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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosodic_notation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Prosodic notation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prosodic_notation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_prosodic_diacritics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_prosodic_diacritics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Other prosodic diacritics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_prosodic_diacritics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialectal_differentiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialectal_differentiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dialectal differentiation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dialectal_differentiation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dialectal differentiation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dialectal_differentiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overview_of_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview_of_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Overview of languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palatalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palatalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Palatalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palatalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Velar_palatalization_outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Velar_palatalization_outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Velar palatalization outcomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Velar_palatalization_outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iotation_outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iotation_outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Iotation outcomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iotation_outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_palatalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_palatalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>General palatalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_palatalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_yers_ь_and_ъ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_yers_ь_and_ъ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>The yers ь and ъ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_yers_ь_and_ъ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strong_vs._weak_yers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strong_vs._weak_yers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Strong vs. weak yers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strong_vs._weak_yers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clusters_and_fill_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clusters_and_fill_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Clusters and fill vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clusters_and_fill_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tense_yers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tense_yers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Tense yers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tense_yers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_liquid_diphthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_liquid_diphthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>The liquid diphthongs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_liquid_diphthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mid_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Mid vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>High vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_nasal_vowels_ę_and_ǫ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_nasal_vowels_ę_and_ǫ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>The nasal vowels ę and ǫ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_nasal_vowels_ę_and_ǫ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_yat_vowel_ě" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_yat_vowel_ě"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>The yat vowel ě</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_yat_vowel_ě-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Accent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_prosodic_phenomena" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_prosodic_phenomena"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.1</span> <span>Modern prosodic phenomena</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_prosodic_phenomena-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_from_Common_Slavic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_from_Common_Slavic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.2</span> <span>Development from Common Slavic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_from_Common_Slavic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loanwords" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loanwords"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Loanwords</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loanwords-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+the+Slavic+languages%22">"History of the Slavic languages"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+the+Slavic+languages%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+the+Slavic+languages%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+the+Slavic+languages%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+the+Slavic+languages%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+the+Slavic+languages%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavic">Proto-Slavic</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Proto-Slavic" title="History of Proto-Slavic">History of Proto-Slavic</a></div> <p>The <b>history of the Slavic languages</b> stretches over 3000 years, from the point at which the ancestral <a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a> language broke up (c. 1500 BC) into the modern-day <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> which are today natively spoken in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Europe">Southeastern Europe</a> as well as parts of <a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. </p><p>The first 2000 years or so consist of the pre-Slavic era: a long, stable period of gradual development during which the language remained unified, with no discernible dialectal differences. </p><p>The last stage in which the language remained without internal differences can be dated to around 500 AD and is sometimes termed <i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavic">Proto-Slavic</a> proper</i> or <i>Early Proto-Slavic</i>. Following this is the Common Slavic period (c. 500–1000 AD), during which the first dialectal differences appeared but the entire Slavic-speaking area continued to function as a single language, with <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound changes</a> tending to spread throughout the entire area. </p><p>By around 1000 AD, the area had broken up into separate <a href="/wiki/East_Slavic_languages" title="East Slavic languages">East Slavic</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a> languages, and in the following centuries, i.e. 11–14th century, it broke up further into the various modern Slavic languages, of which the following are extant: <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language" title="Rusyn language">Rusyn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a> in the East; <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sorbian_languages" title="Sorbian languages">Sorbian languages</a> in the West, and <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian" title="Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a> in the South. </p><p>The period from the early centuries AD to the end of the Common Slavic period around 1000 AD was a time of rapid change, concurrent with the explosive growth of the Slavic-speaking era. By the end of this period, most of the features of the modern Slavic languages had been established. </p><p>The first historical documentation of the Slavic languages is found in isolated names and words in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> documents starting in the 6th century AD, when Slavic-speaking tribes first came in contact with the Greek-speaking <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. </p><p>The first continuous texts date from the late 9th century AD and were written in <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a>—the first Slavic literary language, based on the <a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a> dialects spoken around <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greek_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Macedonia">Greek Macedonia</a>—as part of the <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Christianization of the Slavs</a> by <a href="/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">Saints Cyril and Methodius</a> and their followers. Because these texts were written during the Common Slavic period, the language they document is close to the ancestral Proto-Slavic language and is critically important to the linguistic reconstruction of Slavic-language history. </p><p>This article covers the development of the Slavic languages from the end of the Common Slavic period (c. 1000 AD) to the present time. See the article on <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavic">Proto-Slavic</a> for a description of the Proto-Slavic language of the late first millennium AD, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Proto-Slavic" title="History of Proto-Slavic">history of Proto-Slavic</a> for the earlier linguistic history of this language. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavic_distribution_origin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Slavic_distribution_origin.png/250px-Slavic_distribution_origin.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Slavic_distribution_origin.png/375px-Slavic_distribution_origin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Slavic_distribution_origin.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Historical distribution of the Slavic languages. The larger shaded area is the Prague-Penkov-Kolochin complex of cultures of the sixth to seventh centuries, likely corresponding to the spread of Slavic-speaking tribes of the time. The smaller shaded area indicates the core area of Slavic river names (after <a href="#CITEREFMalloryAdams1997">Mallory & Adams (1997</a>:524ff)).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Balto-Slavic_lng.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Balto-Slavic_lng.png/260px-Balto-Slavic_lng.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Balto-Slavic_lng.png/390px-Balto-Slavic_lng.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Balto-Slavic_lng.png/520px-Balto-Slavic_lng.png 2x" data-file-width="1031" data-file-height="783" /></a><figcaption>Area of Balto-Slavic dialect continuum (<i>purple</i>) with proposed <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">material cultures</a> correlating to speakers of Balto-Slavic in the Bronze Age (<i>white</i>). <i>Red</i> dots = archaic Slavic hydronyms</figcaption></figure> <p>The development into Proto-Slavic probably occurred along the southern periphery of the Proto-Balto-Slavic continuum. This is concluded from Slavic <a href="/wiki/Hydronyms" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydronyms">hydronyms</a>, the most archaic of which are found between the northeastern rim of the Carpathian mountains in the west, along the middle <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Dnieper river">Dnieper</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pripet_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Pripet River">Pripet</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dniester_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Dniester river">upper Dniester</a> river in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From around 500 BCE to 200 CE, the <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> and then the <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a> expanded their control into the forest steppe. Consequently, a few <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Iranian">Eastern Iranian</a> loan words, especially relating to religious and cultural practices, have been seen as evidence of cultural influences.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, loan words of Germanic origin also appear. This is connected to the movement of east Germanic groups into the Vistula basin, and subsequently to the middle <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_basin" title="Dnieper basin">Dnieper basin</a>, associated with the appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Przeworsk_culture" title="Przeworsk culture">Przeworsk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chernyakhov_culture" title="Chernyakhov culture">Chernyakhov</a> cultures, respectively. </p><p>Into the Common Era, the various Balto-Slavic dialects formed a dialect continuum stretching from the Vistula to the Don and Oka basins, and from the Baltic and upper Volga to southern Russia and northern Ukraine.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning around 500 CE, the Slavic speakers rapidly expanded in all directions from a homeland in eastern Poland and western Ukraine. By the eighth century CE, Proto-Slavic is believed to have been spoken uniformly from Thessaloniki to Novgorod. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notation">Notation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Notation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language#Notation" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic language § Notation</a></div> <p>See <a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language#Notation" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic language#Notation</a> for much more detail on the uses of the most commonly encountered diacritics for indicating <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a> (<i>á, à, â, ã, ȁ, a̋, ā, ă</i>) and various other phonetic distinctions (<i>ą, ẹ, ė, š, ś</i>, etc.) in different Balto-Slavic languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowel_notation">Vowel notation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Vowel notation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two different and conflicting systems for denoting vowels are commonly in use in Indo-European and Balto-Slavic linguistics on the one hand, and Slavic linguistics on the other. In the first, vowel length is consistently distinguished with a macron above the letter, while in the latter it is not clearly indicated. The following table explains these differences: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Vowel </th> <th>IE/B-S </th> <th>Slavic </th></tr> <tr> <td>Short front closed vowel (front <a href="/wiki/Yer" title="Yer">yer</a>) </td> <td>i </td> <td>ĭ or ь </td></tr> <tr> <td>Short back closed vowel (back <a href="/wiki/Yer" title="Yer">yer</a>) </td> <td>u </td> <td>ŭ or ъ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Short back open vowel </td> <td>a </td> <td>o </td></tr> <tr> <td>Long front closed vowel </td> <td>ī </td> <td>i </td></tr> <tr> <td>Long back closed vowel </td> <td>ū </td> <td>y </td></tr> <tr> <td>Long front open vowel (<a href="/wiki/Yat" title="Yat">yat</a>) </td> <td>ē </td> <td>ě </td></tr> <tr> <td>Long back open vowel </td> <td>ā </td> <td>a </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For consistency, all discussions of sounds up to (but not including) Middle Common Slavic use the common Balto-Slavic notation of vowels, while discussions of Middle and Late Common Slavic (the phonology and grammar sections) and later dialects use the Slavic notation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_vowel_and_consonant_diacritics">Other vowel and consonant diacritics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Other vowel and consonant diacritics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other marks used within Balto-Slavic and Slavic linguistics are: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Ha%C4%8Dek" class="mw-redirect" title="Haček">haček</a> on consonants (<i>č š ž</i>), indicating a "hushing" quality <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʃ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʃ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʒ]</span>, as in English <i>kitchen, mission, vision</i>.</li> <li>Various strongly palatal or palatalized consonants (a more "hissing" quality) usually indicated by an acute accent (<i>ć ǵ ḱ ĺ ń ŕ ś ź</i>) or a haček (<i>ď ľ ň ř ť</i>).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ogonek" title="Ogonek">ogonek</a> (<i>ą ę ǫ</i>), indicating vowel <a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasalization</a> (in modern standard Lithuanian this is historic only).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosodic_notation">Prosodic notation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prosodic notation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For Middle and Late Common Slavic, the following marks are used to indicate <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosodic</a> distinctions, based on the standard notation in <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian" title="Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a>: </p> <ul><li>Long rising (<i>á</i>): This indicates the Balto-Slavic acute accent in Middle Common Slavic only.</li> <li>Short rising (<i>à</i>): This indicates the Balto-Slavic acute accent in Late Common Slavic, where it was shortened.</li> <li>Long falling (<i>ȃ</i>): This normally indicates the Balto-Slavic circumflex accent. In Late Common Slavic, it also indicates originally short (falling) accent that was lengthened in monosyllables. This secondary circumflex occurs only on the short vowels <i>e, o, ь, ъ</i> in an <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Open syllable">open syllable</a> (i.e. when not forming part of a <a href="/wiki/Liquid_diphthong" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid diphthong">liquid diphthong</a>).</li> <li>Short falling (<i>ȁ</i>): This indicates the Balto-Slavic short accent. In Late Common Slavic, this accent was lengthened in monosyllables (see preceding entry).</li> <li>Neoacute (<i>ã</i>): This indicates the Late Common Slavic neoacute accent, which was pronounced as a rising accent, usually long but short when occurring on some syllable types in certain languages. This results from retraction of the accent, i.e. the Middle Common Slavic accent fell on the following syllable (usually specifically a weak <a href="/wiki/Yer" title="Yer">yer</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_prosodic_diacritics">Other prosodic diacritics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Other prosodic diacritics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are multiple competing systems used to indicate prosody in different Balto-Slavic languages (see <a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language#Notation" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic language#Notation</a> for more details). The most important for this article are: </p> <ol><li>Three-way system of Proto-Slavic, Proto-Balto-Slavic, modern Lithuanian: Acute tone (<i>á</i>) vs. circumflex tone (<i>ȃ</i> or <i>ã</i>) vs. short accent (<i>à</i>).</li> <li>Four-way Serbo-Croatian system, also used in Slovene and often in Slavic reconstructions: long rising (<i>á</i>), short rising (<i>à</i>), long falling (<i>ȃ</i>), short falling (<i>ȁ</i>). In the <a href="/wiki/Chakavian" title="Chakavian">Chakavian</a> dialect and other archaic dialects, the long rising accent is notated with a tilde (<i>ã</i>), indicating its normal origin in the Late Common Slavic neoacute accent (see above).</li> <li>Length only, as in Czech and Slovak: long (<i>á</i>) vs. short (<i>a</i>).</li> <li>Stress only, as in Russian, Ukrainian and Bulgarian: stressed (<i>á</i>) vs. unstressed (<i>a</i>).</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialectal_differentiation">Dialectal differentiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dialectal differentiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The breakup of Common Slavic was gradual and many sound changes (such as the second regressive palatalization) still propagated throughout what must have been by then a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>. However, several changes were more restricted, or had different outcomes. </p><p>The end of the Common Slavic period occurred with the loss of the <a href="/wiki/Yer" title="Yer">yers</a> (weak high vowels, derived from Proto-Balto-Slavic and ultimately Proto-Indo-European *i and *u). This ended the era of <i>syllabic synharmony</i> (when most, originally all, syllables were <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Open syllable">open</a>) by creating large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Closed_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed syllable">closed syllables</a>. The conditions for which yers were strong and which ones weak is the same across most or all Slavic languages, but the particular outcomes are drastically different. </p><p>The clusters *tl and *dl were lost in all but West Slavic, being normally simplified to *l. Exceptions are some <a href="/wiki/Northern_Russian_dialects" title="Northern Russian dialects">Northern Russian dialects</a> where they instead changed to *kl and *gl respectively (today only traces of this remain)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuraszkiewicz196350_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuraszkiewicz196350-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Gail_Valley_dialect" title="Gail Valley dialect">Gail Valley dialect</a> of Slovene (with traces in other <a href="/wiki/Carinthian_dialect_group" title="Carinthian dialect group">Carinthian dialects</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESławski196240_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESławski196240-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For many Common Slavic dialects—including most of West Slavic, all but the northernmost portions of East Slavic, and some western parts of South Slavic—Proto-Slavic <span title="Slavic languages collective text">*<i lang="sla">g</i></span> <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenited</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">voiced velar plosive</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">voiced velar fricative</a> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span>). This remains in some modern languages: for example, Czech <i lang="cs"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hlava#Czech" class="extiw" title="wikt:hlava">hlava</a></i> <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a9\/Cs-hlava.ogg\/Cs-hlava.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">\/\u0266lava\/<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Cs-hlava.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a9/Cs-hlava.ogg/Cs-hlava.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɦlava/</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Cs-hlava.ogg" title="File:Cs-hlava.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>, Belarusian <span lang="be"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0#Belarusian" class="extiw" title="wikt:галава">галава́</a></span> <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/c\/c0\/Be-%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0.ogg\/Be-%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">\/\u0263ala\u02c8va\/<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Be-\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0430.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c0/Be-%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0.ogg/Be-%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣalaˈva/</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Be-%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0.ogg" title="File:Be-галава.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>, Ukrainian <span lang="uk"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0#Ukrainian" class="extiw" title="wikt:голова">голова́</a></span> <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/1\/10\/Uk-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0.ogg\/Uk-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">\/\u0266olo\u02c8wa\/<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Uk-\u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/10/Uk-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0.ogg/Uk-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɦoloˈwa/</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Uk-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0.ogg" title="File:Uk-голова.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>, which developed from Proto-Slavic <i lang="sla-pro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/golva#Proto-Slavic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/golva">*golvà</a></i>. Because this change was not universal and because it did not occur for a number of East Slavic dialects (such as Belarusian and South Russian) until after the application of <a href="/wiki/Havl%C3%ADk%27s_law" title="Havlík's law">Havlík's law</a>, <a href="#CITEREFShevelov1977">Shevelov (1977)</a> calls into question early projections of this change and postulates three independent instigations of lenition, dating the earliest to before 900 CE and the latest to the early thirteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview_of_languages">Overview of languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Overview of languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_the_Slavic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/History of the Slavic languages">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Slavic languages are generally divided into East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic. For most comparative purposes, however, South Slavic does not function as a unit. Bulgarian and Macedonian, while quite similar to each other, are radically different from the other South Slavic languages in phonology and grammar. The phonology of Bulgarian and Macedonian is similar to East Slavic rather than their nearest Slavic neighbor Serbo-Croatian<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> (suggesting an early East–West divide across the whole Slavic territory<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, before South Slavic was separated from the rest of the Slavic languages by the spread of Hungarian and Romanian). In grammar, Bulgarian and Macedonian have developed distinctly from all other Slavic languages, eliminating nearly all case distinctions (strongly preserved elsewhere), but preserving and even strengthening the older Indo-European<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> aspectual system consisting of synthetic aorist and imperfect tenses (largely eliminated elsewhere in favor of the new Slavic aspectual system). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a> (OCS) data are especially important for the reconstruction of Late Common Slavic (LCS). The major exception is LCS accent, which can only be reconstructed from modern Slavic dialects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palatalization">Palatalization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Palatalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At least six separate sound changes involving palatalization can be identified in the history of the Slavic languages: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Satemization" class="mw-redirect" title="Satemization">Satemization</a>, which converted <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> (PIE) front velars *ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵh into Balto-Slavic *ś, *ź, *ź, and further into Slavic *s, *z, *z.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Slavic_first_palatalization" title="Slavic first palatalization">first regressive palatalization of velars</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Slavic_second_palatalization" title="Slavic second palatalization">second regressive palatalization of velars</a>.</li> <li>The progressive palatalization of velars.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iotation" title="Iotation">Iotation</a>, which palatalized all consonants before *j.</li> <li>General palatalization of all consonants before front vowels (not in all languages).</li></ol> <p>The first palatalization (satemization) is reflected in all Balto-Slavic languages, while the rest are represented in nearly all Slavic languages. (The <a href="/wiki/Old_Novgorod_dialect" title="Old Novgorod dialect">Old Novgorod dialect</a> did not undergo the second regressive palatalization, and underwent the progressive palatalization only partly.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Velar_palatalization_outcomes">Velar palatalization outcomes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Velar palatalization outcomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The outcome of the first regressive palatalization is uniform across all Slavic languages, showing that it happened fairly early. The outcome of the second regressive palatalization shows more variety. It is possible, however, that this is a later development. Many authors reconstruct a uniform outcome *ś,<sup id="cite_ref-Kortlandt_1994_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kortlandt_1994-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Derksen_2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Derksen_2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which only later resolves into <span title="Slavic languages collective text">*<i lang="sla">s</i></span> or <span title="Slavic languages collective text">*<i lang="sla">š</i></span>. (According to Aleksandar Belić, the phonetic character of the palatalizations was uniform throughout Common Slavic and West Slavic languages developed <span title="Slavic languages collective text">*<i lang="sla">š</i></span> later on by <a href="/wiki/Analogy#Linguistics" title="Analogy">analogy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) In all dialects (except for Lechitic), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dz]</span> was deaffricated to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span>, but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dz]</span> is still found in a few of the earlier Old Church Slavonic texts, where it is represented by the special letter <a href="/wiki/Dze" title="Dze">Dze (Ѕ)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Channon_1972_9_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Channon_1972_9-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following table illustrates the differences between the different dialects as far as phonetic realization of the three velar palatalizations: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3">1st regressive </th> <th colspan="3">2nd regressive,<br /> Progressive </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Pre-Slavic </th> <th>k </th> <th>g </th> <th>x </th> <th>k </th> <th>g </th> <th>x </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Common Slavic </th> <th>č </th> <th>ž </th> <th>š </th> <th>c </th> <th>dz </th> <th>ś </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/East_Slavic_languages" title="East Slavic languages">East Slavic</a> </th> <td rowspan="4">č</td> <td rowspan="4">ž</td> <td rowspan="4">š</td> <td rowspan="4">c</td> <td rowspan="2">z</td> <td rowspan="2">s </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lechitic_languages" title="Lechitic languages">Lechitic</a> </th> <td>dz</td> <td rowspan="2">š </td></tr> <tr> <th>Other </th> <td>z </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some dialects (in particular South Slavic), allowed the second regressive palatalization to occur across an intervening <span title="Slavic languages collective text">*<i lang="sla">v</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Channon_1972_9_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Channon_1972_9-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Early Common Slavic <span title="Slavic languages collective text">*<i lang="sla">gvaizdā</i></span> "star", which developed into Middle-Late Common Slavic <i lang="sla-pro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/gv%C4%9Bzda#Proto-Slavic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/gvězda">*gvězda</a></i>: </p> <ul><li>palatalized: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:звезда">звезда</a></span> <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-4" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/b\/bc\/Ru-%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.ogg\/Ru-%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[zv\u02b2\u026a\u02c8zda]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ru-\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/bc/Ru-%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.ogg/Ru-%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[zvʲɪˈzda]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ru-%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0.ogg" title="File:Ru-звезда.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a>: <i lang="sl"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zvezda#Slovene" class="extiw" title="wikt:zvezda">zvézda</a></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈzʋèːzda]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbo-Croatian language">Serbo-Croatian</a>: <i lang="sh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zvijezda#Serbo-Croatian" class="extiw" title="wikt:zvijezda">zvijezda</a></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈzʋiěːzda]</span> / <i lang="sh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zvezda#Serbo-Croatian" class="extiw" title="wikt:zvezda">zvézda</a></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈzʋěːzda]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>: <span lang="bg"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0#Bulgarian" class="extiw" title="wikt:звезда">звезда</a></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[zvɛzˈda]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a>: <span lang="mk"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%95%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0#Macedonian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ѕвезда">ѕвезда</a></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈdzvɛzda]</span></li></ul></li> <li>unpalatalized: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: <i lang="pl"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gwiazda#Polish" class="extiw" title="wikt:gwiazda">gwiazda</a></i> <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-5" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a1\/Pl-gwiazda.ogg\/Pl-gwiazda.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[\u02c8\u0261v\u02b2azda]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pl-gwiazda.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a1/Pl-gwiazda.ogg/Pl-gwiazda.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɡvʲazda]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Pl-gwiazda.ogg" title="File:Pl-gwiazda.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hv%C4%9Bzda#Czech" class="extiw" title="wikt:hvězda">hvězda</a></i> <span class="nounderlines nowrap"><span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-6" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/1\/12\/Cs-hv%C4%9Bzda.ogg\/Cs-hv%C4%9Bzda.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<span class=\"IPA nowrap\" lang=\"und-Latn-fonipa\" title=\"Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)\">[\u02c8\u0266vjezda]<\/span>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Cs-hv\u011bzda.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/Cs-hv%C4%9Bzda.ogg/Cs-hv%C4%9Bzda.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɦvjezda]</span></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Cs-hv%C4%9Bzda.ogg" title="File:Cs-hvězda.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iotation_outcomes">Iotation outcomes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Iotation outcomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The outcomes of most cases of iotation are the same in all Slavic languages; for the chart of outcomes, see <a href="/wiki/Iotation#Sound_change" title="Iotation">Iotation#Sound change</a>. </p><p>The phonemes *ť (from earlier *tj and *gt/kt) and *ď (from earlier *dj) generally merged into various other phonemes in the various Slavic languages, but they merged with different ones in each, showing that this was still a separate phoneme in Proto-Slavic. Compare: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Proto-Slavic </th> <th>OCS </th> <th>Bulg. </th> <th>Mac. </th> <th>S-C </th> <th>Slvn. </th> <th>Czech </th> <th>Slvk. </th> <th>Pol. </th> <th>Bel. </th> <th>Ukr. </th> <th>Rusyn </th> <th>Russ. </th></tr> <tr> <th>Written </th> <td>*ť</td> <td>št</td> <td>št</td> <td>ḱ</td> <td>ć</td> <td>č</td> <td>c</td> <td>c</td> <td>c</td> <td>č</td> <td>č</td> <td>č</td> <td>č </td></tr> <tr> <th>IPA </th> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">c(ː)</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʃt</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʃt</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">c</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡ɕ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡ʃ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡s</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡s</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡s</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡ʃ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡ʃ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡ɕ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡ɕ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Written </th> <td>*ď</td> <td>žd</td> <td>žd</td> <td>ǵ</td> <td>đ</td> <td>j</td> <td>z</td> <td>dz</td> <td>dz</td> <td>ž</td> <td>ž</td> <td>ž</td> <td>ž </td></tr> <tr> <th>IPA </th> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɟ(ː)</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʒd</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʒd</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɟ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡ʑ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">j</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">z</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡z</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d͡z</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʒ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʒ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʒ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʐ</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The exact pronunciation of *ť and *ď in Proto-Slavic is unclear, but they may have sounded as geminate palatal stops <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/cː/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɟː/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunt_2001_187–188_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunt_2001_187–188-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The OCS and Bulgarian outcome is somewhat unusual as it is not an affricate but rather a fricative followed by a stop, having undergone metathesis. In Macedonian, the outcome is non-sibilant. </p><p>In Proto-Slavic, iotated *ľ *ň *ř contrasted with non-iotated *l *n *r, including before front vowels. This distinction was still apparent in Old Church Slavonic, although they aren't always consistently marked (least for *ř, which may have already been merging with *r' at the time the Old Church Slavonic manuscripts were written or copied). In Southwest Slavic (modern Serbo-Croatian and Slovene), this contrast remains to this day. In the other Slavic variants, however, regular *l *n *r developed palatalised variants before front vowels, and these merged with the existing iotated *ľ *ň *ř. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="General_palatalization">General palatalization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: General palatalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_the_Slavic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/History of the Slavic languages">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In most languages (but not Serbo-Croatian or Slovene), a general palatalization of consonants before front vowels (including the front yer ь), as well as of *r in *ьr, occurred at the end of the Common Slavic period, shortly before the loss of weak yers. The loss of the weak yers made these sounds phonemic, nearly doubling the number of phonemes present. The already palatal or palatalized sounds — the outcomes of the velar palatalizations and iotation — were unchanged. Newly palatalized sounds *l' *n' *r' merged with palatal *ľ *ň *ř from iotation. However, newly palatalized *t' *d' *s' *z' did not usually merge with existing *ť *ď (from iotation) or *č *š *(d)ž (from the first palatalization of velars). </p><p>The new sounds were later depalatalized to varying degrees in all Slavic languages, merging back into the corresponding non-palatal sound. This has happened the least in Russian and Polish: before another consonant, except for l', which was always preserved, as in сколько <i>skol'ko</i> "how many", and dentals before labials, as in тьма <i>t'ma</i> / ćma "darkness", and before a pause for labials. r' was depalatalized early before dentals, as in чёрт <i>čort</i> / czart "devil", but otherwise has been preserved in Polish and in many Russian dialects, as well as for some older standard speakers, who pronounce верх as <i>ver'h</i> (cf. Polish wierzch). In many cases palatalization was analogically restored later, particularly in Russian. Russian has also introduced an unusual four-way distinction between non-palatal <i>C</i>, palatal <i>C',</i> the sequence <i>C'j</i> of palatal + <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> (from Common Slavic *Cьj with weak ь), and the sequence <i>Cj</i> of non-palatal + <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> (only across a clear morpheme boundary, when a prefix is followed by a morpheme-initial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>); however, only dentals show a clear contrast before <i>j</i>. </p><p>Czech underwent a general depalatalization in the 13th century. It might be argued that Czech never underwent palatalization at all in most cases, but the Czech sound <i>ř</i> (an unusual <a href="/wiki/Fricative_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative trill">fricative trill</a>) is found everywhere that *r followed by a front vowel is reconstructed in Late Common Slavic. This suggests that former *r' escaped depalatalization because it had evolved into a new sound — no longer paired with a corresponding non-palatal sound — by the time that depalatalization occurred. </p><p>The same thing happened more broadly in Polish — paired palatalized sounds occur only before vowels, but original *r' *l' *t' *d' *s' *z' are reflected differently from *r *l *t *d *s *z even word-finally and before consonants, because all six pairs had diverged by the time any depalatalization occurred. *r' evolved as in Czech, later becoming <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʐ/</span>, but still written <i>rz</i>. *t' *d' *s' *z' evolved into <a href="/wiki/Alveolopalatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolopalatal">alveolopalatal</a> consonants; and in the case of *l', non-palatal *l evolved into a back velar <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɫ/</span> and then further into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span>, still written <i>ł</i>. </p><p>In Bulgarian, distinctively palatalized consonants are found only before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a<span class="wrap"> </span>o<span class="wrap"> </span>u/</span>. Velars are allophonically palatalized before front vowels in standard Bulgarian; the same thing happens to all consonants in Eastern Bulgarian. </p><p>Palatalization triggered a general merger of Common Slavic *y and *i. In East Slavic and Polish, the two sounds became allophones, with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɨ]</span> occurring after non-palatal sounds and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> after palatal or palatalized sounds. In Czech, Slovak and South Slavic, the two sounds merged entirely (although in Czech, *i triggered palatalization of <i>t d n</i> prior to the merger, and in Slovak, it triggered palatalization of <i>t d n l</i>). </p><p>Researchers differ in whether the paired palatalized consonants should be analyzed as separate phonemes. Almost all analyses of Russian posit phonemic palatalized consonants due to their occurrence word-finally and before consonants, and due to the phonemic distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/C'/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/C'j/</span>. In Polish and Bulgarian, however, many researchers treat some or all paired palatalized consonants as underlying sequences of non-palatal consonant + <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>. Researchers who do this in Polish also generally treat the sounds <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɨ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> as separate phonemes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_yers_ь_and_ъ"><span id="The_yers_.D1.8C_and_.D1.8A"></span>The yers ь and ъ</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The yers ь and ъ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Strong_vs._weak_yers">Strong vs. weak yers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Strong vs. weak yers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The two vowels ь and ъ, known as (front and back) <i><a href="/wiki/Yer" title="Yer">yer</a></i>, were originally pronounced as short high vowels. During the late Proto-Slavic period, a pattern emerged in these vowels which characterised a yer as either "strong" or "weak". This change is known as <a href="/wiki/Havl%C3%ADk%27s_law" title="Havlík's law">Havlík's law</a>. A yer at the end of a word, or preceding a strong yer or non-yer vowel was weak, and a yer followed by a weak yer became strong. The pattern created sequences of alternating strong and weak yers within each word: in a sequence of yers, every odd yer encountered was weak, every even yer was strong. </p><p>The name *sъmolьnьskъ (the Russian city of <a href="/wiki/Smolensk" title="Smolensk">Smolensk</a>) is shown here as an example, with strong yers in <b>bold</b> and weak yers in <i>italics</i>. </p> <ul><li>Nominative singular: *s<i>ъ</i>mol<i>ь</i>n<b>ь</b>sk<i>ъ</i></li> <li>Genitive singular: *s<i>ъ</i>mol<b>ь</b>n<i>ь</i>ska</li></ul> <p>During the time immediately following the Common Slavic period, weak yers were gradually deleted. A deleted front yer ь often left palatalization of the preceding consonant as a trace. Strong yers underwent lowering and became mid vowels, but the outcomes differ somewhat across the various Slavic languages. Slovene in particular retains a distinct outcome that did not merge with any other vowels, albeit originally only in unstressed syllables, and Bulgarian has an outcome that merged only with nasal ǫ. </p><p>Compare:<sup id="cite_ref-Sussex_2006_113_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sussex_2006_113-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Slavic </th> <th>OCS </th> <th>Bulg. </th> <th>Mac. </th> <th>S-C </th> <th>Slvn. </th> <th>Czech </th> <th>Slvk. </th> <th>Pol. </th> <th>USorb </th> <th>LSorb </th> <th>Bel. </th> <th>Russ. </th> <th>Ukr. </th></tr> <tr> <td>strong *ь</td> <td>ь</td> <td>e, ă</td> <td>e</td> <td>a</td> <td>ǝ,a</td> <td>e</td> <td>e (a,á,o)</td> <td>'e</td> <td>e</td> <td>e</td> <td>'e</td> <td>'e</td> <td>e </td></tr> <tr> <td>strong *ъ</td> <td>ъ</td> <td>ă</td> <td>o</td> <td>a</td> <td>ǝ,a</td> <td>e</td> <td>o (e,a,á)</td> <td>e</td> <td>e</td> <td>e</td> <td>o</td> <td>o</td> <td>o </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>An apostrophe indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant.</li> <li>The front and back strong yers merged in Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Czech and Upper and Lower Sorbian.</li> <li>In Slovene, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> arose from this merged result when stressed, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> otherwise. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> was later often replaced by <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> analogically.</li> <li>In Central (standard) Slovak, the normal outcomes of *ь *ъ are <i>e o</i>, but various other sounds often appear, unpredictably. In East and West Slovak dialects, both yers merge and become <i>e</i>, as in Czech.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples">Examples</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Examples (nom. and gen. sg. given except as indicated)<sup id="cite_ref-Sussex_2006_113_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sussex_2006_113-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <td>"dog" </td> <td>"day" </td> <td>"dream" </td> <td>"moss" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Middle Proto-Slavic </th> <td>*pьsь̏ ~ *pьsá </td> <td>*dь̏nь ~ *dь̏ne </td> <td>*sъnъ̏ ~ *sъná </td> <td>*mъ̏xъ/mъxъ̏ ~ *mъxá/mъ̏xa </td></tr> <tr> <th>Late Proto-Slavic </th> <td>*pь̃sь ~ *pьsà </td> <td>*dь̑nь ~ *dьnȅ </td> <td>*sъ̃nъ ~ *sъnà </td> <td>*mъ̂xъ/mъ̃xъ ~ *mъxà/*mъxȁ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Bulgarian </th> <td>pes ~ pséta, pésove (pl.) </td> <td>den ~ déna, dni (pl.) </td> <td>săn ~ sắništa (pl.) </td> <td>măx ~ mắxa, mắxove (pl.) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Serbo-Croatian </th> <td>pȁs ~ psȁ </td> <td>dȃn ~ dȃna </td> <td>sȁn ~ snȁ </td> <td>mȃh ~ mȁha </td></tr> <tr> <th>Slovene </th> <td>pǝ̀s ~ psà </td> <td>dȃn ~ dnẹ̑/dnẹ̑va </td> <td>sǝ̀n ~ snà </td> <td>mȃh ~ mȃha/mahȗ; mèh ~ méha </td></tr> <tr> <th>Macedonian </th> <td>pes ~ <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">pl.</a> pci, pcišta </td> <td>den ~ <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">pl.</a> denovi, dni </td> <td>son ~ <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">pl.</a> soništa, sništa </td> <td>mov (<a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">uncount. n.</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Russian </th> <td>p'os (< p'es) ~ psa </td> <td>d'en' ~ dn'a </td> <td>son ~ sna </td> <td>mox ~ mxa/móxa </td></tr> <tr> <th>Czech </th> <td>pes ~ psa </td> <td>den ~ dne </td> <td>sen ~ snu </td> <td>mech ~ mechu </td></tr> <tr> <th>Slovak </th> <td>pes ~ psa </td> <td>deň ~ dňa </td> <td>sen ~ sna </td> <td>mach ~ machu </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ukrainian </th> <td>pes ~ psa </td> <td>den' ~ dn'a </td> <td>son ~ snu </td> <td>moh ~ mohu </td></tr> <tr> <th>Polish </th> <td>pies ~ psa </td> <td>dzień ~ dnia </td> <td>sen ~ snu </td> <td>mech ~ mchu </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Clusters_and_fill_vowels">Clusters and fill vowels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Clusters and fill vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Deletion of weak yers created many new closed syllables as well as many of the unusual consonant clusters that characterize the Slavic languages today. Many cases of "spurious vowels" also appeared because a yer had been weak in one form of a word but strong in another, causing it to disappear in some forms of the word but not others. For example, the word for "dog" was *p<b>ь</b>s<i>ъ</i> in the nominative singular, but *p<i>ь</i>sa in the genitive singular, with differing patterns of strong and weak yers. Following the deletion of weak yers and lowering of strong yers, this resulted in nominative Czech <i>pes</i>, Polish <i>pies</i>, Serbo-Croatian <i>pas</i>, but genitive <i>psa</i> (in all three). </p><p>In some cases, however, deletion of weak yers would lead to an awkward consonant cluster such as word-initial <i>rt-</i>, <i>ln-</i> or <i>mx-</i> (as in the example of *mъxъ "moss" above), with a <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a> consonant on the outside of the cluster, a violation of the principle of rising sonority. These clusters were handled in various ways:<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Allow them to exist unchanged. This happened especially in Russian and Polish.</li> <li>Convert the weak yer into a strong one, thereby breaking up the consonant cluster. This happened most consistently in Serbo-Croatian.</li> <li>Convert the sonorant into a syllabic sonorant. This happened with initial <i>r</i> in Serbo-Croatian and Macedonian.</li> <li>Insert a prothetic vowel before the cluster. This happened in some dialects of Belarusian, e.g. <i>lënu ~ l'nu ~ il'nú</i> "flax (gen. sg.)" (Common Slavic *lьnu).</li></ul> <p>A similar problem occurred with awkward word-final clusters such as <i>-tr</i>, <i>-gn</i> or <i>-sm</i>. These originated from words like *větrъ "wind" or *ognь "fire", where the cluster occurred syllable-initially and there was no sonority violation. Again various outcomes are found in different languages, largely parallel to the above outcomes for word-initial clusters. In this case, when a cluster needed to be broken up, a strong yer was inserted as a <i>fill vowel</i> between the two consonants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tense_yers">Tense yers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tense yers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yers before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> are known as <i>tense yers</i> and were handled specially. In languages other than Russian, they were sometimes raised, with *ьj *ъj becoming *ij *yj regardless of position. In Russian, the opposite sometimes happened, with *ij *yj sometimes lowering to *ьj *ъj, subsequently evolving normally as strong or weak yers. In languages other than Russian, resulting sequences of *ijV or *yjV may contract to a single vowel (especially in Czech). The outcomes are not consistent and depend on various factors. For example, *ъj in long adjectives becomes contracted <i>í</i> in Czech, but stressed <i>oj</i>, unstressed <i>yj</i> (<i>ăj</i> in the old literary pronunciation and some dialects) in Russian. </p><p>In Russian, when the yer in *ьj was weak, the result was a sequence of palatal consonant + <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, which remained distinct from regular palatal consonants. In other languages, either the sequence compressed into a single palatal consonant or the palatal consonant was depalatalized. E.g. from Common Slavic *ustьje "estuary", when the yer was treated as weak the result is Russian <i>úst'e</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈustʲje]</span>, Polish <i>ujście</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ujɕtɕe]</span>, Slovene <i>ûstje</i>; when treated as strong, the result is Czech <i>ústí</i> (with contraction of *ije), Bulgarian <i>ústie</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈustie]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_liquid_diphthongs">The liquid diphthongs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The liquid diphthongs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavic_liquid_metathesis_and_pleophony" title="Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony">Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony</a></div> <p>Proto-Slavic had eliminated most diphthongs creating either long monophthongs or nasal vowels. But it still possessed sequences of a short vowel followed by *l or *r and another consonant, the so-called "liquid diphthongs". These sequences went counter to the law of open syllables and were eliminated by the end of the Proto-Slavic period, but differently in each dialect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mid_vowels">Mid vowels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mid vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The situation for the mid vowels *e and *o is relatively straightforward. The South Slavic dialects used <a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a>: the liquid and vowel switched places, and the vowels were lengthened to *ě and *a respectively. The East Slavic languages instead underwent a process known as <a href="/wiki/Pleophony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleophony">pleophony</a>: a copy of the vowel before the liquid consonant was inserted after it. However, *el became *olo rather than *ele. The situation in West Slavic is more mixed. Czech and Slovak follow the South Slavic pattern and have metathesis with lengthening. Polish and Sorbian underwent metathesis but without any lengthening, and the northwestern Lechitic languages (<a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_language" title="Pomeranian language">Pomeranian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovincian_language" title="Slovincian language">Slovincian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polabian_language" title="Polabian language">Polabian</a>) retained *or without any metathesis at all. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Slavic </th> <th>OCS </th> <th>Bulg. </th> <th>Mac. </th> <th>S-C </th> <th>Slvn. </th> <th>Czech </th> <th>Slvk. </th> <th>Pol. </th> <th>Kash. </th> <th>Bel. </th> <th>Russ. </th> <th>Ukr. </th></tr> <tr> <td>*el</td> <td>lě</td> <td>le/lja</td> <td>le</td> <td>lije/le/li</td> <td>le</td> <td>le</td> <td>lie</td> <td>le</td> <td>le</td> <td rowspan="2">olo</td> <td rowspan="2">olo</td> <td rowspan="2">olo, oli </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ol</td> <td>la</td> <td>la</td> <td>la</td> <td>la</td> <td>la</td> <td>la</td> <td>la</td> <td>ło</td> <td>ło </td></tr> <tr> <td>*er</td> <td>rě</td> <td>re/rja</td> <td>re</td> <td>rije/re/ri</td> <td>re</td> <td>ře</td> <td>rie</td> <td>rze</td> <td>rze</td> <td>ere</td> <td>ere</td> <td>ere </td></tr> <tr> <td>*or</td> <td>ra</td> <td>ra</td> <td>ra</td> <td>ra</td> <td>ra</td> <td>ra</td> <td>ra</td> <td>ro</td> <td>ar</td> <td>oro</td> <td>oro</td> <td>oro, ori </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>The variants <i>le/lja, re/rja</i> in Bulgarian, and <i>lije/le/li, rije/re/ri</i> in Serbo-Croatian, are dialectal differences.</li> <li>The variants <i>oli, ori</i> in Ukrainian are due to a sound change <i>*ō</i> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>, where <i>*o</i> was lengthened before a lost <a href="/wiki/Yer" title="Yer">yer</a> under certain accentual conditions.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="High_vowels">High vowels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: High vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The evolution of the liquid diphthongs with high vowels in the various daughter languages is more diverse. In some West Slavic and South Slavic languages, syllabic sonorants appear, and in others (e.g. Polish), either vowel-consonant or consonant-vowel sequences appear depending on the context, which is most easily derived by assuming an earlier stage with syllabic sonorants (with the former occurrence of ь or ъ transferred into palatalization or lack thereof). East Slavic, however, consistently has vowel-consonant sequences with <i>e</i> or <i>o</i> as the vowel, which can be easily derived by assuming that the liquid diphthongs continued unchanged until the changes involving yers (assuming that the yers in these sequences were always treated as if strong). </p><p>As a result, there is a divergence of opinion, with some scholars assuming that the high-vowel liquid diphthongs evolved into syllabic sonorants early in the Common Slavic period (even before the metathesis of the mid-vowel liquid diphthongs), while others assume that the change to syllabic sonorants was one of the last changes in the Common Slavic period and did not occur at all in many languages (e.g. East Slavic). </p><p>Old Church Slavonic writes these as *lь, *lъ, *rь, *rъ, as if metathesis had occurred. However, various internal evidence indicates that these behaved differently from original Proto-Slavic *lь, *lъ, *rь, *rъ, and hence were probably actually pronounced as syllabic sonorants. (This is also consistent with evidence from later languages.) In the manuscripts, only a single vowel is found in this position, usually *ъ but also consistently *ь in a few manuscripts. This appears to indicate that the palatal(ized) syllabic sonorants had merged into the non-palatal ones.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The syllabic sonorants are retained unchanged in Czech and Slovak. In Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovene, syllabic r is retained but an epenthetic vowel was inserted before syllabic l. Bulgarian inserted an epenthetic ǎ before both. Serbo-Croatian also underwent <a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">l-vocalization</a>. </p><p>East Slavic reflects original *ьr and *ъr as <i>er</i> and <i>or</i> respectively, but merges *ьl and *ъl as <i>ol</i> (Proto-Slavic *<i>vьlna</i> > East Slavic <span lang="orv"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0#Old_East_Slavic" class="extiw" title="wikt:вълна">вълна</a></span> > Russian <i>волна</i>), similarly to the merger of *el and *ol as <i>olo</i>. <a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization"><i>L</i>-vocalization</a> later occurred in Belarusian and Ukrainian: for example, Proto-Slavic <i><span title="Slavic languages collective text">*<span lang="sla">vь̑lkъ</span></span></i> > Old East Slavic <span title="Old East Slavic-language text"><span lang="orv">вълкъ</span></span> > Ukrainian <span lang="uk"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BA#Ukrainian" class="extiw" title="wikt:вовк">вовк</a></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wowk/</span>, Belarusian <span lang="be"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%BA#Belarusian" class="extiw" title="wikt:воўк">воўк</a></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vowk/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_nasal_vowels_ę_and_ǫ"><span id="The_nasal_vowels_.C4.99_and_.C7.AB"></span>The nasal vowels ę and ǫ</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The nasal vowels ę and ǫ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bulgarian_dialect_map-yus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bulgarian_dialect_map-yus.png/220px-Bulgarian_dialect_map-yus.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bulgarian_dialect_map-yus.png/330px-Bulgarian_dialect_map-yus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bulgarian_dialect_map-yus.png/440px-Bulgarian_dialect_map-yus.png 2x" data-file-width="1889" data-file-height="1404" /></a><figcaption>Main outcomes of the ǫ vowel in Eastern South Slavic dialects</figcaption></figure> <p>Nasal vowels were initially retained in most Slavic dialects, but soon underwent further changes. Nasality is preserved in modern Polish, as well as in some peripheral dialects of <a href="/wiki/Slovene_dialects" title="Slovene dialects">Slovene</a> (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Carinthian_dialect_group" title="Carinthian dialect group">Carinthian dialect group</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_dialects" title="Bulgarian dialects">Bulgarian</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Macedonian" title="Dialects of Macedonian">Macedonian</a> (e.g. around <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kastoria" title="Kastoria">Kastoria</a>). In other Slavic languages, however, the nasal vowels lost their nasality and merged with other vowels. The outcomes are as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Slavic </th> <th>OCS </th> <th>Bulg. </th> <th>Mac. </th> <th>S-C </th> <th>Slvn. </th> <th>Czech </th> <th>Slvk. </th> <th>Pol. </th> <th>Bel. </th> <th>Russ. </th> <th>Ukr. </th></tr> <tr> <td>*ę</td> <td>ę</td> <td rowspan="2">e</td> <td rowspan="2">ja, e</td> <td>e</td> <td rowspan="2">ẹ̄</td> <td>a, ě</td> <td>a, ä</td> <td>ię</td> <td rowspan="2">ja</td> <td rowspan="2">ja</td> <td rowspan="2">ja </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ę̄</td> <td>ę̄</td> <td>ē</td> <td>á, í</td> <td>ia</td> <td>ią </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ǫ</td> <td>ǫ</td> <td rowspan="2">ǎ</td> <td rowspan="2">ja, a</td> <td>u</td> <td rowspan="2">ọ̄</td> <td>u</td> <td>u</td> <td>ę</td> <td rowspan="2">u</td> <td rowspan="2">u</td> <td rowspan="2">u </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ǭ</td> <td>ǭ</td> <td>ū</td> <td>ou</td> <td>ú</td> <td>ą </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>Long and short nasal vowels developed primarily from accentual differences. The neoacute accent always produced long vowels, but the outcome of the other accents (circumflex and old acute) depended on the dialect. See above for more details.</li> <li>The two outcomes listed in Czech occurred in hard and soft environments, respectively. "Hard environment" means preceding a hard (neither palatal nor palatalized) alveolar consonant.</li> <li>In Slovak, short *ę > <i>ä</i> after labials, else <i>a</i>.</li> <li>In Polish, original *ę and *ǫ can only be distinguished because the former palatalized the preceding consonant.</li> <li>The two outcomes listed in Macedonian occurred in initial and non-initial environments, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_yat_vowel_ě"><span id="The_yat_vowel_.C4.9B"></span>The yat vowel ě</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: The yat vowel ě"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bgmap_yat.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Bgmap_yat.png/220px-Bgmap_yat.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Bgmap_yat.png/330px-Bgmap_yat.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Bgmap_yat.png/440px-Bgmap_yat.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="681" /></a><figcaption>Yat border</figcaption></figure> <p>The phonetic realization of *ě was also subject to phonetic variation across different dialects. In Early Proto-Slavic, *ě was originally distinguished from *e primarily by length. Later on, it appears that initially it was lowered to a low-front vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[æ]</span> and then diphthongized to something like <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iæ]</span>. This is still reflected as <i>ia</i> or <i>ja</i> (i.e. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> with palatalization of the previous consonant) in certain contexts before hard consonants in Bulgarian and Polish; but in most areas it was raised to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ie]</span>. This generally proceeded further in one of three directions: </p> <ol><li>Remain as a diphthong.</li> <li>Simplify to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span>.</li> <li>Simplify to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span>.</li></ol> <p>All three possibilities are found as variants within the Serbo-Croatian area, respectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Ijekavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ijekavian">ijekavian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ekavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekavian">ekavian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ikavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ikavian">ikavian</a> dialects. An ijekavian dialect served as the basis of almost all the literary Serbo-Croatian forms (all except literary Serbian as used specifically within Serbia itself, which is ekavian). These dialects have short <i>je</i>, long <i>ije</i> (often pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jeː]</span>). The ijekavian dialects of Serbo-Croatian are in fact the only Slavic languages that consistently preserve a reflex of *ě distinct from all other Common Slavic sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Elsewhere, at most only some cases of *ě, e.g. those in stressed syllables, have a distinct reflex.) </p><p>In cases where the reflex has remained as a diphthong, it has most commonly developed to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[je]</span>, often followed by merger of the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span> with a previous consonant to form a palatal or palatalized consonant. In Czech, for example, the reflex of *ě is sometimes still spelled <i>ě</i>, but this in fact indicates <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[je]</span> after labials, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span> after <i>t d n</i>, which become pronounced as palatal sounds <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[c<span class="wrap"> </span>ɟ<span class="wrap"> </span>ɲ]</span>; in other cases the reflex is simply <i>e</i>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Old_Russian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Russian">Old Russian</a>, the reflex of *ě simplified to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span>, but this did not cause a merger with *e in stressed syllables, which was pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛ]</span>. Later, this <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛ/</span> (also including reflexes of the strong front yer) changed into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/jo/</span> (i.e. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> with palatalization of the preceding consonant) when not followed by a palatalized consonant: cf. modern Russian лёд <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lʲod/</span> 'ice' (loans from Church Slavonic do not display this change: небо "sky", крест "cross", перст "finger" in elevated style).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result of the sound change may be expressed in the present-day spelling by means of a diaeresis over the letter <i>e</i> (<i>ё</i>), but generally isn't. In contrast, the sound change did not affect the reflex of original <i>yat</i>, which continued to be pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span>, eventually merging with the surviving unaffected instances of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛ/</span> as late as the 1700s (seen, respectively, in the words хлеб <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xlʲeb/</span> 'bread' and печь <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pʲet͡ɕ/</span> 'oven').<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Original <i>yat</i> continued to be represented distinctly from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> resulting from other sources in spelling until the <a href="/wiki/Reforms_of_Russian_orthography" title="Reforms of Russian orthography">spelling reforms of 1918</a>, and is still distinguished in some <a href="/wiki/Northern_Russian" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Russian">Northern Russian</a> dialects. </p><p>Similarly, in Ukrainian, the reflex of *ě simplified to <i>i</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span>, but this did not cause a merger with either *e or *i in stressed syllables, because both sounds developed to a phoneme <i>y</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ]</span>. (However, in some instances, former *o is also reflected as <i>i</i>.) </p><p>The following table shows the development of *ě in various languages: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Slavic </th> <th>OCS </th> <th>Bulg. </th> <th>Mac. </th> <th>S-C </th> <th>Slvn. </th> <th>Czech </th> <th>Slvk. </th> <th>Pol. </th> <th>Bel. </th> <th>Russ. </th> <th>Ukr. </th></tr> <tr> <td>*ě</td> <td>ě</td> <td>ja/e</td> <td>e</td> <td>(i)je, e, i</td> <td>е</td> <td>ě</td> <td>(i)e</td> <td>ie, ia</td> <td>e</td> <td>e</td> <td>i </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Bulgarian (apart from the Western Bulgarian dialects) has <i>ja</i> only when stressed and before a (formerly) hard consonant, <i>e</i> otherwise (e.g. *tělo "body" produces singular тя́ло <i>tjálo</i> and plural тела́ <i>telá</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Macedonian (and the Western Bulgarian dialects) has only <i>e</i>. The reflex between the Bulgarian and Macedonian versions forms an important <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isogloss</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Yat#Bulgarian" title="Yat">jat' border</a>, running approximately from <a href="/wiki/Nikopol,_Bulgaria" title="Nikopol, Bulgaria">Nikopol</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> to Solun (<a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a>) on the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>.</li> <li>Serbo-Croatian shows great dialectal diversity; see above.</li> <li>Polish has <i>ia</i> before a (formerly) hard dental, <i>ie</i> otherwise.</li> <li>Some <a href="/wiki/Northern_Russian" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Russian">Northern Russian</a> dialects have *ě > <i>i</i>, as in Ukrainian.</li> <li>Some Ukrainian dialects, as well as some Northern Russian sub-dialects, preserve an earlier form <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i̯e/</span>.</li> <li>Slovak has short <i>e</i>, long <i>ie</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accent">Accent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Accent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_prosodic_phenomena">Modern prosodic phenomena</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Modern prosodic phenomena"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The modern Slavic languages differ greatly in the occurrence of the prosodic phenomena of phonemic <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel length</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accent_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accent (phonetics)">accent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>, all of which existed in Common Slavic (CS), ranging from total preservation (Serbo-Croatian) to total loss (Polish). However, the surface occurrence of length, accent and/or tone in a given language does not necessarily correspond with the extent to which the corresponding CS phenomena can be reconstructed. For example, although all of the standard Serbo-Croatian literary forms have phonemic tone, they cannot be used to reconstruct Late CS tone; only some of the non-standard dialects (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Chakavian" title="Chakavian">Chakavian</a>) are useful in this regard. Similarly, although Macedonian has (marginal) phonemic accent, this does not continue the CS accent position. Contrariwise, although modern Polish lacks vowel length, some vowel quality differences (e.g. in nasal vowels) reflect former length differences. </p><p>Phonemic tone is found only in western South Slavic languages — Serbo-Croatian and some Slovene dialects (including one of the two literary standards). Phonemic length is found in Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Czech and Slovak. Phonemic accent is found in Serbo-Croatian, the East Slavic languages, Bulgarian, the northern <a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a> dialects, marginally in Slovene, and even more marginally in Macedonian. </p><p>In terms of which modern languages preserve which CS prosodic features, it is important to understand that length, tone and accent are intricately tied together. Middle CS did not have phonemic length, and Late CS length evolved largely from certain tonal and accentual changes. (In addition, some long vowels evolved from contraction of vowels across <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> or <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a> before a lost yer, especially in Czech and Slovak.) Hence length distinctions in some languages (e.g. Czech) may correspond to tonal distinctions in other languages (e.g. Serbo-Croatian). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Development_from_Common_Slavic">Development from Common Slavic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Development from Common Slavic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As mentioned above, Middle Common Slavic (MCS) had a three-way tonal/length distinction on accented syllables (long rising, long falling, short). Long rising and falling tones continue Balto-Slavic acute and circumflex, respectively. Late Common Slavic (LCS) developed at first a four-way distinction, where rising and falling tones could occur in both short and long syllables, as in modern Serbo-Croatian. Later changes of a complex nature produced the prosodic phenomena found in the various modern languages. </p><p>In general, the history of Slavic accentuation is extremely complex and still incompletely understood. The following is a summary of the most important changes in LCS:<sup id="cite_ref-Kortlandt_1994_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kortlandt_1994-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Short-accented syllables develop into specifically short falling syllables.</li> <li>Long rising (acute) syllables are shortened, becoming short rising.</li> <li>The accent is retracted (moved a syllable towards the beginning) in certain cases, e.g. when it fell on a weak yer (<a href="/wiki/Iv%C5%A1i%C4%87%27s_law" title="Ivšić's law">Ivšić's law</a>). The new syllables developed a rising accent, termed the <i>neoacute</i>. When this accent fell on short *e and *o, they were lengthened, except in Serbo-Croatian and Slovene. At this stage, most neoacute syllables remained separate from original acute syllables because of the difference in length (long vs. short, respectively).</li> <li>Initial short falling syllables followed by a final weak yer (i.e. words which will be monosyllabic upon loss of the yer and which in MCS had a short accent on the initial syllable) are lengthened. Such syllables become long falling (although this doesn't cause a merger with original long falling syllables because the two differ in vowel quality, i.e. *e *o *ь *ъ vs. other qualities). This is hypothesized to be pan-Slavic, but only visible in Serbo-Croatian and Slovene because of the following step.</li> <li>Long falling syllables are shortened everywhere except in Serbo-Croatian and Slovene. This undoes the previous step (if it occurred at all) and is responsible for MCS circumflex accent appearing as a short vowel in Czech, Slovak, Old Polish, etc.</li> <li>Compensatory lengthening of some short syllables occurs in some languages when immediately followed by a weak yer. This does not occur in South Slavic, nor in Russian. It is most common in words that will become monosyllabic after the loss of the yer. In Ukrainian, it is general in this position, while in Czech and Polish it is common but inconsistent. It results in a Czech and Polish pattern in masculine nouns in which long vowels in the nominative singular alternate with short vowels in the other case/number forms. This pattern is then often analogically extended to other words.</li> <li>Weak yers are lost.</li> <li>Short rising syllables (arising mostly from MCS acute accent) are relengthened in East Slavic, Bulgarian and Macedonian. It also occurs in Czech and Slovene in the initial syllable of disyllabic words, under certain conditions. This causes a general merger of MCS acute and neoacute in the East Slavic and eastern South Slavic languages, leading to a two-way distinction of short falling vs. long rising. (This distinction is later lost, but revealed in some traces; see below.)</li></ol> <p>Note that steps 3, 4 and 6 can all be viewed as types of <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a> before a lost (or about-to-be-lost) yer. </p><p>Numerous further developments occur in individual languages. Some of the most notable ones are: </p> <ul><li>In East Slavic, Bulgarian and Macedonian, the pitch accent is converted into a <a href="/wiki/Stress_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress accent">stress accent</a> (as in English), and vowel length and tone are lost. Traces of these distinctions exist in a few circumstances: <ul><li>Vowel length in early borrowings of Slavic words, e.g. into Finnish.</li> <li>The position of the accent in original liquid diphthongs in East Slavic, when the vowel of the diphthong was <i>o</i> or <i>e</i>. Such sequences develop into bisyllabic sequences with <i>-oro-</i>, <i>-ere-</i> or <i>-olo-</i>. A short falling accent (MCS circumflex) is reflected as <i>-óro-</i> etc., while a long rising accent (MCS acute and LCS neoacute) produces <i>-oró-</i> etc.</li> <li>Words with a short falling vowel (MCS circumflex) tend to lose the accent to attached prefixes or <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitics</a> (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a> added onto the end of Bulgarian and Macedonian words).</li> <li>In East Slavic, stressed long *ō was raised to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/⁽ᵘ⁾o/</span> (notated <i>ô</i>), while all other *o remained as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ/</span>. This is still reflected in some <a href="/wiki/Northern_Russian" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Russian">Northern Russian</a> dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>In some dialects of Macedonian, stress occurring on suffixes is moved onto the stem, but may otherwise appear on any syllable,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while in others, including standard Macedonian, lexical stress accent is lost and replaced with fixed stress.</li> <li>Phonemic tone and accent are lost in West Slavic (although some dialects of the <a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian language</a> maintain phonemic stress accent). Phonemic length is eventually lost in Polish, although still present in <a href="/wiki/Old_Polish" title="Old Polish">Old Polish</a>. In Polish, some former long/short pairs have evolved to different sounds; e.g. *ō > <i>ó</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span>. Similarly, nasal <i>ę</i> reflects a former short nasal, while <i>ą</i> reflects a long nasal. (The two original nasals *ę and *ǫ merged in Polish.)</li> <li>In the original eastern Serbo-Croatian dialects, phonemic tone is lost, with all accented syllables essentially gaining a falling tone. Later on, in a subset of these dialects (the <a href="/wiki/Neoshtokavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoshtokavian">neoshtokavian</a> dialects, the basis of all standard Serbo-Croatian registers), the stress is retracted one syllable when possible, producing a rising tone in the process (cf. the neoacute retraction). This reintroduces phonemic tone on initial syllables.</li></ul> <p>Only some conservative Serbo-Croatian dialects (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Chakavian" title="Chakavian">Chakavian</a>) maintain the original accentual system unchanged. Some Slovene dialects (see below) maintain all original properties of the accentual system, but with various changes in multisyllabic words. </p><p>Slovene shows large dialectal diversity for its relatively small area of distribution. For example, only the central dialects and one of the two literary standards maintain tone, and some of the northwest dialects maintain original nasality. In the dialects maintaining tone, the prosody of monosyllables agrees closely with the most conservative Serbo-Croatian dialects (e.g. Chakavian). In multisyllabic words, all non-final stressed vowels were lengthened (acute and neoacute becoming long rising, while circumflex and original short become long falling), and all non-final unstressed vowels were shortened, which produced a prosodic pattern not unlike that found in modern <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>. Length remained distinctive in final syllables only. But prior to this, various shifts happened: </p> <ul><li>Original acute became circumflex (long falling) in certain cases, e.g. prior to a lengthened syllable (the <i>neo-circumflex</i>).</li> <li>With non-final original circumflex and short syllables, the accent shifts to the right, becoming circumflex (long falling) (the <i>progressive shift</i>).</li> <li>With non-initial original acute, or with any original final-accented syllable in a multisyllabic word, the accent shifts left onto original long syllables, becoming acute (long rising).</li> <li>In some dialects, a further leftward shift happens from original final-accented syllables to original short syllables. In the standard language, this happens specifically with *e *o, which become acute (long rising) with a low-mid quality (whereas other long mid vowels are normally reflected as high-mid). In some non-standard dialects, this also happens with *ǝ < strong yers (although it remains short).</li></ul> <p>In West Slavic, esp. in Czech, a number of originally short vowels in monosyllables are lengthened. The conditions for this lengthening are incompletely understood and seem to involve good deal of analogy and dialect mixing.<sup id="cite_ref-Verweij_Czech-Slovak_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verweij_Czech-Slovak-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Note that the overall effect of all these changes is that either the MCS acute, MCS circumflex or both have ended up shortened in various languages in various circumstances, while the LCS neoacute has generally remained long.<sup id="cite_ref-Schenker_2002_78–79_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schenker_2002_78–79-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Example:<sup id="cite_ref-Schenker_2002_78–79_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schenker_2002_78–79-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Accent</th> <th>Common Slavic</th> <th>Chakavian</th> <th>Slovene</th> <th>Czech</th> <th>Slovak</th> <th>Bulgarian</th> <th>Russian </th></tr> <tr> <th>Circumflex </th> <td>*gôrdъ "town" </td> <td><i>grȃd</i></td> <td><i>grȃd</i> "castle"</td> <td><i>hrad</i> "castle"</td> <td><i>hrad</i> "castle"</td> <td><i>grad-ǎ́t</i> "the town"</td> <td><i>górod</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Acute </th> <td>*pórgъ "doorsill" </td> <td><i>prȁg</i></td> <td><i>pràg</i> (gen. <i>prága</i>)</td> <td><i>práh</i> (gen. <i>prahu</i>)</td> <td><i>prah</i></td> <td><i>prág-ǎt</i> "the doorsill"</td> <td><i>poróg</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Neoacute </th> <td>*kõrľь "king" </td> <td><i>králj</i></td> <td><i>králj</i></td> <td><i>král</i> (gen. <i>krále</i>)</td> <td><i>kráľ</i></td> <td><i>králj-at</i> "the king"</td> <td><i>koról'</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Loanwords">Loanwords</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Loanwords"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_borrowings" title="Proto-Slavic borrowings">Proto-Slavic borrowings</a></div> <p>The lexical stock of the Slavic languages also includes a number of <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> from the languages of various tribes and peoples that the Proto-Slavic speakers came into contact with. These include mostly Indo-European speakers, chiefly <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a>), speakers of <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> or some early Romance dialects, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Greek">Middle Greek</a> and, to a much lesser extent, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Iranian_languages" title="Eastern Iranian languages">Eastern Iranian</a> (mostly pertaining to religious sphere) and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a>. </p><p>Many terms of Greco-Roman cultural provenience have been diffused into Slavic by Gothic mediation, and analysis has shown that Germanic borrowings into Slavic show at least 4 distinct chronological strata, and must have entered Proto-Slavic in a long period. </p><p>Of non-Indo-European languages, possible connections have been made to various <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avars_(Carpathians)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avars (Carpathians)">Avar</a>, but their reconstruction is very unreliable due to the scarcity of the evidence and the relatively late attestation of both Slavic and Turkic languages. When the Turkic tribal union of <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgars" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga Bulgars">Volga Bulgars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a> conquered territories in the Ukrainian steppe belt between the 6th and 8th centuries AD, it is possible that such Turkisms as <i><a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">kahan</a></i> 'kagan, ruler', <i><a href="/wiki/Bahad%C4%B1r" title="Bahadır">bahatyr</a></i> 'hero', and <i><a href="/wiki/Ban_(title)" title="Ban (title)">ban</a></i> 'high rank' and the suffix <i>-čij</i> found their way into the Common Slavic language.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavic">Proto-Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Proto-Slavic" title="History of Proto-Slavic">History of Proto-Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_accent" title="Proto-Slavic accent">Proto-Slavic accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_liquid_metathesis_and_pleophony" title="Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony">Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Slavic_history_and_culture" title="Outline of Slavic history and culture">Outline of Slavic history and culture</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Individual language histories</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_language#History" title="Bosnian language">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_language" title="History of the Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Croatian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Croatian language">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_language" title="History of the Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language#History" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Polish" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Polish">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bulgarian_language" title="History of the Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Macedonian_language" title="History of the Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian#History" title="Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Slovak_language" title="History of the Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ukrainian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_language#History" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Serbo-Croatian" title="Dialects of Serbo-Croatian">Dialects of Serbo-Croatian</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndersen1998">Andersen (1998</a>:415–416)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndersen2003">Andersen (2003</a>:49, 50)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndersen2003">Andersen (2003</a>:48)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndersen2003">Andersen (2003</a>:49)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuraszkiewicz196350-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuraszkiewicz196350_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuraszkiewicz1963">Kuraszkiewicz 1963</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESławski196240-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESławski196240_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSławski1962">Sławski 1962</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchenker2002">Schenker (2002</a>:74)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShevelov1977">Shevelov (1977</a>:137)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kortlandt_1994-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kortlandt_1994_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kortlandt_1994_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKortlandt1994">Kortlandt (1994)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Derksen_2008-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Derksen_2008_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDerksen2008">Derksen (2008)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBelić1921">Belić (1921</a>:31)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Channon_1972_9-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Channon_1972_9_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Channon_1972_9_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChannon1972">Channon (1972</a>:9)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lunt_2001_187–188-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lunt_2001_187–188_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLunt2001">Lunt (2001</a>:187–188)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sussex_2006_113-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sussex_2006_113_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sussex_2006_113_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSussexCubberley2006">Sussex & Cubberley (2006</a>:113)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSussexCubberley2006">Sussex & Cubberley (2006</a>:127)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLunt2001">Lunt (2001</a>:38–39)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSussexCubberley2006">Sussex & Cubberley (2006</a>:116–117)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCorbett_(1),_Comrie_(2)1993" class="citation book cs1">Corbett (1), Comrie (2), Greville (1), Bernard (2) (1993). <i>The Slavonic Languages</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136861444" title="Special:BookSources/9781136861444"><bdi>9781136861444</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slavonic+Languages&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9781136861444&rft.aulast=Corbett+%281%29%2C+Comrie+%282%29&rft.aufirst=Greville+%281%29%2C+Bernard+%282%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSussexCubberley2006">Sussex & Cubberley (2006</a>:118)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Горшкова, К.В. и Г.А. Хабургаев. 1981. Историческая грамматика русского языка. P.87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Букатевич, Н.И., С.А. Савицкая и Л.Я. Усачева. 1974. Историческая грамматика русского языка. P.90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSussexCubberley2006">Sussex & Cubberley (2006</a>:120)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDerksen2008">Derksen (2008</a>:8–12)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTimberlake2002">Timberlake (2002</a>:834)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42430960"><i>The evolution of fixed stress in Slavic (Book, 1999) [WorldCat.org]</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42430960">42430960</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+evolution+of+fixed+stress+in+Slavic+%28Book%2C+1999%29+%5BWorldCat.org%5D&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42430960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F42430960&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Verweij_Czech-Slovak-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Verweij_Czech-Slovak_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVerweij1994">Verweij (1994</a>:493–567)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schenker_2002_78–79-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schenker_2002_78–79_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schenker_2002_78–79_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchenker2002">Schenker (2002</a>:78–79)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDerksen2008">Derksen (2008</a>:178,413)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=W0kOAQAAMAAJ">Encyclopedia of Ukraine, Volume 5</a>, pg. 321. University of Toronto Press, 1993.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Slavic_languages&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>In English</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersen1998" class="citation cs2">Andersen, Henning (1998), "Slavic", in Ramat, Anna Giacalone (ed.), <i>The Indo-European Languages</i>, London and New York: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06449-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06449-1"><bdi>978-0-415-06449-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavic&rft.btitle=The+Indo-European+Languages&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-06449-1&rft.aulast=Andersen&rft.aufirst=Henning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersen2003" class="citation cs2">Andersen, Henning (2003), "Slavic and the Indo-European Migrations", <i>Language contacts in prehistory: studies in stratigraphy</i>, John Benjamins Publishing Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58811-379-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-58811-379-5"><bdi>1-58811-379-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavic+and+the+Indo-European+Migrations&rft.btitle=Language+contacts+in+prehistory%3A+studies+in+stratigraphy&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-58811-379-5&rft.aulast=Andersen&rft.aufirst=Henning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChannon1972" class="citation cs2">Channon, Robert (1972), <i>On the Place of the Progressive Palatalization of Velars in the Relative Chronology of Slavic</i>, The Hague: Mouton</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Place+of+the+Progressive+Palatalization+of+Velars+in+the+Relative+Chronology+of+Slavic&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Channon&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Comrie" title="Bernard Comrie">Comrie, Bernard</a>; Corbett, Greville. G., eds. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uRF9Yiso1OIC"><i>The Slavonic Languages</i></a>, London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-28078-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-28078-8"><bdi>0-415-28078-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slavonic+Languages&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-28078-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuRF9Yiso1OIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerksen2008" class="citation cs2">Derksen, Rick (2008), <i>Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon</i>, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, vol. 4, Leiden: Brill</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+the+Slavic+Inherited+Lexicon&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Leiden+Indo-European+Etymological+Dictionary+Series&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Derksen&rft.aufirst=Rick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKortlandt1994" class="citation cs2">Kortlandt, Frederik (1994), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art066e.pdf">"From Proto-Indo-European to Slavic"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Journal of Indo-European Studies</i>, <b>22</b>: 91–112</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.atitle=From+Proto-Indo-European+to+Slavic&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=91-112&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Kortlandt&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kortlandt.nl%2Fpublications%2Fart066e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLightner1972" class="citation cs2">Lightner, Theodore M. (1972), <i>Problems in the Theory of Phonology, I: Russian phonology and Turkish phonology</i>, Edmonton: Linguistic Research, inc</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+in+the+Theory+of+Phonology%2C+I%3A+Russian+phonology+and+Turkish+phonology&rft.place=Edmonton&rft.pub=Linguistic+Research%2C+inc&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Lightner&rft.aufirst=Theodore+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLunt2001" class="citation cs2">Lunt, Horace (2001), <i>Old Church Slavonic grammar</i>, Mouton de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-016284-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-016284-9"><bdi>3-11-016284-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Church+Slavonic+grammar&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3-11-016284-9&rft.aulast=Lunt&rft.aufirst=Horace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalloryAdams1997" class="citation cs2">Mallory, J.P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997), <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a></i>, London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-98-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-98-5"><bdi>978-1-884964-98-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Indo-European+Culture&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-98-5&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rft.au=Adams%2C+Douglas+Q.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadgett2003" class="citation cs2">Padgett, Jaye (2003), "Contrast and Post-Velar Fronting in Russian", <i>Natural Language & Linguistic Theory</i>, <b>21</b> (1): 39–87, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1021879906505">10.1023/A:1021879906505</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13470826">13470826</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+Language+%26+Linguistic+Theory&rft.atitle=Contrast+and+Post-Velar+Fronting+in+Russian&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-87&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1021879906505&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13470826%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Padgett&rft.aufirst=Jaye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamilov1964" class="citation cs2">Samilov, Michael (1964), <i>The phoneme jat' in Slavic</i>, The Hague: Mouton</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+phoneme+jat%27+in+Slavic&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Samilov&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchenker2002" class="citation cs2">Schenker, Alexander M. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uRF9Yiso1OIC">"Proto-Slavonic"</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Comrie" title="Bernard Comrie">Comrie, Bernard</a>; Corbett, Greville. G. (eds.), <i>The Slavonic Languages</i>, London: Routledge, pp. 60–124, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-28078-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-28078-8"><bdi>0-415-28078-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Proto-Slavonic&rft.btitle=The+Slavonic+Languages&rft.place=London&rft.pages=60-124&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-28078-8&rft.aulast=Schenker&rft.aufirst=Alexander+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuRF9Yiso1OIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchenker1993" class="citation cs2">Schenker, Alexander M. (1993), Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G (eds.), <i>The Slavonic languages</i> (1 ed.), London, New York: Routledge, pp. 60–121, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-04755-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-04755-2"><bdi>0-415-04755-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slavonic+languages&rft.place=London%2C+New+York&rft.pages=60-121&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-415-04755-2&rft.aulast=Schenker&rft.aufirst=Alexander+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShevelov1977" class="citation cs2">Shevelov, George Y. (1977), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081031023438/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~huri/pdf/hus_volumes/vI_n2june1977.pdf">"On the Chronology of <i>h</i> and the New <i>g</i> in Ukrainian"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Harvard Ukrainian Studies</i>, vol, vol. 1, Cambridge: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, pp. 137–52, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~huri/pdf/hus_volumes/vI_n2june1977.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2008-10-31</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Chronology+of+h+and+the+New+g+in+Ukrainian&rft.btitle=Harvard+Ukrainian+Studies&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=vol&rft.pages=137-52&rft.pub=Harvard+Ukrainian+Research+Institute&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Shevelov&rft.aufirst=George+Y.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.harvard.edu%2F~huri%2Fpdf%2Fhus_volumes%2FvI_n2june1977.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSussexCubberley2006" class="citation cs2">Sussex, Roland; Cubberley, Paul (2006), <i>The Slavic Languages</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521223157" title="Special:BookSources/9780521223157"><bdi>9780521223157</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slavic+Languages&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780521223157&rft.aulast=Sussex&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft.au=Cubberley%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimberlake2002" class="citation cs2">Timberlake, Alan (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uRF9Yiso1OIC">"Russian"</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Comrie" title="Bernard Comrie">Comrie, Bernard</a>; Corbett, Greville. G. (eds.), <i>The Slavonic Languages</i>, London: Routledge, pp. 827–886, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-28078-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-28078-8"><bdi>0-415-28078-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russian&rft.btitle=The+Slavonic+Languages&rft.place=London&rft.pages=827-886&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-28078-8&rft.aulast=Timberlake&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuRF9Yiso1OIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerweij1994" class="citation cs2">Verweij, Arno (1994), "Quantity Patterns of Substantives in Czech and Slovak", <i>Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics</i>, <b>22</b>: 493–567</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Slavic+and+General+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Quantity+Patterns+of+Substantives+in+Czech+and+Slovak&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=493-567&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Verweij&rft.aufirst=Arno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>In other languages</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelić1921" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Belić, Aleksandar (1921), "Најмлађа (трећа) промена задњенепчаних сугласника k, g и h у прасловенском језику", <i>Јужнословенски филолог</i> (in Serbo-Croatian), <b>II</b>: 18–39</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%88%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3&rft.atitle=%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%92%D0%B0+%28%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%9B%D0%B0%29+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%9A%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0+k%2C+g+%D0%B8+h+%D1%83+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83&rft.volume=II&rft.pages=18-39&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Beli%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Aleksandar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiparsky1963" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kiparsky, Valentin (1963) [1967, 1975], <i>Russische Historische Grammatik</i> (in German), vol. 1–3</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russische+Historische+Grammatik&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Kiparsky&rft.aufirst=Valentin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatasović2008" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Matasović, Ranko (2008), <i>Poredbenopovijesna gramatika hrvatskoga jezika</i> (in Serbo-Croatian), Zagreb: Matica hrvatska, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-953-150-840-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-953-150-840-7"><bdi>978-953-150-840-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poredbenopovijesna+gramatika+hrvatskoga+jezika&rft.place=Zagreb&rft.pub=Matica+hrvatska&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-953-150-840-7&rft.aulast=Matasovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Ranko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoszyński1984" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Moszyński, Leszek (1984), "Wstęp do filologii słowiańskiej", <i>PWN</i> (in Polish), Warszawa</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PWN&rft.atitle=Wst%C4%99p+do+filologii+s%C5%82owia%C5%84skiej&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Moszy%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Leszek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVasmer1950–1958" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Max_Vasmer" title="Max Vasmer">Vasmer, Max</a> (1950–1958), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?basename=\data\ie\vasmer"><i>Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</i></a> (in German), Heidelberg</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russisches+etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.date=1950%2F1958&rft.aulast=Vasmer&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstarling.rinet.ru%2Fcgi-bin%2Fquery.cgi%3Fbasename%3D%5Cdata%5Cie%5Cvasmer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuraszkiewicz1963" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kuraszkiewicz, Władysław (1963). <i>Zarys dialektologii wschodniosłowiańskiej z wyborem tekstów gwarowych</i> (in Polish). Warszawa: <a href="/wiki/Polish_Scientific_Publishers_PWN" title="Polish Scientific Publishers PWN">Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zarys+dialektologii+wschodnios%C5%82owia%C5%84skiej+z+wyborem+tekst%C3%B3w+gwarowych&rft.place=Warszawa&rft.pub=Pa%C5%84stwowe+Wydawnictwo+Naukowe&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Kuraszkiewicz&rft.aufirst=W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSławski1962" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sławski, Franciszek (1962). <i>Zarys dialektologii południowosłowiańskiej z wyborem tekstów gwarowych</i> (in Polish). Warszawa: <a href="/wiki/Polish_Scientific_Publishers_PWN" title="Polish Scientific Publishers PWN">Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zarys+dialektologii+po%C5%82udniowos%C5%82owia%C5%84skiej+z+wyborem+tekst%C3%B3w+gwarowych&rft.place=Warszawa&rft.pub=Pa%C5%84stwowe+Wydawnictwo+Naukowe&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=S%C5%82awski&rft.aufirst=Franciszek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Slavic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slavic_languages" title="Template talk:Slavic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slavic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slavic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Proto-Slavic" title="History of Proto-Slavic">Up to Proto-Slavic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_accent" title="Proto-Slavic accent">Accent</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic script</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern languages</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Slavic_languages" title="East Slavic languages">East Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_speech" title="Simple speech">Simple speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_East_Slavic" title="Old East Slavic">Old East Slavic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Novgorod_dialect" title="Old Novgorod dialect">Old Novgorodian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_language" title="Ruthenian language">Ruthenian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_dialects" title="Russian dialects">dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaskan_Russian" title="Alaskan Russian">Alaskan Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doukhobor_Russian" title="Doukhobor Russian">Doukhobor Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language" title="Rusyn language">Rusyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_dialects" title="Ukrainian dialects">dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Ukrainian" title="Canadian Ukrainian">Canadian Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_speech" title="Simple speech">Simple speech</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_South_Slavic" title="Eastern South Slavic">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages#Transitional_South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">Transitional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torlakian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Torlakian dialect">Torlakian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_South_Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Western South Slavic">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Carantanians#Language" title="Carantanians">Alpine Slavic</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian" title="Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_language" title="Bosnian language">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_language" title="Montenegrin language">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavomolisano_dialect" title="Slavomolisano dialect">Slavomolisano</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Czech%E2%80%93Slovak_languages" title="Czech–Slovak languages">Czech-Slovak</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Czech_language" title="Biblical Czech language">Biblical Czech</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_language" title="Czechoslovak language">Czechoslovak</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian_dialects" title="Moravian dialects">Moravian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">White Croatian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Camaldolese_Slovak" title="Camaldolese Slovak">Camaldolese Slovak</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Slovak_dialects" title="Eastern Slovak dialects">Eastern Slovak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Rusyn" title="Pannonian Rusyn">Pannonian Rusyn</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lechitic_languages" title="Lechitic languages">Lechitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>East Lechitic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Masurian_dialects" title="Masurian dialects">Masurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish dialects">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Polish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Polish language">Old Polish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Polish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Polish language">Middle Polish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_language" title="Silesian language">Silesian</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lach_dialects" title="Lach dialects">Lach</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_language" title="Pomeranian language">Pomeranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_language" title="Slovincian language">Slovincian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Lechitic_dialects" title="West Lechitic dialects">West Lechitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcho-Magdeburgian_dialect" title="Marcho-Magdeburgian dialect">Marcho-Magdeburgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polabian_language" title="Polabian language">Polabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rani_dialect" title="Rani dialect">Rani</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_languages" title="Sorbian languages">Sorbian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Sorbian_language" title="Upper Sorbian language">Upper Sorbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Sorbian_language" title="Lower Sorbian language">Lower Sorbian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schleifer_dialect" title="Schleifer dialect">Schleifer</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_microlanguages" title="Slavic microlanguages">Microlanguages</a> <br />and dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Slavic_languages" title="East Slavic languages">East Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language" title="Rusyn language">Carpathian Rusyn</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lemkos#Language" title="Lemkos">Lemko</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podlachian_language" title="Podlachian language">Podlachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Polesian" title="West Polesian">West Polesian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banat_Bulgarian_dialect" title="Banat Bulgarian dialect">Banat Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakavian" title="Chakavian">Chakavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burgenland_Croatian" title="Burgenland Croatian">Burgenland Croatian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kajkavian" title="Kajkavian">Kajkavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomak_language" title="Pomak language">Pomak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prekmurje_Slovene" title="Prekmurje Slovene">Prekmurje Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resian_dialect" title="Resian dialect">Resian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shtokavian" title="Shtokavian">Shtokavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavomolisano_dialect" title="Slavomolisano dialect">Slavomolisano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunjevac_dialect" title="Bunjevac dialect">Bunjevac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_dialects_of_Greece" title="Slavic dialects of Greece">Slavic dialects of Greece</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Slovak_dialects" title="Eastern Slovak dialects">Eastern Slovak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Rusyn" title="Pannonian Rusyn">Pannonian Rusyn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goral_ethnolect" title="Goral ethnolect">Goral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_language" title="Silesian language">Silesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesian_dialect" title="Cieszyn Silesian dialect">Cieszyn Silesian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balachka" title="Balachka">Balachka</a></li> <li><i>20th century <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Romani" title="Bohemian Romani">Bohemian Romani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kyakhta_Russian%E2%80%93Chinese_Pidgin" title="Kyakhta Russian–Chinese Pidgin">Kyakhta Russian–Chinese Pidgin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mednyj_Aleut_language" title="Mednyj Aleut language">Mednyj Aleut</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponaschemu" title="Ponaschemu">Ponaschemu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German-Russian_macaronic_language" title="German-Russian macaronic language">Quelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Serbian_language" title="Romano-Serbian language">Romano-Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runglish" title="Runglish">Runglish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russenorsk" title="Russenorsk">Russenorsk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solombala_English" title="Solombala English">Solombala English</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surzhyk" title="Surzhyk">Surzhyk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taimyr_Pidgin_Russian" title="Taimyr Pidgin Russian">Taimyr Pidgin Russian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trasianka" title="Trasianka">Trasianka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed<br />languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavic_language" title="Pan-Slavic language">Pan-Slavic language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interslavic" title="Interslavic">Interslavic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydnevi" title="Lydnevi">Lydnevi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Army_Slavic" title="Army Slavic">Army Slavic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Iazychie" title="Iazychie">Iazychie</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slavonic-Serbian" title="Slavonic-Serbian">Slavonic-Serbian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical<br />phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_first_palatalization" title="Slavic first palatalization">Slavic first palatalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_second_palatalization" title="Slavic second palatalization">Slavic second palatalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_liquid_metathesis_and_pleophony" title="Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony">Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophthongization_of_diphthongs_in_Proto-Slavic" title="Monophthongization of diphthongs in Proto-Slavic">Monophthongization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dybo%27s_law" title="Dybo's law">Dybo's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havl%C3%ADk%27s_law" title="Havlík's law">Havlík's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirt%27s_law" title="Hirt's law">Hirt's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illi%C4%8D-Svity%C4%8D%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Illič-Svityč's law">Illič-Svityč's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iv%C5%A1i%C4%87%27s_law" title="Ivšić's law">Ivšić's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meillet%27s_law" title="Meillet's law">Meillet's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedersen%27s_law" title="Pedersen's law">Pedersen's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruki_sound_law" title="Ruki sound law">Ruki sound law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Wijk%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Wijk's law">Van Wijk's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter%27s_law" title="Winter's law">Winter's law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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