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class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Quotes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Quotes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Quotes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Quotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man_(1992)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man_(1992)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span><i>The End of History and the Last Man</i> (1992)</span> </div> </a> <ul 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Dignity and the Politics of Resentment</i> (2018)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identity:_The_Demand_for_Dignity_and_the_Politics_of_Resentment_(2018)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2020s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2020s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>2020s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2020s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Liberalism_and_its_Discontents_(2020)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberalism_and_its_Discontents_(2020)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Liberalism and its Discontents (2020)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberalism_and_its_Discontents_(2020)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2020_Owen_Harries_Lecture_(2020)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2020_Owen_Harries_Lecture_(2020)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>2020 Owen Harries Lecture (2020)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2020_Owen_Harries_Lecture_(2020)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberalism_for_the_Twenty-First_Century_(2022)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberalism_for_the_Twenty-First_Century_(2022)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>Liberalism for the Twenty-First Century (2022)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberalism_for_the_Twenty-First_Century_(2022)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quotes_about_Francis_Fukuyama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quotes_about_Francis_Fukuyama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Quotes about Francis Fukuyama</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quotes_about_Francis_Fukuyama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikiquote.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Francis Fukuyama" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikiquote.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Francis Fukuyama" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikiquote.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Francis Fukuyama" data-language-autonym="Português" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Francis_Fukuyama_2005.jpg/330px-Francis_Fukuyama_2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Francis_Fukuyama_2005.jpg/440px-Francis_Fukuyama_2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>[A]ttempts to impose a single way of life on an entire population is a formula for dictatorship.</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" class="extiw" title="w:Francis Fukuyama">Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama</a></b> (born <a href="/wiki/October_27" title="October 27">October 27</a>, <a href="/wiki/1952" class="mw-disambig" title="1952">1952</a>) is an American philosopher, political economist, and author best known for his 1992 book, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" class="extiw" title="w:The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quotes">Quotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Quotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MobG20Hamburg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MobG20Hamburg.jpg/220px-MobG20Hamburg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MobG20Hamburg.jpg/330px-MobG20Hamburg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MobG20Hamburg.jpg/440px-MobG20Hamburg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2734" /></a><figcaption>[I]f men cannot struggle on behalf of a just cause because that just cause was victorious in an earlier generation, then they will struggle against the just cause. They will struggle for the sake of struggle. They will struggle, in other words, out of a certain boredom: for they cannot imagine living in a world without struggle. And if the greater part of the world in which they live is characterized by peaceful and prosperous liberal democracy, then they will struggle against that peace and prosperity, and against democracy.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protest_actions_in_Minsk_(Belarus)_near_Stella,_August_16.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Protest_actions_in_Minsk_%28Belarus%29_near_Stella%2C_August_16.jpg/220px-Protest_actions_in_Minsk_%28Belarus%29_near_Stella%2C_August_16.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Protest_actions_in_Minsk_%28Belarus%29_near_Stella%2C_August_16.jpg/330px-Protest_actions_in_Minsk_%28Belarus%29_near_Stella%2C_August_16.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Protest_actions_in_Minsk_%28Belarus%29_near_Stella%2C_August_16.jpg/440px-Protest_actions_in_Minsk_%28Belarus%29_near_Stella%2C_August_16.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Liberal values like tolerance and individual freedom are prized most intensely when they are denied: People who live in brutal dictatorships want the simple freedom to speak, associate, and worship as they choose. But over time life in a liberal society comes to be taken for granted and its sense of shared community seems thin.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Srebrenica_massacre_memorial_gravestones_2009_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Srebrenica_massacre_memorial_gravestones_2009_1.jpg/220px-Srebrenica_massacre_memorial_gravestones_2009_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Srebrenica_massacre_memorial_gravestones_2009_1.jpg/330px-Srebrenica_massacre_memorial_gravestones_2009_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Srebrenica_massacre_memorial_gravestones_2009_1.jpg/440px-Srebrenica_massacre_memorial_gravestones_2009_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2254" data-file-height="1338" /></a><figcaption>[I]t is hard to see how the discarding of liberal values is going to lead to anything in the long term other than increasing social conflict and ultimately a return to violence as a means of resolving differences.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s">1990s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man_(1992)"><span id="The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man_.281992.29"></span><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" class="extiw" title="w:The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> (1992)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The End of History and the Last Man (1992)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" class="extiw" title="w:Cold War">Cold War</a>, or the passing of a particular period of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_world#1945_to_1999" class="extiw" title="w:History of the world">post-war history</a>, but the end of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/history" class="extiw" title="w:history">history</a> as such … That is, the end point of mankind's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" class="extiw" title="w:Sociocultural evolution">ideological evolution</a> and the universalization of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world" class="extiw" title="w:Western world">Western</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> as the final form of human <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_government" class="extiw" title="w:List of forms of government">government</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>Experience suggests that if men cannot struggle on behalf of a just cause because that just cause was victorious in an earlier generation, then they will struggle against the just cause. They will struggle for the sake of struggle. They will struggle, in other words, out of a certain boredom: for they cannot imagine living in a world without struggle. And if the greater part of the world in which they live is characterized by peaceful and prosperous liberal democracy, then they will struggle against that peace and prosperity, and against democracy. <ul><li>p. 330</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2000s">2000s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 2000s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoconservatives" class="extiw" title="w:Neoconservatives">Neoconservatives</a> believed that history can be pushed along with the right application of power and will. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninism" class="extiw" title="w:Leninism">Leninism</a> was a tragedy in its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik" class="extiw" title="w:Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> version, and it has returned as farce when practiced by the United States. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoconservatism" class="extiw" title="w:Neoconservatism">Neoconservatism</a>, as both a political symbol and a body of thought, has evolved into something I can no longer support. …</p><p>"[W]ar" is the wrong metaphor for the broader struggle, since wars are fought at full intensity and have clear beginnings and endings. Meeting the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jihadism" class="extiw" title="w:Jihadism">jihadist</a> challenge is more of a "long, twilight struggle" whose core is not a military campaign but a political contest for the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hearts_and_minds" class="extiw" title="w:hearts and minds">hearts and minds</a> of ordinary <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim" class="extiw" title="w:Muslim">Muslims</a> around the world.</p> <ul><li>From the essay <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/magazine/neo.html">"After Neoconservatism"</a> in the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times_Magazine" class="extiw" title="w:New York Times Magazine">New York Times Magazine</a></i> (19 February 2006)</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" class="extiw" title="w:The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History</a></i> was never linked to a specifically <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" class="extiw" title="w:United States">American</a> model of social or political organisation. Following <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" class="extiw" title="w:Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a>, the Russian-French philosopher who inspired my original argument, I believe that the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union" class="extiw" title="w:European Union">European Union</a> more accurately reflects what the world will look like at the end of history than the contemporary <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" class="extiw" title="w:United States">United States</a>. The EU's attempt to transcend sovereignty and traditional power politics by establishing a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_law" class="extiw" title="w:International law">transnational rule of law</a> is much more in line with a "post-historical" world than the Americans' continuing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="w:Religion in the United States">belief in God</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/national_sovereignty" class="extiw" title="w:national sovereignty">national sovereignty</a>, and their <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">military</a>. <ul><li>In <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2007/apr/03/thehistoryattheendofhist">"The history at the end of history"</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" class="extiw" title="w:The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> (3 April 2007)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2010s">2010s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 2010s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Be afraid of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-American_relations" class="extiw" title="w:Sino-American relations">the Chinese</a>. I mean, the Chinese <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_People%27s_Republic_of_China%27s_Anti-Satellite_(ASAT)_Program" class="extiw" title="w:The People's Republic of China's Anti-Satellite (ASAT) Program">shoot down satellites</a> in space; they <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Aurora" class="extiw" title="w:Operation Aurora">hack into Google's computers</a>; the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" class="extiw" title="w:Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a> people can't make their <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umar_Farouk_Abdulmutallab" class="extiw" title="w:Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab">underwear blow up</a>. <ul><li>On <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colbertnation.com/full-episodes/mon-may-2-2011-francis-fukuyama"><i>The Colbert Report</i></a> (2 May 2011), answering the question of who <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" class="extiw" title="w:United States">Americans</a> should be scared of now that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Osama_bin_Laden" class="extiw" title="w:Death of Osama bin Laden">bin Laden is dead</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>The Left’s identity politics poses a threat to free speech and to the kind of rational discourse needed to sustain a democracy... The focus on lived experience by identity groups prioritizes the emotional world of the inner self over the rational examination of issues in the outside world and privileges sincerely held opinions over a process of reasoned deliberation that may force one to abandon prior opinions. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180823073547/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/americas/2018-08-14/against-identity-politics">"Against Identity Politics"</a> (14 August 2018), <i>Foreign Affairs</i></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Identity:_The_Demand_for_Dignity_and_the_Politics_of_Resentment_(2018)"><span id="Identity:_The_Demand_for_Dignity_and_the_Politics_of_Resentment_.282018.29"></span><i>Identity: The Demand for Dignity and the Politics of Resentment</i> (2018)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Identity: The Demand for Dignity and the Politics of Resentment (2018)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The limits of this strategy were evident as the century drew to a close. The Marxist left had to confront the fact that actual Communist societies in the Soviet Union and China had turned into grotesque and oppressive dictatorships. <ul><li>p. 112</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2020s">2020s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 2020s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Liberalism_and_its_Discontents_(2020)"><span id="Liberalism_and_its_Discontents_.282020.29"></span>Liberalism and its Discontents (2020)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Liberalism and its Discontents (2020)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><small><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanpurpose.com/articles/liberalism-and-its-discontent/">"Liberalism and its Discontents: The challenges from the left and the right"</a> (5 October 2020), <i>American Purpose</i></small></dd></dl> <ul><li>The more progress that has been made toward eradicating social injustices, the more intolerable the remaining injustices seem, and thus the moral imperative to mobilizing to correct them.</li></ul> <ul><li>Liberal values like tolerance and individual freedom are prized most intensely when they are denied: People who live in brutal dictatorships want the simple freedom to speak, associate, and worship as they choose. But over time life in a liberal society comes to be taken for granted and its sense of shared community seems thin.</li></ul> <ul><li>Putin <u>told the <i>Financial Times</i></u> that liberalism has become an “obsolete” doctrine. While it may be under attack from many quarters today, it is in fact more necessary than ever. It is more necessary because it is fundamentally a means of governing over diversity, and the world is more diverse than it ever has been. Democracy disconnected from liberalism will not protect diversity, because majorities will use their power to repress minorities. <ul><li>Emphasis in original.</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>In situations of <i>de facto</i> diversity, attempts to impose a single way of life on an entire population is a formula for dictatorship.</li></ul> <ul><li>[P]rogressives on the left have shown themselves willing to abandon liberal values in pursuit of social justice objectives. There has been a sustained intellectual attack on liberal principles over the past three decades coming out of academic pursuits like gender studies, critical race theory, postcolonial studies, and queer theory, that deny the universalistic premises underlying modern liberalism. The challenge is not simply one of intolerance of other views or “cancel culture” in the academy or the arts. Rather, the challenge is to basic principles that all human beings were born equal in a fundamental sense, or that a liberal society should strive to be color-blind.</li></ul> <ul><li>[I]t is hard to see how the discarding of liberal values is going to lead to anything in the long term other than increasing social conflict and ultimately a return to violence as a means of resolving differences.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2020_Owen_Harries_Lecture_(2020)"><span id="2020_Owen_Harries_Lecture_.282020.29"></span>2020 Owen Harries Lecture (2020)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 2020 Owen Harries Lecture (2020)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><small>A YouTube Creative Commons video, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=325s">Dr Francis Fukuyama on liberalism and the 2020 US presidential election</a> (Nov 18, 2020).</small></dd></dl> <ul><li>I have been a... <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberal</a> for most of my life... <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=435s">7:15</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>I do want to defend <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>... in theory and I want to talk about the ways that it is being threatened... today and... some of the consequences... <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=450s">7:30</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>[T]here are two justifications for [liberalism]. One... is <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatic</a> and the other... is <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a>. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=473s">7:53</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>The pragmatic justification is that <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> is... a political doctrine that seeks to enable societies to govern themselves over <a href="/wiki/Diversity" title="Diversity">diversity</a>. It arose in the minds of thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> or <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" class="extiw" title="w:Samuel von Pufendorf">Samuel Pufendorf</a>... as a result of the European wars of religion following the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=8m02s">8:02</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>In the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>... a third of the population of central Europe were killed in a bloody struggle between different <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> religious sects, and the pragmatic part of liberalism was to take <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">final ends</a></b> [defined by religions] <b>out of <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">political</a> discussion... and to lower the sights of politics to defend <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> itself, and not "the good life"... as defined by a particular sect of a particular religion.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=508s">8:28</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>[T]herefore <b><a href="/wiki/Tolerance" title="Tolerance">tolerance</a> of <a href="/wiki/Diversity" title="Diversity">diversity</a>, of people that don't believe the same thing that you do, has always been at the core of this pragmatic project to enable diverse populations to live with one another.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=540s">9:00</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>In the 19th and early 20th century</b> the issue had shifted from religion to nation. You had mixed ethnic populations throughout Europe, and <b>as Europe began to reorganize itself on a national, or a cultural, or an ethnic basis, you had two bloody... World Wars that... undermined the magnificent European civilization of the 19th century... Liberalism was called upon in the aftermath... to enable Europeans to live together in ethnically diverse societies. That was the origin of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>... an effort to move beyond <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a>, to a new form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/coexistence" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:coexistence">coexistence</a>.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=553s">9:13</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[T]hat liberal world that emerged after 1945 led to one of the most spectacularly successful periods in human history.</b> There was material <a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">progress</a>. There was stability. There was human <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>. <b>There was the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/flourish#Verb" class="extiw" title="wikt:flourish">flourishing</a> of many human activities that can only take place in a liberal, and therefore free society</b>... <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=606s">10:06</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[A]fter <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, liberal rights were not something that were only deserved by white Europeans. ...[T]here was a recognition that the black and brown peoples being held in colonial bondage could not consistently be held in that bondage, because <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Universal_value" title="Universal value">universal doctrine</a>. ...[T]hat's the other respect in which we can defend liberalism, a <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> one.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=630s">10:30</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[L]iberalism is... a protection of human <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=666s">11:06</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>The idea of universal human <a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">dignity</a> ultimately comes out of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>... the view that all human beings are equal in the sight of God because they have the capacity for moral choice. As Western thought developed in the 17th-18th centuries, this took on a <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> form under thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> or <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> or <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Hegel</a>, who argued that human <a href="/wiki/Equality" title="Equality">equality</a> is... based on human autonomy. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=672s">11:12</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>'s words, human beings are uncaused causes, and therefore have infinite value, and <b>a <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> regime protects</b> that <b><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> by giving people <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a>... [T]he right to speak, to organize, to associate, and ultimately to have a share of <a href="/wiki/Power" title="Power">power</a> by being <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffrage" class="extiw" title="w:Suffrage">able to vote</a>. ...[T]his is ...the moral status, the <a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">dignity</a> that life in a liberal regime</b> that does respect individual rights, <b>gives us, and it is one of the reasons that to this day, people do not want to live in <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> countries that do not recognize the fundamental dignity of their... citizens.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=707s">11:47</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[F]or both the pragmatic... and... moral reasons... liberalism</b> became the dominant doctrine of the 20th century, and <b>should</b>... continue to <b>be defended.</b>... <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=752s">12:32</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>[T]here are defects and gaps in a liberal society that are constantly being filled by other longings and... structures... that sometimes end up undermining that liberal project. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=785s">13:05</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>[O]ne of the problems... both on the left and the right is that the... <b>individual autonomy protected by liberalism tends to take more and more extreme versions... and... becomes self-undermining.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=804s">13:24</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>[O]n the more conservative side... <b>Liberalism has been associated with... the right to own private property</b>... one of the most fundamental individual rights that is protected in true liberal societies, and <b>that right is... what made possible the modern economic world.</b> As any economist would tell you, without secure property rights and contract enforcement, you don't get investment and therefore economic growth. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=824s">13:44</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[I]n the 1980s and 90s</b> there was an extension of the autonomy of individual property owners in... <b>a movement towards <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a></b> represented by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> and... by the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school of economics</a> that <b>denigrated... the role of the state in the economy</b>, that said the private markets would be able to solve most social distribution problems and the like. This was true in many ways. The world did become much richer in this period, but it also became much more unequal... <b>[W]ithout adequate regulation and... effort to protect people against the excesses of market capitalism, you had people... left behind</b>, even as their societies as a whole, grew. ...<b>[T]his ...became one of the triggers for the kind of <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populism</a> we've seen arise in many rich countries.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=14m13s">14:13</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>The second failing of liberalism</b> comes directly out of the fact that it attempts to lower the horizons of politics. <b>Liberal societies</b> do not want to tell you how to live. They <b>do not want to define "the good life"</b> because that is the source of conflict, but <b>as a result liberal societies tend not to satisfy these very deep human cravings for community</b>, because... <b>there's something wrong with the basic liberal premise that we all start... as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/self-interest" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:self-interest">self-interested</a> individuals. We're not self-interested individuals.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=922s">15:22</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Fundamentally we are highly social creatures. <b>We feel a big sense of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/anomie" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:anomie">anomie</a> and discomfort when we are isolated</b> from our fellow human beings. ...<b>[W]e seek community in different ways. There's a right wing... and... a left wing version</b> of this. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=958s">15:58</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>The right wing version really sees community represented either by... religion, or by nation, that these are units that... get dissolved under a liberal world order, through globalization, through the movement of people, goods, ideas and trade between nations, national identity becomes diluted and that sense of national community that held people together in democratic societies appears to be lost. ...<b>[S]ecularism ...is perceived as a loss by people that have religious faith.</b> They believe that there is a form of militant secularism that is not allowing them to practice their religion, and for that reason a lot of religious conservatives in places like the United States, have turned against that liberal order. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=978s">16:18</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[B]oth of these forces are driving illiberal political movements in many parts of the world</b>... India was a liberal society created by <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a> but under the <a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">BJP</a> and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Modi</a> it's shifted its national identity to one based on <a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Hindu nationalism</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Viktor Orbán</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidesz" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Fidesz">Fidesz</a> party Hugarian national identity has been redefined. Orbán has said Hugarian national identity is based on Hugarian ethnicity, which... is one of the reasons that World War II happened, because the Germans wanted to define German identity on the basis of German ethnicity, and there were many Germans living in... surrounding... central Europe... and that was... the trigger that led to the outbreak of the Second World War. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1037s">17:17</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>[T]his has been going on in other countries... including in the United States, where there has been <b>a deepening polarization between a red... and a blue America</b> that <b>is defined partly by... these feelings of loss of <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">community</a> with regard to both religion and nation.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1099s">18:19</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>There is a left wing version of this longing for community... because <b>in a liberal society we never move as quickly as we should towards full <a href="/wiki/Equality" title="Equality">equality</a>, and therefore there are many marginalized groups who feel that the liberal society is... <a href="/wiki/Hypocrisy" title="Hypocrisy">hypocritical</a></b>, that it's promising an equality of recognition, and of rights, but it is not delivering... and therefore the very concept of <b>liberal universalism is challenged in favor of a definition of rights that is tied to the specific groups.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1124s">18:44</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[T]he liberal world order</b> that emerged, that... has these pragmatic and... moral dimensions <b>has been severely challenged</b> in the last few years, <b>and the sources</b> of this challenge <b>are numerous. One is the rise of overtly authoritarian states like <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>.</b> They have consolidated their rule. They seem to be stable internally, and they are <b>increasingly seeking to project their power</b> and influence, their model... <b>across international borders.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1163s">19:23</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>But there has also been the rise of populist movements within existing liberal democracies, and particularly within the United States and Britain, which were... the leaders of the neoliberal revolution... in the 1980s... <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1201s">20:01</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>[F]inally, and... somewhat belatedly, <b>there is the growing of a left</b> that... has now been energized and is increasingly vocal... <b>in certain quarters of the cultural community</b>, in the <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">arts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Universities" title="Universities">universities</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Hollywood" title="Hollywood">Hollywood</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">media</a>... <b>where in some versions it also engages in a kind of illiberal... politics.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1221s">20:21</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[T]he election... on November 3</b> [2020]... illustrates a lot of these clashing forces. ...[T]hat election <b>was the most important political fight ...in my lifetime. It's important</b> not just for the United States but... <b>for the rest of the world, given the role that the United States has historically played in maintaining that broader liberal international order.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1256s">20:56</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>The United States has been in a long term decline, with its political institutions decaying. ...[T]he single source</b> of that decline <b>is ...the pervasive <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_polarization_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="w:Political polarization in the United States">polarization</a></b> ...within American society that has made the United States unable to meet some of the basic governance challenges that it has faced. The most recent example... has been the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID pandemic</a>... [W]earing a mask, instead of becoming a health measure that people take to protect themselves and their loved ones, becomes as political statement... <b>[Y]ou don't wear a mask if you're a <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a> supporter, and you do... if you're a Democrat. This is... not the way that... coherent nations... meet systemic challenges like a global <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1317s">21:57</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_polarization_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="w:Political polarization in the United States">polarization</a> has a number of different roots.</b> The economic... fact that many working class voters have been left behind by the prosperity of globalization. ...<b>[T]he more important division is a cultural one</b> ...the feeling on the part of many populist voters, that they are not being respected by the elites that are running the country... <b>[H]ere, all of the identity issues... play themselves out.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1377s">22:57</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Identity politics</a> in the United States started on the left, after the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" class="extiw" title="w:Civil rights movement">Civil Rights era</a></b>, with specific groups like <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Women" title="Women">women</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gay" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:gay">gays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">lesbians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disabled</a>. <b>Every one of these groups felt marginalized and disrespected</b> by the dominant white male society that existed... in the early 1960s... <b>[E]ach one of these groups began to demand recognition, not as part of a generic working class, but rather for their particular form of disrespect.</b> ...[T]here's ...a lot to this belief that injustice takes these very specific forms tied to narrow identities. <b>The problem with this is... it began to alienate the traditional <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a>, which had been the base of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic party</a>, as of every other left wing party in the 20th century</b>... [I]ncreasingly <b>working class whites</b> began to abandon that party because they <b>felt the Democrats were no longer catering to their interests. They're the ones that had lost their jobs to overseas competition</b>. They're the ones who were <b>falling behind in terms of status... income... social respect</b>... [T]hat <b>generated a huge amount of resentment against the elites living in big cities, that had jobs that were secure, that were comfortable in a multicultural, very diverse environment.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1419s">23:39</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>If you look at the <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> of <b><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populism</a> in the United States</b>, it <b>is tied most closely to population density</b>, which... is correlated... <b>to</b> these types of <b>cultural differences... to belief... in traditional cultural values, in <a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">family</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a></b> and the like, <b>and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/converse#Noun" class="extiw" title="wikt:converse">conversely</a> to... belief in <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigration</a></b> [and] <b><a href="/wiki/Diversity" title="Diversity">diversity</a> as strengths</b>... [T]his is the fundamental division that's taken hold of the United States. <b>It has been augmented by <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> because the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> has succeeded in... destroying every other source of authority that used to filter news and facts and information that... formed the basis of a democratic ability to have political discourse.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1532s">25:32</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>So today... red and blue voters rely on a completely different set of facts. ...[P]olls ...suggest that a substantial... majority of Republican voters believe that the Democrats... <a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">stole the election</a>, and that <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> is not the legitimate president... <b>[W]hen you don't have a common factual basis, you... reinforce the kinds of filter bubbles that people have started to move into.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1592s">26:32</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[W]hile <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a> is not going to be president, <a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a> is going to survive.</b> ...[T]he Democrats need to look very very carefully at those election results because ...the Republicans did well not necessarily because people love what they represent, but because they don't like what the Democrats represent... [U]nless they sort out what that is, they are going to continue to lose elections. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1732s">28:52</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Because the President has undisputed authority over <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">foreign policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">President Biden</a>... will be able to reinsert the United States into the international system. He will rejoin the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Climate Accords</a>, he will go to <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> and reaffirm support for... our Asian allies, for <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, for every other country that has depended on... American power, but... <b>it's going to be extremely difficult to return to the kind of world that we assumed existed before 2016, because America does remain fundamentally divided. That bipartisan support for the liberal international order that we thought was extremely strong is no longer</b>... <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1781s">29:41</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[A]ny American ally will welcome <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a> as president, will be happy that he was elected, but will be a little... distrustful because the Republicans could make a come-back in 2022. They could win the presidency again in 2024.</b> ...[T]here's is still a good third of the American public that remain very strong <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a> voters. They're very angry and... are not going to go away... [T]herefore <b>the ability of the United States to resume its role as the chief defender of the liberal order... is going to be contested, both domestically and... by American friends. If this leads to more self-reliance on their part, that may not be the worst thing in the world, but it is going to mean a very different kind of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_order" class="extiw" title="w:International order">world order</a></b> than the one I grew up arguing with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen_Harries" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Owen Harries">Owen Harries</a> about. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9GhbZeXmT0&t=1841s">30:41</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Liberalism_for_the_Twenty-First_Century_(2022)"><span id="Liberalism_for_the_Twenty-First_Century_.282022.29"></span>Liberalism for the Twenty-First Century (2022)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Liberalism for the Twenty-First Century (2022)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><small>A YouTube Creative Commons video, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=205s">Francis Fukuyama - Liberalism for the Twenty-First Century</a> (May 31, 2022) from the YouTube channel IIEA, representing <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iiea.com">The Institute of International and European Affairs</a>, Ireland’s leading independent, not-for-profit international affairs think tank providing a debate and discussion forum to evaluate and share policy options for EU and International affairs.</small></dd></dl> <ul><li>[L]iberalism... has a left of center meaning in the United States. It has a slightly right of center meaning in much of continental Europe. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=224s">3:44</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>I have a broad definition... <b><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a> is a doctrine that was developed in the middle of the 17th century, at the end of Europe's wars of religion</b>, in which a number of early liberal thinkers... said we need <b>to lower the aspirations of politics, not to seek after "the good life" as defined by a particular religious doctrine, but simply to protect life itself by cultivating a virtue of <a href="/wiki/Tolerance" title="Tolerance">tolerance</a></b>, whereby, at that time <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a>, but... today maybe <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Russians">Russians</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainians" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a> could live together peacefully, <b>allowing each to individually choose... what to believe, what to speak,</b> and the like. It believes <b>that all human beings are endowed with a certain basic level of dignity that is equal</b> among all those human beings, and it is <b>institutionalized through a <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, by constitutional provisions that prevent the excessive power of the state to limit individual choice. It's not necessarily associated with a particular economic ideology, except that it does protect private property rights</b>... [S]o you can have an expansive social democratic government, like in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> or <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, or you can have a more limited one like in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>... [T]hose are all... liberal societies because of that commitment to rule of law. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=237s">3:57</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[L]iberalism has been very severely threatened in recent years.</b> It's been threatened from a number of sources. So internationally you have two great powers, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, that are definitely not liberal polities, that have expansive ambitions... [A]s <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> said... in an iterview with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times" class="extiw" title="w:Financial Times">FT</a> in 2019 "Liberalism is an obsolete doctrine." But the threat... also comes from other places. ...<b>[Y]ou have the rise of a populist nationalist right in many countries.</b> This is <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Viktor Orbán</a> in Hungary. This is <a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a> in India, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> in the United States, ...<a href="/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen" title="Marine Le Pen">Marine Le Pen</a> in France. <b>All of them criticizing liberalism precisely for the <a href="/wiki/Tolerance" title="Tolerance">tolerance</a> that it permits</b> and tries to deal with, in diverse and increasingly ethnically and racially diverse countries. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=336s">5:36</a> <small>Ref: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/670039ec-98f3-11e9-9573-ee5cbb98ed36">Vladimir Putin says liberalism has ‘become obsolete’</a> (June 27, 2019) <i>Financial Times</i>.</small></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>It's also been attacked from the left by people... I teach students at Stanford, and many of them think that liberalism is... the doctrine of their parents' or their grandparents' generation, but it's really not relevant to <a href="/wiki/Generation_Z" title="Generation Z">Gen Z</a> younger people who are impatient for social justice and social change that liberalism is not providing. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=408s">6:48</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>[T]hat's... the crisis. <b>The number of liberal democracies measured by... <a href="/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</a></b> in its annual survey of freedom around the world <b>has been in decline for 16 straight years, and the biggest declines recently have been in</b> the two biggest liberal democracies, <b><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.</b> So... we're dealing with a big global problem. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=438s">7:18</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>So let me start by just going back to basics in <b>explaining why liberalism is a desirable form of government</b>, or set of ideas to live under... <b>[T]here's basically 3 reasons</b>. One is <b><a href="/wiki/Practicality" title="Practicality">practical</a></b>, one is <b><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a></b> and one is <b><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economic</a></b>. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=463s">7:43</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>The practical reason</b> has to do with that original purpose of liberalism, which <b>was to lower the temperature of politics by taking <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">final ends</a> off the table, and allowing societies to govern themselves when they face religious or national <a href="/wiki/Diversity" title="Diversity">diversity</a>.</b>.. [T]hat remains one of its biggest selling points. In <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> that was created by <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a> was a liberal republic. They did not define themselves in religious terms. They knew that they had to deal with the incredible diversity, not just <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> but in terms of <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">cast</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/region" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:region">region</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, many other dimensions... [A] liberal republic was... the only way of accommodating that diversity. What prime minister <a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Modi</a> is seeking to do... is to shift that national identity to one based on <a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Hindu nationalism</a>, which then excludes the up to 200 million <a href="/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> that live in contemporary India, as well as... <a href="/wiki/Parsi" title="Parsi">Parsis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christians</a>, other people... When he was the chief minister [2001-20014] in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> this led to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarat_riots" class="extiw" title="w:Gujarat riots">communal riots</a>, and I'm afraid that India is moving toward that kind of communal violence once again today. ...So that's the pragmatic reason. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=484s">8:04</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>The second reason</b> has to do with <b>the moral basis</b>, which is the <b>protection of human <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a></b>. ...If you ask, in what sense could a liberal believe that <a href="/wiki/Equality" title="Equality">all people are equal</a>, when they differ by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skin_color" class="extiw" title="w:Human skin color">skin color</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, by many other characteristics. The answer... goes back to the fundamental insight... in the Book of <a href="/wiki/Genesis" title="Genesis">Genesis</a>... that <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> are told not to eat of the <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_the_knowledge_of_good_and_evil" title="Tree of the knowledge of good and evil">Tree of the knowledge of good and evil</a> by God and they disobey Him. ...It gives <b>human beings</b> a moral status that other parts of created nature don't have. They <b>can make moral choices. They can distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Right_and_wrong" title="Right and wrong">right and wrong</a>, and it is that ability to choose <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morally</a>, that ultimately is what makes us all equal because we share that despite the more superficial differences... [I]t's that <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">right</a> of autonomy... the decisions on what to do in life, where to live, who to marry, what beliefs to engage in.</b> These are all essential characteristics of every human being that every human being wants, and <b>the liberal regime protects that autonomy.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=564s">9:24</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Then finally, there's a good economic reason</b> for choosing a liberal society because among the rights that <b>liberalism protects</b> is <b>the right to own private property, to transact, to engage in commerce, and therefore it is the basis of a market economy.</b> Liberal societies like <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> in the 17th century, were the leaders in terms of creating the modern economic world precisely because they respected property rights and trade. Even Communist <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, when it opened up in... 1978, did so by adopting certain liberal principles. <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> allowed peasants to keep the fruits of their labor, and as a result of those incentives, quasi-property rights, agricultural productivity doubled in the space of 4 years, and in general, the most dynamic parts of this amazing Chinese growth story come from the private sector where people are allowed to buy and sell, and... in effect to own property. So <b>even in a... politically illiberal society, economic liberalism has led to tremendous prosperity.</b> So those are the 3 reasons. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=655s">10:55</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Now the argument that I make in my book is that <b>part of the current disaffection with liberalism is not from any of its basic principles, but... is the result of certain deformations of liberal principles</b> that were <b>carried to extremes that led... to bad outcomes... [T]here's a move in this direction on the right and... on the left.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=745s">12:25</a> <small>Ref: Francis Fukuyama, <i>Liberalism and Its Discontents</i> (2022)</small></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>The one on the right concerned the shift from an older understanding of economic liberalism to what is now called "<a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a>." Neoliberalism is <i>not</i>... a synonym for <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>.</b> I don't see how you can have any kind of modern economy without a market based economy. <b>Neoliberalism</b> took that basic insight and stretched it to an extreme seeking to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deregulation" class="extiw" title="w:Deregulation">deregulate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatize</a> and basically pull back the role of the <a href="/wiki/State" title="State">state</a>, which many neoliberals regarded as simply obstacles to individuals, to entrepreneurship, to economic growth, and as a result markets did their usual work. They <b>produced a great deal of inequality</b>, as... global corporations searched for very small cost advantages by moving jobs to low cost areas... <b>[T]hey destabilized the global economy</b> in certain important ways <b>by deregulating the financial sector.</b> <b>As a result of the deregulation that occurred in the 1980s and 90s we had an escalating series of financial crises.</b> In the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Wednesday" class="extiw" title="w:Black Wednesday">sterling crisis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">Asian financial crisis</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%E2%80%932002_Argentine_great_depression" class="extiw" title="w:1998–2002 Argentine great depression">Argentina</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Russian_financial_crisis" class="extiw" title="w:1998 Russian financial crisis">Russia</a>, and finally culminating in the big American <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subprime_mortgage_crisis" class="extiw" title="w:Subprime mortgage crisis">subprime crisis</a> in 2008. The... cumulative effects of this instability were political and they were very serious because <b>many ordinary people were hurt... a lot of people lost their homes, lost their jobs, and the <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elites</a></b> that ran these big banks and financial institutions <b>suffered only a momentary disruption in their incomes, and went on to continue to dominate</b> their respective economies... <b>[T]his had a direct impact on the rise of <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populism</a></b> in subsequent years, <b>both on the right and on the left.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=774s">12:54</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>On the left you had a different aspect of individual autonomy</b> that was <b>pushed to an extreme</b>, which really had to do with the autonomy that individuals have to create their own lifestyles. ...[T]he basic concept of liberal autonomy has to do with your ability to make moral choices, but as time went on the <b>emphasis came to be not on making the right moral choices within an existing moral framework, but rather to be able to make up that framework on your own</b>, that that was the ultimate expression of individual human freedom, and it has obvious problems for a society because <b>all societies have to be based on shared norms that allow people to coordinate their actions, to communicate</b>, and the like... <b>[I]f you believe that the rules can be... set by anybody and that transgressing existing rules is automatically a good thing, you're not going to have... a stable society.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=905s">15:05</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>There was... an attack on the individualistic premise that underlies liberalism through a new kind of <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a>. <b>There is a liberal form of identity politics that says that liberalism does not live up to its promises of the equal treatment of individuals.</b> So... black people, other racial minorities, women, LGBTQ people, have been marginalized and excluded from... full participation in the promise of a liberal... <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>... [I]dentity politics was simply a means of mobilizing people and getting them to push for their inclusion. So that's a liberal and... perfectly acceptable and... desirable understanding of identity. <b>But there is another view</b> that's grown up very powerfully, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon</a> world... places like the United States or Britain or Australia, <b>where <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a> is seen as an attack</b> fundamentally <b>on</b> the individualistic premise of <b>liberalism. That is to say, individuals are</b> not really free. They're <b>determined by the categories, the racial, gender and other categories</b> into which they are born, <b>and that the society needs to respect not what they do and decide as individuals, but to look first to that category</b>, the racial, ethnic, gender category, and use that <b>as the means of determining... the distribution of resources, hiring, promotion, the other goods</b> that society offers, <b>and that... is fundamentally <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/illiberal#Adjective" class="extiw" title="wikt:illiberal">illiberal</a>. It divides the society which had previously been held together through a set of... common values shared by individuals, into a society of groups</b>, and at the end of that process you can ultimately end up with a place like <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia</a> where identity politics... defines the whole of politics...<b>[T]here is a kind of effort to move our modern liberal democratic politics in that kind of identity based direction, coming out of the contemporary left.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=973s">16:13</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>[A] further threat to liberalism has to do with the mode of cognition that we call modern natural <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>. <b>The early liberals were very closely aligned with the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific Revolution">founders of modern natural science</a></b>, people like <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>, <b>who believed that there was an objective world beyond our subjective consciousnesses</b>, that we could perceive this world through the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">experimental method</a>, and then come to manipulate it. <b>Natural science gave us technology... that made the world much more habitable</b>, by conquering disease, by inventing things that vastly increased human productivity. <b>So... it's closely related to the wealth, and... the safety and comfort of a modern economically developed world.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=1129s">18:49</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>The attack on modern natural <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> has come from a number of sources... [I]t starts ...on the left with a series of intellectual developments</b>... French <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">structuralism</a> that then develops into <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a> and ultimately into different varieties of contemporary <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, <b>the premise of which is that there's... a subjectivity in the way that we perceive the world. We don't so much perceive an objective reality, as impose reality on the world</b> through the words that we use. <b>This... culminates... in the thought of <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></b>, who's a very brilliant philosophical observer, but he began to argue <b>that... modern science is not an objective cognitive technique, it is really something that elites use to manipulate people</b>... [I]n previous years they could simply order the death of one of their subjects, but now <b>they use science and the authority that science carries, to convince people of certain things that are essentially a way of holding power over them</b>... [H]e applies this to things like incarceration, homosexuality, mental illness and the like, but by the end of his career had... broadened the idea of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/biopower" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:biopower">biopower</a> to... include much of what we understand to be modern natural science, and <b>so the skepticism of science really starts on the progressive left. It has now completely moved over to the nationalist populist right. So</b> during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID epidemic</a> and... to the present... there are <b>many people on the extreme right</b> around the world that... <b>argue, just like Foucault, that what the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" class="extiw" title="w:United States Public Health Service">public health authorities</a> are telling you about <a href="/wiki/Vaccines" title="Vaccines">vaccines</a> or about <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N95_respirator#In_healthcare" class="extiw" title="w:N95 respirator">masking</a> is... not based on objective science. It's based on... the elite desire to manipulate you, and it's really a game about <a href="/wiki/Power" title="Power">power</a>, rather than about the <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>. You combine that with the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> and the new digital technologies that have wiped away all of the former gatekeepers, like the traditional media or... other credible sources of scientific information that used to certify information. You combine that with a principled belief that there really is no such thing as objective truth, and you get the situation... we now face, in which, at least in the United States... we can't agree on whether vaccines are safe, ...who is the winner of the 2020 presidential election</b> and the like... <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=1194s">19:54</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[I]n a liberal society you're not going to agree on the deepest... <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> frameworks, but you are going to agree on <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">factual</a> information, and... if you <i>can't</i> agree on factual information it's very hard to deliberate in common</b>... [on] <b>what needs to be done in the future, and that's the situation we now face.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=1380s">23:00</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>The final thing... the question of the nation, and the role of the nation in liberalism... [T]here would seem to be a tension between liberalism's belief that all human beings enjoy... the same basic set of human rights, and the fact that we are divided up into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nation_state" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:nation state">nation states</a>, in which the authority to enforce those rights is territorially limited. ...[T]his contradiction can be bridged because... <b>there is a liberal form of national identity which is not only possible, but... necessary if a liberal society is going to succeed.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=1402s">23:22</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>A right exists in theory... [A]ll human beings have the same set of rights, but <b>rights need to be enforced by the state. It needs to rely on the coercive power of the state</b>... its army, its police force, to actually make those rights something real that citizens can enjoy, and the enforcement power is not universal. ...[W]e wouldn't want to live in a world in which every liberal state wanted to enforce liberal rights in every other state in the world. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=1449">24:09</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>The other big issue is an emotional one. <b>We tend to feel the greatest bonds of solidarity with people that are close to us. There are very few true <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_citizenship" class="extiw" title="w:Global citizenship">citizens of the world</a>.</b> We're citizens of individual countries and we really feel the closest bonds to people that live within our nation, and therefore... the nation becomes a kind of social glue. But <b>if you're going to make a national identity compatible with liberalism, it has to be the right kind of national identity. It has to be one that is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_society" class="extiw" title="w:Open society">open</a> to <i>all</i> of the citizens</b> that actually live in the territory of the nation. <b>It can't exclude certain groups by race, by ethnicity, by religious belief</b> and the like, <b>and therefore it needs to be an open identity that is based on essentially liberal ideas.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=1486s">24:46</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>So this is something... we see happening... in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">war in Ukraine</a>. A lot of people raise the question, "Why are Ukrainians resisting the Russian invasion as ferociously as they are?" and there's been a little bit of a debate over whether this is due to the fact that Ukrain is democratic, a liberal democracy, and Russia is not, or whether it's simply a fight over sovereignty... I think that that's a false dichotomy because <b>you really don't fight for liberalism as an abstract principle. You fight for it as it is embedded in... your nation</b>... [F]rom my... frequent visits to Ukraine... I believe... that's what's really going on, that Ukrainians want their <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>, but the reason they want it so desperately is that they want to have a <i>free</i> Ukraine and not <i><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Putin</a>'s</i> Ukraine, not a... centralized <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorship</a>, and that's why they're willing to fight so tenaciously. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=1544s">25:44</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">[T]he invasion</a>... exhibits in stark terms, the choice that is before us today between maintaining a liberal government that respects the rights of individuals, or moving over to a form of centralized <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/illiberal#Adjective" class="extiw" title="wikt:illiberal">illiberal</a> <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorship</a>, even if that... illiberal government is somehow democratically legitimated. ...[T]hat's the central issue in global politics today. ...[T]hat's basically what the... Ukraine invasion is about, and that's why... all liberal societies that care about those individual freedoms... have a very powerful interest in the outcome of that war, because <b><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Putin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> are at the center of an international network of illiberal forces that are seeking to overturn liberal values in virtually every part of the world, and therefore... that's all part of a larger global struggle over our fundamental liberal values.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=1610s">26:50</a> <small><center><b>Question & Answer period follows:</b></center></small></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>[T]he Republican party has</b> really gone off the rails and has <b>become... in many ways a quasi-<a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> party</b> because many Republicans are <b>not willing to accept the results of a... free and fair election.</b> ...[W]e've learned a lot from the... <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" class="extiw" title="w:United States House of Representatives">House</a> committee that's studying <b>the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" class="extiw" title="w:January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6th insurrection</a></b>... [W]hat that committee has revealed was that this <b>wasn't just a demonstration that spontaneously got out of hand. It was planned very deliberately by the White House as a way of pressuring former vice president <a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a> to overturn the election</b> and keep <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> in office, and right now a lot of <b>state level Republican legislatures are trying to modify their rules for counting votes in the next election so that they would be in a better position to do what they tried to do in 2020, but didn't get away with... [S]o this is probably the most severe threat to American democracy... since <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">the Civil War</a></b>... and I'm quite worried about that. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=2631s">43:51</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>We need a good alternative to <a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a>. There is a majority in favor of that, but... the other party is really not providing that alternative in a very clear way. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=2806s">46:46</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>The mainstream media does have a liberal bias, as does a lot of... higher education, academia...</b> and so forth... [A] lot of people see that and they don't like it. ...<b>The problem is that the solution ...offered by the extreme right is... a lot worse</b>... [T]he critics of the mainstream media don't... appreciate that fact that there is diversity... that <b>there are actually journalistic standards that... <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>... adhere to. All of which is being tossed out the window on the far right... in reaction to the perceived <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_bias" class="extiw" title="w:Media bias">bias</a>. ...[T]here's a difference between bias and outright... <a href="/wiki/Lying" title="Lying">lying</a>.</b> So the bias... has to do with what kinds of stories are covered... the kinds of slant that's given to the reporting... but <b>what's going on in large sections of the conservative media is just outright... untruth... people will just make up facts... without sourcing them</b> properly... [T]hat's another sense in which... the solution is a lot worse than the... underlying disease. ...What <b>we need</b> is <b>a responsible right wing media that does adhere to</b> certain basic <b>journalistic standards.</b> ...[T]here's a tendency on the part of everybody to... take particular anecdotes and instances of abuse and then generalize it to say that... the entire media universe is corrupt... without... appreciating the fact that... that's not a universal problem. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=2866s">47:46</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>[C]ulture is a much better predictor of <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populist</a> sentiment than economics. ...[T]he average <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a> voter in 2016 had a higher per capita income than the average <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> voter, and if you look at the people in the January 6th riot, the vast majority... were comfortable middle class people with good jobs... [T]here is a core... white working class base to <a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a>, but... a lot of the people that are aligned with that movement are there for cultural reasons. They really don't like the kind of <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a> that's being... put forward by the progressive left... [A] lot of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="extiw" title="w:Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic</a> voters, for example, don't like <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, and they don't like the fact that the Democrats are using the word socialism as if it's a perfectly normal set of economic choices. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=3096s">51:36</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><b>What's interesting about the world today is that the fundamental division is... a... <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociological</a> one between people that have better educations, that live in big urban agglomerations, that then can then benefit from... a <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">global economy</a>, versus people who live in... smaller cities and towns, or in the countryside... with more traditional values. That division exists almost universally</b>, in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>... <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>... the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, in <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a>... <b>[I]t does reflect different <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economic</a> opportunities, but more fundamentally... it reflects a... way of life, that in the urban case is... liberal and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_society" class="extiw" title="w:Open society">open</a>, but in some cases... people would say a little... too open and too tolerant of... people that want to break traditional norms that are still maintained by... other parts of the population. So it's really that <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a> fight... that's at the center of <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populism</a>, related to,.. but certainly not fundamentally driven by <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a>.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=3159s">52:39</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity" title="Identity">[I]dentity</a> is something that is universally desired by people. <b>In a liberal society... people can associate based on... identity affiliations</b>... and that they're free to do so... <b>[T]he danger... resides when the state begins to endorse identity categories as... fixed... and then to distribute resources or... access to institutions on the basis of those... That's the point at which... you risk... hardening these notions of identity into <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/self-regarding" class="extiw" title="wikt:self-regarding">self-regarding</a> groups</b> that are living next to each other... In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> you get state supported religious schools... for <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jews</a>, for <a href="/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslims</a>, for... other faiths. <b>People should be free in a liberal society to set up private schools... to bring up people in a religious tradition. I don't... see why the <a href="/wiki/State" title="State">state</a> ought to be supporting that, because what you <i>don't</i> want to do is to have... young people educated in <i>closed</i> communities where they have nothing to do with people from <i>other</i> communities. ...[T]hat's fundamentally <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/illiberal#Adjective" class="extiw" title="wikt:illiberal">illiberal</a>... [T]hat's... a mistaken policy that's... going to harden those divisions rather than to encourage a more... <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_society" class="extiw" title="w:Open society">open</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tolerance" title="Tolerance">tolerant</a> society.</b> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G6KcRCQpoM&t=3522s">58:42</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quotes_about_Francis_Fukuyama">Quotes about Francis Fukuyama</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Quotes about Francis Fukuyama"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Francis Fukuyama, that emblematic American commentator of the 1980s, gave only the last and most optimistic version of this benign intellectual isolationism. His vision of the irresistible triumph of American liberal capitalism around the world was normally read by Americans as an assurance that their victory would be bloodless. Everyone would soon largely agree with them... The most perceptive alternative analysis was that of the American political scientist <a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Samuel P. Huntington</a>. His new model for international relations predicted a world divided into armed and antagonistic blocs on religious lines. Huntington's was the best argument, but it was Fukuyama who wrote the bestseller. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J._C._D._Clark" title="J. C. D. Clark">J. C. D. Clark</a>, 'Americans are blind to barbarians at their gates', <i>The Times</i> (15 September 2001), p. 18</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>When the Cold War ended, Francis Fukuyama had stunningly proclaimed that history, humankind’s quest for the good society, had ended with ‘the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government’. With socialism defeated, no alternatives remained. Barely two decades later, however, history appeared to have resumed and socialism was once again on humanity’s horizon as the 2008 North Atlantic Financial Crisis sent the major capitalist economies into a mire of low growth and <a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">austerity</a> while socialist China continued its historic growth spurt. Socialism remained capitalism’s Big Other destined to absorb and annihilate it. <ul><li>Radhika Desai, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-mono/10.4324/9781003200000/capitalism-coronavirus-war-radhika-desai">Capitalism, Coronavirus and War: A Geopolitical Economy</a></i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Routledge">Routledge</a>. 2022. p. 2 <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781032059501" title="Special:BookSources/9781032059501">ISBN 9781032059501</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Francis Fukuyama wrote about the end of history-and he may have had in mind the end of historical narrative consisting of war and conquest, victors and victims, the kind of history that has been dictated by the patriarchal hierarchical society and that seldom took into account ordinary life, creation, culture at all levels, literature, ideas, everything that happened between wars. But the end of history means the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>, both in the broad sense and in the primary sense of the word, which comes from the Greek oikos, meaning "home." <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shulamith_Hareven" title="Shulamith Hareven">Shulamith Hareven</a> "The Voacabulary of Peace" essay in <i>The Vocabulary of Peace: Life, Culture, and Politics in the Middle East</i> (1995)</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Like so many others, the temptation to dunk on Francis Fukuyama for his triumphalist “End of History and the Last Man” is simply too great for me to avoid. The idea that liberal democracy would become the default ruling paradigm globally due to the collapse of its systemic rival, communism, is now, in hindsight, such a ridiculous assertion that anyone asserting it sincerely way back in the 1990s can only be viewed as having been intoxicated while doing so. This is a testament to the impermanence of international relations, statecraft, and the human condition. <ul><li>Niccolo Soldo, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://niccolo.substack.com/p/four-competing-regime-systems">Four Competing Regime Systems</a>, <i>Substack</i>, 2 November 2021</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="noprint" style="clear: right; border: solid #aaa 1px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; background: #f9f9f9; width: 250px; padding: 4px; spacing: 0px; text-align: left; float: right;"> <div style="float: left;"><figure class="mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikipedia"><img alt="Wikipedia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/50px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/75px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/100px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></a><figcaption>Wikipedia</figcaption></figure></div> <div style="margin-left: 60px;"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> has an article about: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><i><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Francis Fukuyama">Francis Fukuyama</a></b></i></div> </div> </div> <div class="noprint" style="clear: right; border: solid #aaa 1px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; background: #f9f9f9; width: 250px; padding: 4px; spacing: 0px; text-align: left; float: right;"> <div style="float: left;"><figure class="mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Commons"><img alt="Commons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/50px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/75px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/100px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption>Commons</figcaption></figure></div> <div style="margin-left: 60px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" class="extiw" title="w:Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> has media related to: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" class="extiw" title="commons:Francis Fukuyama">Francis Fukuyama</a></b></i></div> </div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty/fukuyama">Fukuyama's homepage</a> at Johns Hopkins University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n82-104032">Fukuyama's WorldCat Identities entry</a> (library holdings)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible"> <tbody><tr> <td style="background:#E4F2E4" align="center" colspan="3"><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_social_and_political_philosophers" class="extiw" title="w:List of social and political philosophers">Social and political philosophers</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#E4F2E4"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" class="extiw" title="w:Ancient philosophy">Classic</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> • <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> • <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a> <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a> • <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> • <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> • <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> • <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a> • <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> • <a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> • <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a> • <a href="/wiki/Xun_Zi" title="Xun Zi">Xun Zi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#E4F2E4"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservative</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">de Benoist</a> • <a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a> • <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a> • <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a> • <a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a> • <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a> • <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> • <a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a> • <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> • <a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_G%C3%B3mez_D%C3%A1vila" title="Nicolás Gómez Dávila">Dávila</a> • <a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a> • <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a> • <a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a> • <a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Galton</a> • <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a> • <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a> • <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a> • <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a> • <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_de_Jouvenel" title="Bertrand de Jouvenel">de Jouvenel</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ernst_J%C3%BCnger" title="Ernst Jünger">Jünger</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a> • <a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">von Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a> • <a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a> • <a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">de Maistre</a> • <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a> • <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a> • <a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a> • <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Peterson" title="Jordan Peterson">Peterson</a> • <a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a> • <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a> • <a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a> • <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a> • <a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> • <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Richard_Weaver" title="Richard Weaver">Weaver</a> • <a href="/wiki/Curtis_Yarvin" title="Curtis Yarvin">Yarvin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#E4F2E4"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberal</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a> • <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a> • <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a> • <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a> • <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a> • <a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a> • <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Erasmus</a> • <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a> • <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fukuyama</a> • <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a> • <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a> • <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a> • <a href="/wiki/Henry_James_Sumner_Maine" title="Henry James Sumner Maine">Maine</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a> • <a href="/wiki/H._L._Mencken" title="H. L. Mencken">Mencken</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a> • <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a> • <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> • <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a> • <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a> • <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a> • <a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a> • <a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a> • <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a> • <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> • <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a> • <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> • <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a> • <a href="/wiki/Anne_Louise_Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Anne Louise Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a> • <a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a> • <a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> • <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a> • <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> • <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#E4F2E4"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religious</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hamid_al-Ghazali" title="Abu Hamid al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a> • <a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a> • <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> • <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> • <a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a> • <a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dayanand_Saraswati" title="Dayanand Saraswati">Dayananda</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoyevsky">Dostoyevsky</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Eliade</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Girard" title="René Girard">Girard</a> • <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Gregory</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_of_Salisbury" title="John of Salisbury">John of Salisbury</a> • <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Jung</a> • <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a> • <a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a> • <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">Lewis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> • <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> • <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a> • <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a> • <a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a> • <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a> • <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> • <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a> • <a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Pizan</a> • <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a> • <a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a> • <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Solzhenitsyn</a> • <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a> • <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin" title="Pierre Teilhard de Chardin">Teilhard de Chardin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> • <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a> • <a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#E4F2E4"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialist</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Adorno" title="Theodor Adorno">Adorno</a> • <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Aflaq</a> • <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> • <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a> • <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a> • <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a> • <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a> • <a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a> • <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a> • <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> • <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a> • <a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a> • <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> • <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a> • <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> • <a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a> • <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a> • <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> • <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jack_London" title="Jack London">London</a> • <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a> • <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a> • <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> • <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a> • <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a> • <a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a> • <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a> • <a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a> • <a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a> • <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Trotsky</a> • <a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a> • <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng</a> • <a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a> </td></tr></tbody></table>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikiquote.org/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&oldid=3533201">https://en.wikiquote.org/w/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama&oldid=3533201</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1952_births" title="Category:1952 births">1952 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Living_people" title="Category:Living people">Living people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bloggers_from_the_United_States" title="Category:Bloggers from the United States">Bloggers from the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatives_from_the_United_States" title="Category:Conservatives from the United States">Conservatives from the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Critics_from_the_United_States" title="Category:Critics from the United States">Critics from the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cultural_critics" title="Category:Cultural critics">Cultural critics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_critics" title="Category:Social critics">Social critics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economists_from_the_United_States" title="Category:Economists from the United States">Economists from the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Essayists_from_the_United_States" title="Category:Essayists from the United States">Essayists from the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_from_Chicago" title="Category:People from Chicago">People from Chicago</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_from_the_United_States" title="Category:Philosophers from the United States">Philosophers from the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_scientists_from_the_United_States" title="Category:Political scientists from the United States">Political scientists from the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Technology_writers_from_the_United_States" title="Category:Technology writers from the United States">Technology writers from the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Japanese_Americans" title="Category:Japanese Americans">Japanese Americans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cornell_University_alumni" title="Category:Cornell University alumni">Cornell University alumni</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Harvard_University_alumni" title="Category:Harvard University alumni">Harvard University alumni</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Stanford_University_faculty" title="Category:Stanford University faculty">Stanford University faculty</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Johns_Hopkins_University_faculty" title="Category:Johns Hopkins University faculty">Johns Hopkins University faculty</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 June 2024, at 17:00.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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