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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_cartography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_cartography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Regional cartography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_cartography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_on_the_appearance_of_the_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_on_the_appearance_of_the_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span><i>Book on the appearance of the Earth</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_on_the_appearance_of_the_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Al-Biruni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al-Biruni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Al-Biruni</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Al-Biruni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tabula_Rogeriana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tabula_Rogeriana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span><i>Tabula Rogeriana</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tabula_Rogeriana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piri_Reis_map" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piri_Reis_map"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Piri Reis map</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piri_Reis_map-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instruments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instruments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Instruments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Instruments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Instruments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Instruments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Astrolabe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astrolabe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Astrolabe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astrolabe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Compass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_geographers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_geographers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Notable geographers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_geographers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notable geographers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notable_geographers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Khordadbeh–Jayhani_tradition_geographers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khordadbeh–Jayhani_tradition_geographers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Khordadbeh–Jayhani tradition geographers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khordadbeh–Jayhani_tradition_geographers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balkhi_school_geographers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balkhi_school_geographers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Balkhi school geographers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balkhi_school_geographers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">13 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الجغرافيا في عصر الحضارة الإسلامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الجغرافيا في عصر الحضارة الإسلامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%93_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="মধ্যযুগীয় ইসলামে ভূগোল ও মানচিত্রাঙ্কনবিদ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্যযুগীয় ইসলামে ভূগোল ও মানচিত্রাঙ্কনবিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija_i_kartografija_u_srednjovjekovnom_islamu" title="Geografija i kartografija u srednjovjekovnom islamu – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Geografija i kartografija u srednjovjekovnom islamu" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographie_und_Kartographie_im_mittelalterlichen_Islam" title="Geographie und Kartographie im mittelalterlichen Islam – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geographie und Kartographie im mittelalterlichen Islam" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%88_%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B4%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="جغرافیا و نقشه‌کشی در تمدن اسلامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جغرافیا و نقشه‌کشی در تمدن اسلامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie_et_cartographie_dans_le_monde_arabo-musulman_m%C3%A9di%C3%A9val" title="Géographie et cartographie dans le monde arabo-musulman médiéval – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géographie et cartographie dans le monde arabo-musulman médiéval" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija_i_kartografija_u_srednjovjekovnom_islamu" title="Geografija i kartografija u srednjovjekovnom islamu – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geografija i kartografija u srednjovjekovnom islamu" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi_Islam_pada_Zaman_Pertengahan" title="Geografi Islam pada Zaman Pertengahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Geografi Islam pada Zaman Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_e_cartografia_da_civiliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o_antiga_isl%C3%A2mica" title="Geografia e cartografia da civilização antiga islâmica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geografia e cartografia da civilização antiga islâmica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%9A%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Географија и картографија у средњовековном исламу – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Географија и картографија у средњовековном исламу" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografija_i_kartografija_u_srednjovjekovnom_islamu" title="Geografija i kartografija u srednjovjekovnom islamu – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geografija i kartografija u srednjovjekovnom islamu" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C3%87a%C4%9F_%C4%B0slam_d%C3%BCnyas%C4%B1nda_co%C4%9Frafya" title="Orta Çağ İslam dünyasında coğrafya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Orta Çağ İslam dünyasında coğrafya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%DB%81_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85_%DA%A9%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="قرون وسطی کا اسلامی جغرافیہ اور ترسیم کشی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قرون وسطی کا اسلامی جغرافیہ اور ترسیم کشی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2142012#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/263px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/350px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12136" data-file-height="8263" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography#Greco-Roman_world" title="History of geography">Graeco-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cartography">Chinese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">History of cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical geography</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedology_(soil_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedology (soil study)">Pedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Theoretical Approaches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographers" title="List of geographers">Geographers</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_sidebar" title="Template:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_sidebar" title="Template talk:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size notpageimage" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum,_by_Abraham_Ortelius,_World,_1572.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/220px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/330px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/440px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12136" data-file-height="8263" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography#Greco-Roman_world" title="History of geography">Graeco-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">History of cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical geography</a></li></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_geography_sidebar" title="Template:History of geography sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_geography_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of geography sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_geography_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of geography sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Medieval Islamic geography and cartography</b> refer to the study of <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> (variously dated between the 8th century and 16th century). Muslim scholars made advances to the map-making traditions of earlier cultures,<sup id="cite_ref-Buang_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buang-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explorers and merchants learned in their travels across the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> (<a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Buang_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buang-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic geography had three major fields: exploration and navigation, <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical geography">mathematical geography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buang_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buang-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic geography reached its apex with <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> in the 12th century. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="8th_and_9th_century">8th and 9th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 8th and 9th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Islamic geography began in the 8th century, influenced by Hellenistic geography,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> combined with what explorers and merchants learned in their travels across the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> (<a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Buang_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buang-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muslim scholars engaged in extensive exploration and navigation during the 9th-12th centuries, including journeys across the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>, in addition to regions such as China, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buang_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buang-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various Islamic scholars contributed to the development of geography and cartography, with the most notable including <a href="/wiki/Al-Khw%C4%81rizm%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Khwārizmī">Al-Khwārizmī</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_ibn_Sahl_al-Balkhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi">Abū Zayd al-Balkhī</a> (founder of the "Balkhi school"), <a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Al-Masudi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Rayhan_Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Rayhan Biruni">Abu Rayhan Biruni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a>. </p><p>Islamic geography was patronized by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliphs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. An important influence in the development of cartography was the patronage of the Abbasid caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a>, who reigned from 813 to 833. He commissioned several geographers to perform an <a href="/wiki/Arc_measurement" title="Arc measurement">arc measurement</a>, determining the distance on Earth that corresponds to one degree of latitude along a <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(geography)" title="Meridian (geography)">meridian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun%27s_arc_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ma'mun's arc measurement">al-Ma'mun's arc measurement</a>). Thus his patronage resulted in the refinement of the definition of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_mile" title="Arabic mile">Arabic mile</a> (<i>mīl</i> in Arabic) in comparison to the <a href="/wiki/Stadion_(unit)" title="Stadion (unit)">stadion</a> used in the Hellenistic world. These efforts also enabled Muslims to calculate the <a href="/wiki/Circumference_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumference of the Earth">circumference of the Earth</a>. Al-Mamun also commanded the production of a large map of the world, which has not survived,<sup id="cite_ref-edson_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edson-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 61–63">: 61–63 </span></sup> though it is known that its map projection type was based on <a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Tyre" title="Marinus of Tyre">Marinus of Tyre</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kennedy_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 193">: 193 </span></sup> </p><p>Islamic cartographers inherited Ptolemy's <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Geographia_(Ptolemy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographia (Ptolemy)"><i>Geography</i></a> in the 9th century. These works stimulated an interest in geography (particularly gazetteers) but were not slavishly followed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdsonSavage-Smith200461–63_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdsonSavage-Smith200461–63-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, Arabian and Persian cartography followed <a href="/wiki/Al-Khw%C4%81rizm%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Khwārizmī">Al-Khwārizmī</a> in adopting a rectangular projection, shifting Ptolemy's <a href="/wiki/Prime_Meridian" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Meridian">Prime Meridian</a> several degrees eastward, and modifying many of Ptolemy's geographical coordinates. </p><p>Having received Greek writings directly and without Latin intermediation, Arabian and Persian geographers made no use of <a href="/wiki/T-O_map" class="mw-redirect" title="T-O map">T-O maps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdsonSavage-Smith200461–63_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdsonSavage-Smith200461–63-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 9th century, the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematics in medieval Islam">Persian mathematician</a> and geographer, <a href="/wiki/Habash_al-Hasib_al-Marwazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi">Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi</a>, employed <a href="/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry" title="Spherical trigonometry">spherical trigonometry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Map_projection" title="Map projection">map projection</a> methods in order to convert <a href="/wiki/Polar_coordinate_system" title="Polar coordinate system">polar coordinates</a> to a different coordinate system centred on a specific point on the sphere, in this the <a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">Qibla</a>, the direction to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī">Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī</a> (973–1048) later developed ideas which are seen as an anticipation of the polar coordinate system.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 1025, he describes a polar equi-<a href="/wiki/Azimuthal_equidistant_projection" title="Azimuthal equidistant projection">azimuthal equidistant projection</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 153">: 153 </span></sup> However, this type of projection had been used in ancient Egyptian star-maps and was not to be fully developed until the 15 and 16th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Rankin_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rankin-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khordadbeh–Jayhani_tradition"><span id="Khordadbeh.E2.80.93Jayhani_tradition"></span>Khordadbeh–Jayhani tradition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Khordadbeh–Jayhani tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The works of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khordadbeh" title="Ibn Khordadbeh">Ibn Khordadbeh</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 870) and <a href="/wiki/Abu_Abdallah_Muhammad_ibn_Ahmad_al-Jayhani" title="Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Jayhani">Jayhani</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 910s) were at the basis of a new Perso-Arab tradition in Persia and Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exact relationship between the books of Khordadbeh and Jayhani is unknown, because the two books had the same title, have often been mixed up, and Jayhani's book has been lost, so that it can only be approximately reconstructed from the works of other authors (mostly from the eastern parts of the Islamic world<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) who seem to have reused some of its contents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvi–xvii_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvi–xvii-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Bartold" title="Vasily Bartold">Vasily Bartold</a>, Jayhani based his book primarily on the data he had collected himself, but also reused Khordadbeh's work to a considerable extent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the Balkhi school, geographers of the Khordadbeh–Jayhani tradition sought to describe the whole world as they knew it, including the lands, societies and cultures of non-Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">vizier</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid Empire</a>, Jayhani's diplomatic correspondence allowed him to collect much valuable information from people in faraway lands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, <a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Al-Masudi</a> criticised Jayhani for overemphasising geological features of landscapes, stars and geometry, taxation systems, trade roads and stations allegedly few people used, while ignoring major population centres, provinces and military roads and forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balkhi_school">Balkhi school</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Balkhi school"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Balkhī school of terrestrial mapping, originated by <a href="/wiki/Abu_Zayd_al-Balkhi" title="Abu Zayd al-Balkhi">Abu Zayd al-Balkhi</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>) in early 10-thcentury <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, and significantly developed by <a href="/wiki/Istakhri" title="Istakhri">Istakhri</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had a conservative and religious character: it was only interested in describing <i>mamlakat al-Islām</i> ("Islamic lands"), which the school divided into 20 or more <i>iqlīms</i> ("climes" or provinces).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Balkhi and his followers reoriented geographic knowledge in order to bring it in line with certain concepts found in the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, emphasised the central importance of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, and ignored the non-Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This distinguished them from earlier geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khordadbeh" title="Ibn Khordadbeh">Ibn Khordadbeh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Al-Masudi</a>, who described the whole world as they knew it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The geographers of this school, such as <a href="/wiki/Istakhri" title="Istakhri">Istakhri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqaddasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muqaddasi">al-Muqaddasi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">Ibn Hawqal</a>, wrote extensively of the peoples, products, and customs of areas in the Muslim world, with little interest in the non-Muslim realms,<sup id="cite_ref-edson_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edson-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and produced world <a href="/wiki/Atlas" title="Atlas">atlases</a>, each one featuring a <a href="/wiki/World_map" title="World map">world map</a> and twenty regional maps.<sup id="cite_ref-kennedy_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 194">: 194 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_cartography">Regional cartography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Regional cartography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg/220px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg/330px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg/440px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3064" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Fars_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fars Province">Fars</a> from the <i>Kitab al-Masalik wa'l-Mamalik</i> (Book of postal routes and kingdoms) of <a href="/wiki/Istakhri" title="Istakhri">al-Istakhri</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Islamic regional cartography is usually categorized into three groups: that produced by the "<a href="/wiki/Ahmed_ibn_Sahl_al-Balkhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi">Balkhī school</a>", the type devised by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a>, and the type that are uniquely found in the <i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Curiosities" class="mw-redirect" title="The Book of Curiosities">Book of curiosities</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-edson_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edson-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The maps by the Balkhī schools were defined by political, not longitudinal boundaries and covered only the Muslim world. In these maps the distances between various "stops" (cities or rivers) were equalized. The only shapes used in designs were verticals, horizontals, 90-degree angles, and arcs of circles; unnecessary geographical details were eliminated. This approach is similar to that used in <a href="/wiki/Rapid_transit" title="Rapid transit">subway</a> maps, most notable used in the "<a href="/wiki/London_Underground" title="London Underground">London Underground</a> <a href="/wiki/Tube_Map" class="mw-redirect" title="Tube Map">Tube Map</a>" in 1931 by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Beck_(graphic_designer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Beck (graphic designer)">Harry Beck</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-edson_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edson-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 85–87">: 85–87 </span></sup> </p><p>Al-Idrīsī defined his maps differently. He considered the extent of the known world to be 160° and had to symbolize 50 dogs in longitude and divided the region into ten parts, each 16° wide. In terms of latitude, he portioned the known world into seven 'climes', determined by the length of the longest day. In his maps, many dominant geographical features can be found.<sup id="cite_ref-edson_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edson-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_on_the_appearance_of_the_Earth"><i>Book on the appearance of the Earth</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Book on the appearance of the Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_M%C5%ABs%C4%81_al-Khw%C4%81rizm%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī">Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī</a>'s <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kitāb ṣūrat al-Arḍ</i></span></i> ("Book on the appearance of the Earth") was completed in 833. It is a revised and completed version of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Geographia_(Ptolemy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographia (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></i>, consisting of a list of 2402 coordinates of cities and other geographical features following a general introduction.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Khwārizmī, <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a>'s most famous geographer, corrected Ptolemy's gross overestimate for the length of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a><sup id="cite_ref-kennedy_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 188">: 188 </span></sup> (from the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean); Ptolemy overestimated it at 63 degrees of <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>, while al-Khwarizmi almost correctly estimated it at nearly 50 degrees of longitude. Al-Ma'mun's geographers "also depicted the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Oceans</a> as <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">open bodies of water</a>, not land-locked <a href="/wiki/Sea" title="Sea">seas</a> as Ptolemy had done. "<sup id="cite_ref-Covington_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Covington-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Khwarizmi thus set the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Meridian" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Meridian">Prime Meridian</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> at the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, 10–13 degrees to the east of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> (the prime meridian previously set by Ptolemy) and 70 degrees to the west of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. Most medieval Muslim geographers continued to use al-Khwarizmi's prime meridian.<sup id="cite_ref-kennedy_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 188">: 188 </span></sup> Other prime meridians used were set by <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Muhammad_al-Hasan_al-Hamd%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdānī">Abū Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdānī</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habash_al-Hasib_al-Marwazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi">Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ujjain" title="Ujjain">Ujjain</a>, a centre of <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a>, and by another anonymous writer at <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kennedy_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 189">: 189 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Al-Biruni"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abu_Reyhan_Biruni-Earth_Circumference.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Abu_Reyhan_Biruni-Earth_Circumference.svg/200px-Abu_Reyhan_Biruni-Earth_Circumference.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Abu_Reyhan_Biruni-Earth_Circumference.svg/300px-Abu_Reyhan_Biruni-Earth_Circumference.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Abu_Reyhan_Biruni-Earth_Circumference.svg/400px-Abu_Reyhan_Biruni-Earth_Circumference.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Diagram illustrating a method proposed and used by <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a> to estimate the radius and circumference of the Earth in the 11th century.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Abu_Rayhan_al-Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Rayhan al-Biruni">Abu Rayhan al-Biruni</a> (973–1048) devised a novel method of determining the Earth's radius by means of the observation of the height of a mountain. He carried it out at <a href="/wiki/Nandana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nandana">Nandana</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pind_Dadan_Khan" title="Pind Dadan Khan">Pind Dadan Khan</a> (present-day Pakistan).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPingree2010b_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPingree2010b-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He used trigonometry to calculate the radius of the Earth using measurements of the height of a hill and measurement of the dip in the horizon from the top of that hill. His calculated radius for the Earth of 3928.77 miles was 2% higher than the actual mean radius of 3847.80 miles.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Science_of_Al-Biruni_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Science_of_Al-Biruni-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His estimate was given as 12,803,337 <a href="/wiki/Cubits" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubits">cubits</a>, so the accuracy of his estimate compared to the modern value depends on what conversion is used for cubits. The exact length of a cubit is not clear; with an 18 inch cubit his estimate would be 3,600 miles, whereas with a 22 inch cubit his estimate would be 4,200 miles.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One significant problem with this approach is that Al-Biruni was not aware of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction" title="Atmospheric refraction">atmospheric refraction</a> and made no allowance for it. He used a dip angle of 34 arc minutes in his calculations, but refraction can typically alter the measured dip angle by about 1/6, making his calculation only accurate to within about 20% of the true value.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Lost_Art_of_Finding_Our_Way_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Lost_Art_of_Finding_Our_Way-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his <i>Codex Masudicus</i> (1037), Al-Biruni theorized the existence of a landmass along the vast ocean between <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, or what is today known as the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>. He argued for its existence on the basis of his accurate estimations of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_circumference" title="Earth's circumference">Earth's circumference</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a>'s size, which he found spanned only two-fifths of the Earth's circumference, reasoning that the geological processes that gave rise to <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> must surely have given rise to lands in the vast ocean between Asia and Europe. He also theorized that at least some of the unknown landmass would lie within the known latitudes which humans could inhabit, and therefore would be inhabited.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tabula_Rogeriana"><i>Tabula Rogeriana</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Tabula Rogeriana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a></div> <p>The Arab geographer <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> produced his medieval atlas, <i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a></i> or <i>The Recreation for Him Who Wishes to Travel Through the Countries</i>, in 1154. He incorporated the knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> gathered by <a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics_in_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic economics in the world">Arab merchants</a> and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the most accurate map of the world in pre-modern times.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With funding from <a href="/wiki/Roger_II_of_Sicily" title="Roger II of Sicily">Roger II of Sicily</a> (1097–1154), al-Idrisi drew on the knowledge collected at the University of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Cordoba</a> and paid draftsmen to make journeys and map their routes. The book describes the Earth as a sphere with a circumference of 22,900 miles (36,900 km) but maps it in 70 rectangular sections. Notable features include the correct dual sources of the Nile, the coast of Ghana and mentions of Norway. Climate zones were a chief organizational principle. A second and shortened copy from 1192 called <i>Garden of Joys</i> is known by scholars as the <i>Little Idrisi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the work of al-Idrisi, S. P. Scott commented:<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The compilation of Edrisi marks an era in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>. Not only is its historical information most interesting and valuable, but its descriptions of many parts of the earth are still authoritative. For three centuries geographers copied his maps without alteration. The relative position of the lakes which form the Nile, as delineated in his work, does not differ greatly from that established by Baker and Stanley more than seven hundred years afterwards, and their number is the same. The mechanical genius of the author was not inferior to his erudition. The celestial and terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">planisphere</a> of silver which he constructed for his royal patron was nearly six feet in diameter, and weighed four hundred and fifty pounds; upon the one side the zodiac and the constellations, upon the other—divided for convenience into segments—the bodies of land and water, with the respective situations of the various countries, were engraved.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>S. P. Scott, History of the Moorish Empire in Europe</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Al-Idrisi's atlas, originally called the <i>Nuzhat</i> in Arabic, served as a major tool for Italian, Dutch and French mapmakers from the 16th century to the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Piri_Reis_map">Piri Reis map</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Piri Reis map"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis_map" title="Piri Reis map">Piri Reis map</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis_map" title="Piri Reis map">Piri Reis map</a> is a <a href="/wiki/World_map" title="World map">world map</a> compiled in 1513 by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> admiral and cartographer <a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis" title="Piri Reis">Piri Reis</a>. Approximately one third of the map survives; it shows the western coasts of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the coast of <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> with reasonable accuracy. Various Atlantic islands, including the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>, are depicted, as is the mythical island of <a href="/wiki/Antillia" title="Antillia">Antillia</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Suhrāb, a late 10th-century Muslim geographer, accompanied a book of geographical <a href="/wiki/Coordinate_system" title="Coordinate system">coordinates</a> with instructions for making a rectangular world map, with <a href="/wiki/Equirectangular_projection" title="Equirectangular projection">equirectangular projection</a> or cylindrical equidistant projection.<sup id="cite_ref-edson_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edson-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest surviving rectangular coordinate map is dated to the 13th century and is attributed to Hamdallah al-Mustaqfi al-<a href="/wiki/Najm_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Qazw%C4%ABn%C4%AB_al-K%C4%81tib%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī">Qazwini</a>, who based it on the work of Suhrāb. The <a href="/wiki/Orthogonality" title="Orthogonality">orthogonal</a> parallel lines were separated by one degree intervals, and the map was limited to <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest Asia">Southwest Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. The earliest surviving world maps based on a rectangular coordinate grid are attributed to al-Mustawfi in the 14th or 15th century (who used invervals of ten degrees for the lines), and to <a href="/wiki/Hafiz-i_Abru" title="Hafiz-i Abru">Hafiz-i Abru</a> (died 1430).<sup id="cite_ref-kennedy_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 200–01">: 200–01 </span></sup> </p><p>In the 11th century, the Karakhanid Turkic scholar <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_al-Kashgari" title="Mahmud al-Kashgari">Mahmud al-Kashgari</a> was the first to draw a unique Islamic <a href="/wiki/World_map" title="World map">world map</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where he illuminated the cities and places of the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a> of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a>. He showed the lake <a href="/wiki/Issyk-Kul" title="Issyk-Kul">Issyk-Kul</a> (in nowadays <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>) as the centre of the world. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> (1304–1368?) wrote "Rihlah" (Travels) based on three decades of journeys, covering more than 120,000 km through northern Africa, southern Europe, and much of Asia. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">Muslim astronomers</a> and geographers were aware of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_declination" title="Magnetic declination">magnetic declination</a> by the 15th century, when the Egyptian astronomer <a href="/wiki/%27Abd_al-%27Aziz_al-Wafa%27i" title="'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i">'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i</a> (d. 1469/1471) measured it as 7 degrees from <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Instruments">Instruments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Instruments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_front.jpg/220px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_front.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_front.jpg/330px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_front.jpg/440px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3323" /></a><figcaption>Astrolabe from 9th century North Africa</figcaption></figure> <p>Muslim scholars invented and refined a number of scientific instruments in mathematical geography and cartography. These included the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" title="Quadrant (instrument)">quadrant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">sundial</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buang_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buang-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astrolabe">Astrolabe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Astrolabe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">Astrolabes</a> were adopted and further developed in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Muslim astronomers</a> introduced angular scales to the design,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adding circles indicating <a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">azimuths</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was widely used throughout the Muslim world, chiefly as an aid to navigation and as a way of finding the <a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">Qibla</a>, the direction of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. Eighth-century <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematics in medieval Islam">mathematician</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Fazari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad al-Fazari">Muhammad al-Fazari</a> is the first person credited with building the astrolabe in the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mathematical background was established by Muslim astronomer <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_J%C4%81bir_al-Harr%C4%81n%C4%AB_al-Batt%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī">Albatenius</a> in his treatise <i>Kitab az-Zij</i> (c. 920 AD), which was translated into Latin by <a href="/wiki/Plato_Tiburtinus" title="Plato Tiburtinus">Plato Tiburtinus</a> (<i>De Motu Stellarum</i>). The earliest surviving astrolabe is dated <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">AH</a> 315 (927–28 AD). In the Islamic world, astrolabes were used to find the times of sunrise and the rising of fixed stars, to help schedule morning prayers (<a href="/wiki/Salat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salat">salat</a>). In the 10th century, <a href="/wiki/Al-Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Sufi">al-Sufi</a> first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astrology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mariner%27s_astrolabe" title="Mariner's astrolabe">navigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a>, timekeeping, prayer, <a href="/wiki/Salat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salat">Salat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">Qibla</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compass">Compass</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Compass"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_compass" title="History of the compass">History of the compass</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Ashraf_compass_and_qibla_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Al-Ashraf_compass_and_qibla_diagram.png/220px-Al-Ashraf_compass_and_qibla_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Al-Ashraf_compass_and_qibla_diagram.png/330px-Al-Ashraf_compass_and_qibla_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Al-Ashraf_compass_and_qibla_diagram.png/440px-Al-Ashraf_compass_and_qibla_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Umar_II" title="Al-Ashraf Umar II">Al-Ashraf</a>'s diagram of the compass and Qibla. From MS Cairo TR 105, copied in Yemen, 1293.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidl_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidl-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest reference to a <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> occurs in a <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> talebook from 1232,<sup id="cite_ref-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where a compass is used for navigation during a trip in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OEPST_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OEPST-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fish-shaped iron leaf described indicates that this early Chinese design has spread outside of China.<sup id="cite_ref-Needham12-13_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham12-13-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> reference to a compass, in the form of magnetic needle in a bowl of water, comes from a work by Baylak al-Qibjāqī, written in 1282 while in Cairo.<sup id="cite_ref-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Qibjāqī described a needle-and-bowl compass used for navigation on a voyage he took from Syria to Alexandria in 1242.<sup id="cite_ref-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the author describes having witnessed the use of a compass on a ship trip some forty years earlier, some scholars are inclined to antedate its first appearance in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Qibjāqī also reports that sailors in the Indian Ocean used iron fish instead of needles.<sup id="cite_ref-lancaster_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lancaster-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Late in the 13th century, the <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemeni</a> Sultan and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">astronomer</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Malik_al-Ashraf" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Malik al-Ashraf">al-Malik al-Ashraf</a> described the use of the compass as a "<a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">Qibla</a> indicator" to find the direction to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a treatise about <a href="/wiki/Astrolabes" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrolabes">astrolabes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sundials" class="mw-redirect" title="Sundials">sundials</a>, al-Ashraf includes several paragraphs on the construction of a compass bowl (ṭāsa). He then uses the compass to determine the north point, the <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(astronomy)" title="Meridian (astronomy)">meridian</a> (khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār), and the Qibla. This is the first mention of a compass in a medieval Islamic scientific text and its earliest known use as a Qibla indicator, although al-Ashraf did not claim to be the first to use it for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidl_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidl-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BEA_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BEA-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1300, an Arabic treatise written by the <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> astronomer and <a href="/wiki/Muezzin" title="Muezzin">muezzin</a> Ibn Simʿūn describes a dry compass used for determining qibla. Like Peregrinus' compass, however, Ibn Simʿūn's compass did not feature a compass card.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidl_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidl-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 14th century, the <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syrian</a> astronomer and timekeeper <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir" title="Ibn al-Shatir">Ibn al-Shatir</a> (1304–1375) invented a <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">timekeeping</a> device incorporating both a universal <a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">sundial</a> and a magnetic compass. He invented it for the purpose of finding the times of <a href="/wiki/Salat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salat">prayers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-King-1983_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-King-1983-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic geography">Arab navigators</a> also introduced the 32-point <a href="/wiki/Compass_rose" title="Compass rose">compass rose</a> during this time.<sup id="cite_ref-Tibbetts_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tibbetts-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1399, an Egyptian reports two different kinds of magnetic compass. One instrument is a “fish” made of willow wood or pumpkin, into which a magnetic needle is inserted and sealed with tar or wax to prevent the penetration of water. The other instrument is a dry compass.<sup id="cite_ref-lancaster_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lancaster-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 15th century, the description given by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Majid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Majid">Ibn Majid</a> while aligning the compass with the pole star indicates that he was aware of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_declination" title="Magnetic declination">magnetic declination</a>. An explicit value for the declination is given by ʿIzz al-Dīn al-Wafāʾī (fl. 1450s in Cairo).<sup id="cite_ref-OEPST_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OEPST-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Premodern Arabic sources refer to the compass using the term <i>ṭāsa</i> (lit. "bowl") for the floating compass, or <i>ālat al-qiblah</i> ("qibla instrument") for a device used for orienting towards Mecca.<sup id="cite_ref-OEPST_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OEPST-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hirth" title="Friedrich Hirth">Friedrich Hirth</a> suggested that Arab and Persian traders, who learned about the polarity of the magnetic needle from the Chinese, applied the compass for navigation before the Chinese did.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Needham described this theory as "erroneous" and "it originates because of a mistranslation" of the term <i>chia-ling</i> found in <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Yu_(author)" title="Zhu Yu (author)">Zhu Yu</a>'s book <i>Pingchow Table Talks</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_geographers">Notable geographers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notable geographers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khordadbeh–Jayhani_tradition_geographers"><span id="Khordadbeh.E2.80.93Jayhani_tradition_geographers"></span>Khordadbeh–Jayhani tradition geographers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Khordadbeh–Jayhani tradition geographers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khordadbeh" title="Ibn Khordadbeh">Ibn Khordadbeh</a></b> (820–912): <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Roads_and_Kingdoms_(Ibn_Khordadbeh)" title="Book of Roads and Kingdoms (Ibn Khordadbeh)"><i>Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik</i> ("Book of Roads and Kingdoms")</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Abu_Abdallah_Muhammad_ibn_Ahmad_al-Jayhani" title="Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Jayhani">Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Jayhani</a></b> (died 925): <i>Kitāb al-Masālik wal-Mamālik</i> ("Book of Roads and Kingdoms", lost)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Rustah" title="Ahmad ibn Rustah">Ahmad ibn Rustah</a> (10th century)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Al-Masudi</a> (896–956):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xix_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xix-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Meadows_of_Gold" title="The Meadows of Gold">The Meadows of Gold</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xix_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xix-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Bakri" title="Al-Bakri">Al-Bakri</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1040–1094)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardizi" title="Gardizi">Gardizi</a> (died 1061)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Aufi" title="Muhammad Aufi">Muhammad Aufi</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balkhi_school_geographers">Balkhi school geographers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Balkhi school geographers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Abu_Zayd_al-Balkhi" title="Abu Zayd al-Balkhi">Abu Zayd al-Balkhi</a></b> (850–934): <i>Suwar al-aqālīm</i> ("Images of the Climes")<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>al-Amthila wa-suwar al-ard</i> ("Similitudes and Images of the Earth"), written in 920 or after<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Istakhri" title="Istakhri">Istakhri</a> (died mid-10th century): <i>al-Masālik wal-Mamālik</i> ("Roads and Kingdoms").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218–219_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218–219-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix,_5_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix,_5-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">Ibn Hawqal</a> (died after 978):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Kitāb Sūrat al-ard</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ("Book of the Face of the Earth")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Maqdisi" title="Al-Maqdisi">Al-Maqdisi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 945/946–991):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Aḥsan al-taqāsīm fi maʾarfat al-aqalīm</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ("The Finest Divisions Concerning Knowledge of the Climes")<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Fida" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Fida">Abu al-Fida</a> (Abulfeda, 1273–1331):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Taqwīm al-Buldān</i> ("Correct Account of the Lands")<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(probably) <a href="/wiki/Hafiz-i_Abru" title="Hafiz-i Abru">Hafiz-i Abru</a> (died 1430)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others_2">Others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> (Alkindus, 801–873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%27qubi" title="Ya'qubi">Ya'qubi</a> (died 897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Dinawari" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Dinawari">Al-Dinawari</a> (820–898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Muhammad_al-Hasan_al-Hamd%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdānī">Hamdani</a> (893–945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Faqih" title="Ibn al-Faqih">Ibn al-Faqih</a> (10th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Fadlan" title="Ahmad ibn Fadlan">Ahmad ibn Fadlan</a> (10th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen, 965–1039)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī">Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī</a> (973–1048)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a> (Avicenna, 980–1037)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> (Dreses, 1100–1165)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jubayr" title="Ibn Jubayr">Ibn Jubayr</a> (1145–1217)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi" title="Yaqut al-Hamawi">Yaqut al-Hamawi</a> (1179–1229)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdollah_Mostowfi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamdollah Mostowfi">Hamdollah Mostowfi</a> (1281–1349)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wardi" title="Ibn al-Wardi">Ibn al-Wardi</a> (d. 1457)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> (1304–1370s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (1332-1406)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Bin_Majid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Bin Majid">Ahmad Bin Majid</a> (born 1432)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_al-Kashgari" title="Mahmud al-Kashgari">Mahmud al-Kashgari</a> (1005–1102)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis" title="Piri Reis">Piri Reis</a> (1465–1554)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Amin Razi">Amin Razi</a> (16th century)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Al-Masudi's world map (10th century)"><img alt="Al-Masudi's world map (10th century)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG/120px-Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG/180px-Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG/240px-Al_Masudi%27s_Map_of_the_World.JPG 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="402" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Al-Masudi</a>'s world map (10th century)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Book_of_Curiosities_-_Sicily_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Schematic map of Sicily in the Arabic Book of Curiosities"><img alt="Schematic map of Sicily in the Arabic Book of Curiosities" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Book_of_Curiosities_-_Sicily_map.jpg/120px-Book_of_Curiosities_-_Sicily_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Book_of_Curiosities_-_Sicily_map.jpg/180px-Book_of_Curiosities_-_Sicily_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Book_of_Curiosities_-_Sicily_map.jpg/240px-Book_of_Curiosities_-_Sicily_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2182" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Schematic map of Sicily in the Arabic <i>Book of Curiosities</i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibn_Howqal_World_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="10th century map of the World by Ibn Hawqal."><img alt="10th century map of the World by Ibn Hawqal." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Ibn_Howqal_World_map.jpg/117px-Ibn_Howqal_World_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Ibn_Howqal_World_map.jpg/175px-Ibn_Howqal_World_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Ibn_Howqal_World_map.jpg/233px-Ibn_Howqal_World_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="473" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">10th century map of the World by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">Ibn Hawqal</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bahre_Fars_(cropped).jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Persian Gulf in a regional map of the Atlas of Islam"><img alt="The Persian Gulf in a regional map of the Atlas of Islam" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Bahre_Fars_%28cropped%29.jpeg/94px-Bahre_Fars_%28cropped%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="94" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Bahre_Fars_%28cropped%29.jpeg/141px-Bahre_Fars_%28cropped%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Bahre_Fars_%28cropped%29.jpeg/188px-Bahre_Fars_%28cropped%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2295" data-file-height="2921" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Persian Gulf in a regional map of the <i>Atlas of Islam</i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kashgari_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map from Mahmud al-Kashgari's Diwan (11th century)"><img alt="Map from Mahmud al-Kashgari's Diwan (11th century)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Kashgari_map.jpg/120px-Kashgari_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Kashgari_map.jpg/180px-Kashgari_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Kashgari_map.jpg/240px-Kashgari_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="670" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map from <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_al-Kashgari" title="Mahmud al-Kashgari">Mahmud al-Kashgari</a>'s Diwan (11th century)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tabula_Rogeriana_1929_copy_by_Konrad_Miller.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi's Tabula Rogeriana (1154), one of the most advanced early world maps"><img alt="Muhammad al-Idrisi's Tabula Rogeriana (1154), one of the most advanced early world maps" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Tabula_Rogeriana_1929_copy_by_Konrad_Miller.jpg/120px-Tabula_Rogeriana_1929_copy_by_Konrad_Miller.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Tabula_Rogeriana_1929_copy_by_Konrad_Miller.jpg/180px-Tabula_Rogeriana_1929_copy_by_Konrad_Miller.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Tabula_Rogeriana_1929_copy_by_Konrad_Miller.jpg/240px-Tabula_Rogeriana_1929_copy_by_Konrad_Miller.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12999" data-file-height="5958" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a></i> (1154), one of the most advanced <a href="/wiki/Early_world_maps" title="Early world maps">early world maps</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibn_al_Wardi%27s_atlas.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ibn al-Wardi's atlas of the world (~1450), a manuscript copied in the 17th century"><img alt="Ibn al-Wardi's atlas of the world (~1450), a manuscript copied in the 17th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ibn_al_Wardi%27s_atlas.jpg/120px-Ibn_al_Wardi%27s_atlas.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ibn_al_Wardi%27s_atlas.jpg/180px-Ibn_al_Wardi%27s_atlas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ibn_al_Wardi%27s_atlas.jpg/240px-Ibn_al_Wardi%27s_atlas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="665" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wardi" title="Ibn al-Wardi">Ibn al-Wardi</a>'s atlas of the world (~1450), a manuscript copied in the 17th century</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Surviving fragment of the first World Map of Piri Reis (1513) showing parts of the Americas"><img alt="Surviving fragment of the first World Map of Piri Reis (1513) showing parts of the Americas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg/90px-Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg/135px-Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg/180px-Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1964" data-file-height="2619" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Surviving fragment of the <a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis_map" title="Piri Reis map">first World Map</a> of <a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis" title="Piri Reis">Piri Reis</a> (1513) showing parts of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">History of cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_Palestine" title="Cartography of Palestine">Cartography of Palestine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Buang-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buang_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buang_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buang_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buang_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buang_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buang_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBuang2014" class="citation book cs1">Buang, Amriah (2014). "Geography in the Islamic World". <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_History_of_Science,_Technology,_and_Medicine_in_Non-Western_Cultures" title="Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures"><i>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</i></a>. Springer. pp. 1–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-3934-5_8611-2">10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_8611-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-3934-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-3934-5"><bdi>978-94-007-3934-5</bdi></a>. <q>A prominent feature of the achievement of Muslim scholars in mathematical geography and cartography was the invention of scientific instruments of measurement. Among these were the astrolab (astrolabe), the ruba (quadrant), the gnomon, the celestial sphere, the sundial, and the compass.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Geography+in+the+Islamic+World&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.pages=1-5&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-007-3934-5_8611-2&rft.isbn=978-94-007-3934-5&rft.aulast=Buang&rft.aufirst=Amriah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerald R. Tibbetts, <i>The Beginnings of a Cartographic Tradition</i>, in: John Brian Harley, David Woodward: <i>Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies</i>, Chicago, 1992, pp. 90–107 (97-100), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-31635-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-31635-1">0-226-31635-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-edson-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-edson_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-edson_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-edson_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-edson_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-edson_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-edson_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Edson and Savage-Smith (2004)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2015)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kennedy-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kennedy_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kennedy_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kennedy_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kennedy_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kennedy_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kennedy_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1996" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Edward S. (1996). "Mathematical Geography". In Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (eds.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_History_of_Arabic_Science" title="Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science"><i>Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</i></a>. Vol. 3. Routledge. pp. 185–201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12410-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12410-2"><bdi>978-0-415-12410-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mathematical+Geography&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.pages=185-201&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-12410-2&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Edward+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdsonSavage-Smith200461–63-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdsonSavage-Smith200461–63_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdsonSavage-Smith200461–63_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdsonSavage-Smith2004">Edson & Savage-Smith 2004</a>, pp. 61–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoetsierBergmans2005" class="citation book cs1">Koetsier, T.; Bergmans, L. (2005). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicsdivin00koet_040"><i>Mathematics and the Divine</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicsdivin00koet_040/page/n183">169</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-50328-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-50328-2"><bdi>978-0-444-50328-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematics+and+the+Divine&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-444-50328-2&rft.aulast=Koetsier&rft.aufirst=T.&rft.au=Bergmans%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmathematicsdivin00koet_040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Biruni.html">"Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abu+Arrayhan+Muhammad+ibn+Ahmad+al-Biruni&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FAl-Biruni.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">King, David A. (1996). "Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, gnomics and timekeeping". In Rashed, Roshdi (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_History_of_Arabic_Science" title="Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science">Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</a></i>. Vol. 1. London, UK and New York, USA: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 128–184.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Astronomy+and+Islamic+society%3A+Qibla%2C+gnomics+and+timekeeping&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.place=London%2C+UK+and+New+York%2C+USA&rft.pages=128-184&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rankin-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rankin_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRankin2006" class="citation web cs1">Rankin, Bill (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radicalcartography.net/?projectionref">"Projection Reference"</a>. <i>Radical Cartography</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Radical+Cartography&rft.atitle=Projection+Reference&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Rankin&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radicalcartography.net%2F%3Fprojectionref&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003217–218_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworthAsimov2003">Bosworth & Asimov 2003</a>, p. 217–218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworthAsimov2003">Bosworth & Asimov 2003</a>, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvi–xvii-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvi–xvii_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMinorsky1937">Minorsky 1937</a>, p. xvi–xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003219_13-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworthAsimov2003">Bosworth & Asimov 2003</a>, p. 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xvii_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMinorsky1937">Minorsky 1937</a>, p. xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMinorsky1937">Minorsky 1937</a>, p. xviii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. 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(1923), "Surveying and navigational instruments from the historical standpoint", <i>Transactions of the Optical Society</i>, <b>24</b> (5): 289–303, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1923TrOS...24..289M">1923TrOS...24..289M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1475-4878%2F24%2F5%2F302">10.1088/1475-4878/24/5/302</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-4878">1475-4878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Optical+Society&rft.atitle=Surveying+and+navigational+instruments+from+the+historical+standpoint&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=289-303&rft.date=1923&rft.issn=1475-4878&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1475-4878%2F24%2F5%2F302&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1923TrOS...24..289M&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=L.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerggren2007" class="citation cs2">Berggren, J. Lennart (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ullzl036UEC&pg=PA519">"Mathematics in Medieval Islam"</a>, in Katz, Victor J. (ed.), <i>The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: a Sourcebook</i>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, p. 519, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11485-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11485-9"><bdi>978-0-691-11485-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mathematics+in+Medieval+Islam&rft.btitle=The+Mathematics+of+Egypt%2C+Mesopotamia%2C+China%2C+India%2C+and+Islam%3A+a+Sourcebook&rft.pages=519&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11485-9&rft.aulast=Berggren&rft.aufirst=J.+Lennart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3ullzl036UEC%26pg%3DPA519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nelson_Frye" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Nelson Frye">Richard Nelson Frye</a>: <i>Golden Age of Persia</i>. p. 163</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dr. Emily Winterburn (<a href="/wiki/National_Maritime_Museum" title="National Maritime Museum">National Maritime Museum</a>), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=529">Using an Astrolabe</a>, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLachièz-ReyLuminet2001" class="citation book cs1">Lachièz-Rey, Marc; Luminet, Jean-Pierre (2001). <i>Celestial Treasury: From the Music of Spheres to the Conquest of Space</i>. Trans. Joe Laredo. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80040-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80040-2"><bdi>978-0-521-80040-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celestial+Treasury%3A+From+the+Music+of+Spheres+to+the+Conquest+of+Space&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80040-2&rft.aulast=Lachi%C3%A8z-Rey&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft.au=Luminet%2C+Jean-Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmidl-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidl_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidl_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidl_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidl1996–97" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated">Schmidl, Petra G. (1996–97). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5617%2Fjais.4547">"Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass"</a>. <i>Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies</i>. <b>1</b>: 81–132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5617%2Fjais.4547">10.5617/jais.4547</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Arabic+and+Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=Two+Early+Arabic+Sources+On+The+Magnetic+Compass&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=81-132&rft.date=1996%2F1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5617%2Fjais.4547&rft.aulast=Schmidl&rft.aufirst=Petra+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5617%252Fjais.4547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.uib.no/jais/v001ht/01-081-132schmidl1.htm#_ftn4">http://www.uib.no/jais/v001ht/01-081-132schmidl1.htm#_ftn4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140902060243/http://www.uib.no/jais/v001ht/01-081-132schmidl1.htm#_ftn4">Archived</a> 2014-09-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barbara_M._Kreutz_370_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kreutz, Barbara M. (1973) "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass", <i>Technology and Culture</i>, <b>14</b> (3: July), p. 367–383 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3102323">3102323</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Jawāmeʿ al-ḥekāyāt wa-lawāmeʿ al-rewāyāt</i> by Muhammad al-ʿAwfī</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OEPST-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OEPST_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEPST_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEPST_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidl2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schmidl, Petra G. (2014-05-08). "Compass". In Ibrahim Kalin (ed.). <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 144–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-981257-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-981257-8"><bdi>978-0-19-981257-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Compass&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%2C+Science%2C+and+Technology+in+Islam&rft.pages=144-6&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014-05-08&rft.isbn=978-0-19-981257-8&rft.aulast=Schmidl&rft.aufirst=Petra+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Needham12-13-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Needham12-13_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham p. 12-13 "<i>...that the floating fish-shaped iron leaf spread outside China as a technique, we know from the description of Muhammad al' Awfi just two hundred years later</i>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Kitāb Kanz al-tujjār fī maʿrifat al-aḥjār</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lancaster-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lancaster_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lancaster_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/jais/volume/docs/vol1/1_081-132schmidl2.pdf">"Early Arabic Sources on the Magnetic Compass"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Lancaster.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-08-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lancaster.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Early+Arabic+Sources+on+the+Magnetic+Compass&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lancaster.ac.uk%2Fjais%2Fvolume%2Fdocs%2Fvol1%2F1_081-132schmidl2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavage-Smith1988" class="citation journal cs1">Savage-Smith, Emilie (1988). "Gleanings from an Arabist's Workshop: Current Trends in the Study of Medieval Islamic Science and Medicine". <i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" title="Isis (journal)">Isis</a></i>. <b>79</b> (2): 246–266 [263]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F354701">10.1086/354701</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3049439">3049439</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33884974">33884974</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Gleanings+from+an+Arabist%27s+Workshop%3A+Current+Trends+in+the+Study+of+Medieval+Islamic+Science+and+Medicine&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=246-266+263&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33884974%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3049439&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F354701&rft.aulast=Savage-Smith&rft.aufirst=Emilie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BEA-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BEA_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidl2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schmidl, Petra G. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ashraf_BEA.htm">"Ashraf: al-Malik al-Ashraf (Mumahhid al-Dīn) ʿUmar ibn Yūsuf ibn ʿUmar ibn ʿAlī ibn Rasūl"</a>. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). <i>The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers</i>. New York: Springer. pp. 66–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780387310220" title="Special:BookSources/9780387310220"><bdi>9780387310220</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ashraf%3A+al-Malik+al-Ashraf+%28Mumahhid+al-D%C4%ABn%29+%CA%BFUmar+ibn+Y%C5%ABsuf+ibn+%CA%BFUmar+ibn+%CA%BFAl%C4%AB+ibn+Ras%C5%ABl&rft.btitle=The+Biographical+Encyclopedia+of+Astronomers&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=66-7&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780387310220&rft.aulast=Schmidl&rft.aufirst=Petra+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fislamsci.mcgill.ca%2FRASI%2FBEA%2FAshraf_BEA.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ashraf_BEA.pdf">PDF version</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-King-1983-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-King-1983_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFKing1983">King 1983</a>, pp. 547–8)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tibbetts-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tibbetts_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTibbetts1973" class="citation journal cs1">Tibbetts, G. 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"Comparisons between Arab and Chinese Navigational Techniques". <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>. <b>36</b> (1): 97–108 [105–6]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x00098013">10.1017/s0041977x00098013</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120284234">120284234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Comparisons+between+Arab+and+Chinese+Navigational+Techniques&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-108+105-6&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0041977x00098013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120284234%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tibbetts&rft.aufirst=G.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirth1908" class="citation book cs1">Hirth, Friedrich (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancienthistoryof00hirt"><i>Ancient history of China to the end of the Chóu dynasty</i></a>. New York, The Columbia university press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancienthistoryof00hirt/page/n157">134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+history+of+China+to+the+end+of+the+Ch%C3%B3u+dynasty&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=New+York%2C+The+Columbia+university+press&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Hirth&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancienthistoryof00hirt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1962" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (1962). <i>Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 279–80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05802-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05802-5"><bdi>978-0-521-05802-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+4%2C+Physics+and+Physical+Technology%2C+Part+1%2C+Physics&rft.pages=279-80&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-521-05802-5&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xix-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xix_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xix_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMinorsky1937">Minorsky 1937</a>, p. xix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218–219-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworthAsimov2003218–219_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworthAsimov2003">Bosworth & Asimov 2003</a>, p. 218–219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix,_5-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix,_5_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMinorsky1937">Minorsky 1937</a>, p. xviii–xix, 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinorsky1937xviii–xix_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMinorsky1937">Minorsky 1937</a>, p. xviii–xix.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Alavi, S. M. Ziauddin (1965), <i>Arab geography in the ninth and tenth centuries</i>, <a href="/wiki/Aligarh" title="Aligarh">Aligarh</a>: Aligarh University Press</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosworthAsimov2003" class="citation book cs1">Bosworth, C. E.; Asimov, M. S., eds. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ELrRr0L8UOsC"><i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV. The age of achievement: A. D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century</i></a>. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publications. p. 745. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120815964" title="Special:BookSources/9788120815964"><bdi>9788120815964</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia%2C+Volume+IV.+The+age+of+achievement%3A+A.+D.+750+to+the+end+of+the+fifteenth+century&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pages=745&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9788120815964&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DELrRr0L8UOsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas1973" class="citation cs2">Douglas, A. 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(1983), "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", <i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" title="Isis (journal)">Isis</a></i>, <b>74</b> (4): 531–555, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F353360">10.1086/353360</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144315162">144315162</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=The+Astronomy+of+the+Mamluks&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=531-555&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F353360&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144315162%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2002" class="citation cs2">King, David A. (2002), "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus", <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>, <b>33</b>: 237–255, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182860203300302">10.1177/002182860203300302</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:125329755">125329755</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=A+Vetustissimus+Arabic+Text+on+the+Quadrans+Vetus&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=237-255&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002182860203300302&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A125329755%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2003" class="citation cs2">King, David A. 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href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-12410-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-12410-7"><bdi>0-415-12410-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-415-12410-7&rft.aulast=Rashed&rft.aufirst=Roshdi&rft.au=Morelon%2C+R%C3%A9gis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSezgin2000" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sezgin, Fuat (2000), <i>Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums <b>X–XII</b>: Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland, Historische Darstellung, Teil 1–3</i> (in German), <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt am Main">Frankfurt am Main</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+Des+Arabischen+Schrifttums+X%26ndash%3BXII%3A+Mathematische+Geographie+und+Kartographie+im+Islam+und+ihr+Fortleben+im+Abendland%2C+Historische+Darstellung%2C+Teil+1%26ndash%3B3&rft.place=Frankfurt+am+Main&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Sezgin&rft.aufirst=Fuat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeography+and+cartography+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aina.org/books/hgsptta.htm">"How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs"</a> by <a href="/wiki/De_Lacy_O%27Leary" title="De Lacy O'Leary">De Lacy O'Leary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geography.about.com/od/historyofgeography/a/islamicgeo.htm">Islamic Geography in the Middle Ages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151023093406/http://geography.about.com/od/historyofgeography/a/islamicgeo.htm">Archived</a> 2015-10-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_geography" title="Template:Islamic geography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_geography" title="Template talk:Islamic geography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_geography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic geography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographers_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Geographers of the medieval Islamic world">Geographers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khwarizmi" title="Al-Khwarizmi">Al-Khwarizmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa_Dinawari" title="Abu Hanifa Dinawari">Abu Hanifa Dinawari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%27qubi" title="Ya'qubi">Ya'qubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulaiman_al-Tajir" title="Sulaiman al-Tajir">Sulaiman al-Tajir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khordadbeh" title="Ibn Khordadbeh">Ibn Khordadbeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Rustah" title="Ahmad ibn Rustah">Ahmad ibn Rustah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Fadlan" title="Ahmad ibn Fadlan">Ahmad ibn Fadlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Zayd_al-Balkhi" title="Abu Zayd al-Balkhi">Abu Zayd al-Balkhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Muhammad_al-Hasan_al-Hamdani" title="Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani">Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Al-Masudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istakhri" title="Istakhri">Istakhri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khashkhash_Ibn_Saeed_Ibn_Aswad" title="Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad">Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">Ibn Hawqal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Faqih" title="Ibn al-Faqih">Ibn al-Faqih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqaddasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muqaddasi">Al-Muqaddasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ramhormuzi" title="Al-Ramhormuzi">Al-Ramhormuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qudama_ibn_Ja%27far" title="Qudama ibn Ja'far">Qudama ibn Ja'far</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sa%CA%BF%C4%ABd_Gard%C4%93z%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Saʿīd Gardēzī">Abu Saʿīd Gardēzī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Bakri" title="Al-Bakri">Al-Bakri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_al-Kashgari" title="Mahmud al-Kashgari">Mahmud al-Kashgari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domiyat" title="Domiyat">Domiyat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abi_Bakr_al-Zuhri" title="Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al-Zuhri">al-Zuhri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l_Abbas_al-Hijazi" title="Abu'l Abbas al-Hijazi">Abu'l Abbas al-Hijazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jubayr" title="Ibn Jubayr">Ibn Jubayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Shirazi" title="Saadi Shirazi">Saadi Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqut_al-Hamawi" title="Yaqut al-Hamawi">Yaqut al-Hamawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Said_al-Maghribi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Said al-Maghribi">Ibn Said al-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Mujawir" title="Ibn al-Mujawir">Ibn al-Mujawir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Dimashqi_(geographer)" title="Al-Dimashqi (geographer)">Al-Dimashqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Fida" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Fida">Abu'l-Fida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wardi" title="Ibn al-Wardi">Ibn al-Wardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdallah_Mustawfi" title="Hamdallah Mustawfi">Hamdallah Mustawfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Nu" title="Lin Nu">Lin Nu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">15th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd-al-Razz%C4%81q_Samarqand%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-al-Razzāq Samarqandī">Abd-al-Razzāq Samarqandī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghiy%C4%81th_al-d%C4%ABn_Naqq%C4%81sh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh">Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_M%C4%81jid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad ibn Mājid">Ahmad ibn Mājid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Huan" title="Ma Huan">Ma Huan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fei_Xin" title="Fei Xin">Fei Xin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulaiman_Al_Mahri" title="Sulaiman Al Mahri">Sulaiman Al Mahri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis" title="Piri Reis">Piri Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Ahmed_Nasrallah_Thattvi" title="Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi">Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C4%ABn_R%C4%81z%C4%AB" title="Amīn Rāzī">Amīn Rāzī</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evliya_%C3%87elebi" title="Evliya Çelebi">Evliya Çelebi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographical_works_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Geographical works of the medieval Islamic world">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Roads_and_Kingdoms_(al-Bakr%C4%AB)" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Roads and Kingdoms (al-Bakrī)"><i>Book of Roads and Kingdoms</i> (al-Bakrī)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Roads_and_Kingdoms_(ibn_Khordadbeh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Roads and Kingdoms (ibn Khordadbeh)"><i>Book of Roads and Kingdoms</i> (ibn Khordadbeh)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Rawd_al-Mitar" title="Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar">Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mu%27jam_Al-Buldan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'jam Al-Buldan">Mu'jam Al-Buldan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rihla" title="Rihla">Rihla</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Meadows_of_Gold" title="The Meadows of Gold">The Meadows of Gold</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis_map" title="Piri Reis map">Piri Reis map</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kitab_al-Kharaj&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kitab al-Kharaj (page does not exist)">Kitab al-Kharaj</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)"><i>Geography</i> (Ptolemy)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_studies" title="Template talk:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_influences_on_Western_art" title="Islamic influences on Western art">Influences on Western art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawala" title="Hawala">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_poverty" title="Islam and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Usury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_of_Islam_in_early_modern_Europe" title="Reception of Islam in early modern Europe">Reception in early modern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">consultation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">use of analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">schools</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_quietism_in_Islam" title="Political quietism in Islam">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_secularism" title="Islam and secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">State</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">dialectic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">solidarity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world" title="Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">cosmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">ophthalmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">elementary school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_studies" title="Sufi studies">Sufi studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">philosophy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_topics" title="Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_topics" title="Template talk:Geography topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of geography terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography#Tasks_and_tools_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Techniques and tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_data_and_information_organizations" title="Category:Geographic data and information organizations">Geographic data and information organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Geographical societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations" title="List of geoscience organizations">Geoscience societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_mapping_agency" title="National mapping agency">National mapping agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_education" title="Category:Geography education">Geography education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographers_on_Film" title="Geographers on Film">Geographers on Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Geography_Olympiad" title="International Geography Olympiad">International Geography Olympiad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_citizenship" title="Spatial citizenship">Spatial citizenship</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography" title="Category:Geography">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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