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cladistic species </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phylogenetic_or_cladistic_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Evolutionary species </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Ecological species </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Genetic species </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionarily_significant_unit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionarily_significant_unit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Evolutionarily significant unit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionarily_significant_unit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronospecies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronospecies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 Chronospecies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronospecies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viral_quasispecies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viral_quasispecies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 Viral quasispecies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viral_quasispecies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mayr's_biological_species_concept" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mayr's_biological_species_concept"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11 Mayr's biological species concept </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mayr's_biological_species_concept-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_species_problem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_species_problem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 The species problem </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_species_problem-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The species problem subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_species_problem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-When_Mayr's_concept_breaks_down" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#When_Mayr's_concept_breaks_down"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 When Mayr's concept breaks down </div> </a> <ul id="toc-When_Mayr's_concept_breaks_down-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aggregates_of_microspecies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aggregates_of_microspecies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Aggregates of microspecies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aggregates_of_microspecies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hybridisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hybridisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Hybridisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hybridisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ring_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ring_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Ring species </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ring_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomy_and_naming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomy_and_naming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Taxonomy and naming </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Taxonomy_and_naming-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Taxonomy and naming subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Taxonomy_and_naming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Common_and_scientific_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_and_scientific_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Common and scientific names </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_and_scientific_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Species_description" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Species_description"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Species description </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Species_description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abbreviations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbreviations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Abbreviations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbreviations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identification_codes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identification_codes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Identification codes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identification_codes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lumping_and_splitting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lumping_and_splitting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Lumping and splitting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lumping_and_splitting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Broad_and_narrow_senses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broad_and_narrow_senses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Broad and narrow senses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broad_and_narrow_senses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Change </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Change-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Change subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Speciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Speciation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exchange_of_genes_between_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exchange_of_genes_between_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Exchange of genes between species </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exchange_of_genes_between_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Extinction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practical_implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practical_implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Practical implications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practical_implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Classical forms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fixed_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fixed_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Fixed species </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fixed_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Mutability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Species</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 146 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-146" aria-hidden="true" > 146 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spesie" title="Spesie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Spesie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_(Biologie)" title="Art (Biologie) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Art (Biologie)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9_(%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%81)" title="نوع (تصنيف) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نوع (تصنيف)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Especie" title="Especie – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Especie" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specie" title="Specie – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Specie" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF_(%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE)" title="প্ৰজাতি (জীৱবিদ্যা) – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰজাতি (জীৱবিদ্যা)" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Especie" title="Especie – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Especie" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juehegua" title="Juehegua – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Juehegua" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioloji_n%C3%B6v" title="Bioloji növ – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bioloji növ" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A4%D9%88%D8%B9_(%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C)" title="نؤوع (بیولوژی) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نؤوع (بیولوژی)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A9si%C3%A9s" title="Spésiés – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Spésiés" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="প্রজাতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রজাতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A9ng_(hun-l%C5%ABi-ha%CC%8Dk)" title="Chéng (hun-lūi-ha̍k) – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chéng (hun-lūi-ha̍k)" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D1%80_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Төр (биология) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Төр (биология)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4" title="Біялагічны від – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Біялагічны від" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B4_(%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Від (біялёгія) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Від (біялёгія)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="प्रजाति – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="प्रजाति" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espesye" title="Espesye – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Espesye" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B4_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Вид (биология) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вид (биология)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oart_(Biologie)" title="Oart (Biologie) – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Oart (Biologie)" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrsta_(biologija)" title="Vrsta (biologija) – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vrsta (biologija)" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spesad" title="Spesad – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Spesad" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esp%C3%A8cie" title="Espècie – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Espècie" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%C4%95%D1%81_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8)" title="Тĕс (биологи) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тĕс (биологи)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druh" title="Druh – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Druh" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhywogaeth" title="Rhywogaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhywogaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art" title="Art – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Art" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9_(%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7)" title="نوع (بيولوجيا) – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="نوع (بيولوجيا)" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0l%C3%A1dja" title="Šládja – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Šládja" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_(Biologie)" title="Art (Biologie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Art (Biologie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%BEyna_(biologija)" title="Družyna (biologija) – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Družyna (biologija)" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liik_(bioloogia)" title="Liik (bioloogia) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Liik (bioloogia)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82_(%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Είδος (βιολογία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Είδος (βιολογία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Especie" title="Especie – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Especie" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specio" title="Specio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Specio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Especii" title="Especii – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Especii" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espezie" title="Espezie – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Espezie" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87_(%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="گونه (زیست‌شناسی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گونه (زیست‌شناسی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Species" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esp%C3%A8ce" title="Espèce – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Espèce" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soarte" title="Soarte – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Soarte" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speiceas" title="Speiceas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Speiceas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Especie" title="Especie – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Especie" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF" title="Биологе кеп – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Биологе кеп" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A2%85_(%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99)" title="종 (생물학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="종 (생물학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Կենսաբանական տեսակ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենսաբանական տեսակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_(%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8)" title="जाति (जीवविज्ञान) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जाति (जीवविज्ञान)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%BEina_(biologija)" title="Družina (biologija) – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Družina (biologija)" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrsta" title="Vrsta – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vrsta" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebbangan" title="Sebbangan – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sebbangan" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spesies" title="Spesies – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Spesies" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specie" title="Specie – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Specie" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%8B%D0%B7_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8)" title="Хуыз (биологи) – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Хуыз (биологи)" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tegund_(l%C3%ADffr%C3%A6%C3%B0i)" title="Tegund (líffræði) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tegund (líffræði)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specie" title="Specie – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Specie" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9F_(%D7%98%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94)" title="מין (טקסונומיה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מין (טקסונומיה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sep%C3%A9siyes" title="Sepésiyes – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sepésiyes" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF_(%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0)" title="ಜಾತಿ (ಜೀವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜಾತಿ (ಜೀವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ)" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Species" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8E" title="Биология тюрлю – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Биология тюрлю" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="სახეობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სახეობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%B2%DA%98" title="زٲژ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="زٲژ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D2%AF%D1%80_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Түр (биология) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Түр (биология)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eghen" title="Eghen – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Eghen" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spishi" title="Spishi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Spishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esp%C3%A8s" title="Espès – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Espès" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A8sp%C3%A8s" title="Lèspès – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lèspès" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cure" title="Cure – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Cure" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D2%AF%D1%80" title="Түр – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Түр" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B5%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B5" title="ສະປີຊີ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສະປີຊີ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_(taxinomia)" title="Species (taxinomia) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Species (taxinomia)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suga" title="Suga – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Suga" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aart" title="Aart – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Aart" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%AB%C5%A1is" title="Rūšis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rūšis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A9ce" title="Spéce – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Spéce" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faj" title="Faj – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Faj" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B4_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Вид (биологија) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вид (биологија)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="സ്പീഷീസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്പീഷീസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spe%C4%8Bi" title="Speċi – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Speċi" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="გვარობა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გვარობა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9" title="نوع – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="نوع" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%8C_(%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA)" title="تی (زیست) – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="تی (زیست)" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spesies" title="Spesies – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Spesies" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BB" title="Зүйл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Зүйл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="မျိုးစိတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မျိုးစိတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soort" title="Soort – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Soort" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="प्रजाति – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्रजाति" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="प्रजाति – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्रजाति" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A8%AE_(%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%A6)" title="種 (分類学) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="種 (分類学)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specia" title="Specia – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Specia" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BF%D0%B0" title="Биологин тайпа – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Биологин тайпа" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slach" title="Slach – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Slach" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art" title="Art – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Art" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art" title="Art – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Art" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esp%C3%A8cia_(biologia)" title="Espècia (biologia) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Espècia (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tur_(biologiya)" title="Tur (biologiya) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tur (biologiya)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80" title="ਪ੍ਰਜਾਤੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰਜਾਤੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B2" title="سپیشیز – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سپیشیز" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espesie" title="Espesie – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Espesie" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%90_(%D8%AF_%DA%98%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%88_%DA%89%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87)" title="نوعې (د ژویو ډولونه) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="نوعې (د ژویو ډولونه)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiishi" title="Spiishi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Spiishi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spece" title="Spece – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Spece" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_(Biologie)" title="Oort (Biologie) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Oort (Biologie)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatunek_(biologia)" title="Gatunek (biologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gatunek (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esp%C3%A9cie" title="Espécie – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Espécie" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specie_(biologie)" title="Specie (biologie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Specie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikch%27aq" title="Rikch'aq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rikch'aq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B4_(%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Вид (біолоґія) – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Вид (біолоґія)" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Биологический вид – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биологический вид" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%A9%D1%80%D2%AF%D2%A5_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Көрүҥ (биология) – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Көрүҥ (биология)" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Species" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloji_(biologji)" title="Lloji (biologji) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lloji (biologji)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speci_(biolugg%C3%ACa)" title="Speci (bioluggìa) – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Speci (bioluggìa)" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Species" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9_(%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="نوع (حياتيات) – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نوع (حياتيات)" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druh_(taxon%C3%B3mia)" title="Druh (taxonómia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Druh (taxonómia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrsta_(biologija)" title="Vrsta (biologija) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vrsta (biologija)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%86%D8%B1_(%DA%98%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="جۆر (ژینناسی) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جۆر (ژینناسی)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Врста (биологија) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Врста (биологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrsta" title="Vrsta – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vrsta" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A9si%C3%A9s" title="Spésiés – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Spésiés" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laji" title="Laji – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Laji" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art" title="Art – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Art" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espesye" title="Espesye – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Espesye" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D)" title="இனம் (உயிரியல்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இனம் (உயிரியல்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmest" title="Talmest – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Talmest" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D1%80_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Төр (биология) – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Төр (биология)" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF" title="జాతి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జాతి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="สปีชีส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สปีชีส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%A7%E1%8E%BE%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%B4%E1%8E%BF_%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%81%E1%8E%AF" title="ᏧᎾᏓᎴᎿ ᎠᏁᎯ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏧᎾᏓᎴᎿ ᎠᏁᎯ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCr" title="Tür – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tür" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologik_g%C3%B6rn%C3%BC%C5%9F" title="Biologik görnüş – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Basic unit of taxonomic classification, below genus</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Species_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Species (disambiguation)">Species (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right noresize" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg" title="File:Biological classification L Pengo vflip.svg"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg/150px-Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="375" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg/225px-Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg/300px-Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="600" usemap="#ImageMap_b98a4ef962e05e30" resource="/wiki/File:Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg" /></a><map name="ImageMap_b98a4ef962e05e30"><area href="/wiki/Life" shape="rect" coords="63,9,141,36" alt="Life" title="Life" /><area href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" shape="rect" coords="63,49,141,75" alt="Domain" title="Domain" /><area href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" shape="rect" coords="63,89,141,115" alt="Kingdom" title="Kingdom" /><area href="/wiki/Phylum" shape="rect" coords="63,128,141,154" alt="Phylum" title="Phylum" /><area href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" shape="rect" coords="63,168,141,194" alt="Class" title="Class" /><area href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" shape="rect" coords="63,208,141,234" alt="Order" title="Order" /><area href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" shape="rect" coords="63,247,141,273" alt="Family" title="Family" /><area href="/wiki/Genus" shape="rect" coords="63,287,141,313" alt="Genus" title="Genus" /><area href="/wiki/Species" shape="rect" coords="63,326,141,353" alt="Species" title="Species" /></map><figcaption>The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. A <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> contains one or more species. Minor intermediate ranks are not shown.</figcaption></figure> A species (<abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr>: species) is a population of <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> in which any two individuals of the appropriate <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sexes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">mating types</a> can <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">produce</a> <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertile</a> <a href="/wiki/Offspring" title="Offspring">offspring</a>, typically by <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20240219-1">[1]</a> It is the basic unit of <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">classification</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">taxonomic rank</a> of an organism, as well as a unit of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. Other ways of defining species include their <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotype</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequence, <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>, behaviour, or <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niche</a>. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Paleontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontologist">paleontologists</a> use the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Chronospecies" title="Chronospecies">chronospecies</a> since <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> reproduction cannot be examined. The most recent rigorous estimate for the total number of species of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> is between 8 and 8.7 million.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-PLOS_2011-4">[4]</a> About 14% of these had been described by 2011.<a href="#cite_note-PLOS_2011-4">[4]</a> All species (except <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>) are given a <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">two-part name</a>, a "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> to which the species belongs. The second part is called the <a href="/wiki/Specific_name_(zoology)" title="Specific name (zoology)">specific name</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Specific_name_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific name (botany)">specific epithet</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">botanical nomenclature</a>, also sometimes in <a href="/wiki/Zoological_nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoological nomenclature">zoological nomenclature</a>). For example, <a href="/wiki/Boa_constrictor" title="Boa constrictor">Boa constrictor</a> is one of the species of the genus <a href="/wiki/Boa_(genus)" title="Boa (genus)">Boa</a>, with constrictor being the species' epithet. While the definitions given above may seem adequate at first glance, when looked at more closely they represent problematic species concepts. For example, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear with <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridisation</a>, in a <a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">species complex</a> of hundreds of similar <a href="/wiki/Microspecies" class="mw-redirect" title="Microspecies">microspecies</a>, and in a <a href="/wiki/Ring_species" title="Ring species">ring species</a>. Also, among organisms that reproduce only <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexually</a>, the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies. Although none of these are entirely satisfactory definitions, and while the concept of species may not be a perfect model of life, it is still a useful tool to scientists and <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservationists</a> for studying life on Earth, regardless of the theoretical difficulties. If species were fixed and clearly distinct from one another, there would be no problem, but <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> processes cause species to change. This obliges <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomists</a> to decide, for example, when enough change has occurred to declare that a lineage should be divided into multiple <a href="/wiki/Chronospecies" title="Chronospecies">chronospecies</a>, or when populations have diverged to have enough distinct character states to be described as <a href="/wiki/Cladistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladistic">cladistic</a> species. Species and higher taxa were seen from the time of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> until the 18th century as categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the <a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">great chain of being</a>. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s 1859 book <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a> explained how <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">species could arise</a> by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. That understanding was <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">greatly extended in the 20th century</a> through <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and population <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>. Genetic variability arises from <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Recombination (biology)">recombination</a>, while organisms themselves are mobile, leading to <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">geographical isolation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a> with varying <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">selection pressures</a>. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>; new species can arise rapidly through hybridisation and <a href="/wiki/Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">polyploidy</a>; and species may <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">become extinct</a> for a variety of reasons. <a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">Viruses</a> are a special case, driven by a <a href="/wiki/Mutation%E2%80%93selection_balance" title="Mutation–selection balance">balance of mutation and selection</a>, and can be treated as <a href="/wiki/Viral_quasispecies" title="Viral quasispecies">quasispecies</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> Biologists and taxonomists have made many attempts to define species, beginning from <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> and moving towards <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>. Early taxonomists such as Linnaeus had no option but to describe what they saw: this was later formalised as the typological or morphological species concept. <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts, is hard or even impossible to test.<a href="#cite_note-Zelnio-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Later biologists have tried to refine Mayr's definition with the recognition and cohesion concepts, among others.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Many of the concepts are quite similar or overlap, so they are not easy to count: the biologist R. L. Mayden recorded about 24 concepts,<a href="#cite_note-Claridge1997-8">[8]</a> and the philosopher of science John Wilkins counted 26.<a href="#cite_note-Zelnio-5">[5]</a> Wilkins further grouped the species concepts into seven basic kinds of concepts: (1) <a href="/wiki/Agamospecies" class="mw-redirect" title="Agamospecies">agamospecies</a> for asexual organisms (2) biospecies for reproductively isolated sexual organisms (3) <a href="/wiki/Ecospecies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecospecies">ecospecies</a> based on ecological niches (4) evolutionary species based on lineage (5) genetic species based on gene pool (6) morphospecies based on form or phenotype and (7) taxonomic species, a species as determined by a taxonomist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachos201679-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typological_or_morphological_species">Typological or morphological species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Typological or morphological species">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eurasian_blue_tit_Lancashire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Eurasian_blue_tit_Lancashire.jpg/220px-Eurasian_blue_tit_Lancashire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Eurasian_blue_tit_Lancashire.jpg/330px-Eurasian_blue_tit_Lancashire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Eurasian_blue_tit_Lancashire.jpg/440px-Eurasian_blue_tit_Lancashire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3472" data-file-height="2604" /></a><figcaption>All adult <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_blue_tit" title="Eurasian blue tit">Eurasian blue tits</a> share the same coloration, unmistakably identifying the morphospecies.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></figcaption></figure> A typological species is a group of organisms in which individuals conform to certain fixed properties (a type), so that even pre-literate people often recognise the same taxon as do modern taxonomists.<a href="#cite_note-Gould_1980-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maynard_Smith-12">[12]</a> The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (such as longer or shorter tails) would differentiate the species. This method was used as a "classical" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus, early in evolutionary theory. However, different phenotypes are not necessarily different species (e.g. a four-winged <a href="/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a> born to a two-winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called morphospecies.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> In the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Sokal" title="Robert R. Sokal">Robert R. Sokal</a>, Theodore J. Crovello and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Sneath" title="Peter Sneath">Peter Sneath</a> proposed a variation on the morphological species concept, a <a href="/wiki/Phenetics" title="Phenetics">phenetic</a> species, defined as a set of organisms with a similar <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> to each other, but a different phenotype from other sets of organisms.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> It differs from the morphological species concept in including a numerical measure of distance or similarity to cluster entities based on multivariate comparisons of a reasonably large number of phenotypic traits.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition_and_cohesion_species">Recognition and cohesion species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Recognition and cohesion species">edit</a>]</div> A mate-recognition species is a group of sexually reproducing organisms that recognise one another as potential mates.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Expanding on this to allow for post-mating isolation, a cohesion species is the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through intrinsic cohesion mechanisms; no matter whether populations can hybridise successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if the amount of hybridisation is insufficient to completely mix their respective <a href="/wiki/Gene_pool" title="Gene pool">gene pools</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mallet-19">[19]</a> A further development of the recognition concept is provided by the biosemiotic concept of species.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_similarity_and_barcode_species">Genetic similarity and barcode species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Genetic similarity and barcode species">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_taxonomy#Species_concept" title="Bacterial taxonomy">Bacterial taxonomy § Species concept</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cytochrome_C_Oxidase_1OCC_in_Membrane_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Cytochrome_C_Oxidase_1OCC_in_Membrane_2.png/220px-Cytochrome_C_Oxidase_1OCC_in_Membrane_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Cytochrome_C_Oxidase_1OCC_in_Membrane_2.png/330px-Cytochrome_C_Oxidase_1OCC_in_Membrane_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Cytochrome_C_Oxidase_1OCC_in_Membrane_2.png/440px-Cytochrome_C_Oxidase_1OCC_in_Membrane_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1620" data-file-height="1122" /></a><figcaption>A region of the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_c_oxidase" title="Cytochrome c oxidase">cytochrome c oxidase</a> <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> is used to distinguish species in the <a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Barcode of Life Data Systems">Barcode of Life Data Systems</a> database.</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a>, genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that members of <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> or <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> with <a href="/wiki/16S_ribosomal_RNA" title="16S ribosomal RNA">16S ribosomal RNA</a> gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by <a href="/wiki/DNA%E2%80%93DNA_hybridization" title="DNA–DNA hybridization">DNA–DNA hybridisation</a> to decide if they belong to the same species.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> This concept was narrowed in 2006 to a similarity of 98.7%.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Average_nucleotide_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Average nucleotide identity">average nucleotide identity</a> (ANI) method quantifies <a href="/wiki/Genetic_distance" title="Genetic distance">genetic distance</a> between entire <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a>, using regions of about 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a>. With enough data from genomes of one genus, algorithms can be used to categorize species, as for <a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_avellanae" title="Pseudomonas avellanae">Pseudomonas avellanae</a> in 2013,<a href="#cite_note-Land_2015-23">[23]</a> and for all sequenced bacteria and archaea since 2020.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Observed ANI values among sequences appear to have an "ANI gap" at 85–95%, suggesting that a genetic boundary suitable for defining a species concept is present.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/DNA_barcoding" title="DNA barcoding">DNA barcoding</a> has been proposed as a way to distinguish species suitable even for non-specialists to use.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> One of the barcodes is a region of mitochondrial DNA within the gene for <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_c_oxidase" title="Cytochrome c oxidase">cytochrome c oxidase</a>. A database, <a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System" title="Barcode of Life Data System">Barcode of Life Data System</a>, contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species.<a href="#cite_note-Ratnasingham-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stoeckle-28">[28]</a> However, scientists such as Rob DeSalle have expressed concern that classical taxonomy and DNA barcoding, which they consider a misnomer, need to be reconciled, as they delimit species differently.<a href="#cite_note-DeSalleEgan2005-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_introgression" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic introgression">Genetic introgression</a> mediated by <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbionts</a> and other vectors can further make barcodes ineffective in the identification of species.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phylogenetic_or_cladistic_species">Phylogenetic or cladistic species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Phylogenetic or cladistic species">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cladistic_species.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Cladistic_species.svg/170px-Cladistic_species.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Cladistic_species.svg/255px-Cladistic_species.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Cladistic_species.svg/340px-Cladistic_species.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>The cladistic or phylogenetic species concept is that a species is the smallest lineage which is distinguished by a unique set of either genetic or morphological traits. No claim is made about reproductive isolation, making the concept useful also in palaeontology where only fossil evidence is available.</figcaption></figure> A phylogenetic or <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistic</a> species is "the smallest aggregation of populations (sexual) or lineages (asexual) diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals (semaphoronts)".<a href="#cite_note-Nixon1990-31">[31]</a> The empirical basis – observed character states – provides the evidence to support hypotheses about evolutionarily divergent lineages that have maintained their hereditary integrity through time and space.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Molecular markers may be used to determine diagnostic genetic differences in the nuclear or <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> of various species.<a href="#cite_note-Giraud2008-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nixon1990-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2000-37">[37]</a> For example, in a study done on <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising the numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor2000-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Versions of the phylogenetic species concept that emphasise monophyly or diagnosability<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachos201691–92-39">[39]</a> may lead to splitting of existing species, for example in <a href="/wiki/Bovidae" title="Bovidae">Bovidae</a>, by recognising old subspecies as species, despite the fact that there are no reproductive barriers, and populations may intergrade morphologically.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Others have called this approach <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_inflation" title="Taxonomic inflation">taxonomic inflation</a>, diluting the species concept and making taxonomy unstable.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Yet others defend this approach, considering "taxonomic inflation" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as "taxonomic conservatism"; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as <a href="/wiki/Endangered" class="mw-redirect" title="Endangered">endangered</a> in the <a href="/wiki/IUCN" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN">IUCN</a> <a href="/wiki/Red_list" class="mw-redirect" title="Red list">red list</a> and can attract conservation legislation and funding.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Unlike the biological species concept, a cladistic species does not rely on reproductive isolation – its criteria are independent of processes that are integral in other concepts.<a href="#cite_note-Nixon1990-31">[31]</a> Therefore, it applies to asexual lineages.<a href="#cite_note-Giraud2008-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2000-37">[37]</a> However, it does not always provide clear cut and intuitively satisfying boundaries between taxa, and may require multiple sources of evidence, such as more than one polymorphic locus, to give plausible results.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor2000-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_species">Evolutionary species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Evolutionary species">edit</a>]</div> An evolutionary species, suggested by <a href="/wiki/George_Gaylord_Simpson" title="George Gaylord Simpson">George Gaylord Simpson</a> in 1951, is "an entity composed of organisms which maintains its identity from other such entities through time and over space, and which has its own independent evolutionary fate and historical tendencies".<a href="#cite_note-Claridge1997-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> This differs from the biological species concept in embodying persistence over time. Wiley and Mayden stated that they see the evolutionary species concept as "identical" to <a href="/wiki/Willi_Hennig" title="Willi Hennig">Willi Hennig</a>'s species-as-lineages concept, and asserted that the biological species concept, "the several versions" of the phylogenetic species concept, and the idea that species are of the same kind as higher taxa are not suitable for biodiversity studies (with the intention of estimating the number of species accurately). They further suggested that the concept works for both asexual and sexually-reproducing species.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> A version of the concept is <a href="/wiki/Kevin_de_Queiroz" title="Kevin de Queiroz">Kevin de Queiroz</a>'s "General Lineage Concept of Species".<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecological_species">Ecological species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ecological species">edit</a>]</div> An ecological species is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognise as species because the ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources are divided up tend to produce those clusters.<a href="#cite_note-ridley-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_species">Genetic species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Genetic species">edit</a>]</div> A genetic species as defined by Robert Baker and Robert Bradley is a set of genetically isolated interbreeding populations. This is similar to Mayr's Biological Species Concept, but stresses genetic rather than reproductive isolation.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In the 21st century, a genetic species could be established by comparing DNA sequences. Earlier, other methods were available, such as comparing <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotypes</a> (sets of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Allozyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Allozyme">allozymes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> variants).<a href="#cite_note-BakerBradley2006-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionarily_significant_unit">Evolutionarily significant unit</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Evolutionarily significant unit">edit</a>]</div> An <a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_significant_unit" title="Evolutionarily significant unit">evolutionarily significant unit</a> (ESU) or "wildlife species"<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> is a population of organisms considered distinct for purposes of conservation.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronospecies">Chronospecies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chronospecies">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chronospecies.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Chronospecies.svg/170px-Chronospecies.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Chronospecies.svg/255px-Chronospecies.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Chronospecies.svg/340px-Chronospecies.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="1099" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Chronospecies" title="Chronospecies">chronospecies</a> is defined in a single lineage (solid line) whose <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">morphology</a> changes with time. At some point, palaeontologists judge that enough change has occurred that two species (A and B), separated in time and anatomy, once existed.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chronospecies" title="Chronospecies">Chronospecies</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>, with only <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a> (morphology) and <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histology</a><a href="#cite_note-de_Buffrénil_et_al._2021-51">[51]</a> from <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> as evidence, the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Chronospecies" title="Chronospecies">chronospecies</a> can be applied. During <a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">anagenesis</a> (evolution, not necessarily involving branching), some palaeontologists seek to identify a sequence of species, each one derived from the <a href="/wiki/Pseudoextinction" title="Pseudoextinction">phyletically extinct</a> one before through continuous, slow and more or less uniform change. In such a time sequence, some palaeontologists assess how much change is required for a morphologically distinct form to be considered a different species from its ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viral_quasispecies">Viral quasispecies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Viral quasispecies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Viral_quasispecies" title="Viral quasispecies">Viral quasispecies</a></div> Viruses have enormous populations, are doubtfully living since they consist of little more than a string of DNA or RNA in a protein coat, and mutate rapidly. All of these factors make conventional species concepts largely inapplicable.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> A viral <a href="/wiki/Quasispecies_model" title="Quasispecies model">quasispecies</a> is a group of genotypes related by similar mutations, competing within a highly <a href="/wiki/Mutagenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutagenic">mutagenic</a> environment, and hence governed by a <a href="/wiki/Mutation%E2%80%93selection_balance" title="Mutation–selection balance">mutation–selection balance</a>. It is predicted that a viral quasispecies at a low but <a href="/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Neutral theory of molecular evolution">evolutionarily neutral</a> and highly connected (that is, flat) region in the <a href="/wiki/Fitness_landscape" title="Fitness landscape">fitness landscape</a> will outcompete a quasispecies located at a higher but narrower fitness peak in which the surrounding mutants are unfit, "the quasispecies effect" or the "survival of the flattest". There is no suggestion that a viral quasispecies resembles a traditional biological species.<a href="#cite_note-Nimwegen1999-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-WilkeWang2001-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-ElenaAgudelo-Romero2008-59">[59]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_on_Taxonomy_of_Viruses" title="International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses">International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses</a> has since 1962 developed a universal taxonomic scheme for viruses; this has stabilised viral taxonomy.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-fauquet2005-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibbs2013-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mayr's_biological_species_concept">Mayr's biological species concept</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mayr's biological species concept">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernst_Mayr_PLoS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Ernst_Mayr_PLoS.jpg/220px-Ernst_Mayr_PLoS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Ernst_Mayr_PLoS.jpg/330px-Ernst_Mayr_PLoS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Ernst_Mayr_PLoS.jpg/440px-Ernst_Mayr_PLoS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1964" data-file-height="1378" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> proposed the widely used Biological Species Concept of reproductive isolation in 1942.</figcaption></figure> Most modern textbooks make use of <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a>'s 1942 definition,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> known as the Biological Species Concept as a basis for further discussion on the definition of species. It is also called a reproductive or isolation concept. This defines a species as<a href="#cite_note-Queiroz-65">[65]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.<a href="#cite_note-Queiroz-65">[65]</a></blockquote> It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Mayr's use of the adjective "potentially" has been a point of debate; some interpretations exclude unusual or artificial matings that occur only in captivity, or that involve animals capable of mating but that do not normally do so in the wild.<a href="#cite_note-Queiroz-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_species_problem">The species problem</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The species problem">edit</a>]</div> It is difficult to define a species in a way that applies to all organisms.<a href="#cite_note-hanage2013-70">[70]</a> The debate about species concepts is called the species problem.<a href="#cite_note-Queiroz-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The problem was recognised even in 1859, when Darwin wrote in <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></blockquote> He went on to write: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">No one definition has satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of a species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="When_Mayr's_concept_breaks_down">When Mayr's concept breaks down</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: When Mayr's concept breaks down">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inoceramus_cripsii_Creta_sup_Bergamo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Inoceramus_cripsii_Creta_sup_Bergamo.JPG/220px-Inoceramus_cripsii_Creta_sup_Bergamo.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Inoceramus_cripsii_Creta_sup_Bergamo.JPG/330px-Inoceramus_cripsii_Creta_sup_Bergamo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Inoceramus_cripsii_Creta_sup_Bergamo.JPG/440px-Inoceramus_cripsii_Creta_sup_Bergamo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1108" data-file-height="1186" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Palaeontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontologist">Palaeontologists</a> are limited to morphological evidence when deciding whether <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> life-forms like these <a href="/wiki/Inoceramus" title="Inoceramus">Inoceramus</a> bivalves formed a separate species.</figcaption></figure> Many authors have argued that a simple textbook definition, following Mayr's concept, works well for most <a href="/wiki/Multi-celled_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-celled organism">multi-celled organisms</a>, but breaks down in several situations: <ul><li>When organisms <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">reproduce asexually</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Single-celled_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-celled organism">single-celled organisms</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthenogenetic">parthenogenetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">apomictic</a> multi-celled organisms. <a href="/wiki/DNA_barcoding" title="DNA barcoding">DNA barcoding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a> are commonly used in these cases.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reekie2005-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The term quasispecies is sometimes used for rapidly mutating entities like viruses.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li> <li>When scientists do not know whether two morphologically similar groups of organisms are capable of interbreeding; this is the case with all extinct life-forms in <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>, as breeding experiments are not possible.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></li> <li>When <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridisation</a> permits substantial gene flow between species.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachos2016101-83">[83]</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Ring_species" title="Ring species">ring species</a>, when members of adjacent populations in a widely continuous distribution range interbreed successfully but members of more distant populations do not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachos2016156–157-84">[84]</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Willow_Warbler_Phylloscopus_trochilus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Willow warbler" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Willow_Warbler_Phylloscopus_trochilus.jpg/150px-Willow_Warbler_Phylloscopus_trochilus.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Willow_Warbler_Phylloscopus_trochilus.jpg/225px-Willow_Warbler_Phylloscopus_trochilus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Willow_Warbler_Phylloscopus_trochilus.jpg/300px-Willow_Warbler_Phylloscopus_trochilus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2151" data-file-height="2151" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_Chiff-Chaff_-_Italy_S4E1681_(19081363189)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Chiffchaff" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Common_Chiff-Chaff_-_Italy_S4E1681_%2819081363189%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Common_Chiff-Chaff_-_Italy_S4E1681_%2819081363189%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Common_Chiff-Chaff_-_Italy_S4E1681_%2819081363189%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Common_Chiff-Chaff_-_Italy_S4E1681_%2819081363189%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Common_Chiff-Chaff_-_Italy_S4E1681_%2819081363189%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Common_Chiff-Chaff_-_Italy_S4E1681_%2819081363189%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="681" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Willow_warbler" title="Willow warbler">willow warbler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Common_chiffchaff" title="Common chiffchaff">chiffchaff</a> are almost identical in appearance but do not interbreed.</div></div></div></div> Species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorised as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">morphological convergence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cryptic_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptic species">cryptic species</a>) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">phenotypic plasticity</a>, multiple <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life-cycle</a> stages).<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a> (HGT) makes it difficult to define a species.<a href="#cite_note-Melcher-86">[86]</a> All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the "daughter" organism, but that is not what happens in HGT.<a href="#cite_note-Bapteste2005-87">[87]</a> There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>, and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Melcher-86">[86]</a> including some <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Williamson_2003-88">[88]</a> The evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/James_Mallet" title="James Mallet">James Mallet</a> concludes that <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">there is no easy way to tell whether related geographic or temporal forms belong to the same or different species. Species gaps can be verified only locally and at a point of time. One is forced to admit that Darwin's insight is correct: any local reality or integrity of species is greatly reduced over large geographic ranges and time periods.<a href="#cite_note-Mallet-19">[19]</a></blockquote> The botanist <a href="/wiki/Brent_Mishler" title="Brent Mishler">Brent Mishler</a><a href="#cite_note-Mishler_2022-89">[89]</a> argued that the species concept is not valid, notably because gene flux decreases gradually rather than in discrete steps, which hampers objective delimitation of species.<a href="#cite_note-Mishler_1999-90">[90]</a> Indeed, complex and unstable patterns of gene flux have been observed in <a href="/wiki/Cichlid" title="Cichlid">cichlid</a> <a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">teleosts</a> of the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Great_Lakes" class="mw-redirect" title="East African Great Lakes">East African Great Lakes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Salzburger_2018-91">[91]</a> Wilkins argued that "if we were being true to evolution and the consequent phylogenetic approach to taxa, we should replace it with a 'smallest clade' idea" (a phylogenetic species concept).<a href="#cite_note-Wilkins_2022-92">[92]</a> Mishler and Wilkins <a href="#cite_note-Mishler_Wilkins_2018-93">[93]</a> and others <a href="#cite_note-Laurin_2023_Advent-94">[94]</a> concur with this approach, even though this would raise difficulties in biological nomenclature. Wilkins cited the ichthyologist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tate_Regan" title="Charles Tate Regan">Charles Tate Regan</a>'s early 20th century remark that "a species is whatever a suitably qualified biologist chooses to call a species".<a href="#cite_note-Wilkins_2022-92">[92]</a> Wilkins noted that the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Philip_Kitcher" title="Philip Kitcher">Philip Kitcher</a> called this the "cynical species concept",<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> and arguing that far from being cynical, it usefully leads to an empirical taxonomy for any given group, based on taxonomists' experience.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkins_2022-92">[92]</a> Other biologists have gone further and argued that we should abandon species entirely, and refer to the "Least Inclusive Taxonomic Units" (LITUs),<a href="#cite_note-Pleijel_&_Rouse_2000-96">[96]</a> a view that would be coherent with current evolutionary theory.<a href="#cite_note-Laurin_2023_Advent-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aggregates_of_microspecies">Aggregates of microspecies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Aggregates of microspecies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></div> The species concept is further weakened by the existence of <a href="/wiki/Microspecies" class="mw-redirect" title="Microspecies">microspecies</a>, groups of organisms, including many plants, with very little genetic variability, usually forming <a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">species aggregates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Heywood_1962-97">[97]</a> For example, the dandelion <a href="/wiki/Taraxacum_officinale" title="Taraxacum officinale">Taraxacum officinale</a> and the blackberry <a href="/wiki/Rubus_fruticosus" title="Rubus fruticosus">Rubus fruticosus</a> are aggregates with many microspecies—perhaps 400 in the case of the blackberry and over 200 in the dandelion,<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> complicated by <a href="/wiki/Hybridisation_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybridisation (biology)">hybridisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">apomixis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">polyploidy</a>, making gene flow between populations difficult to determine, and their taxonomy debatable.<a href="#cite_note-Jarvis-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wittzell1999-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dijk2003-101">[101]</a> Species complexes occur in insects such as <a href="/wiki/Heliconius" title="Heliconius">Heliconius</a> butterflies,<a href="#cite_note-Mallet_2007-102">[102]</a> vertebrates such as <a href="/wiki/Hypsiboas" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypsiboas">Hypsiboas</a> treefrogs,<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> and fungi such as the <a href="/wiki/Fly_agaric" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly agaric">fly agaric</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ripe,_ripening,_and_green_blackberries.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Blackberries belong to any of hundreds of microspecies of the Rubus fruticosus species aggregate."><img alt="Blackberries belong to any of hundreds of microspecies of the Rubus fruticosus species aggregate." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Ripe%2C_ripening%2C_and_green_blackberries.jpg/169px-Ripe%2C_ripening%2C_and_green_blackberries.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Ripe%2C_ripening%2C_and_green_blackberries.jpg/253px-Ripe%2C_ripening%2C_and_green_blackberries.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Ripe%2C_ripening%2C_and_green_blackberries.jpg/337px-Ripe%2C_ripening%2C_and_green_blackberries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3394" data-file-height="2418" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Blackberries belong to any of hundreds of microspecies of the <a href="/wiki/Rubus_fruticosus" title="Rubus fruticosus">Rubus fruticosus</a> <a href="/wiki/Species_aggregate" class="mw-redirect" title="Species aggregate">species aggregate</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Heliconius_mimicry.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The butterfly genus Heliconius contains many similar species."><img alt="The butterfly genus Heliconius contains many similar species." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Heliconius_mimicry.png/120px-Heliconius_mimicry.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Heliconius_mimicry.png/179px-Heliconius_mimicry.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Heliconius_mimicry.png/239px-Heliconius_mimicry.png 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="2107" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The butterfly genus <a href="/wiki/Heliconius" title="Heliconius">Heliconius</a> contains many similar species.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Systematics-of-treefrogs-of-the-Hypsiboas-calcaratus-and-Hypsiboas-fasciatus-species-complex-(Anura-ZooKeys-370-001-g009.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Hypsiboas calcaratus–fasciatus species complex contains at least six species of treefrog."><img alt="The Hypsiboas calcaratus–fasciatus species complex contains at least six species of treefrog." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Systematics-of-treefrogs-of-the-Hypsiboas-calcaratus-and-Hypsiboas-fasciatus-species-complex-%28Anura-ZooKeys-370-001-g009.jpg/120px-Systematics-of-treefrogs-of-the-Hypsiboas-calcaratus-and-Hypsiboas-fasciatus-species-complex-%28Anura-ZooKeys-370-001-g009.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Systematics-of-treefrogs-of-the-Hypsiboas-calcaratus-and-Hypsiboas-fasciatus-species-complex-%28Anura-ZooKeys-370-001-g009.jpg/180px-Systematics-of-treefrogs-of-the-Hypsiboas-calcaratus-and-Hypsiboas-fasciatus-species-complex-%28Anura-ZooKeys-370-001-g009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Systematics-of-treefrogs-of-the-Hypsiboas-calcaratus-and-Hypsiboas-fasciatus-species-complex-%28Anura-ZooKeys-370-001-g009.jpg/239px-Systematics-of-treefrogs-of-the-Hypsiboas-calcaratus-and-Hypsiboas-fasciatus-species-complex-%28Anura-ZooKeys-370-001-g009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="758" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Hypsiboas_calcaratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypsiboas calcaratus">Hypsiboas calcaratus</a>–<a href="/wiki/Hypsiboas_fasciatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypsiboas fasciatus">fasciatus</a> species complex contains at least six species of treefrog.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybridisation">Hybridisation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Hybridisation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">Hybrid (biology)</a></div> Natural <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridisation</a> presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species, as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Carrion_crow" title="Carrion crow">carrion crow</a> Corvus corone and the <a href="/wiki/Hooded_crow" title="Hooded crow">hooded crow</a> Corvus cornix appear and are classified as separate species, yet they can hybridise where their geographical ranges overlap.<a href="#cite_note-BerkeleyDefHybrid-105">[105]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines center"> <li class="gallerycaption">Hybridisation of carrion and hooded crows permits gene flow between 'species'</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kr%C3%A4he_65(loz)_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Carrion crow"><img alt="Carrion crow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Kr%C3%A4he_65%28loz%29_%28cropped%29.JPG/180px-Kr%C3%A4he_65%28loz%29_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Kr%C3%A4he_65%28loz%29_%28cropped%29.JPG/270px-Kr%C3%A4he_65%28loz%29_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Kr%C3%A4he_65%28loz%29_%28cropped%29.JPG/360px-Kr%C3%A4he_65%28loz%29_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1865" data-file-height="1329" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Carrion_crow" title="Carrion crow">Carrion crow</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Corvus_cornix_(Scops).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hybrid with dark belly"><img alt="Hybrid with dark belly" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Corvus_cornix_%28Scops%29.jpg/154px-Corvus_cornix_%28Scops%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Corvus_cornix_%28Scops%29.jpg/232px-Corvus_cornix_%28Scops%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Corvus_cornix_%28Scops%29.jpg/309px-Corvus_cornix_%28Scops%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="380" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">Hybrid</a> with dark belly</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Wrona_Siwa.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hooded crow"><img alt="Hooded crow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wrona_Siwa.jpg/180px-Wrona_Siwa.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wrona_Siwa.jpg/270px-Wrona_Siwa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wrona_Siwa.jpg/360px-Wrona_Siwa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hooded_crow" title="Hooded crow">Hooded crow</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ring_species">Ring species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ring species">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ring_species" title="Ring species">Ring species</a></div> A <a href="/wiki/Ring_species" title="Ring species">ring species</a> is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can sexually interbreed with adjacent related populations, but for which there exist at least two "end" populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">gene flow</a> between each "linked" population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachos2016188-106">[106]</a> Such non-breeding, though genetically connected, "end" populations may <a href="/wiki/Sympatric" class="mw-redirect" title="Sympatric">co-exist in the same region</a> thus closing the ring. Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> However, ring species are at best rare. Proposed examples include the <a href="/wiki/Herring_gull" title="Herring gull">herring gull</a>–<a href="/wiki/Lesser_black-backed_gull" title="Lesser black-backed gull">lesser black-backed gull</a> complex around the North pole, the <a href="/wiki/Ensatina_eschscholtzii" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensatina eschscholtzii">Ensatina eschscholtzii</a> group of 19 populations of salamanders in America,<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Greenish_warbler" title="Greenish warbler">greenish warbler</a> in Asia,<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> but many so-called ring species have turned out to be the result of misclassification leading to questions on whether there really are any ring species.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Liebers-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ring_species_seagull.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seven "species" of Larus gulls interbreed in a ring around the Arctic."><img alt="Seven "species" of Larus gulls interbreed in a ring around the Arctic." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Ring_species_seagull.svg/160px-Ring_species_seagull.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Ring_species_seagull.svg/240px-Ring_species_seagull.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Ring_species_seagull.svg/319px-Ring_species_seagull.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="552" data-file-height="622" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Seven "species" of <a href="/wiki/Larus" title="Larus">Larus</a> gulls interbreed in a ring around the Arctic.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:PT05_ubt.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Opposite ends of the ring: a herring gull (Larus argentatus) (front) and a lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus) in Norway"><img alt="Opposite ends of the ring: a herring gull (Larus argentatus) (front) and a lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus) in Norway" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/PT05_ubt.jpeg/180px-PT05_ubt.jpeg" decoding="async" width="180" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/PT05_ubt.jpeg/270px-PT05_ubt.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/PT05_ubt.jpeg/360px-PT05_ubt.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="558" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Opposite ends of the ring: a herring gull (<a href="/wiki/Larus_argentatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Larus argentatus">Larus argentatus</a>) (front) and a lesser black-backed gull (<a href="/wiki/Larus_fuscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Larus fuscus">Larus fuscus</a>) in Norway</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Greenish_Warbler_Sikkim_India_11.05.2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A greenish warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides"><img alt="A greenish warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Greenish_Warbler_Sikkim_India_11.05.2014.jpg/180px-Greenish_Warbler_Sikkim_India_11.05.2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Greenish_Warbler_Sikkim_India_11.05.2014.jpg/270px-Greenish_Warbler_Sikkim_India_11.05.2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Greenish_Warbler_Sikkim_India_11.05.2014.jpg/360px-Greenish_Warbler_Sikkim_India_11.05.2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Greenish_warbler" title="Greenish warbler">greenish warbler</a>, Phylloscopus trochiloides</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Greenish_warbler_ring.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Presumed evolution of five "species" of greenish warblers around the Himalayas"><img alt="Presumed evolution of five "species" of greenish warblers around the Himalayas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Greenish_warbler_ring.svg/180px-Greenish_warbler_ring.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Greenish_warbler_ring.svg/270px-Greenish_warbler_ring.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Greenish_warbler_ring.svg/360px-Greenish_warbler_ring.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="340" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Presumed <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of five "species" of greenish warblers around the <a href="/wiki/Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Himalaya">Himalayas</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomy_and_naming">Taxonomy and naming</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Taxonomy and naming">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mountain-lion-01623.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Mountain-lion-01623.jpg/220px-Mountain-lion-01623.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Mountain-lion-01623.jpg/330px-Mountain-lion-01623.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Mountain-lion-01623.jpg/440px-Mountain-lion-01623.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1999" data-file-height="1336" /></a><figcaption>A cougar, mountain lion, panther, or puma, among other common names: its scientific name is <a href="/wiki/Puma_concolor" class="mw-redirect" title="Puma concolor">Puma concolor</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_and_scientific_names">Common and scientific names</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Common and scientific names">edit</a>]</div> The commonly used names for kinds of organisms are often ambiguous: "cat" could mean the domestic cat, <a href="/wiki/Felis_catus" class="mw-redirect" title="Felis catus">Felis catus</a>, or the cat family, <a href="/wiki/Felidae" title="Felidae">Felidae</a>. Another problem with common names is that they often vary from place to place, so that puma, cougar, catamount, panther, painter and mountain lion all mean <a href="/wiki/Puma_concolor" class="mw-redirect" title="Puma concolor">Puma concolor</a> in various parts of America, while "panther" may also mean the <a href="/wiki/Jaguar" title="Jaguar">jaguar</a> (Panthera onca) of Latin America or the <a href="/wiki/Leopard" title="Leopard">leopard</a> (Panthera pardus) of Africa and Asia. In contrast, the scientific names of species are chosen to be unique and universal (except for some inter-code <a href="/wiki/Homonym_(biology)" title="Homonym (biology)">homonyms</a>); they are <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">in two parts used together</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> as in Puma, and the <a href="/wiki/Specific_name_(zoology)" title="Specific name (zoology)">specific epithet</a> as in concolor.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Species_description">Species description</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Species description">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lacerta_plica_holotype_-_ZooKeys-355-049-g005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Lacerta_plica_holotype_-_ZooKeys-355-049-g005.jpg/170px-Lacerta_plica_holotype_-_ZooKeys-355-049-g005.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Lacerta_plica_holotype_-_ZooKeys-355-049-g005.jpg/255px-Lacerta_plica_holotype_-_ZooKeys-355-049-g005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Lacerta_plica_holotype_-_ZooKeys-355-049-g005.jpg/340px-Lacerta_plica_holotype_-_ZooKeys-355-049-g005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1216" data-file-height="2197" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Type_(biology)" title="Type (biology)">type specimen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Holotype" title="Holotype">holotype</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Plica_plica" title="Plica plica">Lacerta plica</a>, described by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a> in 1758</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Species_description" title="Species description">Species description</a></div> A species is given a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomic</a> name when a <a href="/wiki/Type_(biology)" title="Type (biology)">type specimen</a> is described formally, in a publication that assigns it a unique scientific name. The description typically provides means for identifying the new species, which may not be based solely on morphology<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Species_complex#Related_concepts" title="Species complex">cryptic species</a>), differentiating it from other previously described and related or confusable species and provides a <a href="/wiki/Validly_published_name" title="Validly published name">validly published name</a> (in botany) or an <a href="/wiki/Available_name" title="Available name">available name</a> (in zoology) when the paper is accepted for publication. The type material is usually held in a permanent repository, often the research collection of a major museum or university, that allows independent verification and the means to compare specimens.<a href="#cite_note-ICZNexampleabstract-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchcock-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-119">[119]</a> Describers of new species are asked to choose names that, in the words of the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature" title="International Code of Zoological Nomenclature">International Code of Zoological Nomenclature</a>, are "appropriate, compact, euphonious, memorable, and do not cause offence".<a href="#cite_note-ICZNRec25C-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abbreviations">Abbreviations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Abbreviations">edit</a>]</div> Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully, using the abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." (standing for species pluralis, Latin for "multiple species") in the plural in place of the specific name or epithet (e.g. Canis sp.). This commonly occurs when authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong, as is common in <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-winston-121">[121]</a> Authors may also use "spp." as a short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but not to all. If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet. The names of <a href="/wiki/Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a> and species are usually printed in <a href="/wiki/Italics" class="mw-redirect" title="Italics">italics</a>. However, abbreviations such as "sp." should not be italicised.<a href="#cite_note-winston-121">[121]</a> When a species' identity is not clear, a specialist may use "cf." before the epithet to indicate that confirmation is required. The abbreviations "nr." (near) or "aff." (affine) may be used when the identity is unclear but when the species appears to be similar to the species mentioned after.<a href="#cite_note-winston-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Identification_codes">Identification codes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Identification codes">edit</a>]</div> With the rise of online databases, codes have been devised to provide identifiers for species that are already defined, including: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">National Center for Biotechnology Information</a> (NCBI) employs a numeric 'taxid' or Taxonomy identifier, a "stable unique identifier", e.g., the taxid of <a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a> is 9606.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Encyclopedia_of_Genes_and_Genomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes">Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes</a> (KEGG) employs a three- or four-letter code for a limited number of organisms; in this code, for example, H. sapiens is simply hsa.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UniProt" title="UniProt">UniProt</a> employs an "organism mnemonic" of not more than five alphanumeric characters, e.g., HUMAN for H. sapiens.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">Integrated Taxonomic Information System</a> (ITIS) provides a unique number for each species. The LSID for Homo sapiens is <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="urn:lsid:catalogueoflife.org:taxon:4da6736d-d35f-11e6-9d3f-bc764e092680:col20170225">urn:lsid:catalogueoflife.org:taxon:4da6736d-d35f-11e6-9d3f-bc764e092680:col20170225</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lumping_and_splitting">Lumping and splitting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Lumping and splitting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lumpers_and_splitters" title="Lumpers and splitters">Lumpers and splitters</a></div> The naming of a particular species, including which genus (and higher taxa) it is placed in, is a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two distinct names to individual organisms later identified as the same species. When two species names are discovered to apply to the same species, the older species name is given <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_Priority" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of Priority">priority</a> and usually retained, and the newer name considered as a junior synonym, a process called <a href="/wiki/Synonymy_(taxonomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Synonymy (taxonomy)">synonymy</a>. Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting. Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognising differences or commonalities between organisms.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-winston-121">[121]</a> The circumscription of taxa, considered a taxonomic decision at the discretion of cognizant specialists, is not governed by the Codes of Zoological or Botanical Nomenclature, in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/PhyloCode" title="PhyloCode">PhyloCode</a>, and contrary to what is done in several other fields, in which the definitions of technical terms, like geochronological units and geopolitical entities, are explicitly delimited.<a href="#cite_note-Laurin_2023_logical-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laurin_2023_Advent-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Broad_and_narrow_senses">Broad and narrow senses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Broad and narrow senses">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sensu" title="Sensu">Sensu</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Nomenclature_codes" title="Nomenclature codes">nomenclatural codes</a> that guide the naming of species, including the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature" title="International Code of Zoological Nomenclature">ICZN</a> for animals and the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">ICN</a> for plants, do not make rules for defining the boundaries of the species. Research can change the boundaries, also known as circumscription, based on new evidence. Species may then need to be distinguished by the boundary definitions used, and in such cases the names may be qualified with <a href="/wiki/Sensu_stricto" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu stricto">sensu stricto</a> ("in the narrow sense") to denote usage in the exact meaning given by an author such as the person who named the species, while the <a href="/wiki/Antonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonym">antonym</a> sensu lato ("in the broad sense") denotes a wider usage, for instance including other subspecies. Other abbreviations such as "auct." ("author"), and qualifiers such as "non" ("not") may be used to further clarify the sense in which the specified authors delineated or described the species.<a href="#cite_note-winston-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Change">Change</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Change">edit</a>]</div> Species are subject to change, whether by evolving into new species,<a href="#cite_note-Barton-131">[131]</a> exchanging genes with other species,<a href="#cite_note-Vaux-132">[132]</a> merging with other species or by becoming extinct.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachos201677–96-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speciation">Speciation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Speciation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> process by which biological populations of sexually-reproducing organisms evolve to become distinct or reproductively isolated as species is called <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cook-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> was the first to describe the role of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> in speciation in his 1859 book <a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_Species" class="mw-redirect" title="The Origin of Species">The Origin of Species</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Speciation depends on a measure of <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_isolation" title="Reproductive isolation">reproductive isolation</a>, a reduced gene flow. This occurs most easily in <a href="/wiki/Allopatric" class="mw-redirect" title="Allopatric">allopatric</a> speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> of the same gene, as described in the <a href="/wiki/Bateson%E2%80%93Dobzhansky%E2%80%93Muller_model" title="Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model">Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barton-131">[131]</a> A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form (a <a href="/wiki/Chronospecies" title="Chronospecies">chronospecies</a>), without increasing the number of resultant species.<a href="#cite_note-Mayr1982-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exchange_of_genes_between_species">Exchange of genes between species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Exchange of genes between species">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_Of_Life_(with_horizontal_gene_transfer).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tree_Of_Life_%28with_horizontal_gene_transfer%29.svg/220px-Tree_Of_Life_%28with_horizontal_gene_transfer%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tree_Of_Life_%28with_horizontal_gene_transfer%29.svg/330px-Tree_Of_Life_%28with_horizontal_gene_transfer%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tree_Of_Life_%28with_horizontal_gene_transfer%29.svg/440px-Tree_Of_Life_%28with_horizontal_gene_transfer%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="2370" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfers</a> between widely separated species complicate the phylogeny of <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>.</figcaption></figure> Horizontal gene transfer between organisms of different species, either through <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antigenic_shift" title="Antigenic shift">antigenic shift</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Reassortment" title="Reassortment">reassortment</a>, is sometimes an important source of genetic variation. Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic <a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">domains</a>, making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-Melcher-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vaux-132">[132]</a> Louis-Marie Bobay and Howard Ochman suggest, based on analysis of the genomes of many types of bacteria, that they can often be grouped "into communities that regularly swap genes", in much the same way that plants and animals can be grouped into reproductively isolated breeding populations. Bacteria may thus form species, analogous to Mayr's biological species concept, consisting of asexually reproducing populations that exchange genes by homologous recombination.<a href="#cite_note-Venton2017-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-BobayOchman2017-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extinction">Extinction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Extinction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></div> A species is extinct when the <a href="/wiki/Endling" title="Endling">last individual</a> of that species dies, but it may be <a href="/wiki/Functional_extinction" title="Functional extinction">functionally extinct</a> well before that moment. It is estimated that over 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, some five billion species, are now extinct. Some of these were in <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">mass extinctions</a> such as those at the ends of the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> periods. Mass extinctions had a variety of causes including <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic activity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a>, and changes in oceanic and atmospheric chemistry, and they in turn had major effects on Earth's ecology, atmosphere, land surface and waters.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-StearnsStearns2000-143">[143]</a> Another form of extinction is through the assimilation of one species by another through hybridization. The resulting single species has been termed as a "<a href="/wiki/Compilospecies" title="Compilospecies">compilospecies</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachos201682-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practical_implications">Practical implications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Practical implications">edit</a>]</div> Biologists and <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservationists</a> need to categorise and identify organisms in the course of their work. Difficulty assigning organisms reliably to a species constitutes a threat to the <a href="/wiki/External_validity" title="External validity">validity</a> of research results, for example making measurements of how abundant a species is in an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> moot. Surveys using a phylogenetic species concept reported 48% more species and accordingly smaller populations and ranges than those using nonphylogenetic concepts; this was termed "taxonomic inflation",<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> which could cause a false appearance of change to the number of endangered species and consequent political and practical difficulties.<a href="#cite_note-Agapow2004-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-hey2001-147">[147]</a> Some observers claim that there is an inherent conflict between the desire to understand the processes of speciation and the need to identify and to categorise.<a href="#cite_note-hey2001-147">[147]</a> Conservation laws in many countries make special provisions to prevent species from going extinct. Hybridization zones between two species, one that is protected and one that is not, have sometimes led to conflicts between lawmakers, land owners and conservationists. One of the classic cases in North America is that of the protected <a href="/wiki/Northern_spotted_owl" title="Northern spotted owl">northern spotted owl</a> which hybridises with the unprotected <a href="/wiki/California_spotted_owl" class="mw-redirect" title="California spotted owl">California spotted owl</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Barred_owl" title="Barred owl">barred owl</a>; this has led to legal debates.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> It has been argued that the species problem is created by the varied uses of the concept of species, and that the solution is to abandon it and all other taxonomic ranks, and use unranked monophyletic groups instead, an approach facilitated by the <a href="/wiki/PhyloCode" title="PhyloCode">PhyloCode</a>. It has been argued, too, that since species are not comparable, counting them is not a valid measure of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>; alternative measures of phylogenetic biodiversity have been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mishler_1999-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_forms">Classical forms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Classical forms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">Aristotle's biology</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">his biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> used the term γένος (génos) to mean a kind, such as a <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">bird</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, and εἶδος (eidos) to mean a specific <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">form</a> within a kind, such as (within the birds) the <a href="/wiki/Crane_(bird)" title="Crane (bird)">crane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eagle" title="Eagle">eagle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crow" title="Crow">crow</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Old_World_sparrow" title="Old World sparrow">sparrow</a>. These terms were translated into Latin as "genus" and "species", though they do not correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Linnean_taxonomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Linnean taxonomy">Linnean terms</a> thus named; today the birds are a <a href="/wiki/Class_(taxonomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Class (taxonomy)">class</a>, the cranes are a <a href="/wiki/Family_(taxonomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family (taxonomy)">family</a>, and the crows a <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a>. A kind was distinguished by its <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">attributes</a>; for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, the young inheriting any variations they might have from their parents. Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. More importantly, in Aristotle's works, the terms γένος (génos) and εἶδος (eidos) are relative; a taxon that is considered an eidos in a given context can be considered a génos in another, and be further subdivided into eide (plural of eidos).<a href="#cite_note-Pellegrin_1986-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laurin_&_Humar_2022-152">[152]</a> His approach remained influential until the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Leroi88-153">[153]</a> and still, to a lower extent, today.<a href="#cite_note-Rigato_&_Minelli_2013-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fixed_species">Fixed species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Fixed species">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Ray_from_NPG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/John_Ray_from_NPG.jpg/170px-John_Ray_from_NPG.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/John_Ray_from_NPG.jpg/255px-John_Ray_from_NPG.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/John_Ray_from_NPG.jpg/340px-John_Ray_from_NPG.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2878" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> believed that species breed true and do not change, even though variations exist.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg/170px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg/255px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg/340px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1938" data-file-height="2342" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> created the binomial system for naming species.</figcaption></figure> When observers in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a> period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical: schemes included consanguinity based on colour (all plants with yellow flowers) or behaviour (snakes, scorpions and certain biting ants). <a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a>, an English naturalist, was the first to attempt a biological definition of species in 1686, as follows: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">No surer criterion for determining species has occurred to me than the distinguishing features that perpetuate themselves in propagation from seed. Thus, no matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species, if they spring from the seed of one and the same plant, they are accidental variations and not such as to distinguish a species ... Animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></blockquote> In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics, and not simply based upon differences.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Like many contemporary systematists,<a href="#cite_note-Magnol_1689-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tournefort_1694-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jussieu_1789-159">[159]</a> he established the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomic</a> <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a> of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> At the time, however, it was still widely believed that there was no organic connection between species (except, possibly, between those of a given genus),<a href="#cite_note-Laurin_2023_Advent-94">[94]</a> no matter how similar they appeared. This view was influenced by European scholarly and religious education, which held that the taxa had been created by God, forming an <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> hierarchy, the <a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being#Natural_science" title="Great chain of being">scala naturae or great chain of being</a>. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, the scala (a ladder) inherently implied the possibility of climbing.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutability">Mutability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Mutability">edit</a>]</div> In viewing evidence of hybridisation, Linnaeus recognised that species were not fixed and could change; he did not consider that new species could emerge and maintained a view of divinely fixed species that may alter through processes of hybridisation or acclimatisation.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> By the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the <a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">transmutation of species</a>, proposing that a species could change over time, in a radical departure from Aristotelian thinking.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> In 1859, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> provided a compelling account of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals, by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> from naturally occurring variation among individuals.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> This required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what they appear to be: ideas, provisionally useful for naming groups of interacting individuals, writing: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I look at the term species as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other ... It does not essentially differ from the word variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms. The term variety, again, in comparison with mere individual differences, is also applied arbitrarily, and for convenience sake.<a href="#cite_note-metaphysical-166">[166]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Cline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">Encyclopedia of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">Endangered species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_biodiversity" title="Global biodiversity">Global biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_animal_species" title="Category:Lists of animal species">Lists of animal species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_plant_species" title="Category:Lists of plant species">Lists of plant species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_zoology" title="Outline of zoology">Outline of zoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudospeciation" title="Pseudospeciation">Pseudospeciation</a></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20240219-1"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20240219_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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Boca Raton: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-85560-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-85560-4"><bdi>978-0-367-85560-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1273727987">1273727987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Good+Species&rft.btitle=Species+problems+and+beyond%3A+contemporary+issues+in+philosophy+and+practice&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pub=CRC+Press%2C+Taylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1273727987&rft.isbn=978-0-367-85560-4&rft.aulast=Wilkins&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mishler_Wilkins_2018-93"><a href="#cite_ref-Mishler_Wilkins_2018_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMishlerWilkins2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brent_Mishler" title="Brent Mishler">Mishler, Brent D.</a>; Wilkins, John S. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fptpbio.16039257.0010.001">"The Hunting of the SNaRC: A Snarky Solution to the Species Problem"</a>. Philosophy, Theory, and Practice in Biology. 10 (20220112). 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CRC Press. p. xv + 209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9781003092827">10.1201/9781003092827</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-09282-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-09282-7"><bdi>978-1-003-09282-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Advent+of+PhyloCode%3A+The+Continuing+Evolution+of+Biological+Nomenclature&rft.pages=xv+%2B+209&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2023-08-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1201%2F9781003092827&rft.isbn=978-1-003-09282-7&rft.aulast=Laurin&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2Fmono%2F10.1201%2F9781003092827%2Fadvent-phylocode-michel-laurin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitcher1984" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Kitcher" title="Philip Kitcher">Kitcher, Philip</a> (June 1984). 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Herpetologica. 54 (2): 254–278. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3893431">3893431</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Herpetologica&rft.atitle=Is+Ensatina+eschscholtzii+a+ring+species%3F&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=254-278&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3893431%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Highton&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/NamSpecies.htm">"A Word About Species Names ..."</a> Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170324161039/http://www.sms.si.edu/IRLSpec/NamSpecies.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Word+About+Species+Names+...&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Marine+Station+at+Fort+Pierce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sms.si.edu%2Firlspec%2FNamSpecies.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHone2013" class="citation news cs1">Hone, Dave (19 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/lost-worlds/2013/jun/19/dinosaurs-fossils">"What's in a name? Why scientific names are important"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170215220511/https://www.theguardian.com/science/lost-worlds/2013/jun/19/dinosaurs-fossils">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=What%27s+in+a+name%3F+Why+scientific+names+are+important&rft.date=2013-06-19&rft.aulast=Hone&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2Flost-worlds%2F2013%2Fjun%2F19%2Fdinosaurs-fossils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawleyGamero-MoraMaronnaChiaverano2022" class="citation journal cs1">Lawley, Jonathan W.; Gamero-Mora, Edgar; Maronna, Maximiliano M.; Chiaverano, Luciano M.; Stampar, Sérgio N.; Hopcroft, Russell R.; Collins, Allen G.; Morandini, André C. (29 September 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sajs.co.za/article/view/14495">"Morphology is not always useful for diagnosis, and that's ok: Species hypotheses should not be bound to a class of data. Reply to Brown and Gibbons (S Afr J Sci. 2022;118(9/10), Art. #12590)"</a>. South African Journal of Science. 118 (9/10). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17159%2Fsajs.2022%2F14495">10.17159/sajs.2022/14495</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252562185">252562185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+African+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=Morphology+is+not+always+useful+for+diagnosis%2C+and+that%27s+ok%3A+Species+hypotheses+should+not+be+bound+to+a+class+of+data.+Reply+to+Brown+and+Gibbons+%28S+Afr+J+Sci.+2022%3B118%289%2F10%29%2C+Art.+%2312590%29&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=9%2F10&rft.date=2022-09-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17159%2Fsajs.2022%2F14495&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252562185%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lawley&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+W.&rft.au=Gamero-Mora%2C+Edgar&rft.au=Maronna%2C+Maximiliano+M.&rft.au=Chiaverano%2C+Luciano+M.&rft.au=Stampar%2C+S%C3%A9rgio+N.&rft.au=Hopcroft%2C+Russell+R.&rft.au=Collins%2C+Allen+G.&rft.au=Morandini%2C+Andr%C3%A9+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsajs.co.za%2Farticle%2Fview%2F14495&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICZNexampleabstract-117"><a href="#cite_ref-ICZNexampleabstract_117-0">^</a> One example of an abstract of an article naming a new species can be found at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellnerLoddersKämpfer2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wellner, S.; Lodders, N.; Kämpfer, P. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.030767-0">"Methylobacterium cerastii sp. nov., a novel species isolated from the leaf surface of Cerastium holosteoides"</a>. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 62 (Pt 4): 917–924. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.030767-0">10.1099/ijs.0.030767-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21669927">21669927</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Systematic+and+Evolutionary+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Methylobacterium+cerastii+sp.+nov.%2C+a+novel+species+isolated+from+the+leaf+surface+of+Cerastium+holosteoides&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=Pt+4&rft.pages=917-924&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2Fijs.0.030767-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21669927&rft.aulast=Wellner&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Lodders%2C+N.&rft.au=K%C3%A4mpfer%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1099%252Fijs.0.030767-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchcock-118"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchcock_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitchcock1921" class="citation cs2">Hitchcock, A. S. (1921), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/314424">"The Type Concept in Systematic Botany"</a>, American Journal of Botany, 8 (5): 251–255, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2434993">10.2307/2434993</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2434993">2434993</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=The+Type+Concept+in+Systematic+Botany&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=251-255&rft.date=1921&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2434993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2434993%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hitchcock&rft.aufirst=A.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fpart%2F314424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smithsonian-119"><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholson" class="citation web cs1">Nicholson, Dan H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://botany.si.edu/references/botlinks/dhntyp.htm">"Botanical nomenclature, types, & standard reference works"</a>. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150916184608/http://botany.si.edu/references/botlinks/dhntyp.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 September 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Botanical+nomenclature%2C+types%2C+%26+standard+reference+works&rft.pub=Smithsonian+National+Museum+of+Natural+History%2C+Department+of+Botany&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Dan+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbotany.si.edu%2Freferences%2Fbotlinks%2Fdhntyp.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICZNRec25C-120"><a href="#cite_ref-ICZNRec25C_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/iczn/code/">"International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, Recommendation 25C"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110608184753/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/iczn/code/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Code+of+Zoological+Nomenclature%2C+Recommendation+25C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhm.ac.uk%2Fhosted-sites%2Ficzn%2Fcode%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-winston-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-winston_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-winston_121-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-winston_121-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-winston_121-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-winston_121-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinston1999" class="citation book cs1">Winston, Judith E. (1999). Describing species. Practical taxonomic procedure for biologists. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 141–144.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Describing+species.+Practical+taxonomic+procedure+for+biologists&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=141-144&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Winston&rft.aufirst=Judith+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=9606&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock">"Home – Taxonomy – NCBI"</a>. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 19 October 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180207144820/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=9606&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock">Archived</a> from the original on 7 February 2018. Retrieved 25 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Home+%E2%80%93+Taxonomy+%E2%80%93+NCBI&rft.pub=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&rft.date=2012-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2FTaxonomy%2FBrowser%2Fwwwtax.cgi%3Fmode%3DInfo%26id%3D9606%26lvl%3D3%26lin%3Df%26keep%3D1%26srchmode%3D1%26unlock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genome.jp/kegg/catalog/org_list.html">"KEGG Organisms: Complete Genomes"</a>. Genome.jp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121014160440/http://www.genome.jp/kegg/catalog/org_list.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=KEGG+Organisms%3A+Complete+Genomes&rft.pub=Genome.jp&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.genome.jp%2Fkegg%2Fcatalog%2Forg_list.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniprot.org/help/taxonomy">"Taxonomy"</a>. Uniprot.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121127091404/http://www.uniprot.org/help/taxonomy">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Uniprot.org&rft.atitle=Taxonomy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uniprot.org%2Fhelp%2Ftaxonomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/details/species/id/e3b90576561f93a8ac8b59e185b01511/synonym/ee0f23e7dd7ddbf69de58c0abba12e5b">"ITIS: Homo sapiens"</a>. Catalogue of Life. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312194754/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/details/species/id/e3b90576561f93a8ac8b59e185b01511/synonym/ee0f23e7dd7ddbf69de58c0abba12e5b">Archived</a> from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ITIS%3A+Homo+sapiens&rft.pub=Catalogue+of+Life&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catalogueoflife.org%2Fcol%2Fdetails%2Fspecies%2Fid%2Fe3b90576561f93a8ac8b59e185b01511%2Fsynonym%2Fee0f23e7dd7ddbf69de58c0abba12e5b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson1945" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Gaylord_Simpson" title="George Gaylord Simpson">Simpson, George Gaylord</a> (1945). "The Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 85: 23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Museum+of+Natural+History&rft.atitle=The+Principles+of+Classification+and+a+Classification+of+Mammals&rft.volume=85&rft.pages=23&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=George+Gaylord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChase2005" class="citation journal cs1">Chase, Bob (2005). "Upstart Antichrist". History Workshop Journal. 60 (1): 202–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhwj%2Fdbi042">10.1093/hwj/dbi042</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201790420">201790420</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Workshop+Journal&rft.atitle=Upstart+Antichrist&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=202-206&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fhwj%2Fdbi042&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201790420%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chase&rft.aufirst=Bob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laurin_2023_logical-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Laurin_2023_logical_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurin2023" class="citation journal cs1">Laurin, Michel (23 July 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/zsc.12625">"The PhyloCode : The logical outcome of millennia of evolution of biological nomenclature?"</a>. Zoologica Scripta. 52 (6): 543–555. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fzsc.12625">10.1111/zsc.12625</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0300-3256">0300-3256</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:260224728">260224728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zoologica+Scripta&rft.atitle=The+PhyloCode+%3A+The+logical+outcome+of+millennia+of+evolution+of+biological+nomenclature%3F&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=543-555&rft.date=2023-07-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A260224728%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0300-3256&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fzsc.12625&rft.aulast=Laurin&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%2Fzsc.12625&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2016" class="citation web cs1">Wilson, Philip (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treeterms.co.uk/definitions/sensu-stricto-sensu-lato">"sensu stricto, sensu lato"</a>. AZ of tree terms. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180110054734/http://www.treeterms.co.uk/definitions/sensu-stricto-sensu-lato">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2018. 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Comptes Rendus Palevol (in French) (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5852%2Fcr-palevol2022v21a1">10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245863171">245863171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+Palevol&rft.atitle=Phylogenetic+signal+in+characters+from+Aristotle%27s+History+of+Animals&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2022-01-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5852%2Fcr-palevol2022v21a1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245863171%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Laurin&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.au=Humar%2C+Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5852%252Fcr-palevol2022v21a1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leroi88-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Leroi88_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeroi2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Marie_Leroi" title="Armand Marie Leroi">Leroi, Armand Marie</a> (2014). <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_Lagoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle's Lagoon">The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science</a>. Bloomsbury. pp. 88–90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4"><bdi>978-1-4088-3622-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lagoon%3A+How+Aristotle+Invented+Science&rft.pages=88-90&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4&rft.aulast=Leroi&rft.aufirst=Armand+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rigato_&_Minelli_2013-154"><a href="#cite_ref-Rigato_&_Minelli_2013_154-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRigatoMinelli2013" class="citation journal cs1">Rigato, Emanuele; Minelli, Alessandro (28 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.evolution-outreach.com/content/6/1/18">"The great chain of being is still here"</a>. Evolution: Education and Outreach. 6 (1): 18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1936-6434-6-18">10.1186/1936-6434-6-18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1936-6434">1936-6434</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution%3A+Education+and+Outreach&rft.atitle=The+great+chain+of+being+is+still+here&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18&rft.date=2013-06-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1936-6434-6-18&rft.issn=1936-6434&rft.aulast=Rigato&rft.aufirst=Emanuele&rft.au=Minelli%2C+Alessandro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.evolution-outreach.com%2Fcontent%2F6%2F1%2F18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay1686" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">Ray, John</a> (1686). Historia plantarum generalis, Tome I, Libr. I. p. Chap. XX, page 40.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+plantarum+generalis%2C+Tome+I%2C+Libr.+I&rft.pages=Chap.+XX%2C+page+40&rft.date=1686&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988">, quoted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1982" class="citation book cs1">Mayr, Ernst (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/growthofbiologic00mayr">The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution, and inheritance</a>. Belknap Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/growthofbiologic00mayr/page/256">256</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674364455" title="Special:BookSources/9780674364455"><bdi>9780674364455</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+growth+of+biological+thought%3A+diversity%2C+evolution%2C+and+inheritance&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780674364455&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrowthofbiologic00mayr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisHeywood1973" class="citation book cs1">Davis, P. H.; Heywood, V. H. (1973). Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy. Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company. p. 17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Angiosperm+Taxonomy&rft.place=Huntington%2C+NY&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Robert+E.+Krieger+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=P.+H.&rft.au=Heywood%2C+V.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Magnol_1689-157"><a href="#cite_ref-Magnol_1689_157-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagnol1689" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Magnol, Petrus (1689). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RShVAAAAcAAJ&dq=Prodromus+historiae+generalis+plantarum+in+quo+familiae+plantarum+per+tabulas+disponuntur&pg=PA1">Prodromus historiae generalis plantarum in quo familiae plantarum per tabulas disponuntur</a> (in Latin). Pech. p. 79.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prodromus+historiae+generalis+plantarum+in+quo+familiae+plantarum+per+tabulas+disponuntur&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Pech&rft.date=1689&rft.aulast=Magnol&rft.aufirst=Petrus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRShVAAAAcAAJ%26dq%3DProdromus%2Bhistoriae%2Bgeneralis%2Bplantarum%2Bin%2Bquo%2Bfamiliae%2Bplantarum%2Bper%2Btabulas%2Bdisponuntur%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tournefort_1694-158"><a href="#cite_ref-Tournefort_1694_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTournefort1694" class="citation book cs1">Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de (1656-1708) Auteur du texte (1694). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8454361d/f9.item">Elemens de botanique, ou Methode pour connoître les plantes. I. [Texte.] / . Par Mr Pitton Tournefort... [T. I-III]</a>. Paris: L’Imprimerie Royale. p. 562.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elemens+de+botanique%2C+ou+Methode+pour+conno%C3%AEtre+les+plantes.+I.+%5BTexte.%5D+%2F+.+Par+Mr+Pitton+Tournefort...+%5BT.+I-III%5D&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=562&rft.pub=L%E2%80%99Imprimerie+Royale&rft.date=1694&rft.aulast=Tournefort&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Pitton+de+%281656-1708%29+Auteur+du+texte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbtv1b8454361d%2Ff9.item&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Jussieu_1789-159"><a href="#cite_ref-Jussieu_1789_159-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJussieu1789" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jussieu, Antoine-Laurent de (1789). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ctEsqqV0LHoC&dq=Genera+plantarum+secundum+ordines+naturales+disposita+juxta+methodum+in+horto+regio+parisiensi+exaratam%2C+anno+1774&pg=PA1">Antonii Laurentii de Jussieu ... Genera plantarum secundum ordines naturales disposita: juxta methodum in horto regio Parisiensi exaratam, anno M.DCC.LXXIV.</a> (in Latin). Apud viduam Herissant, typographum, viâ novâ B.M. sub signo Crucis Aureæ. Et Theophilum Barrois, ad ripam Augustinianorum. p. 498.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antonii+Laurentii+de+Jussieu+...+Genera+plantarum+secundum+ordines+naturales+disposita%3A+juxta+methodum+in+horto+regio+Parisiensi+exaratam%2C+anno+M.DCC.LXXIV..&rft.pages=498&rft.pub=Apud+viduam+Herissant%2C+typographum%2C+vi%C3%A2+nov%C3%A2+B.M.+sub+signo+Crucis+Aure%C3%A6.+Et+Theophilum+Barrois%2C+ad+ripam+Augustinianorum.&rft.date=1789&rft.aulast=Jussieu&rft.aufirst=Antoine-Laurent+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DctEsqqV0LHoC%26dq%3DGenera%2Bplantarum%2Bsecundum%2Bordines%2Bnaturales%2Bdisposita%2Bjuxta%2Bmethodum%2Bin%2Bhorto%2Bregio%2Bparisiensi%2Bexaratam%252C%2Banno%2B1774%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRevealPringle1993" class="citation book cs1">Reveal, James L.; Pringle, James S. 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Journal of the History of Ideas. 48 (2): 211–230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2709555">10.2307/2709555</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709555">2709555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Lovejoy+and+the+Hierarchy+of+Being&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=211-230&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2709555&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2709555%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mahoney&rft.aufirst=Edward+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html">"Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778)"</a>. UCMP Berkeley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110430160025/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 24 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Carl+Linnaeus+%281707%E2%80%931778%29&rft.pub=UCMP+Berkeley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fhistory%2Flinnaeus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Gould, Stephen Jay</a> (2002). <a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Evolutionary_Theory" title="The Structure of Evolutionary Theory">The Structure of Evolutionary Theory</a>. 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Bowler">Bowler, Peter J.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8/page/177">Evolution: The History of an Idea</a> (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8/page/177">177–223 and passim</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6"><bdi>978-0-520-23693-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+History+of+an+Idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=177-223+and+passim&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23693-6&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8%2Fpage%2F177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-metaphysical-166"><a href="#cite_ref-metaphysical_166-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenand2001" class="citation book cs1">Menand, Louis (2001). <a href="/wiki/The_Metaphysical_Club:_A_Story_of_Ideas_in_America" title="The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America">The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America</a>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/metaphysicalclub00mena/page/123">123–124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-70638-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-70638-8"><bdi>978-0-374-70638-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Metaphysical+Club%3A+A+Story+of+Ideas+in+America&rft.pages=123-124&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-374-70638-8&rft.aulast=Menand&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaridgeDawahWilson1997" class="citation book cs1">Claridge, M. F.; Dawah, H. A.; Wilson, M. R., eds. (1997). Species: The Units of Biodiversity. <a href="/wiki/Chapman_%26_Hall" title="Chapman & Hall">Chapman & Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-63120-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-412-63120-7"><bdi>978-0-412-63120-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Species%3A+The+Units+of+Biodiversity&rft.pub=Chapman+%26+Hall&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-412-63120-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelerMeier2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Quentin_D._Wheeler" title="Quentin D. Wheeler">Wheeler, Quentin</a>; Meier, Rudolf, eds. (2000). Species Concepts and Phylogenetic Theory: A Debate. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10143-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10143-1"><bdi>978-0-231-10143-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Species+Concepts+and+Phylogenetic+Theory%3A+A+Debate&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-231-10143-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZachos2016" class="citation book cs1">Zachos, Frank E. (2016). Species Concepts in Biology: Historical Development, Theoretical Foundations and Practical Relevance. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-44964-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-44964-7"><bdi>978-3-319-44964-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Species+Concepts+in+Biology%3A+Historical+Development%2C+Theoretical+Foundations+and+Practical+Relevance&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-319-44964-7&rft.aulast=Zachos&rft.aufirst=Frank+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpecies" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Species&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Species" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Species">Species</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page">Wikispecies</a> – The free <a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">species directory</a> that anyone can edit from the <a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation" title="Wikimedia Foundation">Wikimedia Foundation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.barcodinglife.org/">Barcoding of species</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catalogueoflife.org/">Catalogue of Life</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061211145046/http://www.finitesite.com/dandelion/Linnaeus.HTML">European Species Names in Linnaean, Czech, English, German and French</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140407073920/http://plato.stanford.edu-online-documents-archive.info/entries/species/">"Species" entry</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Encyclopedia">Stanford Encyclopedia</a> of Philosophy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://visualtaxa.redgolpe.com/">VisualTaxa</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Speciation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Speciation" title="Template:Speciation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Speciation" title="Template talk:Speciation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Speciation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Speciation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Speciation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Introduction_to_speciation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Introduction to speciation (page does not exist)">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_speciation" title="History of speciation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_experiments_of_speciation" title="Laboratory experiments of speciation">Laboratory experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_speciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of speciation">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Species</a> (<a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_isolation" title="Reproductive isolation">Reproductive isolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence of evolution">Evidence of evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a> (<a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a> · <a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation#Quantum_and_budding_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Quantum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation#Centrifugal_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Centrifugal</a> · <a href="/wiki/Founder_effect" title="Founder effect">Founder effect</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Clines</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ring_species" title="Ring species">Ring species</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_isolation" title="Reproductive isolation">Isolating factors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological speciation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Parallel_speciation" title="Parallel speciation">Parallel speciation</a> · <a href="/wiki/Allochronic_speciation" title="Allochronic speciation">Allochrony</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Nonecological speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assortative_mating" title="Assortative mating">Assortative mating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldane%27s_rule" title="Haldane's rule">Haldane's rule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">Hybrid concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid speciation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Klepton" title="Klepton">Klepton</a> · <a href="/w/index.php?title=Recombinational_speciation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Recombinational speciation (page does not exist)">Recombination</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a> (<a href="/wiki/Evidence_for_speciation_by_reinforcement" title="Evidence for speciation by reinforcement">evidence</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_contact" title="Secondary contact">Secondary contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_displacement" title="Character displacement">Character displacement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Speciation in taxa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciation_in_birds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speciation in birds (page does not exist)">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciation_in_fish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speciation in fish (page does not exist)">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciation_in_insects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speciation in insects (page does not exist)">Insects</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciation_in_plants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speciation in plants (page does not exist)">Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciation_in_the_fossil_record&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speciation in the fossil record (page does not exist)">Fossils</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paleopolyploidy" title="Paleopolyploidy">Paleopolyploidy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a> · <a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a> · <a href="/wiki/Chronospecies" title="Chronospecies">Chronospecies</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Speciation" title="Category:Speciation">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Speciation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Speciation">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Evolutionary_biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Evolutionary biology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxonomic_ranks" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomic_ranks" title="Template:Taxonomic ranks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taxonomic_ranks" title="Template talk:Taxonomic ranks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taxonomic_ranks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taxonomic ranks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Taxonomic_ranks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic ranks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;line-height: 1.75;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <table role="presentation" style="width: 100%;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td style="width: 11%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Realm_(virology)" title="Realm (virology)">Realm (<abbr title="virology">vir.</abbr>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realm_(virology)" title="Realm (virology)">Subrealm (<abbr title="virology">vir.</abbr>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain/Superkingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Subkingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Infrakingdom/Branch</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="padding-top: 1.75em; width: 11%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">Superphylum</a>/<a href="/wiki/Division_(biology)" title="Division (biology)">Superdivision (<abbr title="botany">bot.</abbr>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">Phylum</a>/<a href="/wiki/Division_(biology)" title="Division (biology)">Division (<abbr title="botany">bot.</abbr>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subphylum" title="Subphylum">Subphylum</a>/<a href="/wiki/Division_(biology)" title="Division (biology)">Subdivision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subphylum" title="Subphylum">Infraphylum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subphylum" title="Subphylum">Microphylum</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="padding-top: 1.75em; width: 11%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Superclass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Subclass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Infraclass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Subterclass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Parvclass</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="padding-top: 3.5em; width: 11%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Division_(biology)" title="Division (biology)">Division (<abbr title="zoology">zoo.</abbr>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legion_(taxonomy)" title="Legion (taxonomy)">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohort_(taxonomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cohort (taxonomy)">Cohort</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="width: 11%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Magnorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Superorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Suborder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Infraorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Parvorder</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="width: 11%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Section_(biology)" title="Section (biology)">Section (<abbr title="zoology">zoo.</abbr>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfamily_(taxonomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfamily (taxonomy)">Superfamily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subfamily" title="Subfamily">Subfamily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">Infrafamily</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="padding-top: 1.75em; width: 11%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(biology)" title="Tribe (biology)">Supertribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(biology)" title="Tribe (biology)">Tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtribe" title="Subtribe">Subtribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(biology)" title="Tribe (biology)">Infratribe</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="padding-top: 3.5em; width: 11%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">Genus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgenus" title="Subgenus">Subgenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_(botany)" title="Section (botany)">Section (<abbr title="botany">bot.</abbr>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_(botany)" title="Series (botany)">Series (<abbr title="botany">bot.</abbr>)</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="padding-top: 1.75em; width: 11%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subspecies" title="Subspecies">Subspecies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variety_(botany)" title="Variety (botany)">Variety (<abbr title="botany">bot.</abbr>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_(botany)" title="Form (botany)">Form (<abbr title="botany">bot.</abbr>)</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolution" title="Template:Evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_impacts_of_cars" title="Societal impacts of cars">Societal impacts of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> 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1 Template:Speciation"," 4.84% 79.130 3 Template:Cite_news"," 4.66% 76.303 20 Template:Cite_web"," 4.11% 67.160 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.063","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8232830,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"Barcode_species\"] = 1,\n [\"Biological_Species_Concept\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAgapowBininda-EmondsCrandallGittleman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlcaide,_M.Scordato,_E._S._C.Price,_T._D.Irwin,_D._E.2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndinoDomingo2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBakerBradley2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBapteste2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarton2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernardo2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernsteinBernstein1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernsteinByerlyHopfMichod1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiebricherEigen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBobayOchman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorenstein2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowler2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarr2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChase2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClaridgeDawahWilson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotterillTaylor,_P.Gippoliti,_S.2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavisHeywood1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeSalleEganSiddall2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeWeerdt2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Queiroz2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDijk2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDzik1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_G._ReekieFakhri_A._Bazzaz2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElenaAgudelo-RomeroCarrascoCodoñer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaith1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFauquetFargette2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFraser,_C.Alm,_E._J.Polz,_M._F.Spratt,_B._G.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGemlTullossLaursenSasanova2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeversCohanLawrenceSpratt2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhiselin1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbs2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiraud,_T.Refrégier,_G.Le_Gac,_M.de_Vienne,_D._M.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiraudRefrégier,_G.Le_Gac,_M.de_Vienne,_D._M.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGooders1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGould1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGould2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGovernment_of_Canada._Committee_on_the_Status_of_Endangered_Wildlife_in_Canada\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaigAllendorf2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanage2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHellerFrandsen,_P.Lorenzen,_E._D.Siegismund,_H._R.2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHey2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeywood1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHighton1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHitchcock1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHone2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHopfHopf1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrwinBenschIrwinPrice2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarvis1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJussieu1789\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKingLefkowitzAdamsCarstens2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitcher1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKull2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuninGaston1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLahrLaughinghouseOliverio,_A._M.Gao,_F.2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandHauserJunNookaew2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaporte1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurin2023\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLaurinHumar2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawleyGamero-MoraMaronnaChiaverano2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeroi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewin1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiebersKnijffHelbig2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagnol1689\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahoney1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallet1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallet1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalletBeltránNeukirchenLinares2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartensPäckert2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMastersSpencer1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayden1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaynard_Smith1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1982\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMelcher2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenand2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichod1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMishler1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMishler2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMishlerWilkins2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoraTittensorAdlSimpson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoritzSchneiderWake1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNixonWheeler1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;BrienLyman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParksChuvochinaChaumeilRinke2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaterson1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPellegrin1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennisi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPimentel2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPleijelRouse2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatnasinghamHebert2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRay1686\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRevealPringle1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRigatoMinelli2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodriguez-RJainConradAluru2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonCaminer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosselló-MoraAmann2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuse1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzburger2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStackebrandtEbers2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStackebrandtGoebel1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStamos2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearnsStearns2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoeckle2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor,_J._W.Jacobson,_D._J.Kroken,_S.Kasuga,_T.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorTurnerTownsendDettman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTempleton1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeueman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTournefort1694\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Regenmortel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVane-WrightHumphriesWilliams1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVauxTrewickMorgan-Richards2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVenton2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVia2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWellnerLoddersKämpfer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheelerMeier2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitworthDawsonMagalonBaudry2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkeWangOfriaLenski2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkins2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinston1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWittzell1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZachos2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZachos2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhaxybayevaPeter_Gogarten2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Buffrénilde_RicqlèsZylberbergPadian2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Queiroz1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Queiroz2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_NimwegenCrutchfieldHuynen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"Cladistic_species\"] = 1,\n [\"Cohesion_species\"] = 1,\n [\"Genetic_similarity\"] = 1,\n [\"Isolation_species\"] = 1,\n [\"Phylogenetic,_cladistic,_or_evolutionary_species\"] = 1,\n [\"Phylogenetic_species\"] = 1,\n [\"Phylogenetic_species_concept\"] = 1,\n [\"Recognition_species\"] = 1,\n [\"Reproductive_species\"] = 1,\n [\"Typological_species\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Anchor\"] = 8,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Biological classification\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 45,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 84,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 20,\n [\"Cite wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Closed access\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Evolution\"] = 1,\n [\"Evolutionary psychology\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 12,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Plural form\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 7,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Speciation\"] = 1,\n [\"Taxonomic ranks\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","25.0"],["?","160","15.4"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","100","9.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","5.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","60","5.8"],["makeMessage \u003Cmw.message.lua:76\u003E","60","5.8"],["init \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Configuration\u003E","40","3.8"],["mw.executeModule \u003Cmw.lua:467\u003E","40","3.8"],["validateData 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