggle</a> (Związek Walki Zbrojnej), placed under the command of General <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Sosnkowski" title="Kazimierz Sosnkowski">Kazimierz Sosnkowski</a>, a minister in that government.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_198-201-130">[130]</a> In June 1940 <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Sikorski" title="Władysław Sikorski">Władysław Sikorski</a>, prime minister in exile and chief military commander, appointed General <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Rowecki" title="Stefan Rowecki">Stefan Rowecki</a>, resident in Poland, to head the Union.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bataliony_Ch%C5%82opskie" class="mw-redirect" title="Bataliony Chłopskie">Bataliony Chłopskie</a>, a partisan force of the peasant movement, was active from August 1940 and reached 150,000 participants by June 1944.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_349–350-132">[132]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Home_Army" title="Home Army">Home Army</a> (Armia Krajowa or AK), loyal to the Government-in-Exile then in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> and a military arm of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Underground_State" title="Polish Underground State">Polish Underground State</a>, was formed from the Union of Armed Struggle and other groups in February 1942. In July its forces approached 200,000 sworn soldiers, who undertook many successful anti-Nazi operations.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gwardia_Ludowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwardia Ludowa">Gwardia Ludowa</a> and its successor <a href="/wiki/Armia_Ludowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Ludowa">Armia Ludowa</a> were the much smaller leftist formations, backed by the Soviet Union and controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Workers%27_Party" title="Polish Workers' Party">Polish Workers' Party</a>. The <a href="/wiki/National_Military_Organization" title="National Military Organization">National Military Organization</a> was a military structure of the <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(Poland)" title="National Party (Poland)">National Party</a>. Its forces split in 1942 and again in 1944, with most joining the Home Army and the rest forming the ultra-nationalist <a href="/wiki/National_Armed_Forces" title="National Armed Forces">National Armed Forces</a> that operated separately.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_349–350-132">[132]</a> By mid-1944, partial coalescing of several underground formations had taken place<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_627–628-133">[133]</a> and the AK membership may have reached some 400,000, but its supply of arms remained quite limited.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_202-204-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_278-285-135">[135]</a> According to Czubiński, the AK counted 300,000 committed soldiers, who performed about 230,000 actions of sabotage and diversion throughout the war.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220-136">[136]</a> According to Zbigniew Mikołejko, 200,000 soldiers and civilians participated in AK activities during the war.<a href="#cite_note-Mikolejko_jeden_drugiemu-137">[137]</a> However, the Home Army's resources were so scarce that it could effectively equip only about 30,000 fighters in the spring of 1944.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_627–628-133">[133]</a> Partisan attacks were also hampered by the Nazi policy of retaliation against the civilian population, including mass executions of randomly rounded up individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_112-119-58">[58]</a> The occupiers would typically kill one hundred Polish civilians for each German killed by the resistance.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_312-138">[138]</a> The AK encountered difficulties establishing itself in the eastern provinces (<a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a>) and in the western areas annexed to Germany. General Rowecki was betrayed and arrested by the Gestapo in June 1943.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_278-285-135">[135]</a> The Underground State originated in April 1940, when the exile government planned to establish its three "delegates" in occupied Poland: for the General Government, the German-annexed areas and the Soviet-occupied zone. After the fall of France, the structure was revised to include only a <a href="/wiki/Government_Delegation_for_Poland" title="Government Delegation for Poland">single delegate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_112-119-58">[58]</a> The Underground State was endorsed by Poland's main prewar political blocks, including the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(Poland)" title="People's Party (Poland)">peasant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_Socialist_Party_%E2%80%93_Freedom,_Equality,_Independence" title="Polish Socialist Party – Freedom, Equality, Independence">socialist</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(Poland)" title="National Party (Poland)">nationalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Labour_Faction_(1937)" title="Labour Faction (1937)">Catholic</a> parties and absorbed many supporters of the <a href="/wiki/Sanation" title="Sanation">Sanation</a> rule, humbled by the 1939 defeat. The parties established clandestine cooperation in February 1940 and dedicated themselves to a future postwar parliamentary democracy in Poland. From autumn 1940, the "State" was led by a delegate (<a href="/wiki/Cyryl_Ratajski" title="Cyryl Ratajski">Cyryl Ratajski</a>) appointed by the Polish government in London. The Underground State maintained the continuity of the Polish statehood in Poland and conducted a broad range of political, military, administrative, social, cultural, educational and other activities, within practical limits of the conspiratorial environment. In November 1942 <a href="/wiki/Jan_Karski" title="Jan Karski">Jan Karski</a>, a special emissary, was sent to London and later to <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington</a>, to warn the Western Allies of the imminent extermination of the Jews in Poland. Karski was able to convey his personal observations to American Jewish leaders and he met with President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_Operation_Barbarossa">After Operation Barbarossa</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Trepper" title="Leopold Trepper">Leopold Trepper</a>, a Polish-Jewish communist, worked as a master spy and was the chief of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Orchestra_(espionage)" title="Red Orchestra (espionage)">Red Orchestra</a> network in Western Europe. He became aware and informed Stalin of the Nazi-planned <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, but the Soviet leader did not take his – nor the similar alerts from his top intelligence officer in Japan, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Sorge#Wartime_intelligence" title="Richard Sorge">Richard Sorge</a> – advance warnings seriously regarding the imminent Nazi invasion.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_417-139">[139]</a> In Poland, the communists, more active after the 1941 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/National_Armed_Forces" title="National Armed Forces">right wing extremists</a>, neither joined the broad coalition nor recognized the Government Delegate. The situation of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Polish armed resistance</a> was made more difficult by the fact that the Allies now assigned Poland to the Soviet sphere of operations, and Britain refrained from or limited direct <a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive" title="Special Operations Executive">support of resistance movements</a> in central-eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_278-285-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_285-290-140">[140]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_announcement_General_Government_Poland_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/German_announcement_General_Government_Poland_1944.jpg/220px-German_announcement_General_Government_Poland_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/German_announcement_General_Government_Poland_1944.jpg/330px-German_announcement_General_Government_Poland_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/German_announcement_General_Government_Poland_1944.jpg/440px-German_announcement_General_Government_Poland_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="776" /></a><figcaption>An announcement of fifty Poles tried and sentenced to death by a <a href="/wiki/Drumhead_court-martial" title="Drumhead court-martial">Standgericht</a> in retaliation for the assassination of one German policeman, 1944</figcaption></figure> After Operation Barbarossa, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet partisans</a> also developed and became militarily active in the General Government. They were generally aligned with the Polish leftist Gwardia Ludowa and posed a significant threat to the authority of the AK, which had not adopted a policy of more direct and widespread confrontations with the Nazis until 1943. The Soviet partisans were especially prevalent in <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> and elsewhere in <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a>.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_ynone">[y]</a> The presence of the various partisan formations, who often represented irreconcilable political orientations, followed contradictory military strategies and were mutually hostile, including also the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish</a>, National Armed Forces, Bataliony Chłopskie (some right-, some left-wing), and of criminal armed bands preying on local populations, led to armed clashes, assassinations, murder, and a climate of chaos and uncertainty, as the Soviet armies, having established their superiority on the Eastern Front, approached Poland's prewar eastern boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_278-285-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_285-290-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_317-318-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_630–637-142">[142]</a> With Stalin's encouragement, Polish communist institutions rival to the Government-in-Exile and the Underground State were established. They included the Polish Workers' Party (from January 1942) and the <a href="/wiki/State_National_Council" title="State National Council">State National Council</a> in occupied Poland, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Polish_Patriots" title="Union of Polish Patriots">Union of Polish Patriots</a> in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Combat_Organization" title="Jewish Combat Organization">Jewish Combat Organization</a> groups undertook armed resistance activities in 1943. In April, the Germans began deporting the remaining Jews from the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a>, provoking the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a> (19 April–16 May). The Polish-Jewish leaders knew that the rising would be crushed but they preferred to die fighting than wait to be murdered in the <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">[55]</a> In August 1943 and March 1944, the Underground State announced its long-term plan, partially designed to counter the attractiveness of some of the communist proposals. It promised <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">parliamentary democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">nationalization</a> of the industrial base, more powerful <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>, demands for territorial compensation from Germany, and re-establishment of the pre-1939 eastern border. Thus, the main difference between the Underground State and the communists, in terms of politics, amounted not to radical economic and social reforms, which were advocated by both sides, but to their attitudes towards national sovereignty, borders, and Polish-Soviet relations.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_384-386-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation_Tempest_and_the_Warsaw_Uprising">Operation Tempest and the Warsaw Uprising</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AK-soldiers_Parasol_Regiment_Warsaw_Uprising_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AK-soldiers_Parasol_Regiment_Warsaw_Uprising_1944.jpg/200px-AK-soldiers_Parasol_Regiment_Warsaw_Uprising_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AK-soldiers_Parasol_Regiment_Warsaw_Uprising_1944.jpg/300px-AK-soldiers_Parasol_Regiment_Warsaw_Uprising_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AK-soldiers_Parasol_Regiment_Warsaw_Uprising_1944.jpg/400px-AK-soldiers_Parasol_Regiment_Warsaw_Uprising_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battalion_Zo%C5%9Bka" class="mw-redirect" title="Battalion Zośka">Battalion Zośka</a> soldiers in <a href="/wiki/Wola" title="Wola">Wola</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a></figcaption></figure> In early 1943, the Home Army built up its forces in preparation for a national uprising.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a> The situation was soon complicated by the continuing strength of Germany and the threat presented by the advance of the Soviets, who promoted a territorial and political vision of a future Poland that was at odds with what the Polish leaders were striving for. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_National_Unity" title="Council of National Unity">Council of National Unity</a>, a quasi-parliament, was instituted in occupied Poland on 9 January 1944; it was chaired by <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Pu%C5%BCak" title="Kazimierz Pużak">Kazimierz Pużak</a>, a socialist. The plan for the establishment of Polish state authority ahead of the arrival of the Soviets was code-named <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Operation Tempest</a> and began in late 1943. Its major implemented elements were the campaign of the <a href="/wiki/27th_Home_Army_Infantry_Division_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="27th Home Army Infantry Division (Poland)">27th Home Army Infantry Division</a> in <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a> (from February 1944), <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ostra_Brama" title="Operation Ostra Brama">Operation Ostra Brama</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a>. In most Polish-Soviet encounters, the Soviets and their allies ultimately opted not to cooperate with the Home Army and ruthlessly imposed their rule; in the case of the Warsaw Uprising, the Soviets waited for the Germans to defeat the insurgents. The <a href="/wiki/National_Armed_Forces" title="National Armed Forces">forces of the Polish right-wing</a> called for stopping the war against Germany and concentrating on fighting the communists and the Soviet threat.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_642–650-145">[145]</a> As the Operation Tempest failed to achieve its goals in the disputed <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">eastern provinces</a>, the Soviets demanded that the Home Army be disbanded there and its underground soldiers enlist in the Soviet-allied <a href="/wiki/First_Polish_Army_(1944%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Polish Army (1944–45)">First Polish Army</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Home_Army" title="Home Army">AK</a> commander <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_B%C3%B3r-Komorowski" title="Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski">Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski</a> complied, disbanding in late July 1944 his formations east of the <a href="/wiki/Bug_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Bug River">Bug River</a> and ordering the fighters to join the army led by <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Berling" title="Zygmunt Berling">Zygmunt Berling</a>. Some partisans obeyed, others refused, and many were arrested and persecuted by the Soviets.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_392-402-146">[146]</a> In the summer of 1944, as the Soviet forces approached Warsaw, the AK prepared an uprising in the German-occupied capital city with the political intention of preempting an imposition of a communist government in Poland. The Polish supreme commander in London, General Sosnkowski, was opposed to the AK strategy of waging open warfare against the German forces on the eve of the arrival of the Soviet armies (the effective scope of those military undertakings was in any case limited because of insufficient resources and external pressures), as self-destructive for the AK. He dispatched General <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Okulicki" title="Leopold Okulicki">Leopold Okulicki</a> to Poland in May 1944, instructing him not to allow such actions to proceed. Once in Poland, Okulicki pursued his own ideas instead and in Warsaw he became the most ardent proponent of an uprising there, pushing for a quick commencement of anti-German hostilities. Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Miko%C5%82ajczyk" title="Stanisław Mikołajczyk">Stanisław Mikołajczyk</a>, who thought an uprising in Warsaw would improve his bargaining position in the upcoming negotiations with Stalin, cabled on 27 July <a href="/wiki/Jan_Stanis%C5%82aw_Jankowski" title="Jan Stanisław Jankowski">Jan Stanisław Jankowski</a>, the government delegate, declaring the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Government-in-Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Government-in-Exile">Polish Government-in-Exile</a>'s authorization for the issuance of an uprising proclamation by the Polish underground authorities in Warsaw, at a moment chosen by them. To some of the underground commanders, the German collapse and the entry of the Soviets appeared imminent, and the AK, led by Bór-Komorowski, launched the Warsaw Uprising on 1 August. The insurgents' equipment and supplies would suffice for only several days of fighting and the uprising was planned to last no longer than that. On 3 August Mikołajczyk, conferring with Stalin in Moscow, announced an upcoming "freeing of Warsaw any day now" and asked for military help.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_642–650-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_392-402-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1040-1044-147">[147]</a> Stalin promised help for the insurgents, but noted that the Soviet armies were still separated from Warsaw by powerful and thus far undefeated concentrations of enemy troops.<a href="#cite_note-Cel_Warszawa-148">[148]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warsaw_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Warsaw_1944.jpg/200px-Warsaw_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Warsaw_1944.jpg/300px-Warsaw_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Warsaw_1944.jpg/400px-Warsaw_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>Warsaw Uprising in the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Old_Town" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw Old Town">Old Town</a></figcaption></figure> In Warsaw, the Germans turned out to be still overwhelmingly strong and the Soviet leaders and their forces nearby, not consulted in advance, contrary to the insurgents' expectations gave little assistance. Stalin had no interest in the uprising's success and following the failure of the talks with Mikołajczyk, the Soviet <a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a> information agency stated in the 13 August broadcast that "the responsibility for the events in Warsaw rests entirely with the Polish émigré circles in London".<a href="#cite_note-Cel_Warszawa-148">[148]</a> The Poles appealed to the Western Allies for help. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> and the Polish Air Force based in Italy dropped some arms but little could be accomplished without Soviet involvement. Urged by the communist <a href="/wiki/Polish_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="Polish Committee of National Liberation">Polish Committee of National Liberation</a> and the Western leaders, Stalin eventually allowed airdrops for the Warsaw insurgents and provided limited military assistance. Soviet supply flights continued from 13 to 29 September and an American relief operation was allowed to land on Soviet-controlled territory, but by that time the area under insurgent control had been greatly reduced and much of the dropped material was lost. General Berling's failed but costly attempt to support the fighters on 15–23 September using his Polish forces (First Army units crossed the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> but were slaughtered in a battle over the bridgehead) derailed Berling's own career.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1040-1044-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_402-426-149">[149]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_znone">[z]</a> The Soviets halted their western push at the Vistula for several months, <a href="/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev Offensive">directing their attention south</a> <a href="/wiki/Belgrade_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgrade Offensive">toward the Balkans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_32,_117-118-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_119-121-151">[151]</a> In the Polish capital, the AK formations initially took over considerable portions of the city, but from 4 August they had to limit their efforts to defense and the territory under Polish control kept shrinking. The Warsaw AK district had 50,000 members, of whom perhaps 10% had firearms. They faced a reinforced German special corps of 22,000 largely <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">SS</a> troops and various regular army and auxiliary units, up to 50,000 soldiers total. The Polish command had planned to establish a provisional Polish administration to greet the arriving Soviets but came nowhere close to meeting this goal. The Germans and their allies engaged in the mass slaughter of the civilian population, including between 40,000 and 50,000 <a href="/wiki/Wola_massacre" title="Wola massacre">massacred in the districts of Wola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ochota_massacre" title="Ochota massacre">Ochota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mokot%C3%B3w" title="Mokotów">Mokotów</a>. The SS and auxiliary units were recruited from the Soviet Army deserters (the <a href="/wiki/36th_Waffen_Grenadier_Division_of_the_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="36th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS">Dirlewanger Brigade</a> and the <a href="/wiki/S.S._Sturmbrigade_R.O.N.A." class="mw-redirect" title="S.S. Sturmbrigade R.O.N.A.">R.O.N.A. Brigade</a>) were particularly brutal.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1040-1044-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_119-121-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_210-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_316-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_654–662-154">[154]</a> After the uprising's surrender on 2 October, the AK fighters were given the status of prisoners-of-war by the Germans but the civilian population remained unprotected and the survivors were punished and evacuated. The Polish casualties are estimated to be at least 150,000 civilians killed, in addition to the fewer than 20,000 AK soldiers. The German forces lost over two thousand men.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_654–662-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zaremba_Biedni_Polacy-155">[155]</a> Under three thousand of the First Polish Army soldiers died in the failed rescue attempt.<a href="#cite_note-Przyczolek_219–220-156">[156]</a> 150,000 civilians were sent to labour camps in the <a href="/wiki/Reich" title="Reich">Reich</a> or shipped to concentration camps such as <a href="/wiki/Ravensbr%C3%BCck_concentration_camp" title="Ravensbrück concentration camp">Ravensbrück</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mauthausen-Gusen_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp">Mauthausen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_402-426-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_119-121-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_God's_Playground_II_355-157">[157]</a> The city was <a href="/wiki/Planned_destruction_of_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Planned destruction of Warsaw">almost totally demolished</a> by the German punitive bombing raids, but only after being systematically looted of works of art and other property, which were then taken to Germany.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_342-158">[158]</a> General Sosnkowski, who criticized the Allied inaction, was relieved of his command. Following the defeat of Operation Tempest and the Warsaw Uprising, the remaining resistance in Poland (the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Underground_State" title="Polish Underground State">Underground State</a> and the AK) ended up greatly destabilized, weakened and with damaged reputation, at the moment when the international decision-making processes impacting Poland's future were about to enter their final phase. The Warsaw Uprising allowed the Germans to largely destroy the AK as a fighting force, but the main beneficiaries were the Soviets and the communists, who were able to impose a communist government on postwar Poland with reduced risk of armed resistance. The Soviets and the allied First Polish Army, having resumed their offensive, entered Warsaw on 17 January 1945. In January 1945, the Home Army was officially disbanded.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1040-1044-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_119-121-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_320-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_499-515-160">[160]</a> The AK, placed under General Okulicki after General Bór-Komorowski became a German prisoner, was in late 1944 extremely demoralized. Okulicki issued the order dissolving the AK on 19 January, having been authorized to do so by President <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Raczkiewicz" title="Władysław Raczkiewicz">Raczkiewicz</a>. The civilian Underground State structure remained in existence and hoped to participate in the future government of Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_520-527-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Holocaust_in_Poland">The Holocaust in Poland</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">The Holocaust in Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_occupied_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II">War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jews_in_Poland">Jews in Poland</h3></div> Despite the various forms of anti-Jewish harassment that took place in late prewar Poland, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Jewish community</a> there was the largest in Europe and thrived.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_978-2">[2]</a> Jews constituted a large percentage and often the majority of the urban <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> and urban poor in many towns.<a href="#cite_note-Leder_Rewolucja_57-162">[162]</a> In 1938, the Polish government passed a law withdrawing Polish citizenship from Poles who had lived outside of Poland for over five years. The law was aimed at and used to prevent the tens of thousands of Polish Jews in Austria and Germany, threatened or expelled by the Nazi regime, from returning to Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_27-32-163">[163]</a> In December 1939, the Polish diplomat and resistance fighter <a href="/wiki/Jan_Karski" title="Jan Karski">Jan Karski</a> wrote that, in his opinion, some Poles felt contempt and dismay in observing the barbarian anti-Jewish deeds of the Nazis, while others watched these deeds with interest and admiration. He warned of the threat of demoralization of broad segments of Polish society because of the narrow common ground that the Nazis shared with many ethnic Poles on the Jewish issue.<a href="#cite_note-Karski_Gross_Zagadnienie-164">[164]</a> Local <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a>, encouraged by the Nazis and augmented by their propaganda, resulted during the war in many instances of violence directed against Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569-48">[48]</a> According to Laurence Weinbaum, who quotes Aleksander Smolar, "in wartime Polish society ... there was no stigma of collaboration attached to acting against the Jews".<a href="#cite_note-Weinbaum_Confronting-165">[165]</a> According to the writer and researcher <a href="/wiki/Anna_Bikont" title="Anna Bikont">Anna Bikont</a>, most Jews who escaped the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Nazi ghettos</a> could not have survived the war even if they had been in possession of material resources and social connections because ethnic Poles diligently and persistently excluded them from Polish society.<a href="#cite_note-Bikont:_Na_każdym_kroku-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nazi_persecution_and_elimination_of_ghettos">Nazi persecution and elimination of ghettos</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003,_Warschau,_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="514" /></a><figcaption>Starving Jewish children in the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a> (1940–1943), during the German occupation of Poland</figcaption></figure> Persecution of the Jews by the Nazi occupation government, particularly in the urban areas, began immediately after the commencement of the occupation. In the first year and a half, the Germans confined themselves to stripping the Jews of their property, herding them into ghettos (approximately 400 were established beginning in October 1939) and putting them into forced labor in war-related industries.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_107-112-167">[167]</a> Thousands of Jews survived by managing to stay outside the ghettos.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_309-311-50">[50]</a> During this period, a Jewish so-called community leadership, the <a href="/wiki/Judenrat" title="Judenrat">Judenrat</a>, was required by the Germans in every town with a substantial Jewish population and was able to some extent to bargain with the Germans.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_107-112-167">[167]</a> Already during this initial stage tens of thousands of Jews died because of factors such as overcrowding, disease and starvation.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_358-364-168">[168]</a> Others survived, supported by the Jewish social self-help agency and the informal trading and smuggling of food and necessities into the ghettos.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_294-298-169">[169]</a> The ghettos were eliminated when their inhabitants were shipped to slave labor and extermination camps. The <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź Ghetto</a>, one of the largest and most isolated, lasted also the longest (from April 1940 until August 1944), because goods were manufactured there for the Nazi war economy.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_298-303-170">[170]</a> The deportations from the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a> began in July 1942. They were facilitated by collaborators, such as the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Ghetto_Police" title="Jewish Ghetto Police">Jewish police</a>, and opposed by the resistance, including the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Combat_Organization" title="Jewish Combat Organization">Jewish Combat Organization</a> (ŻOB).<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_303-306-171">[171]</a> An estimated 500,000 Jews died in the ghettos, and a further 250,000 were murdered during their elimination.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569-48">[48]</a> While many Jews reacted to their fate with disbelief and passivity, revolts did take place, including at the <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sobib%C3%B3r_extermination_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Sobibór extermination camp">Sobibór</a> camps and at a number of ghettos. The leftist ŻOB was established in the Warsaw Ghetto in July 1942 and was soon commanded by <a href="/wiki/Mordechai_Anielewicz" title="Mordechai Anielewicz">Mordechai Anielewicz</a>. As the final liquidation of the remaining ghetto population was commenced by the Nazis on 19 April 1943, hundreds of Jewish fighters revolted. The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a> lasted until May 16 and resulted in thousands of Jews killed and tens of thousands transported to Treblinka. The <a href="/wiki/Home_Army" title="Home Army">Polish underground</a> and some Warsaw residents assisted the ghetto fighters.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_306-313-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extermination_of_Jews">Extermination of Jews</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Auschwitz_I_Entrance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Auschwitz_I_Entrance.jpg/220px-Auschwitz_I_Entrance.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Auschwitz_I_Entrance.jpg/330px-Auschwitz_I_Entrance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Auschwitz_I_Entrance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="653" /></a><figcaption>The entrance to the <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz I concentration camp</a>, established by Nazi Germany in Poland</figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">German attack on the Soviet Union</a> in June 1941, special extermination squads (the <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a>) were organised to kill Jews in the areas of eastern Poland which had been annexed by the Soviets in 1939.<a href="#cite_note-Overy_300-301-173">[173]</a> The Nazi anti-Jewish persecutions assumed the characteristics and proportions of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, and, from the fall of 1941, of the organized <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_358-364-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mędykowski_Warszawski_Pogromy-70">[70]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno extermination camp</a> near <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a> was put into operation first. Beginning on 8 December 1941, at least 150,000 Jews were murdered there.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_606–609-174">[174]</a> About two million Jews were killed after the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, mostly by the Germans, in areas where Soviet presence was replaced with the Nazi occupation. Especially in the early weeks of the German offensive, many thousands of Jews were murdered by members of local communities in the western parts of the previous Soviet zone, such as the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic countries</a>, eastern Poland, and western <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a>, encouraged by the Germans, were sometimes perpetrated primarily or exclusively by the locals, including Lithuanians, Belarusians, Ukrainians and Poles.<a href="#cite_note-Mędykowski_Warszawski_Pogromy-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_291-294-175">[175]</a> In 1942, the Germans engaged in the systematic killing of the Jews, beginning with the Jewish population of the General Government. The General Government had the largest in Europe population of Jews and was designated to be the primary location of Nazi installations for the elimination of Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_167-168-49">[49]</a> Six <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a> (<a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Be%C5%82%C5%BCec_extermination_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Bełżec extermination camp">Bełżec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sobib%C3%B3r_extermination_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Sobibór extermination camp">Sobibór</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a>) were established in which the most extreme measure of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>, the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">mass murder of millions of Jews from Poland and other countries</a>, was carried out between 1942 and 1945.<a href="#cite_note-Overy_300-301-173">[173]</a> Nearly three million Polish Jews were murdered, most in death camps during the so-called <a href="/wiki/Operation_Reinhard" title="Operation Reinhard">Operation Reinhard</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_298-303-170">[170]</a> Prisoners of many nationalities were kept at Auschwitz and parts of the complex were used as a brutal and deadly labor camp, but about 80% of the arriving Jews were murdered upon arrival (some 900,000 people). Auschwitz, unlike Treblinka or Bełżec, was not solely a death camp, but it likely had the highest number of Jewish victims.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_358-364-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_327-328-176">[176]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_knone">[k]</a> Of Poland's prewar Jewish population of about or above three million, about or above 10% survived the war.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_606–609-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_260–261-177">[177]</a> Davies wrote of some 150,000 Jews surviving the war in Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_358-364-168">[168]</a> Between 50,000 and 100,000 survived in hiding helped by other Poles according to Kochanski, between 30,000 and 60,000 according to Sowa. <a href="/wiki/Konstanty_Gebert" title="Konstanty Gebert">Dawid Warszawski</a> wrote of estimated 50,000 Jews surviving in Poland, a majority of them in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">camps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Warszawski_Morawiecki-178">[178]</a> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Jan_Grabowski_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Grabowski (historian)">Jan Grabowski</a>, about 35,000 Polish Jews survived the war in Poland, but he counts the Jewish deaths caused directly or indirectly by ethnic Poles in hundreds of thousands (victims of the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Police" title="Blue Police">Blue Police</a> and of civilians). About 250,000 Jews escaped German-occupied Poland and went mostly to the Soviet Union. At Treblinka (a site that, together with Auschwitz, produced the highest number of Jewish victims) and other extermination locations, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a> ordered measures intended to conceal the Nazi crimes and prevent their future detection.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_298-303-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_606–609-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grabowski_Aderet_Haaretz-179">[179]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani people</a> were also marked by the Nazis for immediate elimination. Of the 80,000 Romani living in Poland, 30,000 survived the German occupation.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_606–609-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Efforts_to_save_Jews">Efforts to save Jews</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust</a></div> Some Poles tried to save Jews. In September 1942, the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Committee_to_Aid_Jews" title="Provisional Committee to Aid Jews">Provisional Committee to Aid Jews</a> (Tymczasowy Komitet Pomocy Żydom) was founded on the initiative of <a href="/wiki/Zofia_Kossak-Szczucka" title="Zofia Kossak-Szczucka">Zofia Kossak-Szczucka</a>. This body later became the council to Aid Jews (Rada Pomocy Żydom), known by the code-name <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBegota" title="Żegota">Żegota</a> and under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Government_Delegation_for_Poland" title="Government Delegation for Poland">Government Delegation for Poland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">[55]</a> Żegota is particularly noted for its children-saving operation led by <a href="/wiki/Irena_Sendler" title="Irena Sendler">Irena Sendler</a>. Jewish children were smuggled out of the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a> before the ghetto was eliminated and thus saved.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_374-180">[180]</a> (See also an example of the village that helped Jews: <a href="/wiki/Markowa" title="Markowa">Markowa</a>). Because of such actions, Polish citizens have the highest number of <a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a> awards at the <a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a> Museum.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Thousands of Jews were saved with the help of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church">Greek Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" title="Metropolitan bishop">Metropolitan</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Sheptytsky" title="Andrey Sheptytsky">Andrey Sheptytsky</a> in western Ukraine.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_376-377-51">[51]</a> Helping Jews was extremely dangerous because people involved exposed themselves and their families to Nazi punishment by death. The official policies of the Polish Government-in-Exile and the Polish Underground State called for providing assistance to the Jews. However, they reacted to tragic events with delays and were hampered by what General <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Rowecki" title="Stefan Rowecki">Stefan Rowecki</a>, chief of the armed underground, characterized as overwhelmingly antisemitic attitudes of Polish society. Gangs and individuals denounced Jews and preyed on Jewish victims. Right-wing organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Radical_Camp_(1934)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Radical Camp (1934)">National Radical Camp</a> (ONR) and the <a href="/wiki/National_Armed_Forces" title="National Armed Forces">National Armed Forces</a> (NSZ), remained virulently antisemitic throughout the occupation period.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_313-324-182">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Polish-Ukrainian_conflict">Polish-Ukrainian conflict</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div> The bloody ethnic conflict exploded during World War II in areas of today's western <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, inhabited at that time by <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Polish minority</a> (and until recently by <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, most of whom had been killed by the Nazis before 1943).<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_351-352-183">[183]</a> The Ukrainians blamed the Poles for preventing the emergence of their national state as a result of the outcomes of their <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">conflict at the end of World War I</a> and for Poland's nationality policies (such as military colonization in <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a>). Ukraininan partisans therefore undertook a campaign of terror during the interwar years, led by the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Ukrainian_Nationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists">Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists</a> (OUN). Under Piłsudski and his successors the Polish state authorities responded with harsh pacification measures. The events that unfolded in the 1940s were a legacy of this bitterness and also a result of other factors, such as the activities of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_27-32-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_34-37-184">[184]</a> Ukrainians, generally assigned by the Nazis the same inferior status as Poles, in many practical respects received more favorable treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_103-107-185">[185]</a> However, the Germans thwarted the Ukrainian attempts to establish a Ukrainian state, imprisoned Ukrainian leaders, and split the occupied lands that Ukrainians considered theirs into two administrative units. Following the Soviet victory at Stalingrad, the Ukrainian nationalists feared a repeat of the post-<a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> scenario: a power vacuum left by the exhausted great powers and a Polish armed takeover of western Ukraine. Aiming for a country without any Poles or Polish interests left, the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Ukrainian Insurgent Army</a> (UPA) undertook to create an ethnically homogenous Ukrainian society by physically eliminating the Poles. The German occupiers, whose long-standing policy was to aggravate further the Polish-Ukrainian enmity, for the most part, did not intervene in the resulting campaigns of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_351-352-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_359-363-186">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lipniki_massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lipniki_massacre.jpg/220px-Lipniki_massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lipniki_massacre.jpg/330px-Lipniki_massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lipniki_massacre.jpg/440px-Lipniki_massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption>Victims of a massacre committed by the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">UPA</a> in the village of Lipniki in <a href="/wiki/Wo%C5%82y%C5%84_Voivodeship_(1921%E2%80%931939)" title="Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–1939)">Volhynia</a>, 1943</figcaption></figure> The wartime Polish-Ukrainian conflict commenced with the <a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">massacres of Poles in Volhynia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Rzeź wołyńska, literally: Volhynian slaughter), a campaign of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">mass murder</a> in western <a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ukraine" title="Reichskommissariat Ukraine">Reichskommissariat Ukraine</a>, which was the Polish <a href="/wiki/Wo%C5%82y%C5%84_Voivodeship_(1921%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–39)">Volhynian Voivodeship</a> before the war. The entire conflict took place mainly between late March 1943 and August 1947, extending beyond World War II.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> The actions, orchestrated and conducted largely by the UPA together with other Ukrainian groups and local Ukrainian peasants in three former Polish provinces (<a href="/wiki/Voivodeship" title="Voivodeship">voivodeships</a>), resulted in between 50,000 and 60,000 <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Polish civilians</a> killed in <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a> alone. Other major regions of the slaughter of Poles were eastern <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a> (20,000–25,000 killed) and southeastern <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a> province (4,000–5,000 killed).<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_601–606-69">[69]</a> The peak of the massacres took place in July and August 1943, when <a href="/wiki/Dmytro_Klyachkivsky" title="Dmytro Klyachkivsky">Dmytro Klyachkivsky</a>, a senior UPA commander, ordered the extermination of the entire ethnically Polish population between 16 and 60 years of age.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Hundreds of thousands of Poles fled the affected areas.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_601–606-69">[69]</a> The massacres committed by the UPA led to ethnic cleansing and retaliatory killings by Poles against local Ukrainians both east and west of the <a href="/wiki/Curzon_Line" title="Curzon Line">Curzon Line</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_637–640-121">[121]</a> Estimates of the number of Ukrainians killed in Polish reprisals vary from 10,000 to 20,000 in all areas affected by the conflict.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Ukrainian historians give higher numbers for the Ukrainian losses.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_601–606-69">[69]</a> The reprisal killings were committed by the <a href="/wiki/Home_Army" title="Home Army">Home Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bataliony_Ch%C5%82opskie" class="mw-redirect" title="Bataliony Chłopskie">Bataliony Chłopskie</a>, and Polish self-defense units.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_637–640-121">[121]</a> They were restrained from mounting indiscriminate attacks by the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Government-in-Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Government-in-Exile">Polish Government-in-Exile</a>, whose goal was to retake and govern western Ukraine after the war.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_359-363-186">[186]</a> As a result of the fierce fighting that took place in May and June 1944, a Polish-Ukrainian front had been established along the Huczwa River with several thousand participants on each side; it ceased to exist only with the arrival of the Soviet Army.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_637–640-121">[121]</a> The ethnic cleansing and securing ethnic homogeneity reached its full scale with the post-war Soviet and Polish communist removal of the Polish and Ukrainian populations to the respective sides of the Poland-<a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Soviet Ukraine</a> border and the implementation of the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Vistula" title="Operation Vistula">Operation Vistula</a>, the dispersing of Ukrainians still remaining in Poland in remote regions of the country. Due in part to the successive occupations of the region, ethnic Poles and Ukrainians were brutally pitted against each other, first under the German occupation, and later under the Soviet occupation. Tens or hundreds of thousands on both sides (estimates differ widely) lost their lives over the course of this conflict.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1034-1035-52">[52]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Volyn_tragedy" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Volyn tragedy">Historiography of the Volyn tragedy</a>; <a href="/wiki/Janowa_Dolina_massacre" title="Janowa Dolina massacre">Janowa Dolina massacre</a>; <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Ostr%C3%B3wki" class="mw-redirect" title="Massacre of Ostrówki">Massacre of Ostrówki</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pavlivka,_Volyn_Oblast" title="Pavlivka, Volyn Oblast">Pavlivka, Volyn Oblast</a>; <a href="/wiki/Przebra%C5%BCe_Defence" class="mw-redirect" title="Przebraże Defence">Przebraże Defence</a>; and <a href="/wiki/27th_Home_Army_Infantry_Division_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="27th Home Army Infantry Division (Poland)">27th Home Army Infantry Division (Poland)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government-in-Exile,_communist_victory">Government-in-Exile, communist victory</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile" title="Polish government-in-exile">Polish government-in-exile</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_West" title="Polish Armed Forces in the West">Polish Armed Forces in the West</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_East" title="Polish Armed Forces in the East">Polish Armed Forces in the East</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polish_government_in_France_and_Britain">Polish government in France and Britain</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wladyslaw_Sikorski_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wladyslaw_Sikorski_2.jpg/220px-Wladyslaw_Sikorski_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wladyslaw_Sikorski_2.jpg/330px-Wladyslaw_Sikorski_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wladyslaw_Sikorski_2.jpg/440px-Wladyslaw_Sikorski_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3569" data-file-height="4404" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Sikorski" title="Władysław Sikorski">Władysław Sikorski</a></figcaption></figure> Because of the Polish government leaders' internment in Romania, a practically new government was assembled in Paris as a <a href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile" title="Polish government-in-exile">Government-in-Exile</a>. Under French pressure, on 30 September 1939 <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Raczkiewicz" title="Władysław Raczkiewicz">Władysław Raczkiewicz</a> was appointed as president and General <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Sikorski" title="Władysław Sikorski">Władysław Sikorski</a> became prime minister and commander-in-chief of the Polish armed forces, reconstructed in the West and as an underground activity in occupied Poland. The exile government was authorized by the <a href="/wiki/Sanation" title="Sanation">Sanation</a> government leaders interned in Romania and was conceived as a continuation of the prewar government, but was beset by strong tensions between the sympathizers of the Sanation regime, led by President Raczkiewicz and General <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Sosnkowski" title="Kazimierz Sosnkowski">Kazimierz Sosnkowski</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Front_Morges" title="Front Morges">anti-Sanation opposition</a>, led by Prime Minister Sikorski, General <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Haller" title="Józef Haller">Józef Haller</a>, and politicians from the Polish parties persecuted in the past in Sanation Poland. The 1935 <a href="/wiki/April_Constitution_of_Poland" title="April Constitution of Poland">April Constitution of Poland</a>, previously rejected by the opposition as illegitimate, was retained for the sake of continuity of the national government. President Raczkiewicz agreed not to use his extraordinary powers, granted by that constitution, except in agreement with the prime minister. There were calls for a war tribunal prosecution of the top leaders deemed responsible for the 1939 defeat. Sikorski blocked such attempts, but allowed forms of persecution of many exiles, <a href="/wiki/Pi%C5%82sudskiite" title="Piłsudskiite">people seen as compromised</a> by their past role in Poland's ruling circles.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_255–256-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_198-201-130">[130]</a> A quasi-parliamentary and advisory <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Poland" title="National Council of Poland">National Council</a> was established in December 1939. It was chaired by the Polish senior statesman <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski" title="Ignacy Jan Paderewski">Ignacy Paderewski</a>. The vice-chairmen were <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Miko%C5%82ajczyk" title="Stanisław Mikołajczyk">Stanisław Mikołajczyk</a>, a <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(Poland)" title="People's Party (Poland)">peasant movement</a> leader, <a href="/wiki/Herman_Lieberman" title="Herman Lieberman">Herman Lieberman</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Polish_Socialist_Party" title="Polish Socialist Party">socialist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Bielecki" title="Tadeusz Bielecki">Tadeusz Bielecki</a>, a <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(Poland)" title="National Party (Poland)">nationalist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_255–256-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_198-201-130">[130]</a> The war was expected to end soon in an Allied victory and the government's goal was to reestablish the Polish state in pre-1939 borders, augmented by <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Danzig</a>, and the planned significant adjustments of the western border, all to be obtained at the expense of Germany. The government considered Poland to be in a state of war with Germany, but not with the Soviet Union, the relationship with which was not clearly specified.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_fnone">[f]</a> The eastern border problem placed the Polish government on a collision course not only with the Soviets but also with the Western Allies, whose many politicians, including <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, kept thinking of Poland's proper eastern boundary in terms of the "<a href="/wiki/Curzon_Line" title="Curzon Line">Curzon Line</a>". The exile government in Paris was recognized by France, Britain, and many other countries and was highly popular in occupied Poland. By the spring of 1940, an 82,000 strong army was mobilized in France and elsewhere. Polish soldiers and ships fought in the <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwegian Campaign">Norwegian Campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_198-201-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_212-214-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_512–521-191">[191]</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">France was invaded and defeated by Germany</a>. The Polish Army units, dispersed and attached to various French formations, fought in the defense of France and covered the French retreat, losing 1,400 men. On 18 June 1940, Sikorski went to England and made arrangements for the evacuation of the Polish government and armed forces to the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>. Only 19,000 soldiers and airmen could be evacuated, which amounted to less than a quarter of the Polish military personnel established in France.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_512–521-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_214-219-192">[192]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_hnone">[h]</a> The infighting within the exile government circles continued. On July 18 President Raczkiewicz dismissed Prime Minister Sikorski because of the disagreements concerning possible cooperation with the Soviet Union. Sikorski's supporters in the Polish military and the British government intervened and Sikorski was reinstated, but the internal conflict among the Polish <a href="/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9" title="Émigré">émigrés</a> intensified.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_202-204-134">[134]</a> Polish pilots became famous because of their <a href="/wiki/No._303_Polish_Fighter_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron">exceptional contributions</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_219-221-193">[193]</a> Polish sailors, on Polish and British ships, served with distinction in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_202-204-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_231-234-194">[194]</a> Polish soldiers participated in the <a href="/wiki/North_African_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="North African Campaign">North African Campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_221-224-195">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polish_Army's_evacuation_from_the_Soviet_Union">Polish Army's evacuation from the Soviet Union</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Z_niewoli.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Z_niewoli.JPG/220px-Z_niewoli.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Z_niewoli.JPG/330px-Z_niewoli.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Z_niewoli.JPG/440px-Z_niewoli.JPG 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="924" /></a><figcaption>Polish volunteers to <a href="/wiki/Anders%27_Army" title="Anders' Army">Anders' Army</a>, released from a Soviet POW camp</figcaption></figure> After <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Germany attacked the Soviet Union</a> on 22 June 1941, the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_Agreement" title="Anglo-Soviet Agreement">British government allied itself with the Soviet Union</a> on 12 July and Churchill pressed Sikorski to also reach an agreement with the Soviets.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_204-207-196">[196]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sikorski%E2%80%93Mayski_agreement" title="Sikorski–Mayski agreement">Sikorski–Mayski treaty</a> was signed on 30 July despite strong resistance from Sikorski's opponents in the exile government (three cabinet ministers resigned, including Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/August_Zaleski" title="August Zaleski">August Zaleski</a> and General Sosnkowski) and Polish-Soviet diplomatic relations were restored.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_521–535-124">[124]</a> The territorial aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> had been invalidated. Polish soldiers and others imprisoned in the Soviet Union since 1939 were released and the formation of a Polish army there was agreed, intended to fight on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>, help the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> to liberate Poland and establish a sovereign Polish state. Other issues, including Poland's borders, were left to be determined in the future. A Polish-Soviet military agreement was signed on 14 August; it attempted to specify the political and operational conditions for the functioning of the Polish army.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_163-170-197">[197]</a> Sikorski's preference, stated around 1 September, was for the Polish army to be deployed in defense of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> oil fields, which would allow it to maintain close contacts with the British forces.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_170-173-198">[198]</a> To resolve the various problems that surfaced during the recruitment and training of the Polish divisions and concerning their planned use, Sikorski went to the Soviet Union, where he negotiated with Stalin. The two leaders announced a common declaration "of friendship and mutual assistance" on 4 December 1941.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_182-187-199">[199]</a> But political and practical difficulties continued; for example the Soviets were unable or unwilling to properly feed and supply the Poles. Ultimately, with British help, the chief of the Polish army in the Soviet Union <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Anders" title="Władysław Anders">Władysław Anders</a> and Sikorski obtained Stalin's permission to move the force to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_190-193-200">[200]</a> According to one source, 78,631 Polish soldiers and tens of thousands of civilians left the Soviet Union and went to <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> in the spring and summer of 1942.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_312–322-201">[201]</a> The majority of General Anders' men formed the <a href="/wiki/II_Corps_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="II Corps (Poland)">II Corps</a> in the Middle East, from where the corps was transported to <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> in early 1944, to participate in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a>. Its 60,000 soldiers grew to 100,000 by mid-1945. Overall, the Polish soldiers were taken from where they conceivably could have had enhanced the faltering standing of the Polish Government-in-Exile and influenced the post-war fate of Poland, to where, as it turned out, they could not.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_204-207-196">[196]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_gnone">[g]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_shadow_of_Soviet_offensive,_death_of_Prime_Minister_Sikorski">In the shadow of Soviet offensive, death of Prime Minister Sikorski</h3></div> As the Soviet forces began their westward offensive with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">victory at Stalingrad</a>, it had become increasingly apparent that Stalin's vision of a future Poland and of its borders was fundamentally different from that of the Polish government in London and the Polish Underground State; the Polish-Soviet relations kept deteriorating. <a href="/wiki/Communism_in_Poland" title="Communism in Poland">Polish communist</a> institutions rival to those of the main national independence and pro-Western movement were established in Poland in January 1942 (the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Workers%27_Party" title="Polish Workers' Party">Polish Workers' Party</a>) and in the Soviet Union (the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Polish_Patriots" title="Union of Polish Patriots">Union of Polish Patriots</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213-202">[202]</a> Early in 1943, the Polish communists (their delegation led by <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Gomu%C5%82ka" title="Władysław Gomułka">Władysław Gomułka</a>) engaged in Warsaw in negotiations with the <a href="/wiki/Government_Delegation_for_Poland" title="Government Delegation for Poland">Delegation</a> of the Government-in-Exile, but no common understanding was arrived at and the Delegation terminated the talks after the Soviet-Polish breach in diplomatic relations caused by the dispute concerning the <a href="/wiki/Katyn_massacre" title="Katyn massacre">Katyn massacre</a>. The Polish Workers' Party formulated its separate program and from November was officially under Gomułka's leadership.<a href="#cite_note-Eisler_Siedmiu_178–185-203">[203]</a> On the initiative of the Union of Polish Patriots, presided by <a href="/wiki/Wanda_Wasilewska" title="Wanda Wasilewska">Wanda Wasilewska</a>, in the spring of 1943 the Soviets began recruiting for a <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_East#Berling_Army:_1943-1945" title="Polish Armed Forces in the East">leftist Polish army</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Berling" title="Zygmunt Berling">Zygmunt Berling</a>, a Polish Army colonel, to replace the "treacherous" Anders' army that left. The <a href="/wiki/Polish_1st_Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division">Kościuszko Division</a> was rushed to its first military engagement and fought at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lenino" title="Battle of Lenino">Battle of Lenino</a> on 12–13 October. The Soviet-based communist faction, organized around the <a href="/wiki/Central_Bureau_Communists_of_Poland" title="Central Bureau Communists of Poland">Central Bureau Communists of Poland</a> (activated January 1944), directed by such future <a href="/wiki/Stalinism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalinism in Poland">Stalinist Poland's</a> ruling personalities as <a href="/wiki/Jakub_Berman" title="Jakub Berman">Jakub Berman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Minc" title="Hilary Minc">Hilary Minc</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Zambrowski" title="Roman Zambrowski">Roman Zambrowski</a>, was increasingly influential. They also had a prevailing sway on the formation of Berling's <a href="/wiki/First_Polish_Army_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="First Polish Army (1944–1945)">First Polish Army</a> in 1943–44.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_376-383-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213-202">[202]</a> In April 1943, the Germans discovered the graves of 4,000 or more Polish officers at <a href="/wiki/Katyn_(rural_locality)" title="Katyn (rural locality)">Katyn</a> near <a href="/wiki/Smolensk" title="Smolensk">Smolensk</a>. The Polish government, suspecting the Soviets to be the perpetrators of an atrocity, requested the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">Red Cross</a> to investigate. The Soviets denied involvement and the request was soon withdrawn by Sikorski under British and American pressure, but Stalin reacted by "suspending" diplomatic relations with the Polish Government-in-Exile on 25 April. The Katyn massacre information was suppressed during and after the war by the British, to whom the revelation was an embarrassment and presented a political difficulty.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_338-344-204">[204]</a> Prime Minister Sikorski, the most prominent of the Polish exile leaders, was <a href="/wiki/1943_Gibraltar_B-24_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="1943 Gibraltar B-24 crash">killed in an air crash</a> near <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> on 4 July 1943. Sikorski was succeeded as head of the Government-in-Exile by Stanisław Mikołajczyk and by Kazimierz Sosnkowski as the top military chief. Sikorski had been willing to work closely with Churchill, including on the issue of cooperation with the Soviets. The prime minister believed that Poland's strategic and economic weaknesses would be eliminated by a takeover of German East Prussia, Pomerania and Silesia and that Polish territorial concessions in the east were feasible. On the other hand, Sikorski was credited with preventing the Soviet territorial demands from being granted in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_Treaty_of_1942" title="Anglo-Soviet Treaty of 1942">Anglo-Soviet Treaty of 1942</a>. After his death, the Polish government's position within the Allied coalition deteriorated further and the body splintered into quarreling factions.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_182-183-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_325-333-206">[206]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_of_Government-in-Exile">Decline of Government-in-Exile</h3></div> At the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Conference_(1943)" title="Moscow Conference (1943)">Moscow Conference</a> of foreign ministers of the three Allied great powers (October 1943), at the request of the Polish government borders were not discussed, but US President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> had already expressed his support for Britain's approval of the <a href="/wiki/Curzon_Line" title="Curzon Line">Curzon Line</a> as the future Polish-Soviet boundary. The powers represented divided Europe into spheres of influence and Poland was placed within the Soviet sphere. The Poles were also disappointed by a lack of progress regarding the resumption of Polish-Soviet diplomatic ties, an urgent issue, because the Soviet armies were moving toward Poland's 1939 frontiers.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_349-354-207">[207]</a> In November–December 1943, the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a> of the Allied leaders took place. President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill agreed with Stalin on the issue of using the Curzon Line as the basis of Poland's new eastern border and on compensating Poland with lands taken from Germany. The strategic war alliance with the Soviets inevitably outweighed the Western loyalty toward the Polish government and people. The Poles were not consulted or properly informed of the three Allied leaders' decisions.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_354-357-208">[208]</a> With the Western Allies stalling a serious offensive undertaking from the west,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_jnone">[j]</a> it was clear that it would be the Soviet Union who would enter Poland and drive off Nazi Germans. The Soviet offensive aimed at taking the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> basin commenced in January 1944.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1036-1039-209">[209]</a> Churchill applied pressure to Prime Minister Mikołajczyk, demanding accommodation with the Soviets, including on the issue of the borders. As the Red Army was marching into Poland defeating the Nazis, Stalin toughened his stance against the Polish Government-in-Exile, wanting not only the recognition of the proposed frontiers, but also a resignation from the government of all elements 'hostile to the Soviet Union', which meant President Raczkiewicz, armed forces commander Sosnkowski, and other ministers.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a> The Underground State governing structures were formed by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(Poland)" title="People's Party (Poland)">Peasant Alliance</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Socialist_Party" title="Polish Socialist Party">Socialist Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(Poland)" title="National Party (Poland)">National Alliance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Faction_(1937)" title="Labour Faction (1937)">Labour Alliance</a>. They acted as rivals in a fragile coalition, each defining its own identity and posturing for the expected post-war contest for power. The Polish government in London was losing its already weak influence on the views of the British and American governments.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_285-290-140">[140]</a> The British and Soviet demands on the exile government were made in January 1944, in the context of a possible renewal of Polish-Soviet diplomatic relations and, contingent on the Polish agreement, a Soviet consent for an independent, presumably "<a href="/wiki/Finlandization" title="Finlandization">Finlandized</a>" Polish state. Following a refusal to accept the conditions by the Polish government, the Soviets engaged in supporting only the leftist government structures they were in process of facilitating, allowing contacts with Mikołajczyk, but already within the framework of communist control.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_364–374-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_445-454-211">[211]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_qnone">[q]</a> In the aftermath of the controversial visit of <a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Oskar R. Lange</a> to the Soviet Union, the <a href="/wiki/Polish_American_Congress" title="Polish American Congress">Polish American Congress</a> was established in the US in May 1944; among the organization's goals was the promotion of interests of independent Poland before the <a href="/wiki/US_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="US Government">US Government</a>. Mikołajczyk visited the US in June and on several occasions met with President Roosevelt, who urged him to travel to Moscow and talk to the Soviet leaders directly. Mikołajczyk, subsequently engaged in negotiations with Stalin and the emerging Polish communist government (<a href="/wiki/PKWN" class="mw-redirect" title="PKWN">PKWN</a>), eventually resigned his post and <a href="/wiki/Tomasz_Arciszewski" title="Tomasz Arciszewski">Tomasz Arciszewski</a> became the new prime minister in exile in November 1944.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_445-454-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_439-445-212">[212]</a> Mikołajczyk's disagreements with his coalition partners (he was unable to convince the ministers that restoration of the prewar eastern border of Poland was no longer feasible and further compromises were necessary) and his departure created a vacuum, because the British and the Americans were practically unwilling to deal with the Polish government that followed.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_499-515-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_364–374-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_456-460-213">[213]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_onone">[o]</a> In 1944, the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_West" title="Polish Armed Forces in the West">Polish forces in the West</a> were making <a href="/wiki/Polish_contribution_to_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish contribution to World War II">a substantial contribution to the war</a>. In May, participating in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a>, the <a href="/wiki/II_Corps_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="II Corps (Poland)">Second Corps</a> under General Anders <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">stormed the fortress</a> of <a href="/wiki/Monte_Cassino" title="Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> and opened a road to Rome. In the summer and fall, the corps participated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ancona" title="Battle of Ancona">Battle of Ancona</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a> offensive, finishing the campaign with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bologna" title="Battle of Bologna">Battle of Bologna</a> in April 1945.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_472-480-214">[214]</a> In August 1944, after the <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</a>, General <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Maczek" title="Stanisław Maczek">Stanisław Maczek</a>'s <a href="/wiki/1st_Armoured_Division_(Poland)" title="1st Armoured Division (Poland)">1st Armoured Division</a> distinguished itself at the <a href="/wiki/Falaise_Pocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Falaise Pocket">Battle of Falaise</a>. After fighting the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chambois" title="Battle of Chambois">Battle of Chambois</a> and defending <a href="/wiki/Hill_262" title="Hill 262">Hill 262</a>, the division crossed into <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, where it took <a href="/wiki/Ypres" title="Ypres">Ypres</a>. In October, heavy fighting by its units helped secure <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> and resulted in the taking of the Dutch city of <a href="/wiki/Breda" title="Breda">Breda</a>. In April 1945 the division concluded its combat in Germany, where it occupied <a href="/wiki/Wilhelmshaven" title="Wilhelmshaven">Wilhelmshaven</a> and liberated a <a href="/wiki/Stalag_VI-C" title="Stalag VI-C">war prisoner camp</a> that held many Polish female <a href="/wiki/POW" class="mw-redirect" title="POW">POWs</a>, captured by the Nazis after the Warsaw Uprising.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_480-486-215">[215]</a> In September General <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Sosabowski" title="Stanisław Sosabowski">Stanisław Sosabowski</a>'s <a href="/wiki/1st_Independent_Parachute_Brigade_(Poland)" title="1st Independent Parachute Brigade (Poland)">Parachute Brigade</a> fought hard at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arnhem" title="Battle of Arnhem">Battle of Arnhem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_486-495-216">[216]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Polish_Air_Forces_in_France_and_Great_Britain" title="Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain">Polish Air Force</a>, comprising 15 warplane squadrons and 10,000 pilots, fully participated in the Western offensive, as did the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Navy#World_War_II" title="Polish Navy">Polish Navy</a> ships.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_535–548-217">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_and_Polish-communist_victory">Soviet and Polish-communist victory</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Destroyed_Warsaw,_capital_of_Poland,_January_1945_-_version_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Destroyed_Warsaw%2C_capital_of_Poland%2C_January_1945_-_version_2.jpg/200px-Destroyed_Warsaw%2C_capital_of_Poland%2C_January_1945_-_version_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Destroyed_Warsaw%2C_capital_of_Poland%2C_January_1945_-_version_2.jpg/300px-Destroyed_Warsaw%2C_capital_of_Poland%2C_January_1945_-_version_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Destroyed_Warsaw%2C_capital_of_Poland%2C_January_1945_-_version_2.jpg/400px-Destroyed_Warsaw%2C_capital_of_Poland%2C_January_1945_-_version_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>January 1945 aerial photo of destroyed <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Bug_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Bug River">Bug River</a> was crossed by the Soviets (<a href="/wiki/1st_Belorussian_Front" title="1st Belorussian Front">1st Belorussian Front</a>) on 19 July 1944 and their commander <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Rokossovsky" title="Konstantin Rokossovsky">Konstantin Rokossovsky</a> headed for Warsaw, together with the allied Polish forces. As they approached the Polish capital, German <a href="/wiki/Panzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Panzer">panzer</a> divisions counterattacked, while the Poles commenced the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a>. After the German attack was brought under control, Rokossovsky informed Stalin on 8 August that his forces would be ready to engage in an offensive against the Germans in Warsaw around 25 August, but received no reply. The Soviets secured their <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> bridgeheads, and, with the First Polish Army, established control over the <a href="/wiki/Praga" title="Praga">Praga</a> east-bank districts of Warsaw.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_znone">[z]</a> The situation on the ground, combined with political and strategic considerations, resulted in the Soviet decision to pause at the Vistula for the remainder of 1944.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_402-426-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_115-116-218">[218]</a> The Government-in-Exile in London was determined that the <a href="/wiki/Home_Army" title="Home Army">Home Army</a> would cooperate with the advancing Red Army on a tactical level, as Polish civil authorities from the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Underground_State" title="Polish Underground State">Underground State</a> took power in Allied-controlled Polish territory, to ensure that Poland remained an independent country after the war. However, the failure of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Operation Tempest</a> and the Warsaw Uprising laid the country open to the establishment of communist rule and Soviet domination. The Soviets performed arrests, executions and deportations of the Home Army and Underground State members, although AK partisans were generally encouraged to join the communist-led Polish armies.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_426-433-220">[220]</a> In January 1945, Soviet and allied Polish armies undertook a <a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Vistula–Oder Offensive">massive offensive</a>, aiming at the liberation of Poland and the defeat of Nazi Germany. Marshal <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Konev" title="Ivan Konev">Ivan Konev</a>'s <a href="/wiki/1st_Ukrainian_Front" title="1st Ukrainian Front">1st Ukrainian Front</a> broke out of its <a href="/wiki/Sandomierz" title="Sandomierz">Sandomierz</a> Vistula bridgehead on 11 January and rapidly moved west, taking <a href="/wiki/Radom" title="Radom">Radom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa" title="Częstochowa">Częstochowa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kielce" title="Kielce">Kielce</a> on 16 January. <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> was liberated on 18 January, a day after <a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a> and the German administration fled the city. Marshal Konev's forces then advanced toward <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a>, freeing the remaining survivors of the <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz concentration camp</a> on 27 January. In early February, the 1st Ukrainian Front reached the <a href="/wiki/Oder" title="Oder">Oder River</a> in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Breslau</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_515-520-221">[221]</a> North of the Ukrainian Front, the 1st Belorussian Front under Marshal <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Zhukov" title="Georgy Zhukov">Georgy Zhukov</a> went to the Oder along the <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a> route. Still further north operated the <a href="/wiki/2nd_Belorussian_Front" title="2nd Belorussian Front">2nd Belorussian Front</a> commanded by Marshal <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Rokossovsky" title="Konstantin Rokossovsky">Konstantin Rokossovsky</a>. The First Polish Army fought on the 1st and 2nd Belorussian Fronts. It entered the rubble of Warsaw on 17 January, formally liberating the city. Poznań was taken by Soviet formations after a bloody battle. In the context of the westbound offensive but also to support the <a href="/wiki/East_Prussian_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="East Prussian Offensive">clearing of East Prussia</a> and the forces engaged in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Battle of Königsberg">Battle of Königsberg</a>, the First Polish Army was directed northwards to the <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomeranian</a> region, where its drive began at the end of January.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_515-520-221">[221]</a> The heaviest battles fought by the Poles included the breaching of the <a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_Wall" title="Pomeranian Wall">Pomeranian Wall</a>, accomplished by the badly battered First Polish Army and the Soviets on 5 February, during their <a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian Offensive">East Pomeranian Offensive</a>. The Poles, commanded by General <a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Poplavsky" title="Stanislav Poplavsky">Stanisław Popławski</a>, then led the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolberg_(1945)" title="Battle of Kolberg (1945)">assault on Kolberg</a>, completed on 18 March. <a href="/wiki/Gdynia" title="Gdynia">Gdynia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Danzig" class="mw-redirect" title="Danzig">Danzig</a> were taken over by the 2nd Belorussian Front by the end of March, with the participation of the Polish <a href="/wiki/1st_Armoured_Brigade_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="1st Armoured Brigade (Poland)">1st Armoured Brigade</a>. The First Polish Army's campaign continued as it forced the Oder in April and finally reached the <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe River</a> in early May.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_515-520-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_549–553-222">[222]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Army_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Army (Poland)">Second Polish Army</a> was led by <a href="/wiki/Karol_%C5%9Awierczewski" title="Karol Świerczewski">Karol Świerczewski</a> and operated with the 1st Ukrainian Front. The soldiers, who were recently conscripted, poorly taken care of and badly commanded, advanced toward <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a> from 16 April and suffered huge losses as they struggled in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bautzen_(1945)" title="Battle of Bautzen (1945)">Battle of Bautzen</a>. Subsequently, the Second Army took part in the capture of Dresden and then crossed into Czechoslovakia to fight in the final <a href="/wiki/Prague_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Prague Offensive">Prague Offensive</a>, entering the city on 11 May.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_515-520-221">[221]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Army" title="Polish People's Army">Polish Army</a>, placed under the overall command of <a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Rola-%C5%BBymierski" title="Michał Rola-Żymierski">Michał Rola-Żymierski</a>, was ultimately expanded to 400,000 people, and, helping to defeat Germany all the way to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a> (elements of the First Polish Army),<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_515-520-221">[221]</a> suffered losses equal to those experienced during the 1939 <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">defense of the country</a> (according to Czubiński). Over 600,000 Soviet soldiers died fighting German troops in Poland. Terrified by the reports of Soviet-committed atrocities, <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%9350)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)">masses of Germans fled</a> in the westerly direction.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_384-386-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1036-1039-209">[209]</a> According to Czubiński, in the final stages of the war, the Polish armed forces were the fourth largest on the Allied side, after the armies of the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Polish_state_reestablished_with_new_borders_and_under_Soviet_domination">Polish state reestablished with new borders and under Soviet domination</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland's_war_losses">Poland's war losses</h3></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Poland_and_Eastern_Germany_1944–453623" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Poland_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Template:Campaignbox Poland 1944–1945"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Poland_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Poland 1944–1945"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Poland_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Poland 1944–1945"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Poland_and_Eastern_Germany_1944–453623" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poland</a> and Eastern Germany 1944–45</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> operations</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Bagration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vilnius_offensive" title="Vilnius offensive">Vilnius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belostok_offensive" title="Belostok offensive">Belostok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin%E2%80%93Brest_offensive" title="Lublin–Brest offensive">Lublin–Brest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osovets_offensive" title="Osovets offensive">Osovets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Studzianki" title="Battle of Studzianki">Studzianki</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lvov–Sandomierz offensive">Lvov–Sandomierz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Radzymin_(1944)" title="Battle of Radzymin (1944)">Radzymin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Memel" title="Battle of Memel">Memel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dukla_Pass" title="Battle of the Dukla Pass">Dukla Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gumbinnen_Operation" title="Gumbinnen Operation">Gumbinnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_offensive" title="Baltic offensive">2nd Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_offensive" title="Vistula–Oder offensive">Vistula–Oder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pozna%C5%84_(1945)" title="Battle of Poznań (1945)">Poznań</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandomierz%E2%80%93Silesian_offensive" title="Sandomierz–Silesian offensive">Sandomierz–Silesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Prussian_offensive" title="East Prussian offensive">East Prussia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Battle of Königsberg">Königsberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heiligenbeil_Pocket" title="Heiligenbeil Pocket">Heiligenbeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samland_offensive" title="Samland offensive">Samland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian_offensive" title="East Pomeranian offensive">East Pomerania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kolberg_(1945)" title="Battle of Kolberg (1945)">Kolberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Danzig_(1945)" title="Siege of Danzig (1945)">Danzig</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_offensives" title="Silesian offensives">Silesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Silesian_offensive" title="Lower Silesian offensive">Lower Silesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesian_offensive" title="Upper Silesian offensive">Upper Silesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breslau" title="Siege of Breslau">Breslau</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Polish resistance</a> operations</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Tempest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Murowana_Oszmianka" title="Battle of Murowana Oszmianka">Murowana Oszmianka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Porytowe_Wzg%C3%B3rze" title="Battle of Porytowe Wzgórze">Porytowe Wzgórze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ostra_Brama" title="Operation Ostra Brama">Ostra Brama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów uprising">Lwów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_P%C4%99cice" title="Battle of Pęcice">Pęcice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Schoenfeld" title="Battle of Schoenfeld">Schoenfeld</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> operations</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Doppelkopf" title="Operation Doppelkopf">Doppelkopf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Solstice" title="Operation Solstice">Solstice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Hannibal" title="Operation Hannibal">Hannibal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> The numerical dimensions of Polish World War II human losses are difficult to ascertain. According to the official data of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_War_Reparations_Bureau" title="Polish War Reparations Bureau">Polish War Reparations Bureau</a> (1946), 644,000 Polish citizens died as a result of military action and 5.1 million died as a result of the occupiers' repressions and extermination policies. According to Czubiński, the Soviet Union was responsible for the deaths of some 50,000 of the exterminated persons.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226-223">[223]</a> Approximately 90% of Polish Jews perished; most of those who survived did so by fleeing to the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_119-124-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_298-303-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lukowski_260–261-177">[177]</a> 380,000 Polish Jews were estimated to have survived the war. According to an estimate of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_Polish_Jews" title="Central Committee of Polish Jews">Central Committee of Polish Jews</a>, 50,000 Jews survived in Poland. Close to 300,000 Jews found themselves in Poland soon after the war. For a number of reasons, including <a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_violence_in_Poland,_1944%E2%80%9346" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–46">antisemitic activities</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Kielce_pogrom" title="Kielce pogrom">Kielce pogrom</a> of 1946, <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBydokomuna" title="Żydokomuna">Żydokomuna</a> accusations, loss of families, communities and property, desire to emigrate to <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> or to places in the West deemed more advantageous than post-war Poland, most of the surviving Jews left Poland in several stages after the war. The goal of Polish communist authorities was a state populated by ethnic Poles and the officials often informally facilitated departures of the Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_545-552-224">[224]</a> The heaviest losses among ethnic Poles were experienced by people with secondary and higher education, who were targeted by the occupiers and of whom a third or more had not survived. Academics and professional people suffered the most. According to Kochanski, only about 10% of the human losses of Poland were a result of military action; the rest came from intentional exterminations, persecutions, war and occupation hardships and the attendant attrition.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_532-536-225">[225]</a> 800,000 Poles became permanently disabled and large numbers failed to return from abroad, which further reduced the manpower potential of Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226-223">[223]</a> 105,000 service people, or about one-half of the soldiers enlisted in the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_West" title="Polish Armed Forces in the West">Polish Armed Forces in the West</a>, returned to Poland after the war.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_552-563-226">[226]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_xnone">[x]</a> The war destroyed 38% of Poland's national assets.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226-223">[223]</a> A substantial majority of Polish industrial installations and agricultural infrastructure had been lost. Warsaw and a number of other cities were for the most part destroyed and required extensive rebuilding.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_532-536-225">[225]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"> <caption>Biological losses of Polish society as reported by Polish government in January 1947 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amularczyk.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/raport-straty-wojenne-ang.pdf">"Report on the losses and damages of war in Poland in 1939–1945"</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Specification </th> <th>Number of persons in thousands </th> <th>% </th></tr> <tr> <td>1. Loss of life — total a) due to direct military action b) due to the occupiers’ terror </td> <td>6.028 644 5.384 </td> <td>100.0 10.7 89.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2. War invalidity (war invalids and civilian invalids — total) a) physical handicap b) mental handicap </td> <td>590 530 60 </td> <td>100.0 89.8 10.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3. Excess of tuberculosis instances (exceeding the average theoretical number of instances) </td> <td>1.140 </td> <td>100.0 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings_of_communist_government">Beginnings of communist government</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PKWN_manifest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/PKWN_manifest.jpg/250px-PKWN_manifest.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/PKWN_manifest.jpg/375px-PKWN_manifest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/PKWN_manifest.jpg/500px-PKWN_manifest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1533" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/PKWN_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="PKWN Manifesto">PKWN Manifesto</a> was issued on 22 July 1944</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/State_National_Council" title="State National Council">State National Council</a> (KRN), chaired by <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Bierut" title="Bolesław Bierut">Bolesław Bierut</a>, was established in Warsaw by the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Workers%27_Party" title="Polish Workers' Party">Polish Workers' Party</a> (PPR) on January 1, 1944. The <a href="/wiki/Armia_Ludowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Ludowa">Armia Ludowa</a> was its army. The Polish communist centers in Warsaw and in Moscow initially operated separately and had different visions of cooperation with the Soviet Union and regarding other issues. In the spring of 1944, the KRN sent a delegation to the Soviet Union, where it gained Stalin's recognition and the two branches began working together. In intense negotiations, the two Polish communist groups agreed to establish the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="Polish Committee of National Liberation">Polish Committee of National Liberation</a> (PKWN), a sort of temporary government.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_384-386-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213-202">[202]</a> As the Soviets advanced through Poland in 1944 and 1945, the German administration collapsed. The communist-controlled PKWN was installed in July 1944 in <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, the first major Polish city within the new boundaries to be seized by the Soviets from the Nazis, and began to take over the administration of the country as the Germans retreated. The Polish government in London formally protested the establishment of the PKWN.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_445-454-211">[211]</a> The PKWN was led by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Os%C3%B3bka-Morawski" title="Edward Osóbka-Morawski">Edward Osóbka-Morawski</a>, a socialist, and included other non-communists. The <a href="/wiki/PKWN_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="PKWN Manifesto">PKWN Manifesto</a> was proclaimed in <a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82m" title="Chełm">Chełm</a> on July 22, initiating the crucial <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Agrarian_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrarian reform">agrarian reform</a>, according to Norman Davies, was moderate and very popular.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_344-345-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_426-433-220">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233-227">[227]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_bnone">[b]</a> The communists constituted only a small, but highly organized and influential minority in the forming and gaining strength Polish pro-Soviet camp, which also included leaders and factions from such main political blocks as the agrarian, socialist, <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionist</a>, and nationalist movements. The Polish <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left</a> in particular, with considerable support from the peasant movement leaders, both critical in respect to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Republic</a>'s record, was inclined to accept the Soviet territorial concepts and called for the creation of a more egalitarian society. They became empowered and commenced the formation of the new Polish administration, disregarding the existing Underground State structures.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222-228">[228]</a> The so-called <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland">Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland</a> was established at the end of 1944 in Lublin and was recognized by the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>. It was headed by the socialist Osóbka-Morawski, but the communists held a majority of key posts.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_549–553-222">[222]</a> In April 1945, the provisional government signed a mutual friendship, alliance and cooperation pact with the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233-227">[227]</a> In late 1944 and early 1945, the Poles on the one hand tended to resent the Soviet Union and communism and feared Poland's becoming a Soviet dependency, while on the other the leftist viewpoints were increasingly popular among the population. There was little support for a continuation of the prewar policies.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allied_determinations">Allied determinations</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Poland_(1945)_corr.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Map_of_Poland_%281945%29_corr.png/300px-Map_of_Poland_%281945%29_corr.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Map_of_Poland_%281945%29_corr.png/450px-Map_of_Poland_%281945%29_corr.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Map_of_Poland_%281945%29_corr.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>The legacy of World War II: Poland's old and new borders</figcaption></figure> By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>, in February 1945, the Soviets were at the height of their power, while the fronts in Western Europe and Italy had not advanced as quickly as expected.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_191-192-229">[229]</a> At the conference, the Allies continued their discussions and informally finalized decisions on the postwar order in Europe. Churchill and Roosevelt accepted the <a href="/wiki/Curzon_Line" title="Curzon Line">Curzon Line</a> as the basis of Poland's eastern border, but disagreed with Stalin on the extent of Poland's western expansion, at the expense of Germany.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_nnone">[n]</a> Poland was going to get a compromise provisional (until the agreed free elections) government of national unity including both the existing <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland">communist government</a>, now unofficially considered principal, and pro-Western forces. There was a disagreement regarding the issue of inclusion of the London-based government in exile as the main pro-Western faction in the government of national unity.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1040-1044-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_499-515-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222-228">[228]</a> The Polish government in exile reacted to the Yalta announcements (unlike the Tehran Conference outcomes, Yalta results were made public) with a series of fervent protests. The Underground State in Poland, through its <a href="/wiki/Council_of_National_Unity" title="Council of National Unity">Council of National Unity</a> that operated in hiding, issued a more measured and pragmatic response, regretting the sacrifices imposed on Poland but expecting a representative government established and committing itself to adapt to the situation and to promote "friendly and peaceful relations" with the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_499-515-160">[160]</a> The council declared its readiness to participate in the consultations leading to the formation of the government of national unity.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_549–553-222">[222]</a> The tripartite Allied commission made up of <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> and the British and American ambassadors in Moscow worked on the composition of the Polish government of national unity from 23 February, but the negotiations soon stalled because of different interpretations of the Yalta Conference agreements. The former prime minister in exile Stanisław Mikołajczyk, approached by representatives of the communist-controlled Provisional Government, refused to make a separate deal with that body, but on 15 April made a statement of acceptance of the Yalta decisions.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_499-515-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_549–553-222">[222]</a> Because of the continuing disagreement on the composition of the government of national unity, Churchill convinced Mikołajczyk to take part in a conference in Moscow in June 1945, where he and other Polish democrats agreed with Stalin to a temporary deal (until the elections promised to take place soon, but with no specific time frame provided or even discussed) excluding the government in exile.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_532-536-225">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222-228">[228]</a> Mikołajczyk was perceived in the West as the only reasonable Polish politician.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_408-230">[230]</a> Based on the understanding reached in Moscow by the three powers with Mikołajczyk's help, the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_National_Unity" title="Provisional Government of National Unity">Government of National Unity</a> was constituted on 28 June 1945, with Osóbka-Morawski as prime minister, and <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Gomu%C5%82ka" title="Władysław Gomułka">Władysław Gomułka</a> and Mikołajczyk as deputy prime ministers. Mikołajczyk returned to Poland with <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Grabski" title="Stanisław Grabski">Stanisław Grabski</a> in July and was enthusiastically greeted by large crowds in several Polish cities. The new government was quickly recognized by the United Kingdom, the United States, and most other countries.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_238-240-231">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_536-537-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_569-577-233">[233]</a> The government, formally a coalition, was in reality controlled entirely by Gomułka's Polish Workers' Party and other Polish politicians convinced of the inevitability of Soviet domination. The government was charged with conducting elections and normalizing the situation in Poland. The exile government in London, no longer recognized by the great powers, remained in existence until 1991.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_536-537-232">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persecution_of_opposition">Persecution of opposition</h3></div> Persecution of the opposition intensified in October 1944, when the PKWN authorities encountered widespread loyalty problems among the now conscripted military personnel and other sections of Polish society. The enforcement of the communist rule was undertaken by the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> and the Polish security services, all backed by the massive presence of the Red Army in Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_426-433-220">[220]</a> Potential political opponents of the communists were subjected to Soviet terror campaigns, with many of them arrested, executed or tortured. According to one estimate, 25,000 people lost their lives in labour camps created by the Soviets as early as 1944.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> A conspiratorial AK-related organization known as <a href="/wiki/NIE_(resistance)" title="NIE (resistance)">NIE</a> (for Niepodległość or Independence) was set up in 1944 by <a href="/wiki/Emil_August_Fieldorf" class="mw-redirect" title="Emil August Fieldorf">Emil Fieldorf</a>. General <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Okulicki" title="Leopold Okulicki">Okulicki</a> became its commander and NIE remained in existence after the AK was dissolved in January 1945. Its activities were directed against the communist <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland">Provisional Government</a>. However, as a result of Okulicki's arrest by the NKVD in March and the persecution, NIE ceased to exist. The <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_Delegation_for_Poland" title="Armed Forces Delegation for Poland">Armed Forces Delegation for Poland</a> was established instead in May, to be finally replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_and_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom and Independence">Freedom and Independence</a> (WiN) formation, whose goal was to organize political rather than military resistance to the communist domination.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_520-527-161">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/Government_Delegation_for_Poland" title="Government Delegation for Poland">Government Delegate</a> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Stanis%C5%82aw_Jankowski" title="Jan Stanisław Jankowski">Jan Stanisław Jankowski</a>, chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_National_Unity" title="Council of National Unity">Council of National Unity</a> <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Pu%C5%BCak" title="Kazimierz Pużak">Kazimierz Pużak</a> and thirteen other <a href="/wiki/Polish_Underground_State" title="Polish Underground State">Polish Underground State</a> leaders were invited to and on 27 March 1945 attended talks with General <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Serov" title="Ivan Serov">Ivan Serov</a> of the NKVD. They were all arrested and taken to Moscow to await a trial. The Polish communist Provisional Government and the Western leaders were not informed by the Soviets of the arrests. The British and the Americans were notified by the Polish Government-in-Exile. After the belated Soviet admission, they unsuccessfully pressured the Soviet government for the release of the captives.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_527-531-235">[235]</a> In June 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_the_Sixteen" title="Trial of the Sixteen">Trial of the Sixteen</a> was staged in Moscow.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1050-1051-236">[236]</a> They were accused of anti-Soviet subversion and received lenient by Soviet standards sentences, presumably because of the ongoing negotiations on the formation of Polish government and Western interventions. Okulicki was condemned to ten years in prison.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_532-536-225">[225]</a> Post-German industrial and other property was looted by the Soviets as <a href="/wiki/War_reparations" title="War reparations">war reparations</a>, even though the former lands of eastern Germany were coming under permanent Polish administration.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1060-237">[237]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_vnone">[v]</a> As the Soviets and the pro-Soviet Poles solidified their control of the country, a political struggle with the suppressed and harassed opposition ensued, accompanied by a residual but brutally fought <a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931946)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1946)">armed rebellion</a> waged by unreconciled elements of the former, now officially <a href="/wiki/Home_Army" title="Home Army">disbanded underground</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Military_Union" title="National Military Union">nationalistic right wing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1061-1062-238">[238]</a> Thousands of militiamen, PPR members and others were murdered before the communist authorities brought the situation under control.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_520-527-161">[161]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_rnone">[r]</a> According to one estimate, in the post-war violence about 10,000 members of the anti-communist underground were killed, along with 4,500 regime functionaries and several hundred Soviet soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-Leder_Rewolucja_156–157-239">[239]</a> A "Democratic Bloc" comprising the communists and their socialist, rural and urban allies was established. Mikołajczyk's <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party_(1945%E2%80%9349)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish People's Party (1945–49)">Polish People's Party</a> (PSL), which refused to join the bloc, was the only legal opposition; they counted on winning the promised legislative elections. Other contemporary Polish movements, including the <a href="/wiki/National_Democracy_(Poland)" title="National Democracy (Poland)">National Democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanation" title="Sanation">Sanation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Labour_Faction_(1937)" title="Labour Faction (1937)">Christian Democracy</a> were not allowed to function legally and were dealt with by the Polish and Soviet internal security organs.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_238-240-231">[231]</a> The Western Allies and their leaders, Roosevelt and Churchill in particular, have been criticised by Polish writers and some Western historians for what most Poles see as the <a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">abandonment of Poland to Soviet rule</a>. Decisions were made at the Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam conferences and on other occasions that amounted, according to such opinions, to Western complicity in Stalin's takeover of Eastern Europe.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_anone">[a]</a> According to Czubiński, blaming the Western powers, especially Winston Churchill, for a "betrayal" of the Polish ally, "seems a complete misunderstanding".<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226-223">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet-controlled_Polish_state">Soviet-controlled Polish state</h3></div> Postwar Poland was a state of reduced sovereignty, strongly dependent on the Soviet Union, but the only one possible under the existing circumstances and internationally recognized. The Polish Left's cooperation with the Stalin's regime made the preservation of a Polish state within favorable borders possible. The dominant Polish Workers' Party had a strictly pro-Soviet branch, led by Bierut and a number of <a href="/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism" title="Proletarian internationalism">internationalist</a> in outlook Jewish communist activists, and a national branch, willing to take a "Polish route to socialism", led by Gomułka.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_238-240-231">[231]</a> As agreed by the Allies in Yalta, the Soviet Union incorporated the lands in eastern Poland (<a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a>, east of the Curzon Line), previously occupied and annexed in 1939 (see <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_Poland_annexed_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union">Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222-228">[228]</a> Deferring to Stalin's territorial schemes,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_tnone">[t]</a> the Allies compensated Poland with the German territories east of the <a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Oder–Neisse line</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomerania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a> (in Polish communist government's propaganda referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Recovered_Territories" title="Recovered Territories">Recovered Territories</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Kopp-240">[240]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_mnone">[m]</a> The deal was practically, but in principle not permanently, finalized at the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> (17 July to 2 August 1945).<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_233-236-241">[241]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_unone">[u]</a> The entire country was shifted to the west and resembled the territory of Medieval early <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Piast dynasty">Piast Poland</a>. Per the Potsdam agreement, <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_from_Poland_during_and_after_World_War_II" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II">millions of Germans were expelled</a> and forced to relocate their families to the new Germany.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_233-236-241">[241]</a> About 4.4 million had already fled not waiting for the Potsdam decrees (most during the final months of the war), and 3.5 million were removed from what was now territory of Poland in 1945–1949.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_309-311-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leder_Rewolucja_158–159-242">[242]</a> Davies wrote that the resettlement of Germans was not merely an act of wartime revenge, but a result of decades old Allied policy. The Russians as well as the British saw the German East Prussia as a product of German militarism, the "root of Europe's miseries", and the Allies therefore intended to eradicate it.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_347-348-243">[243]</a> The new western and northern territories of Poland were repopulated with <a href="/wiki/Poles_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Poles in the Soviet Union">Poles</a> "<a href="/wiki/Polish_population_transfers_(1944%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish population transfers (1944–46)">repatriated</a>" from the eastern regions now in the Soviet Union (2–3 million people) and from other places.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1060-237">[237]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#endnote_wnone">[w]</a> The precise Soviet-Polish border was delineated in the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_border_agreement_of_August_1945" title="Polish–Soviet border agreement of August 1945">Polish–Soviet border agreement</a> of 16 August 1945. The new Poland emerged 20% smaller (by 77,700 km2 or 29,900 mi2) in comparison to the 1939 borders. Eastern poorly developed regions were lost and western industrialized regions were gained, but the emotional impact for many Poles was clearly negative.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_233-236-241">[241]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfers</a> included also the moving of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">Belarusians</a> from Poland into their respective Soviet republics.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> In particular, the Soviet and Polish communist authorities expelled between 1944 and 1947 nearly 700,000 Ukrainians and <a href="/wiki/Lemkos" title="Lemkos">Lemkos</a>, transferring most of them into <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Soviet Ukraine</a>, and then spreading the remaining groups in the Polish Recovered Territories during the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Vistula" title="Operation Vistula">Operation Vistula</a>, thus ensuring that postwar Poland would not have significant minorities or any minority concentrations to contend with. Thousands were killed in the attendant strife and violence.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_545-552-224">[224]</a> After the war, many displaced Poles and some of those living in Kresy, now in the Soviet Union, did not end up in Poland as reestablished in 1945.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_233-236-241">[241]</a> The population within the respective official Polish borders decreased from 35.1 million in 1939 to 23.7 million in 1946.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226-223">[223]</a> Poland's western borders were soon questioned by the Germans and many in the West, while the planned peace conference had not materialized because the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> replaced the wartime cooperation. The borders, essential to Poland's existence, were in practice guaranteed by the Soviet Union, which only increased the dependence of Polish government leaders on their Soviet counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_238-240-231">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/48px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/64px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Poland" title="Portal:Poland">Poland portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">History of Poland (1945–1989)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_cities_damaged_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Polish cities damaged in World War II">List of Polish cities damaged in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_culture_during_World_War_II" title="Polish culture during World War II">Polish culture during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_material_losses_during_World_War_II" title="Polish material losses during World War II">Polish material losses during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_Poland" title="World War II casualties of Poland">World War II casualties of Poland</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> a.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_anone">^</a> According to Davies, the Grand Alliance (Britain, USA and the Soviet Union) decided in the meetings of its three leaders that the unconditional defeat of the Reich was the Alliance's overriding priority (principal war aim). Once this definition was accepted, the two Western powers, having obliged themselves not to withdraw from the conflict for any reason (including pressuring the Soviets), had lost their ability to meaningfully influence Soviet actions.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Europe_1036-1039-209">[209]</a> b.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_bnone">^</a> The PKWN's land reform decree was issued on 6 September 1944. The Polish communists were reluctant to execute the land reform, which represented a radical departure from old Polish legal systems (they claimed adherence to the 1921 <a href="/wiki/March_Constitution_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="March Constitution of Poland">March Constitution of Poland</a>). Polish peasants were reluctant to take over the landowners' possessions. Stalin summoned to Moscow in late September the KRN and PKWN leaders, led by Bierut, and inquired about the progress of the land reform. The Soviet leader asked how many estates had already been parceled and was very unhappy to find out that the answer was zero. He repeatedly lectured the Polish leaders, appealing to their communist convictions and patriotism. Stalin urged them to start implementing the land reform without any further delay, not to worry excessively about legal proprieties, because it was a revolutionary action, and to take advantage of the fact that the Red Army was still in Poland to help.<a href="#cite_note-Eisler_Siedmiu_61–62-245">[245]</a> c.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_cnone">^</a> Marshal Rydz-Śmigły made a final radio broadcast to Polish troops from Romania on September 20. He stressed the Polish army's involvement in fighting the Germans and told the commanders to avoid pointless bloodshed of fighting the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_76-80-35">[35]</a> d.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_dnone">^</a> All Polish institutions of secondary and higher education were dismantled and remained closed throughout the war. Some managed to continue functioning as an underground activity.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_97-103-65">[65]</a> e.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_enone">^</a> According to Kochanski, 694,000 Polish soldiers, including 60,000 Jews, were captured by the Germans, and 240,000 by the Soviets.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_80-84-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_97-103-65">[65]</a> f.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_fnone">^</a> Kochanski contradicts Czubiński, stating that the exile government did consider itself at war with the Soviet Union. Sikorski's position was that Germany was the principal enemy and that cooperation with the Soviet Union was conditionally possible.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_163-170-197">[197]</a> There were rival factions in the government and probably no official proclamations on that issue. g.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_gnone">^</a> The British wanted the Polish forces moved to the Middle East because they expected a German offensive in that direction, through the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>. Churchill asked Stalin to permit the Poles to leave the Soviet Union and thanked him when the agreement was secured. Sikorski was opposed to the removal of Polish soldiers from the Soviet Union, but eventually relented.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_521–535-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_wloskiej-246">[246]</a> Sikorski wanted Polish armies engaged against Germany in Western Europe, in the Middle East and in the Soviet Union, because of the uncertain outcomes of military campaigns and because of the need for a Polish (<a href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile" title="Polish government-in-exile">Government-in-Exile</a> affiliated) military force fighting along whichever power would eventually liberate Poland. General Anders, earlier characterized in Soviet internal documents as a loyal pro-Soviet Polish officer (he was a strong supporter of the <a href="/wiki/Sikorski%E2%80%93Mayski_agreement" title="Sikorski–Mayski agreement">Sikorski–Mayski agreement</a> of July 1941), by the spring of 1942 became convinced of the inevitability of Soviet defeat. Anders then insisted on taking the Polish formations out of the Soviet Union and opposed Sikorski. Eventually Anders became known for his anti-Soviet views; he demanded a dismissal of the government led by Sikorski, his commander-in-chief.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_521–535-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_312–322-201">[201]</a> At the time of the decision to remove the Polish army from the Soviet Union, it was not yet apparent that the war with Germany would be resolved mainly by a victorious Soviet westbound offensive on the Eastern Front and that the other war theaters would be relegated to a more peripheral role.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_483-486-247">[247]</a> In particular, it was not known that Poland would be liberated by the Soviets.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_170-173-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_325-333-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_160-161-248">[248]</a> h.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_hnone">^</a> According to Czubiński, 32,000 Polish soldiers were evacuated, including 6,200 pilots.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_202-204-134">[134]</a> i.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_inone">^</a> According to Kochanski, a million and a quarter labor prisoners were forcibly taken by the Nazis from the <a href="/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">General Government</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_263-268-61">[61]</a> According to Sowa, over 2.5 million Polish citizens were used as forced laborers in Germany and occupied France.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_600-71">[71]</a> j.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_jnone">^</a> After the abortive <a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe Raid</a> in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a> in 1942, the Allies exercised extra caution and would not risk any more failed operations.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_102-249">[249]</a> In general, the Americans demanded <a href="/wiki/Operation_Roundup_(1942)" title="Operation Roundup (1942)">accelerated offensive action in Europe</a>, while the British wanted to delay the landing in France, which they judged impractical for the time being, and focus instead on the much easier to execute <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_171-172-250">[250]</a> k.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_knone">^</a> Expecting the arrival of the Red Army, in December 1944 the Nazis at the last moment closed down the Auschwitz slave labor operation, demolished the main compound and force-marched some 60,000 prisoners toward camps in Germany. A smaller number of sick people remained on the premises until the Soviets arrived.<a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_358-364-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies_Victory_327-328-176">[176]</a> l.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_lnone">^</a> The Western powers were soon informed of the secret provisions to the treaty, but failed to notify the Polish government.<a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_druga_wojna_32-251">[251]</a> m.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_mnone">^</a> The lands expected to be taken from Germany were also considered a restored Polish territory by the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Underground_State" title="Polish Underground State">Polish Underground State</a> leaders.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_434-439-252">[252]</a> n.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_nnone">^</a> The Polish communists attempted to obtain modifications of the <a href="/wiki/Curzon_Line" title="Curzon Line">Curzon Line</a> that would result in Poland retaining <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a> and the oil fields of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Galicia" title="Eastern Galicia">Eastern Galicia</a>. Similar territorial conditions were postulated by the Polish government in London in August 1944, after Prime Minister Mikołajczyk's visit to Moscow. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> decided to satisfy the Lithuanian demands for Vilnius, Ukrainian for Lviv, and to annex for the Soviet Union Eastern Galicia, a region that had never been a part of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_445-454-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_439-445-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-Snyder_Reconstruction_88,_93-253">[253]</a> o.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_onone">^</a> The Polish Government-in-Exile had to cope with a number of instances of negative media and other publicity. In one particularly damaging case, about one third of the Jewish soldiers in the Polish Army in Britain deserted, claiming antisemitism in the institution. Some of them joined a British corps and some were <a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">court-martialed</a>, but eventually granted amnesty by President Raczkiewicz.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_460-463-254">[254]</a> p.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_pnone">^</a> During the 1930s, the relations between the ruling <a href="/wiki/Sanation" title="Sanation">Sanation</a> camp and the various opposition groups and parties were tense, often hostile. From 1938, the growing external threat was clearly perceived by many and there were voices (mainly from the opposition) calling for the formation of a unified Government of National Defense and for taking other steps to promote a defense-minded consolidation of society. The Sanation ruling circle was not inclined to broaden the government's base and in June 1939 ultimately rejected any power-sharing ideas, apparently because they did not believe in the seriousness of German hostile intentions. The delegations that paid visits to President Mościcki and presented petitions on the issue of coalition government and general war preparedness, representing the agrarian and socialist parties and Polish intellectuals, were not well received. The regime did appeal to citizens' patriotism and generosity and several major fund raising efforts, often led by opposition groups and politicians (some of whom returned at that time of danger from political exile), resulted in donations of considerable magnitude, which by and large ended up not utilized.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_365–367-255">[255]</a> q.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_qnone">^</a> In late February 1945, referring to the post-<a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a> protests of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Government-in-Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Government-in-Exile">Polish Government-in-Exile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> said the following in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a>: "Let me remind them that there would have been no <a href="/wiki/Polish_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="Polish Committee of National Liberation">Lublin Committee</a> or <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland">Lublin Provisional Government</a> in Poland if the Polish Government in London had accepted our faithful counsel given to them a year ago. They would have entered into Poland as its active Government, with the liberating Armies of Russia."<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_499-515-160">[160]</a> r.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_rnone">^</a> The right-wing anti-communist <a href="/wiki/National_Armed_Forces" title="National Armed Forces">National Armed Forces</a> (NSZ) stopped cooperating with the AK in November 1944. Being highly antisemitic, they attacked <a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish partisans</a> in German-occupied Poland. They fought the incoming Soviet troops and Polish security forces. The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Cross_Mountains_Brigade" title="Holy Cross Mountains Brigade">Holy Cross Mountains Brigade</a> of the NSZ avoided the Soviet advance and collaborated with the German military authorities, which made possible its entry into Czechoslovakia in February 1945. As the war ended, the brigade came in contact with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Central#World_War_II" title="United States Army Central">US 3rd Army</a>. The British refused to agree to the brigade's incorporation into the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_West" title="Polish Armed Forces in the West">Polish Armed Forces in the West</a> and the brigade was disarmed by the US Army in August.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_520-527-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-Czubiński_druga_wojna_218,_226-256">[256]</a> s.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_snone">^</a> According to Andrzej Leon Sowa, between 10,000 and 25,000 civilians and 5,000 Polish soldiers perished during the siege and defense of Warsaw.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_504–511-33">[33]</a> t.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_tnone">^</a> The size of post-war Poland was determined by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> alone, because the Western Allies, as shown by the record of British diplomacy, would not have objected to a much smaller Polish state being established.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_512–521-191">[191]</a> u.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_unone">^</a> The communist <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland">Provisional Government</a> of Poland demanded the establishment of the post-war Polish-German border at the <a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Oder–Neisse line</a>, that is along the <a href="/wiki/Lusatian_Neisse" title="Lusatian Neisse">Lusatian Neisse</a> (Western Neisse), and, further north, the <a href="/wiki/Oder" title="Oder">Oder</a> river. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> indicated his support for the Polish position and the Provisional Government administered the region as soon as it was cleared of the German forces. The American and especially the British governments had a long-standing preference for the border to run further east in its southern portion, along the <a href="/wiki/Nysa_K%C5%82odzka" class="mw-redirect" title="Nysa Kłodzka">Nysa Kłodzka</a> (Eastern Neisse) and the upper Oder rivers, which would keep a large portion of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Silesia" title="Lower Silesia">Lower Silesia</a> and of the city of <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Breslau</a> in post-war Germany. At the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a>, the delegation of what was now the Polish <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_National_Unity" title="Provisional Government of National Unity">Provisional Government of National Unity</a> continued lobbying aimed at keeping all of Lower Silesia under Polish jurisdiction, rather than letting some of it be a part of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet occupation zone">Soviet occupation zone</a> of Germany. Taking advantage of the British delegation's disruption by the results of the <a href="/wiki/1945_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1945 United Kingdom general election">British election</a>, the Americans engaged in dealing with the Soviets on their own. Its outcome, stated in the conference protocols, was that until the final peace settlement, the area all the way west to the Lusatian Neisse would by administered by Poland and not be a part of the Soviet zone of occupation. The planned peace conference never took place and the border has remained where it was provisionally placed in 1945. It was confirmed in the treaties that Poland signed with <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> in 1970 and with <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">unified Germany</a> in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_537-541-257">[257]</a> v.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_vnone">^</a> The confiscations stopped after repeated appeals to <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jakub_Berman" title="Jakub Berman">Jakub Berman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Minc" title="Hilary Minc">Hilary Minc</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_541-545-258">[258]</a> w.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_wnone">^</a> There was a total of 1,517,983 'repatriates' from the east, according to Halik Kochanski.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_545-552-224">[224]</a> Others give different figures. Of the several million ethnic Poles living in <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a>, a few million were repatriated to Poland as reestablished within new borders, while perhaps a million stayed in what had become the Soviet territory.<a href="#cite_note-Czula_Jalta-39">[39]</a> x.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_xnone">^</a> Most of the soldiers who opted to stay in the West hailed from the eastern <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a> areas annexed to the Soviet Union. The bulk of <a href="/wiki/Anders%27_Army" title="Anders' Army">Anders' Army</a> fell in that category.<a href="#cite_note-Kochanski_552-563-226">[226]</a> y.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_ynone">^</a> Several thousand Poles fought in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet partisans</a> units. A smaller number of Jews also served there and in the Polish communist <a href="/wiki/Gwardia_Ludowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwardia Ludowa">Gwardia Ludowa</a>. Jews were rarely admitted into the Polish <a href="/wiki/Home_Army" title="Home Army">mainstream</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Armed_Forces" title="National Armed Forces">nationalist</a> underground armed organizations.<a href="#cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_630–637-142">[142]</a> z.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_znone">^</a> The liberation of the <a href="/wiki/Praga" title="Praga">Praga</a> right-bank part of Warsaw took over a month of fighting at the cost of eight thousand soldiers killed on each side. After the area was cleared of the Germans in mid-September, General <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Berling" title="Zygmunt Berling">Zygmunt Berling</a>'s forces crossed the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> and the failed <a href="/wiki/Czerniak%C3%B3w" title="Czerniaków">Czerniaków</a> operation (a limited <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a> rescue attempt) began.<a href="#cite_note-Masakra-259">[259]</a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612184816/https://www.expatica.com/de/news/country-news/Polish-experts-lower-nations-WWII-death-toll_164804.html">"Polish experts lower nation's WWII death toll"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.expatica.com/de/news/country-news/Polish-experts-lower-nations-WWII-death-toll_164804.html">the original</a> on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2018-11-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Polish+experts+lower+nation%27s+WWII+death+toll&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.expatica.com%2Fde%2Fnews%2Fcountry-news%2FPolish-experts-lower-nations-WWII-death-toll_164804.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_978-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_978_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_978_2-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a>, Europe: A History, p. 978. HarperCollins, New York 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-097468-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-097468-0">0-06-097468-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_153-156-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_153-156_3-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Antoni_Czubi%C5%84ski" title="Antoni Czubiński">Antoni Czubiński</a>, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], Wydawnictwo Nauka i Innowacje, Poznań 2012, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-63795-01-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-63795-01-6">978-83-63795-01-6</a>, pp. 153–156 </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_156-159_4-5">f</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 156–159 </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167_5-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_163-167_5-6">g</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 163–167 </li> <li id="cite_note-Overy_294-295-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Overy_294-295_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Overy_294-295_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Overy_294-295_6-2">c</a> Overy, Richard (2010). The Times Complete History of the World (8th ed.), pp. 294–295. London: Times Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0007315694" title="Special:BookSources/0007315694">0007315694</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_483–490-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_483–490_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_483–490_7-1">b</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 483–490. Kraków 2009, <a href="/wiki/Wydawnictwo_Literackie" title="Wydawnictwo Literackie">Wydawnictwo Literackie</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-08-04125-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-08-04125-3">978-83-08-04125-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Zgórniak_409-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Zgórniak_409_8-0">^</a> Zgórniak, Marian; Łaptos, Józef; Solarz, Jacek (2006). Wielka historia świata, tom 11, wielkie wojny XX wieku (1914–1945) [The Great History of the World, vol. 11: Great Wars of the 20th century (1914–1945)]. Kraków: Fogra. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-60657-00-9" title="Special:BookSources/83-60657-00-9">83-60657-00-9</a>, p. 409 </li> <li id="cite_note-Zgórniak_410-412-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Zgórniak_410-412_9-0">^</a> Zgórniak, Marian; Łaptos, Józef; Solarz, Jacek (2006). Wielka historia świata, tom 11, wielkie wojny XX wieku (1914–1945) [The Great History of the World, vol. 11: Great Wars of the 20th century (1914–1945)], pp. 410–412 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_991-998-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_991-998_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_991-998_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_991-998_10-2">c</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, pp. 991–998. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_44-48-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_44-48_11-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Halik_Kochanski" title="Halik Kochanski">Halik Kochanski</a> (2012). The Eagle Unbowed: Poland and the Poles in the Second World War, pp. 44–48. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06814-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06814-8">978-0-674-06814-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Boris Meissner, "The Baltic Question in World Politics", The Baltic States in Peace and War (The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1978), 139–148 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_38-40-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_38-40_13-0">^</a> Norman Davies, <a href="/wiki/Europe_at_War_1939%E2%80%931945:_No_Simple_Victory" title="Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory">Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory</a>, pp. 38–40. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>, New York 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311409-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311409-3">978-0-14-311409-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zgórniak_418-420-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Zgórniak_418-420_14-0">^</a> Zgórniak, Marian; Łaptos, Józef; Solarz, Jacek (2006). Wielka historia świata, tom 11, wielkie wojny XX wieku (1914–1945) [The Great History of the World, vol. 11: Great Wars of the 20th century (1914–1945)], pp. 418–420 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_56-58-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_56-58_15-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tQuLoy4Dt0MC&pg=PT56">pp. 56–58.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_171-174-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_171-174_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_171-174_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_171-174_16-2">c</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 171–174 </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183_17-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_180-183_17-4">e</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 180–183 </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189_18-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189_18-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189_18-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189_18-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_183-189_18-7">h</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 183–189 </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_druga_wojna_37–38-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_druga_wojna_37–38_19-0">^</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia drugiej wojny światowej 1939–1945 [History of World War II 1939–1945], Dom Wydawniczy REBIS, Poznań 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7177-546-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7177-546-8">978-83-7177-546-8</a>, pp. 37–38 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_495–498-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_495–498_20-0">^</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 495–498. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_1000-1013-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1000-1013_21-11">l</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, pp. 1000–1013. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_59-66-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_59-66_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_59-66_22-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 59–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_229-230-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_229-230_23-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 229–230. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_174-177-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_174-177_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_174-177_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_174-177_24-2">c</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 174–177 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_69-76-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_69-76_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_69-76_25-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 69–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_215-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_215_26-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_499–504-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_499–504_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_499–504_27-1">b</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 499–504. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_52-56-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_52-56_28-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tQuLoy4Dt0MC&pg=PT52">pp. 52–56.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_995,_1000-1001-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_995,_1000-1001_29-0">^</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, pp. 995, 1000–1001. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_177-180-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_177-180_30-0">^</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 177–180 </li> <li id="cite_note-Zgórniak_448-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Zgórniak_448_31-0">^</a> Zgórniak, Marian; Łaptos, Józef; Solarz, Jacek (2006). Wielka historia świata, tom 11, wielkie wojny XX wieku (1914–1945) [The Great History of the World, vol. 11: Great Wars of the 20th century (1914–1945)], p. 448 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_86-90-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_86-90_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_86-90_32-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 86–90. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_504–511-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_504–511_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_504–511_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_504–511_33-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_504–511_33-3">d</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 504–511. </li> <li id="cite_note-Schulenburg-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schulenburg_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schulenburg_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schulenburg_34-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schulenburg_34-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schulenburg_34-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schulenburg_34-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedrich_Werner_von_der_Schulenburg" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Werner_von_der_Schulenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg">Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp">"The German Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Schulenburg) to the German Foreign Office"</a>. The Avalon Project. Yale Law School.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Avalon+Project&rft.atitle=The+German+Ambassador+in+the+Soviet+Union+%28Schulenburg%29+to+the+German+Foreign+Office&rft.au=Friedrich+Werner+von+der+Schulenburg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2Fsubject_menus%2Fnazsov.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_76-80-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_76-80_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_76-80_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_76-80_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_76-80_35-3">d</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 76–80. </li> <li id="cite_note-Piotrowski-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Piotrowski_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Piotrowski_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Piotrowski_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Piotrowski_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Piotrowski_36-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTadeusz_Piotrowski1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Piotrowski_(sociologist)" title="Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)">Tadeusz Piotrowski</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A4FlatJCro4C&q=1939+Soviet+citizenship+Poland&pg=PA295">Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide...</a> McFarland & Company. pp. 88–90, 295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-0371-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-0371-3"><bdi>0-7864-0371-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland%27s+Holocaust%3A+Ethnic+Strife%2C+Collaboration+with+Occupying+Forces+and+Genocide...&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E88-%3C%2Fspan%3E90%2C+295&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-7864-0371-3&rft.au=Tadeusz+Piotrowski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA4FlatJCro4C%26q%3D1939%2BSoviet%2Bcitizenship%2BPoland%26pg%3DPA295&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Militera-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Militera_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFМельтюхов_М.И.2000" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Мельтюхов М.И. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://militera.lib.ru/research/meltyukhov/03.html">"Упущенный шанс Сталина. Советский Союз и борьба за Европу: 1939–1941 (Dropped chance of Stalin: USSR and the struggle for Europe)"</a>. Militera.ru (in Russian). Moscow, Veche.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Militera.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%A3%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81+%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0.+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7+%D0%B8+%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B0+%D0%B7%D0%B0+%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%3A+1939%E2%80%931941+%28Dropped+chance+of+Stalin%3A+USSR+and+the+struggle+for+Europe%29&rft.date=2000&rft.au=%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%8E%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%9C.%D0%98.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmilitera.lib.ru%2Fresearch%2Fmeltyukhov%2F03.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_189-191-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_189-191_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_189-191_38-1">b</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 189–191 </li> <li id="cite_note-Czula_Jalta-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czula_Jalta_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czula_Jalta_39-1">b</a> Jan Czuła, Pożytki z Jałty [The benefits of Yalta], <a href="/wiki/Przegl%C4%85d" title="Przegląd">Przegląd</a> #13 (795), 23–29 March 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_94-97-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_94-97_40-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 94–97. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_80-84-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_80-84_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_80-84_41-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 80–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_193-198_42-14">o</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 193–198 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lukowski_255–256-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_255–256_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_255–256_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_255–256_43-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerzy_LukowskiHubert_Zawadzki" class="citation book cs1">Jerzy Lukowski; Hubert Zawadzki. A Concise History of Poland. pp. 255–256.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Poland&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E255-%3C%2Fspan%3E256&rft.au=Jerzy+Lukowski&rft.au=Hubert+Zawadzki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_257-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_257_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_257_44-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, p. 257. </li> <li id="cite_note-expatica-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-expatica_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-expatica_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-expatica_45-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-expatica_45-3">d</a> AFP/Expatica, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.expatica.com/de/news/german-news/Polish-experts-lower-nation_s-WWII-death-toll--_55843.html">Polish experts lower nation's WWII death toll</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120406115752/http://www.expatica.com/de/news/german-news/Polish-experts-lower-nation_s-WWII-death-toll--_55843.html">Archived</a> 2012-04-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, expatica.com, 30 August 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-szma-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szma_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szma_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szma_46-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szma_46-3">d</a> Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami, ed. Tomasz Szarota and Wojciech Materski, Warszawa, IPN 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7629-067-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7629-067-6">978-83-7629-067-6</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://niniwa2.cba.pl/polska_1939_1945.htm">Introduction reproduced here</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120323161233/http://niniwa2.cba.pl/polska_1939_1945.htm">Archived</a> 2012-03-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapoutot2018" class="citation book cs1">Chapoutot, Johann (2018). The Law of Blood: Thinking and Acting as a Nazi. Harvard University Press. pp. 330–334. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674660434" title="Special:BookSources/9780674660434"><bdi>9780674660434</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Law+of+Blood%3A+Thinking+and+Acting+as+a+Nazi&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E330-%3C%2Fspan%3E334&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780674660434&rft.aulast=Chapoutot&rft.aufirst=Johann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569_48-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569_48-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569_48-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569_48-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_555–569_48-6">g</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 555–569. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_167-168-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_167-168_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_167-168_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_167-168_49-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_167-168_49-3">d</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 167–168. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_309-311-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_309-311_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_309-311_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_309-311_50-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_309-311_50-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_309-311_50-4">e</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 309–311. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_376-377-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_376-377_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_376-377_51-1">b</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 376–377. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_1034-1035-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1034-1035_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1034-1035_52-1">b</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, pp. 1034–1035. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_165-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_165_53-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-Overy_298-299-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Overy_298-299_54-0">^</a> Overy, Richard (2010). The Times Complete History of the World (8th ed.), pp. 298–299. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209_55-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209_55-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209_55-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209_55-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209_55-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209_55-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209_55-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_207-209_55-9">j</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 207–209 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_99,_261-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_99,_261_56-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 99, 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_119-124-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_119-124_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_119-124_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_119-124_57-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_119-124_57-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_119-124_57-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_119-124_57-5">f</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 119–124. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_112-119-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_112-119_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_112-119_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_112-119_58-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_112-119_58-3">d</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 112–119. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_124-128-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_124-128_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_124-128_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_124-128_59-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_124-128_59-3">d</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 124–128. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_337-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_337_60-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 337. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_263-268-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_263-268_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_263-268_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_263-268_61-2">c</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 263–268. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_339-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_339_62-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 339. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_344-345-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_344-345_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_344-345_63-1">b</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 344–345. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_407-64"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_407_64-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 407. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_97-103-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_97-103_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_97-103_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_97-103_65-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_97-103_65-3">d</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 97–103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapoutot2018341–345-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapoutot2018341–345_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChapoutot2018">Chapoutot 2018</a>, pp. 341–345. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_268-271-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_268-271_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_268-271_67-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 268–271. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_323-324-68"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_323-324_68-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 323–324. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_601–606-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_601–606_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_601–606_69-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_601–606_69-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_601–606_69-3">d</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 601–606. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mędykowski_Warszawski_Pogromy-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mędykowski_Warszawski_Pogromy_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mędykowski_Warszawski_Pogromy_70-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mędykowski_Warszawski_Pogromy_70-2">c</a> Dawid Warszawski, Pogromy w cieniu gigantów. Żydzi i ich sąsiedzi po ataku III Rzeszy na ZSRR [Pogroms in the shadow of the giants. The Jews and their neighbors after the Third Reich's attack on the Soviet Union]. 3 January 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wyborcza.pl/magazyn/1,142467,17205370,Pogromy_w_cieniu_gigantow__Zydzi_i_ich_sasiedzi_po.html">Pogromy w cieniu gigantów. Żydzi i ich sąsiedzi po ataku III Rzeszy na ZSRR</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gazeta_Wyborcza" title="Gazeta Wyborcza">wyborcza.pl</a>. Retrieved 24 March 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_600-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_600_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_600_71-1">b</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], p. 600. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Law-Reports of Trials of War Criminals, The United Nations War Crimes Commission, Volume VII, London, HMSO, 1948 CASE NO. 37 The Trial of Haupturmfuhrer Amon Leopold Goeth page 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-Trela-Mazur-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trela-Mazur_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trela-Mazur_73-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trela-Mazur_73-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trela-Mazur_73-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trela-Mazur_73-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trela-Mazur_73-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trela-Mazur_73-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trela-Mazur_73-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trela-Mazur_73-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trela-Mazur_73-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElżbieta_Trela-Mazur1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/El%C5%BCbieta_Trela-Mazur" title="Elżbieta Trela-Mazur">Elżbieta Trela-Mazur</a> (1997). Włodzimierz Bonusiak; Stanisław Jan Ciesielski; Zygmunt Mańkowski; Mikołaj Iwanow (eds.). Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschodniej pod radziecką okupacją 1939–1941 (Sovietization of education in eastern Lesser Poland during the Soviet occupation 1939–1941) (in Polish). Kielce: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna im. Jana Kochanowskiego. p. 294. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7133-100-2" title="Special:BookSources/83-7133-100-2"><bdi>83-7133-100-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sowietyzacja+o%C5%9Bwiaty+w+Ma%C5%82opolsce+Wschodniej+pod+radzieck%C4%85+okupacj%C4%85+1939%E2%80%931941+%28Sovietization+of+education+in+eastern+Lesser+Poland+during+the+Soviet+occupation+1939%E2%80%931941%29&rft.place=Kielce&rft.pages=294&rft.pub=Wy%C5%BCsza+Szko%C5%82a+Pedagogiczna+im.+Jana+Kochanowskiego&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=83-7133-100-2&rft.au=El%C5%BCbieta+Trela-Mazur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988">, also in Wrocławskie Studia Wschodnie, Wrocław, 1997 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_569–570-74"><a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_569–570_74-0">^</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 569–570. </li> <li id="cite_note-Roszkowski-75"><a href="#cite_ref-Roszkowski_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWojciech_Roszkowski1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Roszkowski" title="Wojciech Roszkowski">Wojciech Roszkowski</a> (1998). Historia Polski 1914–1997 (in Polish). Warsaw: <a href="/wiki/Wydawnictwa_Naukowe_PWN" class="mw-redirect" title="Wydawnictwa Naukowe PWN">Wydawnictwa Naukowe PWN</a>. p. 476. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-01-12693-0" title="Special:BookSources/83-01-12693-0"><bdi>83-01-12693-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Polski+1914%E2%80%931997&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pages=476&rft.pub=Wydawnictwa+Naukowe+PWN&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=83-01-12693-0&rft.au=Wojciech+Roszkowski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sowietyzacja-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Sowietyzacja_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarious_authors1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Various authors (1998). Adam Sudoł (ed.). Sowietyzacja Kresów Wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej po 17 września 1939 (in Polish). Bydgoszcz: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna. p. 441. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7096-281-5" title="Special:BookSources/83-7096-281-5"><bdi>83-7096-281-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sowietyzacja+Kres%C3%B3w+Wschodnich+II+Rzeczypospolitej+po+17+wrze%C5%9Bnia+1939&rft.place=Bydgoszcz&rft.pages=441&rft.pub=Wy%C5%BCsza+Szko%C5%82a+Pedagogiczna&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=83-7096-281-5&rft.au=Various+authors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Relocation-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Relocation_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relocation_77-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvarious_authors2001" class="citation book cs1">various authors (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J9nuv7MGQ5MC&q=Sovietization&pg=PA309">"Stalinist Forced Relocation Policies"</a>. In Myron Weiner; Sharon Stanton Russell (eds.). Demography and National Security. Berghahn Books. pp. 308–315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57181-339-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-57181-339-X"><bdi>1-57181-339-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stalinist+Forced+Relocation+Policies&rft.btitle=Demography+and+National+Security&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E308-%3C%2Fspan%3E315&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-57181-339-X&rft.au=various+authors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ9nuv7MGQ5MC%26q%3DSovietization%26pg%3DPA309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Revolution-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Revolution_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Revolution_78-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_Tomasz_Gross2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tomasz_Gross" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Tomasz Gross">Jan Tomasz Gross</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XKtOr4EXOWwC&q=October+22+1939&pg=PA71">Revolution from Abroad</a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 396. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1"><bdi>0-691-09603-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+from+Abroad&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=396&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-691-09603-1&rft.au=Jan+Tomasz+Gross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXKtOr4EXOWwC%26q%3DOctober%2B22%2B1939%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lanckoronska-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Lanckoronska_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarolina_Lanckorońska2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Karolina_Lanckoro%C5%84ska" title="Karolina Lanckorońska">Karolina Lanckorońska</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lwow.com.pl/karolina.html">"I — Lwów"</a>. Wspomnienia wojenne; 22 IX 1939 – 5 IV 1945 (in Polish). Kraków: ZNAK. p. 364. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-240-0077-1" title="Special:BookSources/83-240-0077-1"><bdi>83-240-0077-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=I+%E2%80%94+Lw%C3%B3w&rft.btitle=Wspomnienia+wojenne%3B+22+IX+1939+%E2%80%93+5+IV+1945&rft.place=Krak%C3%B3w&rft.pages=364&rft.pub=ZNAK&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=83-240-0077-1&rft.au=Karolina+Lanckoro%C5%84ska&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lwow.com.pl%2Fkarolina.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578_80-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578_80-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578_80-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578_80-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578_80-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578_80-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_570–578_80-7">h</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 570–578. </li> <li id="cite_note-Dutton-81"><a href="#cite_ref-Dutton_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig_Thompson-Dutton1950" class="citation book cs1">Craig Thompson-Dutton (1950). "The Police State & The Police and the Judiciary". The Police State: What You Want to Know about the Soviet Union. Dutton. pp. 88–95.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Police+State+%26+The+Police+and+the+Judiciary&rft.btitle=The+Police+State%3A+What+You+Want+to+Know+about+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E88-%3C%2Fspan%3E95&rft.pub=Dutton&rft.date=1950&rft.au=Craig+Thompson-Dutton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parrish-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Parrish_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Parrish1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Parrish_(historian)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Parrish (historian) (page does not exist)">Michael Parrish</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NDgv5ognePgC&q=Soviet+Union+police+state+NKVD">The Lesser Terror: Soviet State Security, 1939–1953</a>. Praeger Publishers. pp. 99–101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-95113-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-95113-8"><bdi>0-275-95113-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lesser+Terror%3A+Soviet+State+Security%2C+1939%E2%80%931953&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E101&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-275-95113-8&rft.au=Michael+Parrish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNDgv5ognePgC%26q%3DSoviet%2BUnion%2Bpolice%2Bstate%2BNKVD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rutland-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Rutland_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Rutland1992" class="citation book cs1">Peter Rutland (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NZfqktloGCgC&q=Soviet+Union+police+state+NKVD&pg=PA9">"Introduction"</a>. The Politics of Economic Stagnation in the Soviet Union. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-39241-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-39241-1"><bdi>0-521-39241-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Economic+Stagnation+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-521-39241-1&rft.au=Peter+Rutland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNZfqktloGCgC%26q%3DSoviet%2BUnion%2Bpolice%2Bstate%2BNKVD%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Kravchenko-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Kravchenko_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVictor_A._Kravchenko1988" class="citation book cs1">Victor A. Kravchenko (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6KK8guKbfqkC&q=Soviet+Union+police+state+NKVD&pg=PA310">I Chose Justice</a>. Transaction Publishers. p. 310. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88738-756-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-88738-756-X"><bdi>0-88738-756-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Chose+Justice&rft.pages=310&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-88738-756-X&rft.au=Victor+A.+Kravchenko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6KK8guKbfqkC%26q%3DSoviet%2BUnion%2Bpolice%2Bstate%2BNKVD%26pg%3DPA310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karta-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Karta_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvarious_authorsStanisław_CiesielskiWojciech_MaterskiAndrzej_Paczkowski2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">various authors; Stanisław Ciesielski; Wojciech Materski; <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Paczkowski" title="Andrzej Paczkowski">Andrzej Paczkowski</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060222073214/http://www.indeks.karta.org.pl/represje_sowieckie_1.html">"Represje 1939–1941"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indeks.karta.org.pl/represje_sowieckie_1.html">Indeks represjonowanych</a> (in Polish) (2nd ed.). Warsaw: Ośrodek Karta. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-88288-31-8" title="Special:BookSources/83-88288-31-8"><bdi>83-88288-31-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indeks.karta.org.pl/represje_sowieckie_5.html">the original</a> on 2006-02-22. Retrieved 2006-03-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Represje+1939%E2%80%931941&rft.btitle=Indeks+represjonowanych&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=O%C5%9Brodek+Karta&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=83-88288-31-8&rft.au=various+authors&rft.au=Stanis%C5%82aw+Ciesielski&rft.au=Wojciech+Materski&rft.au=Andrzej+Paczkowski&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indeks.karta.org.pl%2Frepresje_sowieckie_5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gross-citizenship-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Gross-citizenship_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_Tomasz_Gross2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tomasz_Gross" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Tomasz Gross">Jan Tomasz Gross</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XKtOr4EXOWwC&q=October+22+1939&pg=PA71">Revolution from Abroad</a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 396. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1"><bdi>0-691-09603-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+from+Abroad&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=396&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-691-09603-1&rft.au=Jan+Tomasz+Gross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXKtOr4EXOWwC%26q%3DOctober%2B22%2B1939%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Revolution-2-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Revolution-2_87-0">^</a> Jan T. Gross, op cit, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XKtOr4EXOWwC&dq=1939+Soviet+citizenship+Poland&pg=PA188">p188</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gitelman-88"><a href="#cite_ref-Gitelman_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZvi_Gitelman2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zvi_Gitelman" title="Zvi Gitelman">Zvi Gitelman</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=crBhRHqSlJYC&q=1939+Soviet+citizenship+Poland&pg=PA116">A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University Press</a>. p. 116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-21418-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-21418-1"><bdi>0-253-21418-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Ambivalence%3A+The+Jews+of+Russia+and+the+Soviet+Union%2C+1881+to+the+Present&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-253-21418-1&rft.au=Zvi+Gitelman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcrBhRHqSlJYC%26q%3D1939%2BSoviet%2Bcitizenship%2BPoland%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gross_p35-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Gross_p35_89-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Tomasz_Gross" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Tomasz Gross">Jan Tomasz Gross</a>, Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia, Princeton University Press, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1">0-691-09603-1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XKtOr4EXOWwC&q=%22allegedly+read+the+text%22&pg=PA35">p. 35</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sowieckie_represje-90"><a href="#cite_ref-Sowieckie_represje_90-0">^</a> "O Sowieckich represjach wobec Polaków" IPN Bulletin 11(34) 2003 page 4–31 </li> <li id="cite_note-ipn_eng_katyn_decision-91"><a href="#cite_ref-ipn_eng_katyn_decision_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKużniar-Plota2004" class="citation web cs1">Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata (30 November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipn.gov.pl/portal/en/2/77/Decision_to_commence_investigation_into_Katyn_Massacre.html">"Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre"</a>. Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. Retrieved 12 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Decision+to+commence+investigation+into+Katyn+Massacre&rft.pub=Departmental+Commission+for+the+Prosecution+of+Crimes+against+the+Polish+Nation&rft.date=2004-11-30&rft.aulast=Ku%C5%BCniar-Plota&rft.aufirst=Ma%C5%82gorzata&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipn.gov.pl%2Fportal%2Fen%2F2%2F77%2FDecision_to_commence_investigation_into_Katyn_Massacre.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Piotr_p199-92"><a href="#cite_ref-Piotr_p199_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiotrowski1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Piotrowski_(sociologist)" title="Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)">Piotrowski, Tadeusz</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/177">"Ukrainian Collaborators"</a>. Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947. McFarland. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/177">177–259</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-0371-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-0371-3"><bdi>0-7864-0371-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ukrainian+Collaborators&rft.btitle=Poland%27s+Holocaust%3A+Ethnic+Strife%2C+Collaboration+with+Occupying+Forces+and+Genocide+in+the+Second+Republic%2C+1918%E2%80%931947&rft.pages=177-259&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-7864-0371-3&rft.aulast=Piotrowski&rft.aufirst=Tadeusz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolandsholocaust00piot%2Fpage%2F177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-From_Peace-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-From_Peace_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-From_Peace_93-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilitärgeschichtliches_ForschungsamtGottfried_Schramm1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Milit%C3%A4rgeschichtliches_Forschungsamt" class="mw-redirect" title="Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt">Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt</a>; Gottfried Schramm (1997). <a href="/wiki/Bernd_Wegner" title="Bernd Wegner">Bernd Wegner</a> (ed.). From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia and the World, 1939–1941. Berghahn Books. pp. 47–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57181-882-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-57181-882-0"><bdi>1-57181-882-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Peace+to+War%3A+Germany%2C+Soviet+Russia+and+the+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931941&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-57181-882-0&rft.au=Milit%C3%A4rgeschichtliches+Forschungsamt&rft.au=Gottfried+Schramm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_druga_wojna_68-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_druga_wojna_68_94-0">^</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia drugiej wojny światowej 1939–1945 [History of World War II 1939–1945], p. 68 </li> <li id="cite_note-IPN_decision-95"><a href="#cite_ref-IPN_decision_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050527124420/http://www.ipn.gov.pl/eng/eng_news_high_katyn_decision.html">"Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre"</a>. Institute of National Remembrance website. <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">Institute of National Remembrance</a>. 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipn.gov.pl/eng/eng_news_high_katyn_decision.html">the original</a> on May 27, 2005. Retrieved 2006-03-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+of+National+Remembrance+website&rft.atitle=Decision+to+commence+investigation+into+Katyn+Massacre&rft.date=2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipn.gov.pl%2Feng%2Feng_news_high_katyn_decision.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chodakiewicz-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Chodakiewicz_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarek_Jan_Chodakiewicz2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marek_Jan_Chodakiewicz" title="Marek Jan Chodakiewicz">Marek Jan Chodakiewicz</a> (2004). Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947. Lexington Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0484-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0484-5"><bdi>0-7391-0484-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Nazis+and+Soviets%3A+Occupation+Politics+in+Poland%2C+1939%E2%80%931947&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7391-0484-5&rft.au=Marek+Jan+Chodakiewicz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFbeanbean2008" class="citation web cs1">beanbean (2008-05-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140531104804/http://my.telegraph.co.uk/beanbean/beanbean/4054641/A_Polish_life_5_Starobielsk_and_the_transSiberian_railway/">"A Polish life. 5: Starobielsk and the trans-Siberian railway"</a>. <a href="/wiki/My_Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="My Telegraph">My Telegraph</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://my.telegraph.co.uk/beanbean/beanbean/4054641/A_Polish_life_5_Starobielsk_and_the_transSiberian_railway/">the original</a> on 2014-05-31. Retrieved 2012-05-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=My+Telegraph&rft.atitle=A+Polish+life.+5%3A+Starobielsk+and+the+trans-Siberian+railway&rft.date=2008-05-02&rft.au=beanbean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmy.telegraph.co.uk%2Fbeanbean%2Fbeanbean%2F4054641%2FA_Polish_life_5_Starobielsk_and_the_transSiberian_railway%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grudzinski-98"><a href="#cite_ref-Grudzinski_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGustaw_Herling-Grudziński1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gustaw_Herling-Grudzi%C5%84ski" title="Gustaw Herling-Grudziński">Gustaw Herling-Grudziński</a> (1996). A World Apart: Imprisonment in a Soviet Labor Camp During World War II. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. 284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-025184-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-025184-7"><bdi>0-14-025184-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+Apart%3A+Imprisonment+in+a+Soviet+Labor+Camp+During+World+War+II&rft.pages=284&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-14-025184-7&rft.au=Gustaw+Herling-Grudzi%C5%84ski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anders-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Anders_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWładysław_Anders1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Anders" title="Władysław Anders">Władysław Anders</a> (1995). Bez ostatniego rozdziału (in Polish). Lublin: Test. p. 540. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7038-168-5" title="Special:BookSources/83-7038-168-5"><bdi>83-7038-168-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bez+ostatniego+rozdzia%C5%82u&rft.place=Lublin&rft.pages=540&rft.pub=Test&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=83-7038-168-5&rft.au=W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw+Anders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_136-139-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_136-139_100-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 136–139. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_592-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_592_101-0">^</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], p. 592. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_376-383-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_376-383_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_376-383_102-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 376–383. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_581-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_581_103-0">^</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], p. 581. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_153-162-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_153-162_104-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 153–162. </li> <li id="cite_note-CT-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CT_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CT_105-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CT_105-2">c</a> Carla Tonini, The Polish underground press and the issue of collaboration with the Nazi occupiers, 1939–1944, European Review of History: Revue Européenne d'Histoire, Volume 15, Issue 2 April 2008, pages 193 – 205 </li> <li id="cite_note-KPF-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KPF_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KPF_106-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KPF_106-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KPF_106-3">d</a> Klaus-Peter Friedrich. Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II. Slavic Review, Vol. 64, No. 4, (Winter, 2005), pp. 711–746. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/3649910">JSTOR</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_192-193-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_192-193_107-0">^</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 192–193 </li> <li id="cite_note-JC-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JC_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JC_108-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JC_108-2">c</a> John Connelly, Why the Poles Collaborated so Little: And Why That Is No Reason for Nationalist Hubris, Slavic Review, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 771–781, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/3649912">JSTOR</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lukas-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Lukas_109-0">^</a> Richard C. Lukas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lz9obsxmuW4C&dq=%22&pg=PA13">Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust</a> University Press of Kentucky 1989 – 201 pages. Page 13; also in Richard C. Lukas, The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939–1944, University Press of Kentucky 1986 – 300 pages </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_275-276-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_275-276_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_275-276_110-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_275-276_110-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_275-276_110-3">d</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 275–276. </li> <li id="cite_note-Maciorowski_God_sent-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Maciorowski_God_sent_111-0">^</a> Mirosław Maciorowski, I wtedy Bóg zesłał Żydom Polaków. IPN pisze historię na nowo [And then God sent the Jews Poles. The <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">IPN</a> writes history from the scratch]. 02 October 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wyborcza.pl/7,75968,22456400,i-wtedy-bog-zeslal-zydom-polakow-ipn-pisze-historie-na-nowo.html">I wtedy Bóg zesłał Żydom Polaków</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gazeta_Wyborcza" title="Gazeta Wyborcza">wyborcza.pl</a>. Retrieved 14 October 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hempel_2-112"><a href="#cite_ref-Hempel_2_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHempel1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hempel, Adam (1987). Policja granatowa w okupacyjnym systemie administracyjnym Generalnego Gubernatorstwa: 1939–1945 (in Polish). Warsaw: Instytut Wydawniczy Związków Zawodowych. p. 83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Policja+granatowa+w+okupacyjnym+systemie+administracyjnym+Generalnego+Gubernatorstwa%3A+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Instytut+Wydawniczy+Zwi%C4%85zk%C3%B3w+Zawodowych&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Hempel&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-encholo-113"><a href="#cite_ref-encholo_113-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://motlc.learningcenter.wiesenthal.org/text/x25/xr2513.html">Encyclopedia of the Holocaust</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928003439/http://motlc.learningcenter.wiesenthal.org/text/x25/xr2513.html">Archived</a> 2007-09-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> entry on the Blue Police, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York NY, 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-864527-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-864527-8">0-02-864527-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Paulsson-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paulsson_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paulsson_114-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunnar_S._Paulsson2004" class="citation book cs1">Gunnar S. Paulsson (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7xC5wNo0edoC&pg=PA118">"The Demography of Jews in Hiding in Warsaw"</a>. The Holocaust: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-27509-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-27509-1"><bdi>0-415-27509-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Demography+of+Jews+in+Hiding+in+Warsaw&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust%3A+Critical+Concepts+in+Historical+Studies&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-415-27509-1&rft.au=Gunnar+S.+Paulsson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7xC5wNo0edoC%26pg%3DPA118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hempel-115"><a href="#cite_ref-Hempel_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHempel1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hempel, Adam (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sy0iAAAAMAAJ">Pogrobowcy klęski: rzecz o policji "granatowej" w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie 1939–1945</a> (in Polish). Warsaw: <a href="/wiki/Pa%C5%84stwowe_Wydawnictwo_Naukowe" class="mw-redirect" title="Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe">Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe</a>. p. 456. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-01-09291-2" title="Special:BookSources/83-01-09291-2"><bdi>83-01-09291-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pogrobowcy+kl%C4%99ski%3A+rzecz+o+policji+%22granatowej%22+w+Generalnym+Gubernatorstwie+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pages=456&rft.pub=Pa%C5%84stwowe+Wydawnictwo+Naukowe&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=83-01-09291-2&rft.aulast=Hempel&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dsy0iAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paczkowski-2-116"><a href="#cite_ref-Paczkowski-2_116-0">^</a> Paczkowski (op.cit., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKQWem2yl4C&pg=PA60">p.60</a>) cites 10% of policemen and 20% of officers </li> <li id="cite_note-PWN-117"><a href="#cite_ref-PWN_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927215547/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3959423">"Policja Polska Generalnego Gubernatorstwa"</a>. Encyklopedia Internetowa PWN (in Polish). Warsaw: <a href="/wiki/Pa%C5%84stwowe_Wydawnictwa_Naukowe" class="mw-redirect" title="Państwowe Wydawnictwa Naukowe">Państwowe Wydawnictwa Naukowe</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3959423">the original</a> on 2013-09-27. Retrieved 2009-10-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Policja+Polska+Generalnego+Gubernatorstwa&rft.btitle=Encyklopedia+Internetowa+PWN&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pub=Pa%C5%84stwowe+Wydawnictwa+Naukowe&rft.date=2005&rft.au=%3CPlease+add+first+missing+authors+to+populate+metadata.%3E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyklopedia.pwn.pl%2Fhaslo.php%3Fid%3D3959423&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206755.pdf">The Righteous Among The Nations – Polish rescuer Waclaw Nowinski</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Polacy_wobec_Holocaustu-119"><a href="#cite_ref-Polacy_wobec_Holocaustu_119-0">^</a> Leszczyński, Adam (7 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wyborcza.pl/alehistoria/1,128609,12441919,Polacy_wobec_Holocaustu.html">"Polacy wobec Holocaustu"</a> ["Poles and the Holocaust"]. (A conversation with <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a>). <a href="/wiki/Gazeta_Wyborcza" title="Gazeta Wyborcza">wyborcza.pl</a>. Retrieved 11 June 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-Chod-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Chod_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarek_Jan_Chodakiewicz2006" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a href="/wiki/Marek_Jan_Chodakiewicz" title="Marek Jan Chodakiewicz">Marek Jan Chodakiewicz</a> (April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120718034701/http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/406/262choda.html">"Review of Sowjetische Partisanen in Weißrußland by Bogdan Musial"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sarmatian_Review" title="Sarmatian Review">Sarmatian Review</a>. Archived from the original on July 18, 2012 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Review+of+Sowjetische+Partisanen+in+Wei%C3%9Fru%C3%9Fland+by+Bogdan+Musial&rft.date=2006-04&rft.au=Marek+Jan+Chodakiewicz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ruf.rice.edu%2F~sarmatia%2F406%2F262choda.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_637–640-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_637–640_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_637–640_121-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_637–640_121-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_637–640_121-3">d</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 637–640. </li> <li id="cite_note-zizas19421944-122"><a href="#cite_ref-zizas19421944_122-0">^</a> (in Lithuanian) Rimantas Zizas. Armijos Krajovos veikla Lietuvoje 1942–1944 metais (Acitivies of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania in 1942–1944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 14–39. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995. </li> <li id="cite_note-yadvashem-Pohl-123"><a href="#cite_ref-yadvashem-Pohl_123-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDieter_Pohl" class="citation book cs1">Dieter Pohl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yad-vashem.org.il/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%202292.pdf">Hans Krueger and the Murder of the Jews in the Stanislawow Region (Galicia)</a> (PDF). pp. 12/13, 17/18, 21 – via Yad Vashem.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hans+Krueger+and+the+Murder+of+the+Jews+in+the+Stanislawow+Region+%28Galicia%29&rft.pages=12%2F13%2C+17%2F18%2C+21&rft.au=Dieter+Pohl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fyad-vashem.org.il%2Fodot_pdf%2FMicrosoft%2520Word%2520-%25202292.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_521–535-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_521–535_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_521–535_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_521–535_124-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_521–535_124-3">d</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 521–535. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_1021-125"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1021_125-0">^</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, p. 1021. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jedwabne_POLIN-126"><a href="#cite_ref-Jedwabne_POLIN_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polin.pl/en/news/2016/07/09/jedwabne-timeline-of-remebrance">"Jedwabne – timeline of remebrance"</a>. Museum of the History of Polish Jews. <a href="/wiki/POLIN_Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews" title="POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews">POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews</a>. 2016. Retrieved 2018-02-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Museum+of+the+History+of+Polish+Jews&rft.atitle=Jedwabne+%E2%80%93+timeline+of+remebrance&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.polin.pl%2Fen%2Fnews%2F2016%2F07%2F09%2Fjedwabne-timeline-of-remebrance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Polish_Town_Still_Tries-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Polish_Town_Still_Tries_127-0">^</a> Green, Peter S. (8 February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/08/world/polish-town-still-tries-to-forget-its-dark-past.html">Polish Town Still Tries To Forget Its Dark Past</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 04 February 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-Tomasz_Strzembosz-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Tomasz_Strzembosz_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProf._Tomasz_Strzembosz2001" class="citation journal cs1">Prof. <a href="/wiki/Tomasz_Strzembosz" title="Tomasz Strzembosz">Tomasz Strzembosz</a> (31 March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010610072611/http://www.rzeczpospolita.pl/gazeta/wydanie_010331/publicystyka/publicystyka_a_2.html">"Inny obraz sąsiadów"</a> [A different picture of neighbors]. <a href="/wiki/Rzeczpospolita_(newspaper)" title="Rzeczpospolita (newspaper)">Rzeczpospolita</a> (77). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rzeczpospolita.pl/gazeta/wydanie_010331/publicystyka/publicystyka_a_2.html">the original</a> on June 10, 2001. Retrieved May 18, 2015 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rzeczpospolita&rft.atitle=Inny+obraz+s%C4%85siad%C3%B3w&rft.issue=77&rft.date=2001-03-31&rft.au=Prof.+Tomasz+Strzembosz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rzeczpospolita.pl%2Fgazeta%2Fwydanie_010331%2Fpublicystyka%2Fpublicystyka_a_2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Zamoyski, Adam. The Polish Way, p. 360. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8">0-7818-0200-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_198-201-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_198-201_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_198-201_130-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_198-201_130-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_198-201_130-3">d</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 198–201 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lukowski_264–269-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_264–269_131-14">o</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerzy_LukowskiHubert_Zawadzki" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Lukowski" title="Jerzy Lukowski">Jerzy Lukowski</a>; Hubert Zawadzki. A Concise History of Poland. pp. 264–269.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Poland&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E264-%3C%2Fspan%3E269&rft.au=Jerzy+Lukowski&rft.au=Hubert+Zawadzki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_349–350-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_349–350_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_349–350_132-1">b</a> Brzoza, Czesław (2003). Polska w czasach niepodległości i II wojny światowej (1918–1945) [Poland in Times of Independence and World War II (1918–1945)], pp. 349–350 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_627–628-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_627–628_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_627–628_133-1">b</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 627–628. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_202-204-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_202-204_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_202-204_134-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_202-204_134-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_202-204_134-3">d</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 202–204 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_278-285-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_278-285_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_278-285_135-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_278-285_135-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_278-285_135-3">d</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 278–285. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220_136-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220_136-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220_136-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220_136-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_218-220_136-5">f</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 218–220 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mikolejko_jeden_drugiemu-137"><a href="#cite_ref-Mikolejko_jeden_drugiemu_137-0">^</a> Aleksandra Klich, Zbigniew Mikołejko: Jeden drugiemu wchodzi na głowę [Zbigniew Mikołejko: One steps on another one's head]. 25 June 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wyborcza.pl/magazyn/1,153011,20296903,zbigniew-mikolejko-jeden-drugiemu-wchodzi-na-glowe.html">"Jeden drugiemu"</a>. A conversation with Zbigniew Mikołejko. <a href="/wiki/Gazeta_Wyborcza" title="Gazeta Wyborcza">wyborcza.pl</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_312-138"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_312_138-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 312. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_417-139"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_417_139-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 417. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_285-290-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_285-290_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_285-290_140-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_285-290_140-2">c</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 285–290. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_317-318-141"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_317-318_141-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 317–318. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_630–637-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_630–637_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_630–637_142-1">b</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 630–637. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_384-386-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_384-386_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_384-386_143-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_384-386_143-2">c</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 384–386. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218_144-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218_144-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218_144-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218_144-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218_144-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_213-218_144-6">g</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 213–218 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_642–650-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_642–650_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_642–650_145-1">b</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 642–650. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_392-402-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_392-402_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_392-402_146-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 392–402. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_1040-1044-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1040-1044_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1040-1044_147-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1040-1044_147-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1040-1044_147-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1040-1044_147-4">e</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, pp. 1040–1044. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cel_Warszawa-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cel_Warszawa_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cel_Warszawa_148-1">b</a> Norbert Bączyk, Cel: Warszawa ('Destination: Warsaw'). 12 September 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.polityka.pl/tygodnikpolityka/historia/1719126,1,armia-czerwona-wobec-powstania-warszawskiego.read">Cel: Warszawa</a>. <a href="/wiki/Polityka" title="Polityka">Polityka</a> nr. 37 (3127). Retrieved 9 December 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_402-426-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_402-426_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_402-426_149-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_402-426_149-2">c</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 402–426. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_32,_117-118-150"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_32,_117-118_150-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 32, 117–118. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_119-121-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_119-121_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_119-121_151-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_119-121_151-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_119-121_151-3">d</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 119–121. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_210-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_210_152-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_316-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_316_153-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 316. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_654–662-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_654–662_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_654–662_154-1">b</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 654–662. </li> <li id="cite_note-Zaremba_Biedni_Polacy-155"><a href="#cite_ref-Zaremba_Biedni_Polacy_155-0">^</a> Marcin Zaremba, Biedni Polacy na żniwach [Poor Poles at the harvest] (17 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wyborcza.pl/1,76842,8951226,Biedni_Polacy_na_zniwach___Recenzja__Zlotych_Zniw_.html">Biedni Polacy na żniwach</a>. Gazeta Wyborcza wyborcza.pl. Retrieved 29 February 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-Przyczolek_219–220-156"><a href="#cite_ref-Przyczolek_219–220_156-0">^</a> Szymon Nowak, Przyczółek Czerniakowski 1944 ('The Czerniaków Bridgehead, 1944'), pp. 219–220. Zabrze 2011, Wydawnictwo inforteditions, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-89943-65-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-89943-65-1">978-83-89943-65-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_God's_Playground_II_355-157"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_God's_Playground_II_355_157-0">^</a> Norman Davies, God's Playground volume II, p. 355. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, New York 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12819-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12819-3">978-0-231-12819-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_342-158"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_342_158-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 342. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_320-159"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_320_159-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 320. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_499-515-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_499-515_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_499-515_160-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_499-515_160-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_499-515_160-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_499-515_160-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_499-515_160-5">f</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 499–515. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_520-527-161">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_520-527_161-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_520-527_161-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_520-527_161-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_520-527_161-3">d</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 520–527. </li> <li id="cite_note-Leder_Rewolucja_57-162"><a href="#cite_ref-Leder_Rewolucja_57_162-0">^</a> Andrzej Leder, Prześniona rewolucja. Ćwiczenie z logiki historycznej [The dreamed revolution: An exercise in historical logic], Wydawnictwo <a href="/wiki/Krytyka_Polityczna" title="Krytyka Polityczna">Krytyka Polityczna</a>, Warszawa 2014, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-63855-61-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-63855-61-1">978-83-63855-61-1</a>, p. 57 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_27-32-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_27-32_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_27-32_163-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tQuLoy4Dt0MC&pg=PT27">pp. 27–32.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karski_Gross_Zagadnienie-164"><a href="#cite_ref-Karski_Gross_Zagadnienie_164-0">^</a> Jan Karski, Zagadnienie żydowskie w Polsce pod okupacjami [The Jewish Question in Poland Under the Occupations]. 15 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wyborcza.pl/magazyn/1,142070,16968064,Zagadnienie_zydowskie_w_Polsce_po">d_okupacjami.html Zagadnienie żydowskie w Polsce pod okupacjami</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gazeta_Wyborcza" title="Gazeta Wyborcza">wyborcza.pl</a>. Retrieved 08 January 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-Weinbaum_Confronting-165"><a href="#cite_ref-Weinbaum_Confronting_165-0">^</a> Weinbaum, Laurence (21 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/confronting-chilling-truths-about-polands-wartime-history/2015/04/21/f0588dce-e782-11e4-aae1-d642717d8afa_story.html">Confronting chilling truths about Poland's wartime history</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. Retrieved 01 December 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bikont:_Na_każdym_kroku-166"><a href="#cite_ref-Bikont:_Na_każdym_kroku_166-0">^</a> Olga Wróbel, Bikont: Na każdym kroku pilnie wykluczano Żydów z polskiej społeczności ('Bikont: The Jews were diligently excluded from Polish society at every step'). 02 February 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://krytykapolityczna.pl/kultura/czytaj-dalej/bikont-na-kazdym-kroku-pilnie-wykluczano-zydow-z-polskiej-spolecznosci/">Bikont: Na każdym kroku pilnie wykluczano Żydów z polskiej społeczności</a>. <a href="/wiki/Krytyka_Polityczna" title="Krytyka Polityczna">Krytyka Polityczna</a>. Retrieved 07 February 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_107-112-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_107-112_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_107-112_167-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 107–112. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_358-364-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_358-364_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_358-364_168-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_358-364_168-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_358-364_168-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_358-364_168-4">e</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 358–364. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_294-298-169"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_294-298_169-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 294–298. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_298-303-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_298-303_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_298-303_170-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_298-303_170-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_298-303_170-3">d</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 298–303. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_303-306-171"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_303-306_171-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 303–306. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_306-313-172"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_306-313_172-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 306–313. </li> <li id="cite_note-Overy_300-301-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Overy_300-301_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Overy_300-301_173-1">b</a> Overy, Richard (2010). The Times Complete History of the World (8th ed.), pp. 300–301. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_606–609-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_606–609_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_606–609_174-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_606–609_174-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_606–609_174-3">d</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 606–609. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_291-294-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_291-294_175-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 291–294. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_327-328-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_327-328_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_327-328_176-1">b</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 327–328. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lukowski_260–261-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_260–261_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_260–261_177-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerzy_LukowskiHubert_Zawadzki" class="citation book cs1">Jerzy Lukowski; Hubert Zawadzki. A Concise History of Poland. pp. 260–261.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Poland&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E260-%3C%2Fspan%3E261&rft.au=Jerzy+Lukowski&rft.au=Hubert+Zawadzki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warszawski_Morawiecki-178"><a href="#cite_ref-Warszawski_Morawiecki_178-0">^</a> Dawid Warszawski, Co premier widzi, a czego nie. Morawiecki w Nowym Jorku fałszuje historię [What the prime minister sees, and what he doesn't. Morawiecki in New York falsifies history]. 18 April 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wyborcza.pl/7,75399,24679715,co-premier-widzi-a-czego-nie-morawiecki-w-nowym-jorku-falszuje.html">Co premier widzi, a czego nie</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gazeta_Wyborcza" title="Gazeta Wyborcza">wyborcza.pl</a>. Retrieved 18 April 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-Grabowski_Aderet_Haaretz-179"><a href="#cite_ref-Grabowski_Aderet_Haaretz_179-0">^</a> Ofer Aderet, "'Orgy of Murder': The Poles Who 'Hunted' Jews and Turned Them Over to the Nazis" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/MAGAZINE-orgy-of-murder-the-poles-who-hunted-jews-and-turned-them-in-1.5430977">'Orgy of Murder'</a>. Haaretz.com, Feb. 11, 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_374-180"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_374_180-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 374. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100818194708/http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/statistics.asp">"The Righteous Among The Nations"</a>. yadvashem.org. January 1, 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/statistics.asp">the original</a> on August 18, 2010. Retrieved September 21, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Righteous+Among+The+Nations&rft.pub=yadvashem.org&rft.date=2012-01-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.yadvashem.org%2Fyv%2Fen%2Frighteous%2Fstatistics.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_313-324-182"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_313-324_182-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 313–324. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_351-352-183">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_351-352_183-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_351-352_183-1">b</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 351–352. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_34-37-184"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_34-37_184-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tQuLoy4Dt0MC&pg=PT34">pp. 34–37.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_103-107-185"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_103-107_185-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 103–107. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_359-363-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_359-363_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_359-363_186-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 359–363. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Timothy Snyder. (2003)The Causes of Ukrainian-Polish Ethnic Cleansing 1943, The Past and Present Society: Oxford University Press. pg. 220 </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Piotrowski_(sociologist)" title="Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)">Tadeusz Piotrowski</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/247">holocaust. Published by McFarland. Page 247</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Magosci, Motyka, Rossolinski </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_212-214-190"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_212-214_190-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 212–214. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_512–521-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_512–521_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_512–521_191-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_512–521_191-2">c</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 512–521. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_214-219-192"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_214-219_192-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 214–219. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_219-221-193"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_219-221_193-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 219–221. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_231-234-194"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_231-234_194-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 231–234. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_221-224-195"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_221-224_195-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 221–224. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_204-207-196">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_204-207_196-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_204-207_196-1">b</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 204–207 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_163-170-197">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_163-170_197-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_163-170_197-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 163–170. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_170-173-198">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_170-173_198-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_170-173_198-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 170–173. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_182-187-199"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_182-187_199-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 182–187. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_190-193-200"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_190-193_200-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 190–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_312–322-201">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_312–322_201-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_312–322_201-1">b</a> Brzoza, Czesław (2003). Polska w czasach niepodległości i II wojny światowej (1918–1945) [Poland in Times of Independence and World War II (1918–1945)], Kraków: Fogra, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-385-71961-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-385-71961-8">978-8-385-71961-8</a>, pp. 312–322. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213-202">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213_202-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213_202-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213_202-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213_202-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_210-213_202-4">e</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 210–213 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eisler_Siedmiu_178–185-203"><a href="#cite_ref-Eisler_Siedmiu_178–185_203-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Eisler" title="Jerzy Eisler">Jerzy Eisler</a>, Siedmiu wspaniałych poczet pierwszych sekretarzy KC PZPR [The Magnificent Seven: First Secretaries of the KC PZPR], Wydawnictwo Czerwone i Czarne, Warszawa 2014, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7700-042-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7700-042-7">978-83-7700-042-7</a>, pp. 178–185 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_338-344-204"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_338-344_204-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 338–344. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_182-183-205"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_182-183_205-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 182–183. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_325-333-206">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_325-333_206-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_325-333_206-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 325–333. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_349-354-207"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_349-354_207-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 349–354. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_354-357-208"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_354-357_208-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 354–357. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_1036-1039-209">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1036-1039_209-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1036-1039_209-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1036-1039_209-2">c</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, pp. 1036–1039. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_364–374-210">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_364–374_210-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_364–374_210-1">b</a> Brzoza, Czesław (2003). Polska w czasach niepodległości i II wojny światowej (1918–1945) [Poland in Times of Independence and World War II (1918–1945)], pp. 364–374. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_445-454-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_445-454_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_445-454_211-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_445-454_211-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_445-454_211-3">d</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 445–454. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_439-445-212">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_439-445_212-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_439-445_212-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 439–445. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_456-460-213"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_456-460_213-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 456–460. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_472-480-214"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_472-480_214-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 472–480. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_480-486-215"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_480-486_215-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 480–486. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_486-495-216"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_486-495_216-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 486–495. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_535–548-217"><a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_535–548_217-0">^</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 535–548. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_115-116-218"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_115-116_218-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 115–116. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.warsawuprising.com/paper/nkvd.htm">The NKVD Against the Home Army (Armia Krajowa)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210121073022/http://www.warsawuprising.com/paper/nkvd.htm">Archived</a> 2021-01-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Warsaw Uprising 1944 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_426-433-220">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_426-433_220-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_426-433_220-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_426-433_220-2">c</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 426–433. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_515-520-221">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_515-520_221-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_515-520_221-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_515-520_221-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_515-520_221-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_515-520_221-4">e</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 515–520. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_549–553-222">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_549–553_222-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_549–553_222-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_549–553_222-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_549–553_222-3">d</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 549–553. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226-223">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226_223-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226_223-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226_223-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226_223-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_223-226_223-4">e</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 223–226 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_545-552-224">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_545-552_224-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_545-552_224-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_545-552_224-2">c</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 545–552. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_532-536-225">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_532-536_225-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_532-536_225-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_532-536_225-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_532-536_225-3">d</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 532–536. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_552-563-226">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_552-563_226-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_552-563_226-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 552–563. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233-227">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233_227-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233_227-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233_227-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233_227-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_229-233_227-4">e</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 229–233 </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222-228">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222_228-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222_228-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222_228-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222_228-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222_228-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_220-222_228-5">f</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 220–222 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_191-192-229"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_191-192_229-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 191–192. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_408-230"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_408_230-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 408. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_238-240-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_238-240_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_238-240_231-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_238-240_231-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_238-240_231-3">d</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 238–240 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_536-537-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_536-537_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_536-537_232-1">b</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 536–537. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_569-577-233"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_569-577_233-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 569–577. </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wprost.pl/ar/?O=12571">Polski Gułag</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930205033/http://www.wprost.pl/ar/?O=12571">Archived</a> 2007-09-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_527-531-235"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_527-531_235-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 527–531. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_1050-1051-236"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1050-1051_236-0">^</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, pp. 1050–1051. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_1060-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1060_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1060_237-1">b</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, p. 1060. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Europe_1061-1062-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Europe_1061-1062_238-0">^</a> Norman Davies, Europe: A History, pp. 1061–1062. </li> <li id="cite_note-Leder_Rewolucja_156–157-239"><a href="#cite_ref-Leder_Rewolucja_156–157_239-0">^</a> Andrzej Leder, Prześniona rewolucja. Ćwiczenie z logiki historycznej [The dreamed revolution: An exercise in historical logic], pp. 156–157 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kopp-240"><a href="#cite_ref-Kopp_240-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoppNiżyńska2012" class="citation book cs1">Kopp, Kristin; Niżyńska, Joanna (2012). Germany, Poland and Postmemorial Relations: In Search of a Livable Past. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-33730-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-33730-5"><bdi>978-0-230-33730-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%2C+Poland+and+Postmemorial+Relations%3A+In+Search+of+a+Livable+Past&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-230-33730-5&rft.aulast=Kopp&rft.aufirst=Kristin&rft.au=Ni%C5%BCy%C5%84ska%2C+Joanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_historia_Polski_233-236-241">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_233-236_241-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_233-236_241-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_233-236_241-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_historia_Polski_233-236_241-3">d</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia Polski XX wieku [The History of 20th Century Poland], pp. 233–236 </li> <li id="cite_note-Leder_Rewolucja_158–159-242"><a href="#cite_ref-Leder_Rewolucja_158–159_242-0">^</a> Andrzej Leder, Prześniona rewolucja. Ćwiczenie z logiki historycznej [The dreamed revolution: An exercise in historical logic], pp. 158–159 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_347-348-243"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_347-348_243-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 347–348. </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.migrationeducation.org/13.0.html">Forced migration in the 20th century</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151021014423/http://www.migrationeducation.org/13.0.html">Archived</a> 2015-10-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eisler_Siedmiu_61–62-245"><a href="#cite_ref-Eisler_Siedmiu_61–62_245-0">^</a> Jerzy Eisler, Siedmiu wspaniałych poczet pierwszych sekretarzy KC PZPR [The Magnificent Seven: First Secretaries of the KC PZPR], pp. 61–62 </li> <li id="cite_note-Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_wloskiej-246"><a href="#cite_ref-Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_wloskiej_246-0">^</a> Leszczyński, Adam (19 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wyborcza.pl/alehistoria/1,137931,15972336,Z_ziemi_polskiej_do_wloskiej.html">"Z ziemi polskiej do włoskiej"</a> ["From the Polish to the Italian land"]. (A conversation with Zbigniew Wawer). Gazeta Wyborcza wyborcza.pl. Retrieved 08 March 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_483-486-247"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_483-486_247-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 483–486. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_160-161-248"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_160-161_248-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 160–161. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_102-249"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_102_249-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_Victory_171-172-250"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_Victory_171-172_250-0">^</a> Norman Davies, No Simple Victory, pp. 171–172. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_druga_wojna_32-251"><a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_druga_wojna_32_251-0">^</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia drugiej wojny światowej 1939–1945 [History of World War II 1939–1945], p. 32 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_434-439-252"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_434-439_252-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 434–439. </li> <li id="cite_note-Snyder_Reconstruction_88,_93-253"><a href="#cite_ref-Snyder_Reconstruction_88,_93_253-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_D._Snyder" class="mw-redirect" title="Timothy D. Snyder">Snyder, Timothy</a> (2003). The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999. Yale University Press. pp. 88, 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300105865" title="Special:BookSources/9780300105865"><bdi>9780300105865</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reconstruction+of+Nations%3A+Poland%2C+Ukraine%2C+Lithuania%2C+Belarus%2C+1569%E2%80%931999&rft.pages=88%2C+93&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780300105865&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_460-463-254"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_460-463_254-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 460–463. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_365–367-255"><a href="#cite_ref-Brzoza_Sowa_Historia_Polski_1918–1945_365–367_255-0">^</a> Czesław Brzoza, Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia Polski 1918–1945 [History of Poland: 1918–1945], pp. 365–367. </li> <li id="cite_note-Czubiński_druga_wojna_218,_226-256"><a href="#cite_ref-Czubiński_druga_wojna_218,_226_256-0">^</a> Antoni Czubiński, Historia drugiej wojny światowej 1939–1945 [History of World War II 1939–1945], pp. 218, 226 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_537-541-257"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_537-541_257-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 537–541. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochanski_541-545-258"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochanski_541-545_258-0">^</a> Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed, pp. 541–545. </li> <li id="cite_note-Masakra-259"><a href="#cite_ref-Masakra_259-0">^</a> Krzysztof Wasilewski, Masakra żołnierzy Berlinga [Massacre of Berling's soldiers].<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tygodnikprzeglad.pl/masakra-zolnierzy-berlinga/">Masakra</a>. <a href="/wiki/Przegl%C4%85d" title="Przegląd">przeglad-tygodnik.pl</a>. 29 September 2014. Retrieved 25 June 2016. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="Bibliography of Poland during World War II">Bibliography of Poland during World War II</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWork1947" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Work, Group (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/publication/52713">"Sprawozdanie w przedmiocie strat i szkód wojennych Polski w latach 1939-1945" (eng. "Report on the losses and damages of war in Poland in 1939-1945") DJVU file</a> (in Polish). Warszawa: Biuro Odszkodowań Wojennych.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Sprawozdanie+w+przedmiocie+strat+i+szk%C3%B3d+wojennych+Polski+w+latach+1939-1945%22+%28eng.+%22Report+on+the+losses+and+damages+of+war+in+Poland+in+1939-1945%22%29+DJVU+file&rft.place=Warszawa&rft.pub=Biuro+Odszkodowa%C5%84+Wojennych&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Work&rft.aufirst=Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wbc.poznan.pl%2Fpublication%2F52713&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|first=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marek_Jan_Chodakiewicz" title="Marek Jan Chodakiewicz">Chodakiewicz, Marek Jan</a>. Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2004 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0484-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0484-5">0-7391-0484-5</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070611023222/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=154561122407785">online review</a></li> <li>Coutouvidis, John, and Reynolds, Jaime. Poland, 1939–1947 (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a> (1982), God's Playground. New York: Columbia University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-05353-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-05353-3">0-231-05353-3</a> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-05351-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-05351-7">0-231-05351-7</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a> Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw (2004)</li> <li>Douglas, R.M. Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16660-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16660-6">978-0-300-16660-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritz,_Stephen_G.2011" class="citation book cs1">Fritz, Stephen G. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gxGxGgzxKHsC">Ostkrieg: Hitler's War of Extermination in the East</a>. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813140506" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813140506"><bdi>978-0813140506</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ostkrieg%3A+Hitler%27s+War+of+Extermination+in+the+East&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0813140506&rft.au=Fritz%2C+Stephen+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgxGxGgzxKHsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tomasz_Gross" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Tomasz Gross">Gross, Jan Tomasz</a>, Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia, Princeton University Press, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-09603-1">0-691-09603-1</a>.</li> <li>Gross, Jan T. Polish Society under German Occupation: The Generalgouvernement, 1939–1944 (Princeton UP, 1979)</li> <li>Hiden, John. ed. The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War, Cambridge University Press, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-53120-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-53120-9">0-521-53120-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halik_Kochanski" title="Halik Kochanski">Kochanski, Halik</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tQuLoy4Dt0MC">The Eagle Unbowed: Poland and the Poles in the Second World War.</a> Harvard U.P., 2012, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674071050" title="Special:BookSources/0674071050">0674071050</a>, with <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/The-Eagle-Unbowed-Poland-Second/dp/0674068149/">word search by Amazon.</a></li> <li>Koskodan, Kenneth K. No Greater Ally: The Untold Story of Poland's Forces in World War II, Osprey Publishing 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84908-479-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84908-479-6">978-1-84908-479-6</a>.</li> <li>Lukas, Richard C. Did the Children Cry: Hitler's War Against Jewish and Polish Children, 1939–1945 (1st ed.; N.Y.:Hippocrene, 1994). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0242-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0242-3">0-7818-0242-3</a></li> <li>Lukas, Richard C. Forgotten Holocaust:The Poles under German Occupation, 1939–1944 (3rd rev. ed.; N.Y.:Hippocrene, 2012). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7818-1302-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7818-1302-0">978-0-7818-1302-0</a></li> <li>Lukas, Richard C. Forgotten Survivors:Polish Christians Remember the Nazi Occupation (1st ed.; Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0242-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0242-3">0-7818-0242-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSword,_Keith1991" class="citation book cs1">Sword, Keith (1991). The Soviet Takeover of the Polish Eastern Provinces, 1939–41. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-05570-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-05570-6"><bdi>0-312-05570-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Takeover+of+the+Polish+Eastern+Provinces%2C+1939%E2%80%9341&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-312-05570-6&rft.au=Sword%2C+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Poland+%281939%E2%80%931945%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Snyder, Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (2010)</li> <li>Terlecki, Olgierd. (1972), Poles in the Italian Campaign, 1943–1945, Interpress Publishers.</li> <li>Steven J. Zaloga, Poland 1939: The birth of Blitzkrieg, Osprey Publishing 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-408-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-84176-408-6">1-84176-408-6</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chroniclesofterror.pl/dlibra">Collection of civilian testimonies from German-occupied Poland in "Chronicles of Terror" database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/498/losses.html">Polish Losses in World War II</a>, Witold J. Lukaszewski, Sarmatian Review, April 1998</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Poland_articles405" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Poland_topics" title="Template:Poland topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Poland_topics" title="Template talk:Poland topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Poland_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Poland topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Poland_articles405" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_history" title="Timeline of Polish history">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_and_protohistory_of_Poland" title="Prehistory and protohistory of Poland">Prehistory and protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of Poland in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_monarchs" title="List of Polish monarchs">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_in_the_early_modern_period_(1569%E2%80%931795)" title="History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)">Early Modern (1569–1795)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1795%E2%80%931918)" title="History of Poland (1795–1918)">Partitions, duchies and kingdoms (1795–1918)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_World_War_I" title="History of Poland during World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1918%E2%80%931939)" title="History of Poland (1918–1939)">Interwar years</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Communist Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1989%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Poland (1989–present)">Poland since 1989</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_Poland" title="Cultural history of Poland">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Poland" title="Demographic history of Poland">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_Poland" title="Category:Economic history of Poland">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish_Army" title="History of the Polish Army">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Poland" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Poland">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_serfdom_in_Poland" title="Abolition of serfdom in Poland">Abolition of serfdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Poland" title="Geography of Poland">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Poland" title="List of cities and towns in Poland">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_of_Poland" title="Forests of Poland">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Poland" title="List of islands of Poland">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Poland" title="List of lakes of Poland">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Poland" title="List of mountains in Poland">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Parks_of_Poland" title="National Parks of Poland">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland_A_and_B" title="Poland A and B">Poland A and B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Poland" title="Protected areas of Poland">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Poland" title="Regions of Poland">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Poland" title="List of rivers of Poland">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Poland" title="Politics of Poland">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Poland" title="Administrative divisions of Poland">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Initiative" title="Central European Initiative">Central European Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Poland" title="Climate change in Poland">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Poland" title="Constitution of Poland">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Poland" title="Corruption in Poland">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Poland" title="Elections in Poland">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Poland" title="Foreign relations of Poland">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Poland" title="Human rights in Poland">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Poland">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Poland" title="Judiciary of Poland">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Poland" title="Law of Poland">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_laws_in_Poland" title="Gun laws in Poland">Gun laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Poland" title="Law enforcement in Poland">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Police_of_Poland" title="Police of Poland">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Service_(Poland)" title="Prison Service (Poland)">Prison Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces" title="Polish Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Poland" title="Parliament of Poland">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Poland" title="List of political parties in Poland">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Polish_politicians" title="Lists of Polish politicians">Politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Poland" title="President of Poland">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Poland" title="List of heads of state of Poland">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Poland" title="President of Poland">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Poland" title="List of prime ministers of Poland">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_prisoners_in_Poland" title="Political prisoners in Poland">Political prisoners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Poland" title="Economy of Poland">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Poland" title="Agriculture in Poland">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balcerowicz_Plan" title="Balcerowicz Plan">Balcerowicz Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_Poland" title="National Bank of Poland">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_Poland" title="Category:Economic history of Poland">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_Poland" title="Exclusive economic zone of Poland">EEZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Poland" title="Energy in Poland">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Poland" title="List of exports of Poland">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Merchant_Navy" title="Polish Merchant Navy">Merchant Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mines_in_Poland" title="List of mines in Poland">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Poland" title="Poverty in Poland">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Poland_by_GDP" title="List of regions of Poland by GDP">Regional GDP per capita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Stock_Exchange" title="Warsaw Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Poland" title="Tourism in Poland">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Poland" title="Transport in Poland">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Poland" title="Rail transport in Poland">Rail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_railway_signalling" title="Polish railway signalling">Railway signalling</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_Poland" title="Unemployment in Poland">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesian_Industrial_Region" title="Upper Silesian Industrial Region">Upper Silesian Industrial Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_capital_in_Poland" title="Venture capital in Poland">Venture capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_z%C5%82oty" title="Polish złoty">Złoty (currency)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Poland" title="Category:Society of Poland">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lawyers_in_Poland" title="Lawyers in Poland">Lawyers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Poland" title="Culture of Poland">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Poland" title="Architecture of Poland">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_art" title="Polish art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Poland" title="Cinema of Poland">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_cuisine" title="Polish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_wine" title="Polish wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_folk_beliefs" title="Polish folk beliefs">Folk beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_folk_dances" title="Polish folk dances">Folk dances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_literature" title="Polish literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Poland" title="Mass media in Poland">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Poland" title="Music of Poland">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Poland" title="Names of Poland">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_names" title="Polish names">Polish names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_days_in_Poland" title="Name days in Poland">Name days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Poland" title="Public holidays in Poland">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Poland" title="Sport in Poland">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Poland" title="Theatre of Poland">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Polish_traditions" title="Category:Polish traditions">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_Poland" title="Video games in Poland">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Poland" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Poland">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Poland" title="Demographics of Poland">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Poland" title="Ethnic minorities in Poland">Ethnic minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_in_Poland" title="Refugees in Poland">Refugees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Poland" title="Crime in Poland">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Poland" title="Education in Poland">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_Poland" title="Health care in Poland">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Poland" title="Languages of Poland">Languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Poland" title="National symbols of Poland">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poland_Is_Not_Yet_Lost" title="Poland Is Not Yet Lost">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland" title="Coat of arms of Poland">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Poland" title="Flag of Poland">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_flags" title="List of Polish flags">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Poland" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Poland">Orders and decorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polonia_(personification)" title="Polonia (personification)">Polonia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Poland" title="Outline of Poland">Outline</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Poland" title="Category:Poland">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Poland" title="Portal:Poland">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_World_War_II_by_region_and_country5952" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Template:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Template talk:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:WWII_history_by_nation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:WWII history by nation"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_World_War_II_by_region_and_country5952" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">History of World War II by region and country</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">Belgian Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_World_War_II" title="Egypt in World War II">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland_in_World_War_II" title="French Somaliland in World War II">French Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia_in_World_War_II" title="The Gambia in World War II">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_in_World_War_II" title="Gold Coast in World War II">Gold Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_in_World_War_II" title="Kenya in World War II">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia_in_World_War_II" title="Liberia in World War II">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_in_World_War_II" title="Madagascar in World War II">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco_in_World_War_II" title="Morocco in World War II">Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyasaland_in_World_War_II" title="Nyasaland in World War II">Nyasaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_in_El_Salvador#World_War_II" title="Military dictatorship in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_in_World_War_II" title="Greenland in World War II">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_during_World_War_II" title="Arizona during World War II">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_during_World_War_II" title="California during World War II">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_during_World_War_II" title="Nevada during World War II">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="New Mexico during World War II">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentina_during_World_War_II" title="Argentina during World War II">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia_during_World_War_II" title="Colombia during World War II">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_during_World_War_II" title="Latin America during World War II">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname_during_World_War_II" title="Suriname during World War II">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay_during_World_War_II" title="Uruguay during World War II">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela_during_World_War_II" title="Venezuela during World War II">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceylon_in_World_War_II" title="Ceylon in World War II">Ceylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchuria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_West_Sumatra" title="Japanese occupation of West Sumatra">West Sumatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">Indochina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Cambodia" title="Japanese occupation of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_in_World_War_II" title="Mongolia in World War II">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal_in_World_War_II" title="Nepal in World War II">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey#Politics_of_World_War_II" title="One-party period of the Republic of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonia_in_World_War_II" title="Estonia in World War II">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of France during World War II">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">Basque Country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Ruthenia_during_World_War_II" title="Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II">Carpathian Ruthenia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceland_in_World_War_II" title="Iceland in World War II">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(Ireland)" title="The Emergency (Ireland)">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Latvia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Latvia during World War II">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein#World_War_II" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Norway" title="German occupation of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovakia_during_World_War_II" title="Slovakia during World War II">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_in_World_War_II" title="Azerbaijan in World War II">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byelorussia_in_World_War_II" title="Byelorussia in World War II">Byelorussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Ukraine#World_War_II" title="Modern history of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">Basque Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalonia_and_World_War_II" title="Catalonia and World War II">Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galicia_and_World_War_II" title="Galicia and World War II">Galicia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_the_Channel_Islands" title="German occupation of the Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> (<a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Slovene_Lands" title="World War II in the Slovene Lands">Slovenia</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Oceania and Antarctica</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica_during_World_War_II" title="Antarctica during World War II">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Gilbert_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands">Gilbert Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Nauru" title="Japanese occupation of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_New_Guinea" title="Japanese occupation of New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Japanese occupation of the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Pacific Islands home front during World War II">Pacific Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_II25125" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_II25125" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_II" title="Outline of World War II">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles" title="List of World War II battles">Battles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_operations" title="List of World War II military operations">Operations</a></li></ul></li> <li>Leaders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">Allied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">Axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">Conferences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_topics" title="Lists of World War II topics">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe" title="List of air operations during the Battle of Europe">In Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">Declarations of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_in_exile_during_World_War_II" title="List of governments in exile during World War II">Governments in exile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_awards_and_decorations_of_World_War_II" title="List of military awards and decorations of World War II">Military awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="Lists of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry harbour">Mulberry harbour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_and_World_War_II" title="Art and World War II">Art and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_World_War_II" title="Music in World War II">Music in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_events_during_wars#World_War_II" title="Weather events during wars">Weather events during World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_theater" title="Asiatic-Pacific theater">Asia and Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">North and Central Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">Keelhaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim">Osoaviakhim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Paperclip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Croatian war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Persecution of Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania#The_Holocaust" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romanian war crimes</a></li> <li>Sexual violence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Japan</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Soviet_occupation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_Serbia" title="Rape during the liberation of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre#Mass_rapes" title="Manila massacre">Rape of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marocchinate" title="Marocchinate">Marocchinate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_in_World_War_II" title="Algeria in World War II">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini_in_World_War_II" title="Eswatini in World War II">Eswatini</a> (formerly Swaziland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">from September 1943</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia_in_World_War_II" title="Liberia in World War II">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">from August 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Albania protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Burma" title="State of Burma">State of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Republic of China (Wang Jingwei)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (until August 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Guangzhouwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_in_World_War_II" title="Madagascar in World War II">French Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Syria–Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">French North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Collaboration_with_Axis_Powers" title="Template:Collaboration with Axis Powers">Collaboration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Neutral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra#20th_and_21st_centuries" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II" title="Irish neutrality during World War II">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein in World War II">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_and_occupation_of_Monaco_during_World_War_II#World_War_II" title="Invasion and occupation of Monaco during World War II">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino#World_War_II" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II#Saudi_Arabia" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Turkey#World_War_II" title="Military history of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yemen#World_War_II_and_after" title="Kingdom of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies#Underground_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931944" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–1944">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan#Dissidence_during_World_War_II" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korean Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army" title="Korean Volunteer Army">Korean Volunteer Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931945" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–1945">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Quốc dân Đảng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li>German prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_Azerbaijan" title="German prisoners of war in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Polish_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war">German atrocities against Polish POWs</a></li> <li>Soviet prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_prisoners_of_war_in_Finland" title="Soviet prisoners of war in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">atrocities by Germans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines_of_World_War_II" title="List of timelines of World War II">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Prelude7698" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol" title="Battles of Khalkhin Gol">Battles of Khalkhin Gol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remilitarisation_of_the_Rhineland" title="Remilitarisation of the Rhineland">Remilitarisation of the Rhineland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Occupation of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Himmler" title="Operation Himmler">Operation Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">First Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">Battle of South Guangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">German invasion of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">German invasion of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Battle of the Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Italian invasion of Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Compass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Invasion of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">German invasion of Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East African campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Invasion of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Summer_War" title="Summer War">Summer War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Silver_Fox" title="Operation Silver Fox">Silver Fox</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Second Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">Siege of Sevastopol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">Japanese invasion of Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Fall of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Fall of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1941)" title="Battle of Guam (1941)">Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wake_Island" title="Battle of Wake Island">Battle of Wake Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malayan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Battle of Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">Third Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Greece)" title="Great Famine (Greece)">Greek famine of 1941–1944</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Battle of the Java Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Christmas_Island" title="Battle of Christmas Island">Battle of Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Battle of Gazala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Battle of Dutch Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands_campaign" title="Aleutian Islands campaign">Aleutian Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Kiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu"> Attu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">Kokoda Track campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rzhev,_summer_1942" title="Battle of Rzhev, summer 1942">Rzhev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Jubilee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign" title="Guadalcanal campaign">Guadalcanal campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Attu" title="Battle of Attu">Battle of Attu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II#June_1943" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_operation" title="Smolensk operation">Smolensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cottage" title="Operation Cottage">Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Battle of the Dnieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1943)" title="Battle of Kiev (1943)">Second Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Tarawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Makin" title="Battle of Makin">Makin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Tempest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio">Anzio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy" title="Battle of Korsun–Cherkassy">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_U-Go" title="Operation U-Go">U-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal" title="Battle of Imphal">Imphal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kohima" title="Battle of Kohima">Kohima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Overlord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Bagration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lvov–Sandomierz offensive">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1944)" title="Battle of Guam (1944)">Second Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_offensive" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Dragoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgrade_offensive" title="Belgrade offensive">Belgrade offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Marino" title="Battle of San Marino">Battle of San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Market Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallinn_offensive" title="Tallinn offensive">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive">Pointblank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945">Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_offensive" title="Budapest offensive">Hungary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte">Bodenplatte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Dutch famine of 1944–1945">Dutch famine of 1944–1945</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_offensive" title="Vistula–Oder offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Battle of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Battle of Iwo Jima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_offensive" title="Vienna offensive">Vienna offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bratislava%E2%80%93Brno_offensive" title="Bratislava–Brno offensive">Bratislava–Brno offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_offensive" title="Prague offensive">Prague offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardment of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" title="Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">End of World War II in Asia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_World_War_II" title="Bibliography of World War II">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_War_II" title="Category:World War II">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Years_in_Poland_(1989–present)149" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Years_in_Poland" title="Template:Years in Poland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Years_in_Poland" title="Template talk:Years in Poland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Years_in_Poland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Years in Poland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Years_in_Poland_(1989–present)149" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Poland" title="List of years in Poland">Years</a> in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> (1989–present)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Years_of_the_20th_century_in_Poland" title="Category:Years of the 20th century in Poland">Pre-1989</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1989_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1989 in Poland (page does not exist)">1989</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1990_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1990 in Poland (page does not exist)">1990</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1991_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1991 in Poland (page does not exist)">1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_in_Poland" title="1992 in Poland">1992</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1993_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1993 in Poland (page does not exist)">1993</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1994_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1994 in Poland (page does not exist)">1994</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1995_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1995 in Poland (page does not exist)">1995</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_in_Poland" title="1996 in Poland">1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_in_Poland" title="1997 in Poland">1997</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1998_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1998 in Poland (page does not exist)">1998</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1999_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1999 in Poland (page does not exist)">1999</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2000_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2000 in Poland (page does not exist)">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2001_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2001 in Poland (page does not exist)">2001</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2002_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2002 in Poland (page does not exist)">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_in_Poland" title="2003 in Poland">2003</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2004_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2004 in Poland (page does not exist)">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_in_Poland" title="2005 in Poland">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_in_Poland" title="2006 in Poland">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_in_Poland" title="2007 in Poland">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_in_Poland" title="2008 in Poland">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_in_Poland" title="2009 in Poland">2009</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2010_in_Poland" title="2010 in Poland">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_in_Poland" title="2011 in Poland">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_in_Poland" title="2012 in Poland">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_in_Poland" title="2013 in Poland">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_in_Poland" title="2014 in Poland">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_in_Poland" title="2015 in Poland">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_in_Poland" title="2016 in Poland">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_in_Poland" title="2017 in Poland">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_in_Poland" title="2018 in Poland">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_Poland" title="2019 in Poland">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_Poland" title="2020 in Poland">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_Poland" title="2021 in Poland">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_Poland" title="2022 in Poland">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_Poland" title="2023 in Poland">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_Poland" title="2024 in Poland">2024</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_in_Poland" title="2025 in Poland">2025</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Poland_(1939–1945)&oldid=1275331596">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Poland_(1939–1945)&oldid=1275331596</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Poland_in_World_War_II" title="Category:Poland in World War II">Poland in World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Poland_by_period" title="Category:History of Poland by period">History of Poland by period</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1939_in_Poland" title="Category:1939 in Poland">1939 in Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1940s_in_Poland" title="Category:1940s in Poland">1940s in Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Modern_history_of_Poland" title="Category:Modern history of Poland">Modern history of Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="Category:Military history of Poland during World War II">Military history of Poland during World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_War_II_occupied_territories" title="Category:World War II occupied territories">World War II occupied territories</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_World_War_II" title="Category:Politics of World War II">Politics of World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th_century_in_Poland" title="Category:20th century in Poland">20th century in Poland</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru)" title="Category:CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)">CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Polish-language_sources_(pl)" title="Category:CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)">CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_July_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from July 2023">Articles with dead external links from July 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1: unfit URL">CS1: unfit URL</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Lithuanian-language_sources_(lt)" title="Category:Articles with Lithuanian-language sources (lt)">Articles with Lithuanian-language sources (lt)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_extended-confirmed-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages">Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Polish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Polish-language text">Articles containing Polish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_generic_name" title="Category:CS1 errors: generic name">CS1 errors: generic name</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 12 February 2025, at 11:45 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"> Search </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" >History of Poland (1939–1945)</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 16 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5446f9ddb-d7jtm","wgBackendResponseTime":154,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.137","walltime":"2.438","ppvisitednodes":{"value":20113,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":403172,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":26764,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":52,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":496967,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1841.517 1 -total"," 38.59% 710.607 1 Template:Reflist"," 10.86% 200.026 32 Template:Cite_book"," 7.96% 146.569 1 Template:History_of_Poland"," 7.70% 141.728 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 6.92% 127.496 29 Template:ISBN"," 6.87% 126.481 1 Template:Langx"," 6.48% 119.256 1 Template:Cite_news"," 5.05% 93.018 1 Template:Poland_topics"," 4.92% 90.663 1 Template:Country_topics"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.888","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":18268206,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREF2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapoutot2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig_Thompson-Dutton1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDieter_Pohl\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElżbieta_Trela-Mazur1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedrich_Werner_von_der_Schulenburg\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFritz,_Stephen_G.2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGunnar_S._Paulsson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGustaw_Herling-Grudziński1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHempel1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHempel1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJan_Tomasz_Gross2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJerzy_LukowskiHubert_Zawadzki\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFKarolina_Lanckorońska2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoppNiżyńska2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKużniar-Plota2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarek_Jan_Chodakiewicz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarek_Jan_Chodakiewicz2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Parrish1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilitärgeschichtliches_ForschungsamtGottfried_Schramm1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Rutland1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiotrowski1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProf._Tomasz_Strzembosz2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnyder2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSword,_Keith1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTadeusz_Piotrowski1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVarious_authors1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVictor_A._Kravchenko1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWojciech_Roszkowski1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWork1947\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWładysław_Anders1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZvi_Gitelman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFbeanbean2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvarious_authors2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvarious_authorsStanisław_CiesielskiWojciech_MaterskiAndrzej_Paczkowski2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFМельтюхов_М.И.2000\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Campaignbox Poland 1944-1945\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 7,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:History of Poland (1939-1945)\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"History of Poland\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 29,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 5,\n [\"Ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Note label\"] = 26,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Poland topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-extended\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref label\"] = 27,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 4,\n [\"WWII history by nation\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 6,\n [\"World War II\"] = 1,\n [\"Years in Poland\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-74d7b686d8-jfqn9","timestamp":"20250224170225","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of Poland (1939\u20131945)","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2552993","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2552993","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-10-26T08:49:18Z","dateModified":"2025-02-12T11:45:35Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Regni_Poloniae_Magni_Ducatus_Lithuaniae_Tabula_Carolo_Allard.jpg","headline":"history of Poland between 1939 and 1945"}</script> </body> </html>