Renaissance | Definition, Meaning, History, Artists, Art, & Facts

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[{"p":2,"t":497731},{"p":13,"t":275932},{"p":3,"t":528960},{"p":1,"t":495422},{"p":1,"t":497788},{"p":1,"t":1384942},{"p":1,"t":136558},{"p":2,"t":140219},{"p":171,"t":195896},{"p":1,"t":1366093}], "sequence": 1, "topics": {} }); </script> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="497731"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Renaissance">Renaissance</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/event/Renaissance">Introduction & Top Questions</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref284229"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/Renaissance#ref284229">Origins and rise of humanism</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref284230"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/Renaissance#ref284230">Artistic developments and the emergence of Florence</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref284231"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/Renaissance/The-High-Renaissance">The High Renaissance</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref284232"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/Renaissance/The-High-Renaissance#ref284232">Competition from Mannerism</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Renaissance/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Renaissance">Quick Facts & Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Renaissance/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/04/95904-050-7EB39FC8/Last-Supper-wall-painting-restoration-Leonardo-da-1999.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/232045" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/04/95904-004-68ACDC30/Last-Supper-wall-painting-restoration-Leonardo-da-1999.jpg" alt="Leonardo da Vinci: Last Supper" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/62/19062-050-68244DBF/Petrarch-engraving.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/101333" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/62/19062-004-D6CAA30F/Petrarch-engraving.jpg" alt="Petrarch" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/19246-050-097E6508/Marsilio-Ficino.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/127399" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/19246-004-6CB8D195/Marsilio-Ficino.jpg" alt="Marsilio Ficino" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/121106-050-5A162807/Desiderius-Erasmus-panel-Hans-Holbein-Louvre.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/158998" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/121106-004-5ECFCD40/Desiderius-Erasmus-panel-Hans-Holbein-Louvre.jpg" alt="Hans Holbein the Younger: Erasmus" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/75/115475-050-9F9B00CE/Self-portrait-drawing-Leonardo-da-Vinci-Royal-Library.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/195695" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img 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They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-03-22T00:00:00CDT" >Mar 22, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Renaissance/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn btn-sm border-2 btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 module-spacing js-inline-ai-ask-button p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>French: </dt> <dd>“Rebirth”</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Location: </dt> <dd><a href="/place/Europe">Europe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/France">France</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Holland-historical-region-Netherlands">Holland</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Italy">Italy</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Erasmus-Dutch-humanist">Erasmus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Giotto-di-Bondone">Giotto</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Leonardo-da-Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Claudio-Monteverdi">Claudio Monteverdi</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/Renaissance"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "FAQPage", "mainEntity": [ { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What does the word \u201CRenaissance\u201D mean?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "<em>Renaissance<\/em> is a French word meaning \u201Crebirth.\u201D It refers to a period in European civilization that was marked by a revival of Classical learning and wisdom. The Renaissance saw many contributions to different fields, including new scientific laws, new forms of art and architecture, and new religious and political ideas." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>When did the Renaissance happen?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "There is some debate over when exactly the Renaissance began. However, it is generally believed to have begun in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Italy\">Italy<\/a> during the 14th century, after the end of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Middle-Ages\">Middle Ages<\/a>, and it reached its height there between the 1490s and the 1520s, a period referred to as the High Renaissance. Renaissance ideas and ways of thinking also began spreading to the rest of Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries.<\/p><p>The Renaissance as a unified historical period ended in Italy with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Sack-of-Rome-1527\">fall of Rome in 1527<\/a>, and it was eclipsed by the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Reformation\">Reformation<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Counter-Reformation\">Counter-Reformation<\/a> elsewhere in Europe by the end of the 16th century. " } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>Who are some important people of the Renaissance?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "Prominent figures of the European Renaissance include:" } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What is Renaissance art?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "One of the fields that embodied the Renaissance was fine art, especially painting and sculpture. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/Renaissance-art\">Renaissance art<\/a> was inspired by Classical Greek and Roman art, and it is known for its grace, harmony, and beauty. Artists worked from the living model and perfected techniques such as the use of perspective. In addition, the Renaissance saw the refinement of mediums, notably oils. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Leonardo-da-Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Michelangelo\">Michelangelo<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Raphael-Italian-painter-and-architect\">Raphael<\/a> are widely considered the leading artists of the period." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What does \u201CRenaissance man\u201D mean?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The idea of a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Renaissance-man\">Renaissance man<\/a> developed in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Italy\">Italy<\/a> and derived from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Leon-Battista-Alberti\">Leon Battista Alberti<\/a>\u2019s notion that \u201Ca man can do all things if he will.\u201D The ideal embodied the basic tenets of Renaissance <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/humanism\">humanism<\/a>, which considered humankind the center of the universe and led to the belief that people should try to embrace all knowledge and develop their own abilities as fully as possible. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Leonardo-da-Vinci\">Leonardo da Vinci<\/a> is a leading example of a Renaissance man, noted for his achievements in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/visual-arts\">art<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/science\">science<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/art\/music\">music<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/architecture\">architecture<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/invention-technology\">invention<\/a>." } } ] } </script> <div class="top-questions qa-accordion d-flex flex-column module-spacing"><div class="font-weight-bold font-14 mb-5"> Top Questions </div><div id="intent-accordion" class="md-intent-accordion"><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="1"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What does the word “Renaissance” mean?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p><em>Renaissance</em> is a French word meaning “rebirth.” It refers to a period in European civilization that was marked by a revival of Classical learning and wisdom. The Renaissance saw many contributions to different fields, including new scientific laws, new forms of art and architecture, and new religious and political ideas.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="2"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>When did the Renaissance happen?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>There is some debate over when exactly the Renaissance began. However, it is generally believed to have begun in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italy</a> during the 14th century, after the end of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Middle-Ages" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Middle Ages</a>, and it reached its height there between the 1490s and the 1520s, a period referred to as the High Renaissance. Renaissance ideas and ways of thinking also began spreading to the rest of Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries.</p><p>The Renaissance as a unified historical period ended in Italy with the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Sack-of-Rome-1527" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">fall of Rome in 1527</a>, and it was eclipsed by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Reformation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Reformation</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Counter-Reformation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Counter-Reformation</a> elsewhere in Europe by the end of the 16th century. </p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="3"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>Who are some important people of the Renaissance?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>Prominent figures of the European Renaissance include:</p><ul> <li><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Niccolo-Machiavelli" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>, the philosopher and statesman known for the political treatise <em><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Prince" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">The Prince</a></em></li> <li><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francis-Bacon-Viscount-Saint-Alban" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Francis Bacon</a>, a statesman and philosopher considered the master of the English tongue</li> <li><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicolaus-Copernicus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>, the astronomer who developed the theory that the solar system was centered on the Sun</li> <li>the poets <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Petrarch" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Petrarch</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Giovanni-Boccaccio" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Giovanni Boccaccio</a>, who laid the foundations for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/humanism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">humanism</a>, the mode of thought at the core of the Renaissance</li> <li><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Shakespeare" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">William Shakespeare</a>, considered the greatest English dramatist of all time</li> <li><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Galileo-Galilei" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Galileo</a>, an astronomer and mathematician who helped disprove much medieval-era thinking in science</li> <li>the explorers <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christopher-Columbus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Christopher Columbus</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ferdinand-Magellan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ferdinand Magellan</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hernan-Cortes" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hernán Cortés</a></li> </ul></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="4"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What is Renaissance art?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>One of the fields that embodied the Renaissance was fine art, especially painting and sculpture. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Renaissance-art" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Renaissance art</a> was inspired by Classical Greek and Roman art, and it is known for its grace, harmony, and beauty. Artists worked from the living model and perfected techniques such as the use of perspective. In addition, the Renaissance saw the refinement of mediums, notably oils. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonardo-da-Vinci" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Michelangelo" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Michelangelo</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Raphael-Italian-painter-and-architect" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Raphael</a> are widely considered the leading artists of the period.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="5"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What does “Renaissance man” mean?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The idea of a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Renaissance-man" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Renaissance man</a> developed in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italy</a> and derived from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leon-Battista-Alberti" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Leon Battista Alberti</a>’s notion that “a man can do all things if he will.” The ideal embodied the basic tenets of Renaissance <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/humanism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">humanism</a>, which considered humankind the center of the universe and led to the belief that people should try to embrace all knowledge and develop their own abilities as fully as possible. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonardo-da-Vinci" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Leonardo da Vinci</a> is a leading example of a Renaissance man, noted for his achievements in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/visual-arts" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">art</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/science" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">science</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/music" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">music</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">architecture</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/invention-technology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">invention</a>.</p></div></div></div><button class="show-more-button js-toggle-top-questions btn btn-unstyled font-14 d-flex pr-10 rounded-sm"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></button></div></div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.jpost.com/archaeology/archaeology-around-the-world/article-846651" rel="nofollow">Rediscovered Renaissance masterpiece to be exhibited at Vatican Museums</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Mar. 19, 2025, 4:04 AM ET (Jerusalem Post) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.jpost.com/history/history-around-the-world/article-844623" rel="nofollow">16th-century military machines manuscript acquired by Italy’s The Galleria Nazionale delle Marche</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Mar. 4, 2025, 2:06 AM ET (Jerusalem Post) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref160513"></span>Renaissance</strong>, period in European civilization immediately following the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Middle-Ages" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Middle Ages</a> and conventionally held to have been characterized by a surge of interest in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/classical-scholarship" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Classical scholarship</a> and values. The Renaissance also witnessed the discovery and exploration of new continents, the substitution of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Copernican-system" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Copernican</a> for the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Ptolemaic-system" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ptolemaic</a> system of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/astronomy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">astronomy</a>, the decline of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/feudalism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">feudal system</a> and the growth of commerce, and the invention or application of such potentially powerful <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="innovations" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/innovations" data-type="MW">innovations</a> as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/paper" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">paper</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/printing-publishing" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">printing</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/magnetic-compass" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">mariner’s compass</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/gunpowder" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">gunpowder</a>. To the scholars and thinkers of the day, however, it was primarily a time of the revival of Classical learning and wisdom after a long period of cultural decline and stagnation.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A brief treatment of the Renaissance follows. For full treatment, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Renaissance#ref58315" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: The Renaissance</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref284229"> <h2 class="h1">Origins and rise of <span id="ref160514"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/humanism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">humanism</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100 assembly-container"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="101333" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/62/19062-050-68244DBF/Petrarch-engraving.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/101333"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/62/19062-050-68244DBF/Petrarch-engraving.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/62/19062-050-68244DBF/Petrarch-engraving.jpg?w=300" alt="Petrarch" data-width="1213" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/62/19062-050-68244DBF/Petrarch-engraving.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/101333">Petrarch</a><span>Petrarch, engraving.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The term <span id="ref1247923"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Middle-Ages" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Middle Ages</a> was coined by scholars in the 15th century to designate the interval between the downfall of the Classical world of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Greece" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Greece</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Rome" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Rome</a> and its rediscovery at the beginning of their own century, a revival in which they felt they were participating. Indeed, the notion of a long period of cultural darkness had been expressed by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Petrarch" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Petrarch</a> even earlier. Events at the end of the Middle Ages, particularly beginning in the 12th century, set in motion a series of social, political, and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="intellectual" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intellectual" data-type="MW">intellectual</a> transformations that culminated in the Renaissance. These included the increasing failure of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-Catholicism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Roman Catholic Church</a> and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Holy-Roman-Empire" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Holy Roman Empire</a> to provide a stable and unifying framework for the organization of spiritual and material life, the rise in importance of city-states and national <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/monarchy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">monarchies</a>, the development of national languages, and the breakup of the old feudal structures.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100 assembly-container"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="127399" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/19246-050-097E6508/Marsilio-Ficino.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/127399"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/19246-050-097E6508/Marsilio-Ficino.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/19246-050-097E6508/Marsilio-Ficino.jpg?w=300" alt="Marsilio Ficino" data-width="1213" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/46/19246-050-097E6508/Marsilio-Ficino.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/127399">Marsilio Ficino</a><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">While the spirit of the Renaissance ultimately took many forms, it was expressed earliest by the intellectual movement called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/humanism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">humanism</a>. Humanism was initiated by <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="secular" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/secular" data-type="MW">secular</a> men of letters rather than by the scholar-clerics who had dominated <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="medieval" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/medieval" data-type="MW">medieval</a> intellectual life and had developed the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Scholasticism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Scholastic philosophy</a>. Humanism began and achieved fruition first in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italy</a>. Its predecessors were men like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dante-Alighieri" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dante</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Petrarch" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Petrarch</a>, and its chief protagonists included Giannozzo Manetti, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonardo-Bruni" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Leonardo Bruni</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marsilio-Ficino" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Marsilio Ficino</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Giovanni-Pico-della-Mirandola-conte-di-Concordia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lorenzo-Valla" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lorenzo Valla</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Coluccio-Salutati" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Coluccio Salutati</a>. The <span id="ref160515"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Fall-of-Constantinople-1453" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">fall of Constantinople in 1453</a> provided humanism with a major boost, for many eastern scholars fled to Italy, bringing with them important books and manuscripts and a tradition of Greek scholarship.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100 assembly-container"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="158998" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/121106-050-5A162807/Desiderius-Erasmus-panel-Hans-Holbein-Louvre.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/158998"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/121106-050-5A162807/Desiderius-Erasmus-panel-Hans-Holbein-Louvre.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/121106-050-5A162807/Desiderius-Erasmus-panel-Hans-Holbein-Louvre.jpg?w=300" alt="Hans Holbein the Younger: Erasmus" data-width="1186" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/121106-050-5A162807/Desiderius-Erasmus-panel-Hans-Holbein-Louvre.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/158998">Hans Holbein the Younger: <em>Erasmus</em></a><span><em>Erasmus</em>, oil on panel by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1523–24; in the Louvre, Paris. 43 × 33 cm.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Humanism had several significant features. First, it took human nature in all of its various <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="manifestations" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/manifestations" data-type="MW">manifestations</a> and achievements as its subject. Second, it stressed the unity and compatibility of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">truth</a> found in all philosophical and theological schools and systems, a doctrine known as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/religious-syncretism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">syncretism</a>. Third, it emphasized the dignity of humankind. In place of the medieval ideal of a life of penance as the highest and noblest form of human activity, the humanists looked to the struggle of creation and the attempt to exert mastery over nature. Finally, humanism looked forward to a rebirth of a lost human spirit and wisdom. In the course of striving to recover it, however, the humanists assisted in the consolidation of a new spiritual and intellectual outlook and in the development of a new body of knowledge. The effect of humanism was to help men break free from the mental strictures imposed by religious orthodoxy, to inspire free inquiry and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="criticism" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/criticism" data-type="MW">criticism</a>, and to inspire a new confidence in the possibilities of human thought and creations.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/history-buff-quiz" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/19/153419-131-91ADC6E8/Ruins-statues-Karnak-Egypt.jpg" alt="Temple ruins of columns and statures at Karnak, Egypt (Egyptian architecture; Egyptian archaelogy; Egyptian history)" class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">History Buff Quiz</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">From Italy the new humanist spirit and the Renaissance it engendered spread north to all parts of Europe, aided by the invention of the mechanized <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/printing-press" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">printing press</a>, which allowed literacy and the availability of Classical texts to grow explosively. Foremost among northern humanists was <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Erasmus-Dutch-humanist" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Desiderius Erasmus</a>, whose <em>Praise of Folly</em> (1509) epitomized the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="moral" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/moral" data-type="MW">moral</a> essence of humanism in its insistence on heartfelt goodness as opposed to formalistic piety. The intellectual stimulation provided by humanists helped spark the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Reformation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Reformation</a>, from which, however, many humanists, including Erasmus, recoiled. By the end of the 16th century the battle of Reformation and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Counter-Reformation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Counter-Reformation</a> had commanded much of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Europe</a>’s energy and attention, while the intellectual life was poised on the brink of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Enlightenment</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker h3"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref284230"> <h2 class="h1">Artistic developments and the emergence of <span id="ref908235"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Florence" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Florence</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="195695" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/75/115475-050-9F9B00CE/Self-portrait-drawing-Leonardo-da-Vinci-Royal-Library.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/195695"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/75/115475-050-9F9B00CE/Self-portrait-drawing-Leonardo-da-Vinci-Royal-Library.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/75/115475-050-9F9B00CE/Self-portrait-drawing-Leonardo-da-Vinci-Royal-Library.jpg?w=300" alt="Leonardo da Vinci: self-portrait" data-width="1011" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">1 of 7</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/75/115475-050-9F9B00CE/Self-portrait-drawing-Leonardo-da-Vinci-Royal-Library.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/195695">Leonardo da Vinci: self-portrait</a><span>Self-portrait of Leonardo da Vinci in red chalk, <em>c.</em> 1512–15.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="95182" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/96240-050-142CC589/flying-machine-Leonardo-da-Vinci-plans-ornithopter.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/95182"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/96240-050-142CC589/flying-machine-Leonardo-da-Vinci-plans-ornithopter.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/96240-050-142CC589/flying-machine-Leonardo-da-Vinci-plans-ornithopter.jpg?w=300" alt="Leonardo da Vinci: ornithopter" data-width="1600" data-height="1229" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 7</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/96240-050-142CC589/flying-machine-Leonardo-da-Vinci-plans-ornithopter.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/95182">Leonardo da Vinci: ornithopter</a><span>Leonardo da Vinci's plans for an ornithopter, a flying machine kept aloft by the beating of its wings, c. 1490.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="128844" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/54/132254-050-EE0282C1/Birth-of-the-Virgin-Pietro-Lorenzetti-Siena.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/128844"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/54/132254-050-EE0282C1/Birth-of-the-Virgin-Pietro-Lorenzetti-Siena.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/54/132254-050-EE0282C1/Birth-of-the-Virgin-Pietro-Lorenzetti-Siena.jpg?w=300" alt="Pietro Lorenzetti: Birth of the Virgin" data-width="1449" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">3 of 7</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/54/132254-050-EE0282C1/Birth-of-the-Virgin-Pietro-Lorenzetti-Siena.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/128844">Pietro Lorenzetti: <em>Birth of the Virgin</em></a><span><em>Birth of the Virgin</em>, triptych by Pietro Lorenzetti, 1342; in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Siena, Italy.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="8379" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/94/5594-050-1C1166D6/Annunciation-Fra-Angelico-Florence-Museum-of-San.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/8379"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/94/5594-050-1C1166D6/Annunciation-Fra-Angelico-Florence-Museum-of-San.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/94/5594-050-1C1166D6/Annunciation-Fra-Angelico-Florence-Museum-of-San.jpg?w=300" alt="Fra Angelico: The Annunciation" data-width="1296" data-height="941" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">4 of 7</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/94/5594-050-1C1166D6/Annunciation-Fra-Angelico-Florence-Museum-of-San.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/8379">Fra Angelico: <em>The Annunciation</em></a><span><em>The Annunciation</em>, fresco by Fra Angelico, 1438–45; in the Museum of San Marco, Florence.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="9003" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/92/6792-004-C757C6D7/The-Birth-of-Venus-canvas-Sandro-Botticelli.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/9003"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/92/6792-004-C757C6D7/The-Birth-of-Venus-canvas-Sandro-Botticelli.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/92/6792-004-C757C6D7/The-Birth-of-Venus-canvas-Sandro-Botticelli.jpg?w=300" alt="Sandro Botticelli: Birth of Venus" data-width="479" data-height="300" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">5 of 7</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/92/6792-004-C757C6D7/The-Birth-of-Venus-canvas-Sandro-Botticelli.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/9003">Sandro Botticelli: <em>Birth of Venus</em></a><span><em>Birth of Venus</em>, tempera on canvas by Sandro Botticelli, c. 1485; in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="15888" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/25/13725-050-6432C39D/Santa-Maria-Novella-Florence-Leon-Battista-Alberti.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/15888"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/25/13725-050-6432C39D/Santa-Maria-Novella-Florence-Leon-Battista-Alberti.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/25/13725-050-6432C39D/Santa-Maria-Novella-Florence-Leon-Battista-Alberti.jpg?w=300" alt="Santa Maria Novella" data-width="1600" data-height="1561" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">6 of 7</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/25/13725-050-6432C39D/Santa-Maria-Novella-Florence-Leon-Battista-Alberti.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/15888">Santa Maria Novella</a><span>Santa Maria Novella, Florence, facade by Leon Battista Alberti, 1456–70.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="164655" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/8822-050-514D00A8/Loggia-del-Capitanio-Andrea-Palladio-Italy-Vicenza.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/164655"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/8822-050-514D00A8/Loggia-del-Capitanio-Andrea-Palladio-Italy-Vicenza.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/8822-050-514D00A8/Loggia-del-Capitanio-Andrea-Palladio-Italy-Vicenza.jpg?w=300" alt="Andrea Palladio: Loggia del Capitanio" data-width="1384" data-height="1572" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">7 of 7</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/8822-050-514D00A8/Loggia-del-Capitanio-Andrea-Palladio-Italy-Vicenza.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/164655">Andrea Palladio: Loggia del Capitanio</a><span>Loggia del Capitanio, a gallery designed by Andrea Palladio, in Vicenza, Italy.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">It was in <span id="ref908228"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/visual-arts" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">art</a> that the spirit of the <span id="ref908241"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Renaissance-art" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Renaissance</a> achieved its sharpest formulation. Art came to be seen as a branch of knowledge, valuable in its own right and capable of providing people with images of God and his creations as well as with insights into humankind’s position in the universe. In the hands of men such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonardo-da-Vinci" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Leonardo da Vinci</a> it was even a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/science" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">science</a>, a means for exploring nature and a record of discoveries. Art was to be based on the observation of the visible world and practiced according to mathematical principles of balance, harmony, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/perspective-art" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">perspective</a>, which were developed at this time. In the works of painters such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Masaccio" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Masaccio</a>, the brothers <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pietro-Lorenzetti" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pietro</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ambrogio-Lorenzetti" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ambrogio Lorenzetti</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Fra-Angelico" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Fra Angelico</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sandro-Botticelli" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sandro Botticelli</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Perugino" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Perugino</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Piero-della-Francesca" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Piero della Francesca</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Raphael-Italian-painter-and-architect" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Raphael</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Titian" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Titian</a>; sculptors such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Giovanni-Pisano" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Giovanni Pisano</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Donatello" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Donatello</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-del-Verrocchio" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Andrea del Verrocchio</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lorenzo-Ghiberti" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lorenzo Ghiberti</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Michelangelo" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Michelangelo</a>; and architects such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leon-Battista-Alberti" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Leon Battista Alberti</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Filippo-Brunelleschi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Filippo Brunelleschi</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Palladio" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Andrea Palladio</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Michelozzo" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Michelozzo</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Filarete" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Filarete</a>, the dignity of humanity found expression in the arts.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; 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in the Louvre, Paris. 313 × 163 cm.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="16329" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/18938-004-AABE8441/St-Francis-of-Assisi-Stigmata-Giotto-di.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/16329"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/18938-004-AABE8441/St-Francis-of-Assisi-Stigmata-Giotto-di.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/18938-004-AABE8441/St-Francis-of-Assisi-Stigmata-Giotto-di.jpg?w=300" alt="Giotto di Bondone: St. Francis of Assisi Receiving the Stigmata" data-width="282" data-height="300" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 3</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/18938-004-AABE8441/St-Francis-of-Assisi-Stigmata-Giotto-di.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/16329">Giotto di Bondone: <em>St. Francis of Assisi Receiving the Stigmata</em></a><span><em>St. Francis of Assisi Receiving the Stigmata</em>, fresco attributed to Giotto di Bondone, c. 1300; in the upper church of San Francesco, Assisi, Italy.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="141151" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/137257-050-BFD103EB/Holy-Virgin-tempera-panel-Christ-Child-Aurea.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/141151"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/137257-050-BFD103EB/Holy-Virgin-tempera-panel-Christ-Child-Aurea.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/137257-050-BFD103EB/Holy-Virgin-tempera-panel-Christ-Child-Aurea.jpg?w=300" alt="Duccio: The Virgin and Child with Saints Dominic and Aurea" data-width="1600" data-height="1198" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">3 of 3</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/137257-050-BFD103EB/Holy-Virgin-tempera-panel-Christ-Child-Aurea.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/141151">Duccio: <em>The Virgin and Child with Saints Dominic and Aurea</em></a><span><em>The Virgin and Child with Saints Dominic and Aurea</em>, tempera on wood by Duccio di Buoninsegna, 1315; in the National Gallery, London.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In <span id="ref908231"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Italy</a> the Renaissance proper was preceded by an important “proto-renaissance” in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, which drew inspiration from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Franciscans" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Franciscan</a> radicalism. <span id="ref1247924"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Francis-of-Assisi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">St. Francis of Assisi</a> had rejected the formal <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Scholasticism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Scholasticism</a> of the prevailing Christian <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/theology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">theology</a> and gone out among the poor praising the beauties and spiritual value of nature. His example inspired Italian artists and poets to take pleasure in the world around them. The work of the most famous artist of the proto-renaissance period, <span id="ref908233"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Giotto-di-Bondone" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Giotto</a> (1266/67 or 1276–1337), reveals a new pictorial style that depends on clear, simple structure and great psychological penetration rather than on the flat, linear decorativeness and hierarchical <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="compositions" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compositions" data-type="MW">compositions</a> of his predecessors and contemporaries, such as the Florentine painter <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cimabue" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cimabue</a> and the Siennese painters <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Duccio" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Duccio</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Simone-Martini" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Simone Martini</a>. The great poet <span id="ref908234"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dante-Alighieri" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dante</a> lived at about the same time as Giotto, and his <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/poetry" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">poetry</a> shows a similar concern with inward experience and the subtle shades and variations of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-nature" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">human nature</a>. Although his <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Divine-Comedy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true"><em>Divine Comedy</em></a> belongs to the Middle Ages in its plan and ideas, its subjective spirit and power of expression look forward to the Renaissance. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Petrarch" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Petrarch</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Giovanni-Boccaccio" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Giovanni Boccaccio</a> also belong to this proto-renaissance period, both through their extensive studies of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Latin-literature" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Latin literature</a> and through their writings in the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="vernacular" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vernacular" data-type="MW">vernacular</a>. Unfortunately, the terrible plague of 1348 (known as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Black-Death" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Black Death</a>) and subsequent <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/Italy-from-c-1380-to-c-1500#ref27677" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">civil wars</a> submerged both the revival of humanistic studies and the growing interest in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/individualism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">individualism</a> and naturalism revealed in the works of Giotto and Dante. The spirit of the Renaissance did not surface again until the 15th century.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="121488" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/923-004-39863651/Gates-of-Paradise-doors-Lorenzo-Ghiberti-side.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/121488"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/923-004-39863651/Gates-of-Paradise-doors-Lorenzo-Ghiberti-side.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/923-004-39863651/Gates-of-Paradise-doors-Lorenzo-Ghiberti-side.jpg?w=300" alt="Lorenzo Ghiberti: Gates of Paradise" data-width="253" data-height="450" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">1 of 4</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/923-004-39863651/Gates-of-Paradise-doors-Lorenzo-Ghiberti-side.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/121488">Lorenzo Ghiberti: <em>Gates of Paradise</em></a><span><em>Gates of Paradise</em>, gilded bronze doors by Lorenzo Ghiberti, 1425–52; on the east side of the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Florence. </span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="123720" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/82/94682-050-44F9ADF2/David-sculpture-Donatello.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/123720"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/82/94682-050-44F9ADF2/David-sculpture-Donatello.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/82/94682-050-44F9ADF2/David-sculpture-Donatello.jpg?w=300" alt="Donatello: David" data-width="1200" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 4</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/82/94682-050-44F9ADF2/David-sculpture-Donatello.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/123720">Donatello: <em>David</em></a><span><em>David</em>, sculpture by Donatello, early 15th century.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="12863" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/42/2342-004-3C13B075/The-Tribute-Money-Masaccio-Brancacci-Chapel-Santa.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/12863"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/42/2342-004-3C13B075/The-Tribute-Money-Masaccio-Brancacci-Chapel-Santa.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/42/2342-004-3C13B075/The-Tribute-Money-Masaccio-Brancacci-Chapel-Santa.jpg?w=300" alt="Masaccio: The Tribute Money" data-width="600" data-height="260" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">3 of 4</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/42/2342-004-3C13B075/The-Tribute-Money-Masaccio-Brancacci-Chapel-Santa.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/12863">Masaccio: <em>The Tribute Money</em></a><span><em>The Tribute Money</em>, fresco by Masaccio, 1425; in the Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="195710" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/43565-004-E9F7BDAC/Flagellation-of-Christ-wood-panel-Piero-della.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/195710"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/43565-004-E9F7BDAC/Flagellation-of-Christ-wood-panel-Piero-della.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/43565-004-E9F7BDAC/Flagellation-of-Christ-wood-panel-Piero-della.jpg?w=300" alt="Piero della Francesca: Flagellation of Christ" data-width="550" data-height="394" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">4 of 4</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/43565-004-E9F7BDAC/Flagellation-of-Christ-wood-panel-Piero-della.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/195710">Piero della Francesca: <em>Flagellation of Christ</em></a><span><em>Flagellation of Christ</em>, tempera on wood panel by Piero della Francesca, late 1450s; in the National Gallery of the Marches, Urbino, Italy. </span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In 1401−02 the goldsmith and painter <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lorenzo-Ghiberti" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lorenzo Ghiberti</a> won a competition held at Florence and was awarded the commission for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gates-of-Paradise-by-Ghiberti" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">bronze doors to be placed on the baptistery of San Giovanni</a>. According to traditional accounts, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Filippo-Brunelleschi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Filippo Brunelleschi</a>, who was among Ghiberti’s competitors, and his friend <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Donatello" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Donatello</a> left for Rome soon after; there they immersed themselves in the study of ancient <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">architecture</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/sculpture" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">sculpture</a>. When they returned to Florence and began to put their knowledge into practice, the rationalized art of the ancient world was reborn. The founder of Renaissance <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/painting" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">painting</a> was <span id="ref908236"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Masaccio" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Masaccio</a> (1401–28). The intellectuality of his <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conceptions" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conceptions" data-type="MW">conceptions</a>, the monumentality of his compositions, and the high degree of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/naturalism-art" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">naturalism</a> in his works mark Masaccio as a pivotal figure in Renaissance painting. The succeeding generation of artists—<a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Piero-della-Francesca" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Piero della Francesca</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pollaiuolo-brothers" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pollaiuolo brothers</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-del-Verrocchio" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Andrea del Verrocchio</a>—pressed forward with researches into <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/linear-perspective" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">linear</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/aerial-perspective" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">aerial perspective</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/anatomy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">anatomy</a>, developing a style of scientific naturalism.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100 assembly-container"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="15386" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/71/8671-050-2EE6A745/Cathedral-Florence-Santa-Maria-del-Fiore.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/15386"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/71/8671-050-2EE6A745/Cathedral-Florence-Santa-Maria-del-Fiore.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/71/8671-050-2EE6A745/Cathedral-Florence-Santa-Maria-del-Fiore.jpg?w=300" alt="the Duomo" data-width="1600" data-height="1031" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/71/8671-050-2EE6A745/Cathedral-Florence-Santa-Maria-del-Fiore.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/15386">the Duomo</a><span>Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore (the Duomo) in Florence, constructed between 1296 and 1436 (dome by Filippo Brunelleschi, 1420–36).</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The situation in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Florence" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Florence</a> was uniquely favourable to the arts. The civic pride of Florentines found expression in statues of the patron saints commissioned from Ghiberti and Donatello for <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="niches" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/niches" data-type="MW">niches</a> in the grain-market guildhall known as Or San Michele, and in the largest dome built since antiquity, placed by Brunelleschi on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/the-Duomo" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">the Duomo</a>. The cost of construction and decoration of palaces, churches, and monasteries was underwritten by wealthy merchant families, chief among whom were the <span id="ref908237"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Medici-family" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Medici family</a>.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100 assembly-container"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="11133" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/969-050-628E5CAD/Adoration-of-the-Shepherds-centre-panel-Portinari.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/497731/11133"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/969-050-628E5CAD/Adoration-of-the-Shepherds-centre-panel-Portinari.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/969-050-628E5CAD/Adoration-of-the-Shepherds-centre-panel-Portinari.jpg?w=300" alt="The Adoration of the Shepherds" data-width="1600" data-height="1345" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/69/969-050-628E5CAD/Adoration-of-the-Shepherds-centre-panel-Portinari.jpg" data-href="/media/1/497731/11133"><em>The Adoration of the Shepherds</em></a><span><em>The Adoration of the Shepherds</em>, center panel of the Portinari Altarpiece, by Hugo van der Goes, c. 1474–76; in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The Medici traded in all of the major cities in Europe, and one of the most famous masterpieces of Northern Renaissance art, <em><span id="ref908238"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Portinari-Altarpiece" class="md-crosslink ">The Portinari Altarpiece</a>,</em> by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hugo-van-der-Goes" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hugo van der Goes</a> (<em>c.</em> 1476; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uffizi-Gallery" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Uffizi</a>, Florence), was commissioned by their agent, Tommaso Portinari. Instead of being painted with the customary tempera of the period, the work is painted with <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="translucent" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/translucent" data-type="EB">translucent</a> oil glazes that produce brilliant jewel-like colour and a glossy surface. Early <span id="ref908239"></span>Northern Renaissance painters were more concerned with the detailed reproduction of objects and their symbolic meaning than with the study of scientific perspective and anatomy even after these achievements became widely known. On the other hand, central Italian painters began to adopt the oil medium soon after <em>The Portinari Altarpiece</em> was brought to Florence in 1476.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-simplify-root"></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":2,"pageId":497731,"pageLength":1513,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-134/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.134.26"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-134/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.134.26' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true,"hasAiTopQuestions":false,"hasSimplifyButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Renaissance | Definition, Meaning, History, Artists, Art, & Facts | Britannica