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id="toc-Antiquity_and_classical_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity_and_classical_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Antiquity and classical era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiquity_and_classical_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birth_of_Islam_and_the_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birth_of_Islam_and_the_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Birth of Islam and the Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birth_of_Islam_and_the_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_era_and_the_scramble_for_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_era_and_the_scramble_for_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Early modern era and the scramble for Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_era_and_the_scramble_for_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independence_(1960–1969)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independence_(1960–1969)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Independence (1960–1969) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independence_(1960–1969)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Somali_Democratic_Republic_(1969–1991)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Somali_Democratic_Republic_(1969–1991)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Somali_Democratic_Republic_(1969–1991)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coup_d'Etat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coup_d'Etat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Coup d'Etat </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coup_d'Etat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Somalia_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Somalia_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Somalia Civil War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Somalia_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transitional_institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitional_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 Transitional institutions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitional_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_Courts_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_Courts_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 Islamic Courts Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_Courts_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transitional_Federal_Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitional_Federal_Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11 Transitional Federal Government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitional_Federal_Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Al_Shabaab_insurgency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al_Shabaab_insurgency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.12 Al Shabaab insurgency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Al_Shabaab_insurgency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_transitional_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_transitional_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.13 End of transitional period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_transitional_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federal_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.14 Federal government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Geography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Geography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Administrative_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Administrative divisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Location" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Location </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Waters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habitat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habitat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Habitat </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Environment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Climate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wildlife" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wildlife"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Wildlife </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wildlife-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics_and_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_and_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Politics and government </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Politics_and_government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Politics and government subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Politics_and_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foreign_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Foreign relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Human rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Economy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monetary_and_payment_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monetary_and_payment_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Monetary and payment system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monetary_and_payment_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_and_natural_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_and_natural_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Energy and natural resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_and_natural_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telecommunications_and_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telecommunications_and_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Telecommunications and media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telecommunications_and_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tourism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tourism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Tourism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tourism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Transport </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Demographics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Urban areas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Cuisine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contemporary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Contemporary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Sports </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Somalia</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 246 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-246" aria-hidden="true" > 246 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali%C3%AB" title="Somalië – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Somalië" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B6%E1%88%9B%E1%88%8A%E1%8B%AB" title="ሶማሊያ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሶማሊያ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सोमालिया – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="सोमालिया" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%8Dmalia" title="Sōmalia – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Sōmalia" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84" title="الصومال – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الصومال" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A8%DC%98%DC%A1%DC%90%DC%A0" title="ܨܘܡܐܠ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܨܘܡܐܠ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalie" title="Somalie – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Somalie" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som%C3%A1lia" title="Somália – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Somália" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="سومالی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سومالی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="সোমালিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সোমালিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Самалі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Самалі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Самалі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Самалі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सोमालिया – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सोमालिया" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalya" title="Somalya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Somalya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сомалия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сомалия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8D" title="སོ་མ་ལི། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སོ་མ་ལི།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalija" title="Somalija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Somalija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som%C3%A0lia" title="Somàlia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Somàlia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliya" title="Somaliya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Somaliya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som%C3%A1lsko" title="Somálsko – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Somálsko" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somariya" title="Somariya – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Somariya" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84" title="الصومال – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="الصومال" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som%C3%A1lia" title="Somália – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Somália" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaali" title="Somaali – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Somaali" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%90%DE%AF%DE%89%DE%A7%DE%8D%DE%A8%DE%87%DE%A7" title="ސޯމާލިއާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ސޯމާލިއާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bil%C4%AF%CC%81%C4%AF%CC%81%C5%82%C3%A1n%C3%AD_Dine%CA%BC%C3%A9_Bik%C3%A9yah" title="Bilį́į́łání Dineʼé Bikéyah – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Bilį́į́łání Dineʼé Bikéyah" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalija" title="Somalija – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Somalija" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सोमालिया – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="सोमालिया" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaalia" title="Somaalia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Somaalia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Σομαλία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σομαλία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalio" title="Somalio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Somalio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som%C3%A1lia" title="Somália – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Somália" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ee mw-list-item"><a href="https://ee.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Ewe" lang="ee" hreflang="ee" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Eʋegbe" data-language-local-name="Ewe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eʋegbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gur mw-list-item"><a href="https://gur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Frafra" lang="gur" hreflang="gur" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Farefare" data-language-local-name="Frafra" class="interlanguage-link-target">Farefare</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="سومالی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سومالی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalie" title="Somalie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Somalie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaalje" title="Somaalje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Somaalje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaaliya" title="Somaaliya – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Somaaliya" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSom%C3%A1il" title="An tSomáil – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSomáil" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yn_Tomaal" title="Yn Tomaal – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Yn Tomaal" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliya" title="Somaliya – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="Somaliya" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som%C3%A0ilia" title="Somàilia – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Somàilia" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सोमालिया – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="सोमालिया" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%8C%EB%A7%90%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84" title="소말리아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="소말리아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliya" title="Somaliya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Somaliya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB" title="Սոմալի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սոմալի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सोमालिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सोमालिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalija" title="Somalija – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Somalija" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalija" title="Somalija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Somalija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="সোমালিয়া – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="সোমালিয়া" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISomaliya" title="ISomaliya – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="ISomaliya" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3mal%C3%ADa" title="Sómalía – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sómalía" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94" title="סומליה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סומליה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soomaali" title="Soomaali – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Soomaali" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF" title="ಸೊಮಾಲಿಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸೊಮಾಲಿಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="სომალი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სომალი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliya" title="Somaliya – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Somaliya" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B4m%C3%A2lia" title="Sômâlia – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Sômâlia" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalya" title="Somalya – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Somalya" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som%C4%81lija" title="Somālija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Somālija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalis" title="Somalis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Somalis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali%C3%AB" title="Somalië – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Somalië" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/somalias" title="somalias – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="somalias" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumalia" title="Sumalia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sumalia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szom%C3%A1lia" title="Szomália – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szomália" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सोमालिया – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="सोमालिया" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Сомалија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сомалија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B4malia" title="Sômalia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Sômalia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF" title="സൊമാലിയ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സൊമാലിയ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalja" title="Somalja – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Somalja" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%ABm%C4%81rie" title="Hūmārie – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Hūmārie" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95" title="सोमालिया प्रजासत्ताक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सोमालिया प्रजासत्ताक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="სომალი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სომალი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84" title="الصومال – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الصومال" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="سومالی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="سومالی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%8C%EA%AF%A5" title="ꯁꯣꯃꯥꯂꯤꯌꯥ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯁꯣꯃꯥꯂꯤꯌꯥ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сомалия – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Сомалия" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%99%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6" title="ဆိုမာလီယာနိုင်ငံ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆိုမာလီယာနိုင်ငံ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali%C3%AB" title="Somalië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Somalië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalie" title="Somalie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Somalie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सोमालिया – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सोमालिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सोमालिया – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सोमालिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BD%E3%83%9E%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2" title="ソマリア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ソマリア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaalia" title="Somaalia – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Somaalia" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%86" title="ସୋମାଲିଆ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସୋମାଲିଆ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaaliyaa" title="Somaaliyaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Somaaliyaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86" title="ਸੋਮਾਲੀਆ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੋਮਾਲੀਆ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सोमालिया – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="सोमालिया" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangcah</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="صومالیا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="صومالیا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="سومالیا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سومالیا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaalia" title="Somaalia – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Somaalia" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%B8" title="សូម៉ាលី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សូម៉ាលី" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som%C3%A1lia" title="Somália – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Somália" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliya" title="Somaliya – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Somaliya" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumalya" title="Sumalya – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sumalya" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE" title="Сомальско – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Сомальско" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сомалия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Сомалия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सोमालिया – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सोमालिया" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somal%C3%AFi" title="Somalïi – Sango" lang="sg" hreflang="sg" data-title="Somalïi" data-language-autonym="Sängö" data-language-local-name="Sango" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sängö</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som%C3%A0lia" title="Somàlia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Somàlia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalie" title="Somalie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Somalie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seediq</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="සෝමාලියාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සෝමාලියාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="صوماليا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="صوماليا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISomaliya" title="ISomaliya – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="ISomaliya" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som%C3%A1lsko" title="Somálsko – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Somálsko" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalija" title="Somalija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Somalija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%AFmalijo" title="Sůmalijo – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Sůmalijo" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soomaaliya" title="Soomaaliya – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Soomaaliya" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%B5%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="سۆماڵیا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سۆماڵیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Сомалија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сомалија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalija" title="Somalija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Somalija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="சோமாலியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சோமாலியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B9%A2umal" title="Ṣumal – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Ṣumal" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%B0%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B0%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BA%E1%82%87%E1%80%99%E1%82%83%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%82%83%E1%80%B8" title="မိူင်းသူဝ်ႇမႃးလီးယႃး – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="မိူင်းသူဝ်ႇမႃးလီးယႃး" data-language-autonym="ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး " data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target">ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး </a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tay mw-list-item"><a href="https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Tayal" lang="tay" hreflang="tay" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Tayal" data-language-local-name="Tayal" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tayal</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8A%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE" title="సొమాలియా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సొమాలియా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="ประเทศโซมาเลีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประเทศโซมาเลีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomalia" title="Thomalia – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Thomalia" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target">Thuɔŋjäŋ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B6%E1%88%9B%E1%88%8D%E1%8B%AB" title="ሶማልያ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ሶማልያ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D3%A3" title="Сумолӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Сумолӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%90%E1%8E%B9%E1%8E%B5" title="ᏐᎹᎵ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏐᎹᎵ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalya" title="Somalya – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Somalya" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Сомали – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Сомали" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Сомалі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сомалі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%81" title="صومالیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="صومالیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89" title="سومالى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سومالى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma%C5%82ia" title="Somałia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Somałia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somal%C3%A4n" title="Somalän – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Somalän" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaalia" title="Somaalia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Somaalia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%A2%E9%A6%AC%E9%87%8C" title="索馬里 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="索馬里" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali%C3%AB" title="Somalië – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Somalië" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali" title="Somali – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Somali" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%A2%E9%A9%AC%E9%87%8C" title="索马里 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="索马里" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A2" title="סאמאליע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="סאמאליע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%A2%E9%A6%AC%E9%87%8C" title="索馬里 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="索馬里" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalya" title="Somalya – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Somalya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaoli%C3%AB" title="Somaolië – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Somaolië" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suomalis" title="Suomalis – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Suomalis" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%A2%E9%A9%AC%E9%87%8C" title="索马里 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="索马里" 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Pidgin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Somalia" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9A%E2%B5%9A%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%8E%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8D" title="ⵚⵚⵓⵎⴰⵍ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵚⵚⵓⵎⴰⵍ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1045#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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.geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Somalia&params=10_N_49_E_">10°N 49°E / 10°N 49°E / 10; 49</a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Country in the Horn of Africa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Federal Republic of Somalia</div><div class="ib-country-names">Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya (<a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>) جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>) Jumhūriyah aṣ-Ṣūmāl al-Fīdirāliyah <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Somali: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[soːmaːlija]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/0\/08\/Somalia_pronunciation_%28English%29.wav\/Somalia_pronunciation_%28English%29.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Somalia pronunciation (English).wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/08/Somalia_pronunciation_%28English%29.wav/Somalia_pronunciation_%28English%29.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Somalia_pronunciation_(English).wav" title="File:Somalia pronunciation (English).wav">ⓘ</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/125px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/188px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/250px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Somalia" title="Flag of Somalia">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Somalia"><img alt="Coat of arms of Somalia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg/200px-Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia" title="Coat of arms of Somalia"> Coat of arms</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: <a href="/wiki/Qolobaa_Calankeed" title="Qolobaa Calankeed">Qolobaa Calankeed</a> علم أي امة "Every Nation Has Its Own Flag" <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="66" data-mwtitle="Somali_national_anthem,_performed_by_the_United_States_Navy_Band.oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4e/Somali_national_anthem%2C_performed_by_the_United_States_Navy_Band.oga/Somali_national_anthem%2C_performed_by_the_United_States_Navy_Band.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Somali_national_anthem%2C_performed_by_the_United_States_Navy_Band.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASomali_national_anthem%2C_performed_by_the_United_States_Navy_Band.oga&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASomali_national_anthem%2C_performed_by_the_United_States_Navy_Band.oga&lang=so&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="so" label="Soomaaliga ‪(so)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Somalia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Location of Somalia"><img alt="Location of Somalia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/375px-Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/500px-Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="553" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital<div class="ib-country-largest">and largest city</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Somalia&params=2_2_N_45_21_E_type:city">2°2′N 45°21′E / 2.033°N 45.350°E / 2.033; 45.350</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a><a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic groups</a> <div class="ib-country-ethnic"> (2021)<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali</a>: 85%</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Somalia" title="Demographics of Somalia">Other</a>: 15%</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="State Religion">official</a>)<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Somalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalis">Somali</a><a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Somalia" title="Politics of Somalia">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic" title="Federal parliamentary republic">Federal parliamentary republic</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/President_of_Somalia" title="President of Somalia">President</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud" title="Hassan Sheikh Mohamud">Hassan Sheikh Mohamud</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Somalia" title="List of prime ministers of Somalia">Prime Minister</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hamza_Abdi_Barre" title="Hamza Abdi Barre">Hamza Abdi Barre</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Somalia" title="Senate of Somalia">Speaker of the Senate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abdi_Hashi_Abdullahi" title="Abdi Hashi Abdullahi">Abdi Hashi Abdullahi</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_People_(Somalia)" class="mw-redirect" title="House of the People (Somalia)">Speaker of the House</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Aden_Madobe" title="Aden Madobe">Aden Madobe</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Somalia" title="Federal Parliament of Somalia">Federal Parliament</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Somalia" title="Senate of Somalia">Senate</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/House_of_the_People_(Somalia)" class="mw-redirect" title="House of the People (Somalia)">House of the People</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Establishment</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2350 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Macrobians" title="Macrobians">Macrobia</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">980 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Barbaria_(region)" title="Barbaria (region)">Barbaria</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">100 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">9th century<a href="#cite_note-Encyamer-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Mogadishu" title="Sultanate of Mogadishu">Mogadishu Sultanate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">10th century</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Ifat" title="Sultanate of Ifat">Sultanate of Ifat</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">13th century</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Sultanate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">13th century</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Hiraab_Imamate" title="Hiraab Imamate">Hiraab Imamate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">16th century</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_the_Geledi" title="Sultanate of the Geledi">Geledi Sultanate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1695-1911</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Majeerteen_Sultanate" title="Majeerteen Sultanate">Majeerteen Sultanate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1648–1927</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Hobyo" title="Sultanate of Hobyo">Sultanate of Hobyo</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1878–1927</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq Sultanate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1749–1884</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1884</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1889</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(Somalia)" title="Independence Day (Somalia)">Independence</a> and union with the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Somaliland" title="State of Somaliland">State of Somaliland</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 July 1960</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Somalia" title="Constitution of Somalia">Current constitution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 August 2012</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Somalia" title="Geography of Somalia">Area </a></th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">637,657<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> km2 (246,201 sq mi) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">43rd</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Somalia" title="Demographics of Somalia">Population</a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• 2023 estimate</div></th><td class="infobox-data">18,143,378<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population" title="List of countries and dependencies by population">78th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Density</div></th><td class="infobox-data">27.2<a href="#cite_note-WPP_2022-6">[6]</a>/km2 (70.4/sq mi) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population_density" title="List of countries and dependencies by population density">199th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>(<a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">PPP</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data">2024 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> $34.03 billion<a href="#cite_note-IMFWEO.SO-7">[7]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of countries by GDP (PPP)">145th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> $2,060<a href="#cite_note-IMFWEO.SO-7">[7]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita" title="List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita">181st</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(nominal)</th><td class="infobox-data">2023 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> $12.8 billion<a href="#cite_note-IMFWEO.SO-7">[7]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal)">142nd</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> $775<a href="#cite_note-IMFWEO.SO-7">[7]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita">179th</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(2017)</th><td class="infobox-data">36.8<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style>medium inequality</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">HDI</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(2022)</th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Steady" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/11px-Steady2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/17px-Steady2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/22px-Steady2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> 0.380<a href="#cite_note-UNHDR-9">[9]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">low (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of countries by Human Development Index">193rd</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Somali_shilling" title="Somali shilling">Somali shilling</a> (<a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">SOS</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Time zone</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>+3 (<a href="/wiki/East_Africa_Time" title="East Africa Time">EAT</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic" title="Left- and right-hand traffic">Drives on</a></th><td class="infobox-data">right</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Somalia" title="Telephone numbers in Somalia">Calling code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Somalia" title="Telephone numbers in Somalia">+252</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2:SO" title="ISO 3166-2:SO">SO</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain" title="Country code top-level domain">Internet TLD</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/.so" title=".so">.so</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Somalia,<a href="#cite_note-13">[a]</a> officially the Federal Republic of Somalia,<a href="#cite_note-15">[b]</a> is the easternmost country in continental <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. The country is located in the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> and is bordered by <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> to the west, <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a><a href="#cite_note-:32-16">[14]</a> to the northwest, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> to the southwest, the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden" title="Gulf of Aden">Gulf of Aden</a> to the north, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> to the east. Somalia has the longest coastline on Africa's mainland.<a href="#cite_note-FactbookCoastline2-17">[15]</a> Somalia has an estimated population of 18.1 million,<a href="#cite_note-UN_WPP-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-UN_WPP_2022-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> of which 2.7 million live in the capital and largest city, <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>. Around 85% of its residents are ethnic <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somalis</a> and the official languages of the country are <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, though the former is the primary language. Somalia has historic and religious ties to the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> As such the people in Somalia are <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>,<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> the majority of them <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Abdullahi_2001_12-23">[21]</a> In antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial center.<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> During the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the <a href="/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Sultanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_the_Geledi" title="Sultanate of the Geledi">Sultanate of the Geledi</a>. In the late 19th century, Somali <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">sultanates</a> were colonized by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> Empires,<a href="#cite_note-Truhart,_P._1984_pp.72-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> who merged all of these tribal territories into two <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">colonies</a>: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Issa-Salwe2-30">[28]</a> In 1960, the two territories united to form the independent <a href="/wiki/Somali_Republic" title="Somali Republic">Somali Republic</a> under a civilian government.<a href="#cite_note-Illustrated_Library_1967_338.2-31">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Revolutionary_Council_(Somalia)" title="Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)">Supreme Revolutionary Council</a> (SRC) seized power in 1969 and established the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somali Democratic Republic</a>, brutally attempting to squash the <a href="/wiki/Somaliland_War_of_Independence" title="Somaliland War of Independence">Somaliland War of Independence</a> in the north of the country.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> The SRC collapsed in 1991 with the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Transitional_National_Government_of_Somalia" title="Transitional National Government of Somalia">Transitional National Government of Somalia</a> (TNG) was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government_of_Somalia" title="Transitional Federal Government of Somalia">Transitional Federal Government of Somalia</a> (TFG) in 2004, which reestablished the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Armed_Forces" title="Somali Armed Forces">Somali Armed Forces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nytsnnpm-34">[32]</a> At the end of 2006, a <a href="/wiki/War_in_Somalia_(2006%E2%80%932009)" title="War in Somalia (2006–2009)">US-backed Ethiopian invasion</a> overthrew the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Courts_Union" title="Islamic Courts Union">Islamic Courts Union</a> (ICU), leading to the installation of the <a href="/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government_of_Somalia" title="Transitional Federal Government of Somalia">TFG</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> under an Ethiopian <a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">military occupation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mueller-2018-36">[34]</a> The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">insurgency</a> which emerged saw the ICU fragment into various rebel factions, including the hardline group <a href="/wiki/Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)" title="Al-Shabaab (militant group)">al-Shabaab</a>, which waged a protracted conflict against Ethiopian forces.<a href="#cite_note-Mueller-2018-36">[34]</a> al-Shabaab soon began asserting territorial control for the first time,<a href="#cite_note-Cook-2023-37">[35]</a> and by late 2008 the insurgency had driven the Ethiopian army out of much of Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-Samatar-2013-38">[36]</a> In 2009, a new TFG government was established.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-:35-40">[38]</a> By mid-2012, al-Shabaab lost most of its territories during fighting against the TFG and <a href="/wiki/African_Union_Mission_to_Somalia" title="African Union Mission to Somalia">African Union troops</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Aasratdocwau2-41">[39]</a> That same year, al-Shabaab pledged allegiance to <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">Al-Qaeda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> The insurgents still control much of central and southern Somalia,<a href="#cite_note-:1-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-44">[42]</a> and wield influence in government-controlled areas,<a href="#cite_note-:2-44">[42]</a> with the town of <a href="/wiki/Jilib" title="Jilib">Jilib</a> acting as the de facto capital for the insurgents.<a href="#cite_note-:1-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> A new provisional <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Somalia" title="Constitution of Somalia">constitution</a> was passed in August 2012,<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> reforming Somalia as a <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> The same month, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Government_of_Somalia" title="Federal Government of Somalia">Federal Government of Somalia</a> was formed<a href="#cite_note-Fcacsunesinpshm2-49">[47]</a> and a period of reconstruction began in Mogadishu, despite al-Shabaab frequently carrying out <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu_bombings_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Mogadishu bombings (disambiguation)">attacks there</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Aasratdocwau2-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> Somalia is among the <a href="/wiki/Least_developed_countries" title="Least developed countries">least developed countries</a> in the world, as evidenced by its ranking in metrics such as <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita">GDP per capita</a>,<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">Human Development Index</a>,<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Fragile_States_Index" title="List of countries by Fragile States Index">Fragile States Index</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> It has maintained an <a href="/wiki/Informal_economy" title="Informal economy">informal economy</a> mainly based on livestock, remittances from <a href="/wiki/Somali_diaspora" title="Somali diaspora">Somalis working abroad</a>, and telecommunications.<a href="#cite_note-Cbsef2-54">[52]</a> It is a member of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>,<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a>,<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a>,<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/East_African_Community" title="East African Community">East African Community</a>,<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">History of Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laas_Geel_single_cow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Laas_Geel_single_cow.jpg/220px-Laas_Geel_single_cow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Laas_Geel_single_cow.jpg/330px-Laas_Geel_single_cow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Laas_Geel_single_cow.jpg/440px-Laas_Geel_single_cow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Neolithic rock art at the <a href="/wiki/Laas_Geel" title="Laas Geel">Laas Geel</a> complex depicting a long-horned cow</figcaption></figure> Somalia was likely one of the first lands to be settled by early humans due to its location. <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">Hunter-gatherers</a> who would later migrate out of Africa likely settled here before their migrations.<a href="#cite_note-:0-61">[59]</a> During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterized in 1909 as important artifacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> According to linguists, the first <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a>-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period from the family's proposed <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_Urheimat" class="mw-redirect" title="Afroasiatic Urheimat">urheimat</a> ("original homeland") in the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Laas_Geel" title="Laas Geel">Laas Geel</a> complex on the outskirts of <a href="/wiki/Hargeisa" title="Hargeisa">Hargeisa</a> in northwestern Somalia dates back approximately 5,000 years, and has <a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">rock art</a> depicting both wild animals and decorated cows.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> Other <a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">cave paintings</a> are found in the northern <a href="/wiki/Dhambalin" title="Dhambalin">Dhambalin</a> region, which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is dated to 1,000 to 3,000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> Additionally, between the towns of <a href="/wiki/Las_Khorey" title="Las Khorey">Las Khorey</a> and <a href="/wiki/El_Ayo" title="El Ayo">El Ayo</a> in northern Somalia lies <a href="/wiki/Karinhegane" title="Karinhegane">Karinhegane</a>, the site of numerous cave paintings, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity_and_classical_era">Antiquity and classical era</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Somali_Architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali Architecture">Somali Architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Men_from_Punt_Carrying_Gifts,_Tomb_of_Rekhmire_MET_30.4.152_EGDP013029.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Men_from_Punt_Carrying_Gifts%2C_Tomb_of_Rekhmire_MET_30.4.152_EGDP013029.jpg/220px-Men_from_Punt_Carrying_Gifts%2C_Tomb_of_Rekhmire_MET_30.4.152_EGDP013029.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Men_from_Punt_Carrying_Gifts%2C_Tomb_of_Rekhmire_MET_30.4.152_EGDP013029.jpg/330px-Men_from_Punt_Carrying_Gifts%2C_Tomb_of_Rekhmire_MET_30.4.152_EGDP013029.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Men_from_Punt_Carrying_Gifts%2C_Tomb_of_Rekhmire_MET_30.4.152_EGDP013029.jpg/440px-Men_from_Punt_Carrying_Gifts%2C_Tomb_of_Rekhmire_MET_30.4.152_EGDP013029.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1497" /></a><figcaption>Men from <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Punt</a> carrying Gifts, Tomb of <a href="/wiki/Rekhmire" title="Rekhmire">Rekhmire</a>.</figcaption></figure> Ancient <a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">pyramidical</a> structures, <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum" title="Mausoleum">mausoleums</a>, ruined cities and stone walls, such as the <a href="/wiki/Wargaade_Wall" title="Wargaade Wall">Wargaade Wall</a>, are evidence of an old civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-Nthos-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> This civilization enjoyed a trading relationship with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a> since the second millennium BCE, supporting the hypothesis that Somalia or adjacent regions were the location of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nthos-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> The Puntites native to the region traded <a href="/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">myrrh</a>, spices, gold, ebony, short-horned cattle, ivory and <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a> with the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt">18th dynasty</a> Queen <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a> is recorded on the temple reliefs at <a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Bahari" title="Deir el-Bahari">Deir el-Bahari</a>, during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati.<a href="#cite_note-Nthos-76">[74]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical era</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Macrobians" title="Macrobians">Macrobians</a>, who may have been ancestral to Somalis, established a powerful kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men".<a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_pg_526-79">[77]</a> The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Emperor">Persian Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a>, upon his <a href="/wiki/History_of_Achaemenid_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Achaemenid Egypt">conquest of Egypt</a> in 525 BC, sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.<a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_pg_526-79">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kitto2-80">[78]</a> The Macrobians were a regional power reputed for their advanced architecture and <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> wealth, which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains.<a href="#cite_note-Kitto2-80">[78]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camel</a> is believed to have been domesticated in the Horn region sometime between the 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE. From there, it spread to <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> During the classical period, the <a href="/wiki/Barbaria_(region)" title="Barbaria (region)">Barbara</a> city-states of <a href="/wiki/Mosylon" title="Mosylon">Mosylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heis_(town)" title="Heis (town)">Mundus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulhar" title="Bulhar">Isis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zeila" title="Zeila">Avalites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikon_(Somalia)" title="Nikon (Somalia)">Nikon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a> developed a lucrative trade network, connecting with merchants from <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Saba</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the <a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">beden</a> to transport their cargo. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Beden.jpg/220px-Beden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Beden.jpg/330px-Beden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Beden.jpg/440px-Beden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a> is a fast, ancient Somali single or double-masted maritime ship.</figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Nabatea#Roman_annexation" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabatea">Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire</a> and the Roman naval presence at <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a> to curb piracy, Arab and Somali merchants agreed with the Romans to bar Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the lucrative commerce between the Red and Mediterranean Seas.<a href="#cite_note-EHW-83">[81]</a> However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from Roman interference.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> For centuries, Indian merchants brought large quantities of cinnamon to Somalia and Arabia from <a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Spice Islands</a>. The source of the cinnamon and other spices is said to have been the best-kept secret of Arab and Somali merchants in their trade with the Roman and Greek world; the Romans and Greeks believed the source to have been the Somali peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> The collusive agreement among Somali and Arab traders inflated the price of Indian and Chinese cinnamon in North Africa, the Near East, and Europe, and made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants.<a href="#cite_note-EHW-83">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birth_of_Islam_and_the_Middle_Ages">Birth of Islam and the Middle Ages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Somali_aristocratic_and_court_titles" title="Somali aristocratic and court titles">Somali aristocratic and court titles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifat_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ifat Sultanate">Ifat Sultanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walashma_dynasty" title="Walashma dynasty">Walashma dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Mogadishu" title="Sultanate of Mogadishu">Sultanate of Mogadishu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Sultanate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silk_route.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/300px-Silk_route.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/450px-Silk_route.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/600px-Silk_route.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2868" data-file-height="1866" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> extending from China to southern Europe, Arabia, Somalia, Egypt, Persia, India, and Java</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> was introduced to the area early on by the first Muslims of Mecca fleeing prosecution during the first <a href="/wiki/Hegira" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegira">Hejira</a> with <a href="/wiki/Masjid_al-Qiblatayn_(Somalia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Masjid al-Qiblatayn (Somalia)">Masjid al-Qiblatayn</a> in <a href="/wiki/Zeila" title="Zeila">Zeila</a> being built before the <a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">Qiblah</a> towards <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. It is one of the oldest <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosques</a> in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> In the late 9th century, <a href="/wiki/Al-Yaqubi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Yaqubi">Al-Yaqubi</a> wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard.<a href="#cite_note-Encyamer-3">[3]</a> He also mentioned that the <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Kingdom</a> had its capital in the city.<a href="#cite_note-Encyamer-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lewispohoa-87">[85]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Leo_Africanus" title="Leo Africanus">Leo Africanus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a> was governed by local <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali</a> dynasties and its realm encompassed the geographical area between the Bab el Mandeb and Cape Guardafui. It was thus flanked to the south by the <a href="/wiki/Ajuran_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajuran Empire">Ajuran Empire</a> and to the west by the <a href="/wiki/Abyssinian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssinian Empire">Abyssinian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Leo-88">[86]</a> Throughout the Middle Ages, Arab immigrants arrived in Somaliland, a historical experience which would later lead to the legendary stories about Muslim <a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">sheikhs</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Abdirahman_bin_Isma%27il_al-Jabarti" title="Abdirahman bin Isma'il al-Jabarti">Daarood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ishaaq_bin_Ahmed" title="Ishaaq bin Ahmed">Ishaaq bin Ahmed</a> (the purported ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Darod" title="Darod">Darod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaaq" title="Isaaq">Isaaq</a> clans, respectively) travelling from <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> to Somalia and marrying into the local <a href="/wiki/Dir_(clan)" title="Dir (clan)">Dir</a> clan.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis1994-89">[87]</a> In 1332, the Zeila-based King of Adal was slain in a military campaign aimed at halting Abyssinian emperor <a href="/wiki/Amda_Seyon_I" title="Amda Seyon I">Amda Seyon I</a>'s march toward the city.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> When the last Sultan of Ifat, <a href="/wiki/Sa%27ad_ad-Din_II" title="Sa'ad ad-Din II">Sa'ad ad-Din II</a>, was also killed by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Dawit_I_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawit I of Ethiopia">Dawit I</a> in Zeila in 1410, his children escaped to Yemen, before returning in 1415.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of <a href="/wiki/Dakkar" title="Dakkar">Dakkar</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Sabr_ad-Din_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabr ad-Din II">Sabr ad-Din II</a>, the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lewispd-93">[91]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Imaam_Ahmed_Gurey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Imaam_Ahmed_Gurey.jpg/220px-Imaam_Ahmed_Gurey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Imaam_Ahmed_Gurey.jpg/330px-Imaam_Ahmed_Gurey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Imaam_Ahmed_Gurey.jpg/440px-Imaam_Ahmed_Gurey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1584" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Ibrahim_al-Ghazi" title="Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi">Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">Imam</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Empire</a></figcaption></figure> Adal's headquarters were again relocated the following century, this time southward to <a href="/wiki/Harar" title="Harar">Harar</a>. From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Ibrahim_al-Ghazi" title="Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi">Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi</a> (Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran"; both meaning "the left-handed") and his closest top general <a href="/wiki/Garad_Hirabu_Goita_Tedros" title="Garad Hirabu Goita Tedros">Garad Hirabu "Emir Of The Somalis</a> that invaded the Abyssinian empire.<a href="#cite_note-Lewispd-93">[91]</a> This 16th-century campaign is historically known as the <a href="/wiki/Abyssinian%E2%80%93Adal_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssinian–Adal war">Conquest of Abyssinia</a> (Futuh al-Habash). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire, which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their Portuguese allies led by <a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3v%C3%A3o_da_Gama" title="Cristóvão da Gama">Cristóvão da Gama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Sultanate</a> period, the city-states and republics of <a href="/wiki/Merca" title="Merca">Merca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barawa" title="Barawa">Barawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hobyo" title="Hobyo">Hobyo</a> and their respective ports flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and from Arabia, India, <a href="/wiki/Venetia_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Venetia (region)">Venetia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> Persia, Egypt, Portugal, and as far away as China. <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses several storeys high and large palaces in its centre, in addition to many mosques with cylindrical minarets.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Harla_people" title="Harla people">Harla</a>, an early <a href="/wiki/Hamitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamitic">Hamitic</a> group of tall stature who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in the Horn, also erected various <a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">tumuli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> These masons are believed to have been ancestral to ethnic Somalis.<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg/135px-ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg/203px-ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg/270px-ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1741" data-file-height="3449" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Sultanate</a> maintained commercial ties with the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> and other kingdoms.</figcaption></figure> In the 16th century, <a href="/wiki/Duarte_Barbosa" title="Duarte Barbosa">Duarte Barbosa</a> noted that many ships from the <a href="/wiki/Khambhat" title="Khambhat">Kingdom of Cambaya</a> in modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloth and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> Mogadishu, the center of a thriving textile industry known as toob benadir (specialized for the markets in Egypt, among other places<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a>), together with Merca and Barawa, also served as a transit stop for <a href="/wiki/Swahili_people" title="Swahili people">Swahili</a> merchants from <a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malindi" title="Malindi">Malindi</a> and for the gold trade from <a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Sultanate" title="Kilwa Sultanate">Kilwa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> merchants from the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuz" title="Strait of Hormuz">Hormuz</a> brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for <a href="/wiki/Grain" title="Grain">grain</a> and wood.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> Trading relations were established with <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> in the 15th century,<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> with cloth, ambergris and porcelain being the main commodities of the trade.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the <a href="/wiki/Ming_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Empire">Ming Empire</a> of China, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between East Asia and the Horn.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> Hindu merchants from <a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a> and Southeast African merchants from <a href="/wiki/Pate_Island" title="Pate Island">Pate</a>, seeking to bypass both the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a> blockade ( and later the Omani interference), used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' direct jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_era_and_the_scramble_for_Africa">Early modern era and the scramble for Africa</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Geledi_sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Geledi sultanate">Geledi sultanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Majeerteen_Sultanate" title="Majeerteen Sultanate">Isaaq Sultanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Hobyo" title="Sultanate of Hobyo">Sultanate of Hobyo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dervish_movement_(Somali)" title="Dervish movement (Somali)">Dervish movement (Somali)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mogadishu1936.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Mogadishu1936.jpg/220px-Mogadishu1936.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Mogadishu1936.jpg/330px-Mogadishu1936.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Mogadishu1936.jpg/440px-Mogadishu1936.jpg 2x" data-file-width="565" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mogadishu_under_Italian_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Mogadishu under Italian rule">Mogadishu</a>, capital of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Mogadiscio_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Mogadiscio Cathedral">Catholic Cathedral</a> at the center and the Arch monument in honor of <a href="/wiki/Umberto_I_of_Italy" title="Umberto I of Italy">King Umberto I of Italy</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reception_of_Olal_Dinle_in_Italy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Reception_of_Olal_Dinle_in_Italy.jpg/261px-Reception_of_Olal_Dinle_in_Italy.jpg" decoding="async" width="261" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Reception_of_Olal_Dinle_in_Italy.jpg/392px-Reception_of_Olal_Dinle_in_Italy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Reception_of_Olal_Dinle_in_Italy.jpg/522px-Reception_of_Olal_Dinle_in_Italy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Sultan <a href="/wiki/Olol_Dinle" title="Olol Dinle">Olol Dinle</a> (third from right) and his delegation, in <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>'s Italy, during the festivities of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s visit to <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, 1938</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> period, successor states to the Adal Sultanate and <a href="/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Sultanate</a> began to flourish in Somalia. These included the <a href="/wiki/Hiraab_Imamate" title="Hiraab Imamate">Hiraab Imamate</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq Sultanate</a> led by the <a href="/wiki/Guled_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Guled Dynasty">Guled dynasty</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:13-107">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Habr_Yunis_Sultanate" title="Habr Yunis Sultanate">Habr Yunis Sultanate</a> led by the <a href="/wiki/Rer_Ainanshe" class="mw-redirect" title="Rer Ainanshe">Ainanshe dynasty</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Truhart,_P._1984_pp.72-26">[24]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_the_Geledi" title="Sultanate of the Geledi">Sultanate of the Geledi</a> (Gobroon dynasty), the <a href="/wiki/Majeerteen_Sultanate" title="Majeerteen Sultanate">Majeerteen Sultanate</a> (Migiurtinia), and the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Hobyo" title="Sultanate of Hobyo">Sultanate of Hobyo</a> (Obbia). They continued the tradition of castle-building and seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires. Sultan <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Mahamud_Ibrahim" title="Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim">Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim</a>, the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started the golden age of the Gobroon Dynasty. His army came out victorious during the Bardheere Jihad, which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East African <a href="/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">ivory trade</a>. He also had cordial relations and received gifts from the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as the Omani, <a href="/wiki/Wituland" title="Wituland">Witu</a> and Yemeni Sultans. Sultan Ibrahim's son <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Yusuf_(Gobroon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)">Ahmed Yusuf</a> succeeded him as one of the most important figures in 19th-century East Africa, receiving tribute from Omani governors and creating alliances with important Muslim families on the East African coast. In <a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a>, the Isaaq Sultanate was established in 1750. The Isaaq Sultanate was a <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali</a> kingdom that ruled parts of the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> during the 18th and 19th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-:13-107">[105]</a> It spanned the territories of the <a href="/wiki/Isaaq" title="Isaaq">Isaaq</a> clan, descendants of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">Banu Hashim</a> clan,<a href="#cite_note-Lewisapd-109">[107]</a> in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>. The sultanate was governed by the Rer Guled branch established by the first sultan, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Guled_Abdi_(Sultan)" title="Guled Abdi (Sultan)">Guled Abdi</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/Eidagale" title="Eidagale">Eidagale</a> clan.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the <a href="/wiki/Isaaq" title="Isaaq">Isaaq</a> clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of <a href="/wiki/Ishaaq_bin_Ahmed" title="Ishaaq bin Ahmed">Sheikh Ishaaq</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Harari_people" title="Harari people">Harari</a> wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun (<a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>: Boqor Haaruun) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a> The last Tolje'lo ruler <a href="/wiki/Garad" title="Garad">Garad</a> Dhuh Barar (<a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>: Dhuux Baraar) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the <a href="/wiki/Habr_Awal" title="Habr Awal">Habr Awal</a> with whom they still mostly live.<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> In the late 19th century, after the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> of 1884, European powers began the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>. In that year, a British protectorate was declared over part of Somalia, on the African coast opposite South Yemen.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA2-117">[115]</a> Initially, this region was under the control of the Indian Office, and so administered as part of the Indian Empire; in 1898 it was transferred to control by London.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA2-117">[115]</a> In 1889, the protectorate and later colony of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Somalia">Italian Somalia</a> was officially established by <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a> through various treaties signed with a number of chiefs and sultans;<a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> Sultan <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Ali_Kenadid" title="Yusuf Ali Kenadid">Yusuf Ali Kenadid</a> first sent a request to Italy in late December 1888 to make his <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Hobyo" title="Sultanate of Hobyo">Sultanate of Hobyo</a> an Italian protectorate before later signing a treaty in 1889.<a href="#cite_note-Oliver-119">[117]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hobyo_Sultanate_Cavalry_And_Fort.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Hobyo_Sultanate_Cavalry_And_Fort.jpg/220px-Hobyo_Sultanate_Cavalry_And_Fort.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Hobyo_Sultanate_Cavalry_And_Fort.jpg/330px-Hobyo_Sultanate_Cavalry_And_Fort.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Hobyo_Sultanate_Cavalry_And_Fort.jpg/440px-Hobyo_Sultanate_Cavalry_And_Fort.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Hobyo" title="Sultanate of Hobyo">Hobyo Sultanate</a> cavalry and fort</figcaption></figure> The Dervish movement successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dervish_movement_(Somali)" title="Dervish movement (Somali)">Darawiish</a> defeated the Italian, British, Abyssinian colonial powers on numerous occasions, most notably, the 1903 victory at Cagaarweyne commanded by <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_Aden_Galaydh" title="Suleiman Aden Galaydh">Suleiman Aden Galaydh</a>,<a href="#cite_note-kenna2-121">[119]</a> forcing the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> to retreat to the coastal region in the early 1900s.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> The Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 by British airpower.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamatar1982[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoralpoetrysomali00samapagen144_131],_135-123">[121]</a> The dawn of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy, as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of La Grande Somalia ("<a href="/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia">Greater Somalia</a>") according to the plan of Fascist Italy. With the arrival of Governor <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Maria_De_Vecchi" title="Cesare Maria De Vecchi">Cesare Maria De Vecchi</a> on 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of Somaliland known as <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a>. The last piece of land acquired by Italy in Somalia was <a href="/wiki/Oltre_Giuba" title="Oltre Giuba">Oltre Giuba</a>, present-day <a href="/wiki/Jubaland" title="Jubaland">Jubaland</a> region, in 1925.<a href="#cite_note-Oliver-119">[117]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg/170px-Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg/255px-Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg/340px-Sayyid_Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="584" data-file-height="871" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Abdullah_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Abdullah Hassan">Muhammed Abdullah Hassan</a>, Leader of the <a href="/wiki/Dervish_movement_(Somali)" title="Dervish movement (Somali)">Dervishes</a></figcaption></figure>The Italians began local infrastructure projects, including the construction of hospitals, farms and schools.<a href="#cite_note-cdtydiydc-124">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy#Fascist_regime_(1922–1943)" title="Kingdom of Italy">Fascist Italy</a>, under <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>, attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, with an aim to colonize it. The invasion was condemned by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, but little was done to stop it or to liberate occupied Ethiopia. In 1936, Italian Somalia was integrated into <a href="/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a>, alongside Eritrea and Ethiopia, as the <a href="/wiki/Somalia_Governorate" title="Somalia Governorate">Somalia Governorate</a>. On 3 August 1940, Italian troops, including Somali colonial units, crossed from Ethiopia to <a href="/wiki/Italian_conquest_of_British_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian conquest of British Somaliland">invade British Somaliland</a>, and by 14 August, succeeded in taking <a href="/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> from the British.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A British force, including troops from several African countries, launched the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">campaign in January 1941</a> from Kenya to liberate British Somaliland and Italian-occupied Ethiopia and conquer Italian Somaliland. By February most of Italian Somaliland was captured and, in March, British Somaliland was retaken from the sea. The forces of the British Empire operating in Somaliland comprised the three divisions of South African, West African, and East African troops. They were assisted by Somali forces led by Abdulahi Hassan with Somalis of the <a href="/wiki/Isaaq" title="Isaaq">Isaaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dhulbahante" title="Dhulbahante">Dhulbahante</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Warsangali" title="Warsangali">Warsangali</a> clans prominently participating. The number of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somalis" title="Italian Somalis">Italian Somalis</a> began to decline after World War II, with fewer than 10,000 remaining in 1960.<a href="#cite_note-Tripodi1999-125">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independence_(1960–1969)">Independence (1960–1969)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_Somaliland" title="Trust Territory of Somaliland">Trust Territory of Somaliland</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_of_Somaliland" title="State of Somaliland">State of Somaliland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Republic" title="Somali Republic">Somali Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia">Greater Somalia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Somali_Youth_League" title="Somali Youth League">Somali Youth League</a></div> Following World War II, Britain retained control of both <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a> and Italian Somaliland as protectorates. In 1945, during the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a>, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland as the <a href="/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_Somaliland" title="Trust Territory of Somaliland">Trust Territory of Somaliland</a>, on the condition first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL)—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.<a href="#cite_note-Zolberg-126">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> British Somaliland remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.<a href="#cite_note-Tripodi1999-125">[123]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isaaq_Chiefs_Hargeisa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Isaaq_Chiefs_Hargeisa.jpg/170px-Isaaq_Chiefs_Hargeisa.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Isaaq_Chiefs_Hargeisa.jpg/255px-Isaaq_Chiefs_Hargeisa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Isaaq_Chiefs_Hargeisa.jpg/340px-Isaaq_Chiefs_Hargeisa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1279" data-file-height="1137" /></a><figcaption>Leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Isaaq" title="Isaaq">Isaaq</a> clan photographed in <a href="/wiki/Hargeisa" title="Hargeisa">Hargeisa</a> in 1958 during the Duke & Duchess of Gloucester's visit to Somaliland</figcaption></figure> To the extent that <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in Western political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated in political administrative development. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would later cause serious difficulties integrating the two parts.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg/170px-Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg/255px-Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg/340px-Mogadishu_city_centre_-_1960s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="464" data-file-height="587" /></a><figcaption>An avenue in downtown <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> in 1963</figcaption></figure>Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis,<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> the British returned the <a href="/wiki/Haud" title="Haud">Haud</a> (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably protected by British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Region" title="Somali Region">Somali Region</a> to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor <a href="/wiki/Menelek_II_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Menelek II of Ethiopia">Menelik</a> in exchange for his help against possible advances by the French.<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> Britain included the conditional provision that the Somali residents would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over the area. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over.<a href="#cite_note-Zolberg-126">[124]</a> Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited <a href="/wiki/Northern_Frontier_District" title="Northern Frontier District">Northern Frontier District</a> (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists.<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> This was despite a <a href="/wiki/Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebiscite">plebiscite</a> in which, according to a British colonial commission, almost all of the territory's ethnic Somalis favored joining the newly formed Somali Republic.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> A <a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland_overseas_territory_referendum,_1958" class="mw-redirect" title="French Somaliland overseas territory referendum, 1958">referendum</a> was held in neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> (then known as <a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland" title="French Somaliland">French Somaliland</a>) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable <a href="/wiki/Afar_people" title="Afar people">Afar</a> ethnic group and resident Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-Barrington2006-134">[132]</a> There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> The majority of those who voted 'no' were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by <a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Harbi" title="Mahmoud Harbi">Mahmoud Harbi</a>, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.<a href="#cite_note-Barrington2006-134">[132]</a> Djibouti finally gained independence from <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> in 1977, and <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Gouled_Aptidon" title="Hassan Gouled Aptidon">Hassan Gouled Aptidon</a>, a Somali who had campaigned for a 'yes' vote in the referendum of 1976, eventually became Djibouti's first president (1977–1999).<a href="#cite_note-Barrington2006-134">[132]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Aden_Adde_alongside_Prime_minister_Sharmarke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/President_Aden_Adde_alongside_Prime_minister_Sharmarke.jpg/220px-President_Aden_Adde_alongside_Prime_minister_Sharmarke.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/President_Aden_Adde_alongside_Prime_minister_Sharmarke.jpg/330px-President_Aden_Adde_alongside_Prime_minister_Sharmarke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/President_Aden_Adde_alongside_Prime_minister_Sharmarke.jpg/440px-President_Aden_Adde_alongside_Prime_minister_Sharmarke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="552" data-file-height="426" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aden_Adde" title="Aden Adde">President Aden Adde</a> alongside <a href="/wiki/Abdirashid_Shermarke" title="Abdirashid Shermarke">Prime Minister Abdirashiid Ali Sharmarke</a> praying <a href="/wiki/Eid_prayers" title="Eid prayers">Eid</a> in 1964 at <a href="/wiki/Arba%27a_Rukun_Mosque" title="Arba'a Rukun Mosque">Arba'a Rukun Mosque</a></figcaption></figure> On 1 July 1960, five days after the former British Somaliland protectorate obtained independence as the State of Somaliland, the territory united with the Trust Territory of Somaliland to form the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Republic" title="Somali Republic">Somali Republic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopædia_Britannica_2002_p.835-136">[134]</a> albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> A government was formed by <a href="/wiki/Abdullahi_Issa" title="Abdullahi Issa">Abdullahi Issa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Haji_Ibrahim_Egal" title="Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal">Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal</a> with other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with <a href="/wiki/Abdulcadir_Muhammed_Aden" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulcadir Muhammed Aden">Abdulcadir Muhammed Aden</a> as President of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliament of Somalia">Somali National Assembly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aden_Abdullah_Osman_Daar" class="mw-redirect" title="Aden Abdullah Osman Daar">Aden Abdullah Osman Daar</a> as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of Somalia">President</a> of the Somali Republic, and <a href="/wiki/Abdirashid_Ali_Shermarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdirashid Ali Shermarke">Abdirashid Ali Shermarke</a> as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">Prime Minister</a> (later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a <a href="/wiki/Somali_constitutional_referendum,_1961" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali constitutional referendum, 1961">popular referendum</a>, was ratified popularly by the people of Somalia under Italian trusteeship, Most of the people from the former Somaliland Protectorate did not participate in the referendum, although only a small number of Somalilanders who participated the referendum voted against the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Somalia" title="Constitution of Somalia">new constitution</a>,<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> which was first drafted in 1960.<a href="#cite_note-Illustrated_Library_1967_338.2-31">[29]</a> In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous <a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a> region in northwestern Somalia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Somali_Democratic_Republic_(1969–1991)">Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somali Democratic Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/1969_Somali_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Somali coup d'état">1969 Somali coup d'état</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coup_d'Etat">Coup d'Etat</h3></div> On the 15th of October, while president Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke was touring drought-stricken Las Anood, his personal bodyguard shot and killed him. Former Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> concluded that the bodyguard was acting of his own accord.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> Six days later, on the 21st of October, General Siad led a military coup and successfully overthrew the parliamentary government. Modern political analysts assert that the coup was motivated by corruption in the parliamentary government.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> The bodyguard was tried, tortured and executed by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Revolutionary_Council_(Somalia)" title="Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)">Supreme Revolutionary Council</a>. He came from the same clan background as the President who he killed.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohamed_Ainanshe_and_Kim_Il_Sung_-1970.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Mohamed_Ainanshe_and_Kim_Il_Sung_-1970.jpg/250px-Mohamed_Ainanshe_and_Kim_Il_Sung_-1970.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Mohamed_Ainanshe_and_Kim_Il_Sung_-1970.jpg/375px-Mohamed_Ainanshe_and_Kim_Il_Sung_-1970.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Mohamed_Ainanshe_and_Kim_Il_Sung_-1970.jpg/500px-Mohamed_Ainanshe_and_Kim_Il_Sung_-1970.jpg 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="646" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Ainanshe_Guled" title="Mohamed Ainanshe Guled">Mohamed Ainanshe Guled</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> meeting President <a href="/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung" title="Kim Il Sung">Kim Il Sung</a> 1970 </figcaption></figure> Alongside Barre, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Revolutionary_Council_(Somalia)" title="Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)">Supreme Revolutionary Council</a> (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Ainanshe_Guled" title="Mohamed Ainanshe Guled">Mohamed Ainanshe Guled</a>, Lieutenant Colonel <a href="/wiki/Salaad_Gabeyre_Kediye" title="Salaad Gabeyre Kediye">Salaad Gabeyre Kediye</a> and Chief of Police <a href="/wiki/Jama_Ali_Korshel" title="Jama Ali Korshel">Jama Korshel</a>. Kediye officially held the title "Father of the Revolution", and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic,<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grolierenc-145">[143]</a> dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.<a href="#cite_note-Pjdlfw-146">[144]</a> The revolutionary government established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. The Somali Democratic Republic achieved a literacy rate of 70%, one of the highest in Africa at the time.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, eventually joining the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> in February, 1974.<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a> (OAU), the predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> (AU).<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Revolutionary_Socialist_Party" title="Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party">Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party</a> (SRSP), a one-party government based on <a href="/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">scientific socialism</a> and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion by <a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">adapting Marxist precepts</a> to local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was essentially <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pjdlfw-146">[144]</a> In July 1977, the <a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a> broke out after Barre's government used a plea for national unity to justify an <a href="/wiki/War_of_aggression" title="War of aggression">aggressive</a> incorporation of the predominantly Somali-inhabited <a href="/wiki/Ogaden" title="Ogaden">Ogaden</a> region of Ethiopia into a Pan-Somali <a href="/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia">Greater Somalia</a>, along with the rich agricultural lands of south-eastern Ethiopia, infrastructure, and strategically important areas as far north as Djibouti.<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces took southern and central Ogaden and for most of the war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army and followed them as far as <a href="/wiki/Sidamo_Province" title="Sidamo Province">Sidamo</a>. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as <a href="/wiki/Jijiga" title="Jijiga">Jijiga</a> and put heavy pressure on <a href="/wiki/Dire_Dawa" title="Dire Dawa">Dire Dawa</a>, threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of Harar, a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuban</a> forces and several thousand Soviet experts came to the aid of Ethiopia's communist <a href="/wiki/Derg" title="Derg">Derg</a> regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviets' <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> arch-rival, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, which had been courting the Somali government for some time. Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Ramsbotham_222-152">[150]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muhammad_Siad_Barre_-_40866X9X9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Muhammad_Siad_Barre_-_40866X9X9.jpg/220px-Muhammad_Siad_Barre_-_40866X9X9.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Muhammad_Siad_Barre_-_40866X9X9.jpg/330px-Muhammad_Siad_Barre_-_40866X9X9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Muhammad_Siad_Barre_-_40866X9X9.jpg/440px-Muhammad_Siad_Barre_-_40866X9X9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1267" data-file-height="892" /></a><figcaption>Major General <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Siad_Barre" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohamed Siad Barre">Mohamed Siad Barre</a>, Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Revolutionary_Council_(Somalia)" title="Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)">Supreme Revolutionary Council</a>, meeting with President of Romania <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C5%9Fescu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolae Ceauşescu">Nicolae Ceauşescu</a></figcaption></figure>A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party <a href="/wiki/Politburo" title="Politburo">politburo</a> continued to rule.<a href="#cite_note-Grolierenc-145">[143]</a> In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.<a href="#cite_note-Pjdlfw-146">[144]</a> By that time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">resistance movements</a>, encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a>. Among the militia groups were the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Salvation_Democratic_Front" title="Somali Salvation Democratic Front">Somali Salvation Democratic Front</a> (SSDF), <a href="/wiki/United_Somali_Congress" title="United Somali Congress">United Somali Congress</a> (USC), <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Movement" title="Somali National Movement">Somali National Movement</a> (SNM) and the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Patriotic_Movement" title="Somali Patriotic Movement">Somali Patriotic Movement</a> (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali Democratic Movement">Somali Democratic Movement</a> (SDM), the <a href="/wiki/Factions_in_the_Somali_Civil_War#Somali_Democratic_Alliance_(SDA)" title="Factions in the Somali Civil War">Somali Democratic Alliance</a> (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Somalia_Civil_War">Somalia Civil War</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia_(1991%E2%80%932006)" title="History of Somalia (1991–2006)">History of Somalia (1991–2006)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaaq_genocide" title="Isaaq genocide">Isaaq genocide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Somaliland_War_of_Independence" title="Somaliland War of Independence">Somaliland War of Independence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Somalia_regions.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the sites related to the Somali civil war [151]"><img alt="Map of the sites related to the Somali civil war [151]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Somalia_regions.png" decoding="async" width="472" height="599" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Map of the sites related to the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali civil war</a> <a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a></figcaption></figure> As the <a href="/wiki/Moral_authority" title="Moral authority">moral authority</a> of Barre's government was gradually eroded, many Somalis became disillusioned with life under military rule. By the mid-1980s, resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communist <a href="/wiki/Derg" title="Derg">Derg</a> administration had sprung up across the country. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those he perceived as locally supporting the guerrillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwestern administrative centre of <a href="/wiki/Hargeisa" title="Hargeisa">Hargeisa</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Movement" title="Somali National Movement">Somali National Movement</a> (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988.<a href="#cite_note-Locsg-154">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> The clampdown initiated by <a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Barre</a>'s government extended its reach beyond the initial bombings in the north to encompass various regions across the country. This reproduction of aggressive strategies aimed at stifling descent and retaining authority over the populace was a hallmark of the government's repressive actions in the South. One of the most notable instances occurred in 1991, when Barre's regime initiated a ruthless arial assault that led to the deaths of numerous innocent individuals in the town of <a href="/wiki/Beledweyne" title="Beledweyne">Beledwene</a>, situated in southern Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> The cruelty and magnitude of this atrocity highlighted the degree to which the government was prepared to go to quash any sort of opposition or resistance, displaying a blatant disregard for human rights and the worth of human life.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> Another notable instance of <a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Barre</a>'s repressive policies occurred in the city of <a href="/wiki/Baidoa" title="Baidoa">Baidoa</a>, which earned the nickname 'the city of death' due to the tragic events that unfolded there during the famine and <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">civil war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> Hundreds of thousands of individuals lost their lives as a consequence of governmental strategies specifically aimed at the <a href="/wiki/Rahanweyn" title="Rahanweyn">Rahanweyn</a> community residing in these areas.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> During 1990, in the capital city of Mogadishu, the residents were prohibited from gathering publicly in groups greater than three or four. Fuel shortages, inflation, and currency devaluation impacted the economy. A thriving black market existed in the centre of the city as banks experienced shortages of local currency for exchange. Harsh <a href="/wiki/Exchange_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Exchange control">exchange control</a> regulations were introduced to prevent export of foreign currency. Although no travel restrictions were placed on foreigners, photographing many locations was banned. During daytime in Mogadishu, the appearance of any government military force was extremely rare. Alleged late-night operations by government authorities, however, included "disappearances" of individuals from their homes.<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> In 1991, the Barre administration was ousted by a coalition of clan-based opposition groups, backed by Ethiopia's then-ruling <a href="/wiki/Derg" title="Derg">Derg</a> regime and <a href="/wiki/Great_Socialist_People%27s_Libyan_Arab_Jamahiriya" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya">Libya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> Following a meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Movement" title="Somali National Movement">Somali National Movement</a> and northern clans' elders, the northern former British portion of the country <a href="/wiki/Somaliland_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Somaliland Declaration of Independence">declared its independence</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Republic of Somaliland</a> in May 1991. Although de facto independent and relatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognized by any foreign government.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mogadishu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mogadishu.jpg/220px-Mogadishu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mogadishu.jpg/330px-Mogadishu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mogadishu.jpg/440px-Mogadishu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="268" /></a><figcaption>Prior to the civil war, Mogadishu was known as the "White pearl of the Indian Ocean".<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a></figcaption></figure> Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre's regime. In the south, armed factions led by USC commanders General <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Farah_Aidid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohamed Farah Aidid">Mohamed Farah Aidid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ali_Mahdi_Mohamed" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Mahdi Mohamed">Ali Mahdi Mohamed</a>, in particular, clashed as each sought to exert authority over the capital.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> In 1991, a multi-phased international conference on Somalia was held in neighbouring Djibouti<a href="#cite_note-Paul_Fricska-166">[164]</a> Owing to the legitimacy bestowed on Muhammad by the Djibouti conference, he was subsequently recognized by the international community as the new President of Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-Paul_Fricska-166">[164]</a> He was not able to exert his authority beyond parts of the capital. Power was instead vied with other faction leaders in the southern half of Somalia and with autonomous sub-national entities in the north.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> The Djibouti conference was followed by two abortive agreements for national reconciliation and disarmament, which were signed by 15 political stakeholders: an agreement to hold an Informal Preparatory Meeting on National Reconciliation, and the 1993 Addis Ababa Agreement made at the Conference on National Reconciliation.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the early 1990s, due to the protracted lack of a permanent central authority, Somalia began to be characterized as a "<a href="/wiki/Failed_state" title="Failed state">failed state</a>".<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transitional_institutions">Transitional institutions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Transitional_National_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional National Government">Transitional National Government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Institutions">Transitional Federal Institutions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Government">Transitional Federal Government</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Parliament">Transitional Federal Parliament</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed_(28-03-2006).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed_%2828-03-2006%29.jpg/220px-Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed_%2828-03-2006%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed_%2828-03-2006%29.jpg/330px-Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed_%2828-03-2006%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed_%2828-03-2006%29.jpg/440px-Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed_%2828-03-2006%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="1267" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed" title="Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed">Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed</a>, president of the transitional government of Somalia</figcaption></figure> The Transitional National Government (TNG) was established in April–May 2000 at the Somalia National Peace Conference (SNPC) held in Arta, Djibouti. <a href="/wiki/Abdiqasim_Salad_Hassan" title="Abdiqasim Salad Hassan">Abdiqasim Salad Hassan</a> was selected as the President of the nation's new Transitional National Government (TNG), an interim administration formed to guide Somalia to its third permanent republican government.<a href="#cite_note-Cfbsom-171">[169]</a> The TNG's internal problems led to the replacement of the Prime Minister four times in three years, and the administrative body's reported bankruptcy in December 2003. Its mandate ended at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-TNG-PRIME-MINISTER-CONCLUDES-FORMATION-OF-CABINET-172">[170]</a> On 10 October 2004, legislators elected <a href="/wiki/Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed" title="Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed">Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed</a> as the first President of the <a href="/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Government">Transitional Federal Government</a> (TFG), the Transitional National Government's successor.<a href="#cite_note-Spmoarc-173">[171]</a> the TFG was the second interim administration aiming to restore national institutions to Somalia after the 1991 collapse of the Siad Barre regime and the ensuing civil war.<a href="#cite_note-fctbk-174">[172]</a> The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) was the internationally recognised government of Somalia until 20 August 2012, when its tenure officially ended.<a href="#cite_note-Fcacsunesinpshm2-49">[47]</a> It was established as one of the <a href="/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Institutions">Transitional Federal Institutions</a> (TFIs) of government as defined in the <a href="/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Charter">Transitional Federal Charter</a> (TFC) adopted in November 2004 by the <a href="/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitional Federal Parliament">Transitional Federal Parliament</a> (TFP). The Transitional Federal Government officially comprised the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a> branch of government, with the TFP serving as the <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative</a> branch. The government was headed by the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Somalia" title="President of Somalia">President of Somalia</a>, to whom the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_(government)" title="Cabinet (government)">cabinet</a> reported through the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">Prime Minister</a>. However, it was also used as a general term to refer to all three branches collectively.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_Courts_Union">Islamic Courts Union</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Courts_Union" title="Islamic Courts Union">Islamic Courts Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Icu_somalia_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Icu_somalia_map.png/300px-Icu_somalia_map.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="389" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Icu_somalia_map.png/450px-Icu_somalia_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Icu_somalia_map.png/600px-Icu_somalia_map.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3112" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the ICU at the peak of its influence</figcaption></figure> In 2006, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Courts_Union" title="Islamic Courts Union">Islamic Courts Union</a> (ICU), assumed control of much of the southern part of the country for 6 months and imposed <a href="/wiki/Shari%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shari'a">Shari'a</a> law. Top UN officials have referred to this brief period as a 'Golden era' in the history of Somali politics.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transitional_Federal_Government">Transitional Federal Government</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Somalia_War_(2006%E2%80%932009)" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalia War (2006–2009)">Somalia War (2006–2009)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(2006)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (2006)">Battle of Mogadishu (2006)</a></div> The Transitional Federal Government sought to re-establish its authority, and, with the assistance of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_National_Defense_Force" title="Ethiopian National Defense Force">Ethiopian troops</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> peacekeepers and air support by the United States, drove out the ICU and solidified its rule.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> On 8 January 2007, TFG President <a href="/wiki/Abdullahi_Yusuf_Ahmed" title="Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed">Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed</a> entered Mogadishu with the Ethiopian military support for the first time since being elected to office. The government then relocated to <a href="/wiki/Villa_Somalia" title="Villa Somalia">Villa Somalia</a> in the capital from its interim location in <a href="/wiki/Baidoa" title="Baidoa">Baidoa</a>. This marked the first time since the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of the country.<a href="#cite_note-Gosppsdott-178">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Al_Shabaab_insurgency">Al Shabaab insurgency</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)" title="Al-Shabaab (militant group)">Al-Shabaab (militant group)</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Al-Shabaab_(Somalia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Shabaab (Somalia)">Al-Shabaab</a> opposed the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia and continued an insurgency against the TFG. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had forced the Ethiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> Owing to a lack of funding and human resources, an <a href="/wiki/Arms_embargo" title="Arms embargo">arms embargo</a> that made it difficult to re-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, Yusuf found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a> On 29 December 2008, Yusuf announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as President of Somalia. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Yusuf expressed regret at failing to end the country's seventeen-year conflict as his government had been mandated to do.<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> He also blamed the international community for their failure to support the government, and said that the speaker of parliament would succeed him in office per the <a href="/wiki/Transitional_Federal_Charter_of_the_Somali_Republic" title="Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic">Charter of the Transitional Federal Government</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_transitional_period">End of transitional period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hizbul_Islam" title="Hizbul Islam">Hizbul Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahlu_Sunna_Waljama%27a" title="Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a">Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Re-liberation_of_Somalia" title="Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia">Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War_(2009%E2%80%93present)" title="Somali Civil War (2009–present)">Somali Civil War (2009–present)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2009_timeline_of_the_Somali_Civil_War" title="2009 timeline of the Somali Civil War">2009 timeline of the Somali Civil War</a></div> Between 31 May and 9 June 2008, representatives of Somalia's federal government and the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) participated in peace talks in Djibouti brokered by the former United Nations Special Envoy to Somalia, <a href="/wiki/Ahmedou_Ould-Abdallah" title="Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah">Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah</a>. The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Sharif_Sheikh_Ahmed" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed">Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed</a>, as president.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somalia_2023_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="SVG map showing relative control of the central government, Somaliland, and other actors" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somalia_2023_map.jpg/220px-Somalia_2023_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somalia_2023_map.jpg/330px-Somalia_2023_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somalia_2023_map.jpg/440px-Somalia_2023_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="828" data-file-height="1111" /></a><figcaption>Political and military situation in Somalia as of December 2023</figcaption></figure> With the help of a small team of African Union troops, the TFG began a <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War_(2009%E2%80%93present)" title="Somali Civil War (2009–present)">counteroffensive</a> in February 2009 to assume full control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its rule, the TFG formed an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union, other members of the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia, and <a href="/wiki/Ahlu_Sunna_Waljama%27a" title="Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a">Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a</a>, a moderate <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> militia.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> Furthermore, Al-Shabaab and Hizbul Islam, the two main Islamist groups in opposition, began to fight amongst themselves in mid-2009.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> As a truce, in March 2009, the TFG announced that it would re-implement Shari'a as the nation's official judicial system.<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> However, conflict continued in the southern and central parts of the country. Within months, the TFG had gone from holding about 70% of south-central Somalia's conflict zones, to losing control of over 80% of the disputed territory to the Islamist insurgents.<a href="#cite_note-Gosppsdott-178">[176]</a> In October 2011, a coordinated operation, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Linda_Nchi" title="Operation Linda Nchi">Operation Linda Nchi</a> between the Somali and Kenyan militaries and multinational forces began against the Al-Shabaab in southern Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> By September 2012, Somali, Kenyan, and <a href="/wiki/Raskamboni_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Raskamboni movement">Raskamboni</a> forces had managed to capture Al-Shabaab's last major stronghold, the southern port of Kismayo.<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> In July 2012, three European Union operations were launched to engage with Somalia: <a href="/wiki/European_Union_Training_Mission_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union Training Mission Somalia">EUTM Somalia</a>, EU Naval Force Somalia <a href="/wiki/Operation_Atalanta" title="Operation Atalanta">Operation Atalanta</a> off the Horn of Africa, and EUCAP Nestor.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parlament_of_Somalia_2012-2016.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Parlament_of_Somalia_2012-2016.svg/220px-Parlament_of_Somalia_2012-2016.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Parlament_of_Somalia_2012-2016.svg/330px-Parlament_of_Somalia_2012-2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Parlament_of_Somalia_2012-2016.svg/440px-Parlament_of_Somalia_2012-2016.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="185" /></a><figcaption>Structure of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Somalia" title="Federal Parliament of Somalia">Federal Parliament of Somalia</a></figcaption></figure> As part of the official "Roadmap for the End of Transition", a political process that provided clear benchmarks leading toward the formation of permanent democratic institutions in Somalia, the Transitional Federal Government's interim mandate ended on 20 August 2012.<a href="#cite_note-Aasratdocwau2-41">[39]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Somalia" title="Federal Parliament of Somalia">Federal Parliament of Somalia</a> was concurrently inaugurated.<a href="#cite_note-Fcacsunesinpshm2-49">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_government">Federal government</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Government_of_Somalia" title="Federal Government of Somalia">Federal Government of Somalia</a>, the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war, was established in August 2012. In August 2014, the Somali government-led <a href="/wiki/Operation_Indian_Ocean" title="Operation Indian Ocean">Operation Indian Ocean</a> was launched against insurgent-held pockets in the countryside.<a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Somalia" title="Geography of Somalia">Geography of Somalia</a></div> Somalia is bordered <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> to the northwest, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> to the west, the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden" title="Gulf of Aden">Gulf of Aden</a> to the north, the Somali Sea and <a href="/wiki/Guardafui_Channel" title="Guardafui Channel">Guardafui Channel</a> to the east, and <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> to the southwest. With a land area of 637,657 square kilometers, Somalia's terrain consists mainly of <a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">plateaus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">plains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Highland" title="Highland">highlands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-192">[190]</a> <a href="/wiki/Coastline_of_Somalia" title="Coastline of Somalia">Its coastline</a> is more than 3,333 kilometers in length, the longest of mainland Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FactbookCoastline2-17">[15]</a> It has been described as being roughly shaped "like a tilted number seven".<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> In the far north, the rugged east–west ranges of the <a href="/wiki/Ogo_Mountains" title="Ogo Mountains">Ogo Mountains</a> lie at varying distances from the Gulf of Aden coast. Hot conditions prevail year-round, along with periodic <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> winds and irregular rainfall.<a href="#cite_note-ClimateSom-194">[192]</a> Geology suggests the presence of valuable mineral deposits. Somalia is separated from <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> by the Somali Sea and is separated from <a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Guardafui_Channel" title="Guardafui Channel">Guardafui Channel</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Somalia" title="Administrative divisions of Somalia">Administrative divisions of Somalia</a> and <a href="/wiki/States_and_regions_of_Somalia" title="States and regions of Somalia">States and regions of Somalia</a></div> Somalia is officially divided into eighteen <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Somalia" title="Administrative divisions of Somalia">regions</a> (gobollada, singular gobol),<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> which in turn are subdivided into districts. The regions are: <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somalia_regions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Somalia_regions.png/220px-Somalia_regions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Somalia_regions.png/330px-Somalia_regions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Somalia_regions.png/440px-Somalia_regions.png 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>A map of Somalia's regions</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Regions of Somalia </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Region </th> <th>Area (km2) </th> <th>Population<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> </th> <th>Capital </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Awdal" title="Awdal">Awdal</a> </td> <td>21,374 </td> <td>1,010,566 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Borama" title="Borama">Borama</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bari,_Somalia" title="Bari, Somalia">Bari</a> </td> <td>70,088 </td> <td>949,693 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bosaso" title="Bosaso">Bosaso</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nugal,_Somalia" title="Nugal, Somalia">Nugal</a> </td> <td>26,180 </td> <td>473,940 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Garowe" class="mw-redirect" title="Garowe">Garowe</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mudug" title="Mudug">Mudug</a> </td> <td>72,933 </td> <td>864,728 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Galkayo" title="Galkayo">Galkayo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Galguduud" title="Galguduud">Galguduud</a> </td> <td>46,126 </td> <td>634,309 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dusmareb" title="Dusmareb">Dusmareb</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hiran,_Somalia" title="Hiran, Somalia">Hiran</a> </td> <td>31,510 </td> <td>566,431 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Beledweyne" title="Beledweyne">Beledweyne</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Middle_Shabelle" title="Middle Shabelle">Middle Shabelle</a> </td> <td>22,663 </td> <td>622,660 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jowhar" title="Jowhar">Jowhar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Banaadir" title="Banaadir">Banaadir</a> </td> <td>370 </td> <td>2,330,708 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_Shabelle" title="Lower Shabelle">Lower Shabelle</a> </td> <td>25,285 </td> <td>1,218,733 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Barawa" title="Barawa">Barawa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Togdheer" title="Togdheer">Togdheer</a> </td> <td>38,663 </td> <td>962,439 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Burao" title="Burao">Burao</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bakool" title="Bakool">Bakool</a> </td> <td>26,962 </td> <td>383,360 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Xuddur" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuddur">Xuddur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Woqooyi_Galbeed" class="mw-redirect" title="Woqooyi Galbeed">Woqooyi Galbeed</a> </td> <td>28,836 </td> <td>1,744,367 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hargeisa" title="Hargeisa">Hargeisa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bay,_Somalia" title="Bay, Somalia">Bay</a> </td> <td>35,156 </td> <td>1,035,904 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Baidoa" title="Baidoa">Baidoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gedo" title="Gedo">Gedo</a> </td> <td>60,389 </td> <td>566,318 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Garbahaarreey" class="mw-redirect" title="Garbahaarreey">Garbahaarreey</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Middle_Juba" title="Middle Juba">Middle Juba</a> </td> <td>9,836 </td> <td>432,248 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bu%27aale" class="mw-redirect" title="Bu'aale">Bu'aale</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_Juba" title="Lower Juba">Lower Juba</a> </td> <td>42,876 </td> <td>632,924 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sanaag" title="Sanaag">Sanaag</a> </td> <td>53,374 </td> <td>578,092 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Erigavo" title="Erigavo">Erigavo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sool,_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sool, Somalia">Sool</a> </td> <td>25,036 </td> <td>618,619 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Las_Anod" title="Las Anod">Las Anod</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Somalia_by_population" title="List of cities in Somalia by population">List of cities in Somalia by population</a></div> Northern Somalia is now de facto divided up among the <a href="/wiki/States_and_regions_of_Somalia" title="States and regions of Somalia">autonomous regions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Puntland" title="Puntland">Puntland</a> (which considers itself an <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous state">autonomous state</a>), <a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a> (a self-declared but <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">unrecognized state</a>) and newly established <a href="/wiki/Khatumo_State" title="Khatumo State">Khatumo State of Somalia</a>. In central Somalia, <a href="/wiki/Galmudug" title="Galmudug">Galmudug</a> is another regional entity that emerged just south of Puntland. <a href="/wiki/Jubaland" title="Jubaland">Jubaland</a> in the far south is a fourth autonomous region within the federation.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> In 2014, a new <a href="/wiki/South_West_State_of_Somalia" title="South West State of Somalia">South West State</a> was likewise established.<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> In April 2015, a formation conference was also launched for a new <a href="/wiki/Hirshabelle_State" title="Hirshabelle State">Hirshabelle State</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Somalia" title="Federal Parliament of Somalia">Federal Parliament</a> is tasked with selecting the ultimate number and boundaries of the autonomous regional states (officially <a href="/wiki/States_and_regions_of_Somalia" title="States and regions of Somalia">Federal Member States</a>) within the Federal Republic of Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Location">Location</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somalia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/220px-Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/330px-Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/440px-Somalia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption>Orthographic projection of Somalia</figcaption></figure> Somalia is bordered by Kenya to the southwest, the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden" title="Gulf of Aden">Gulf of Aden</a> to the north, the <a href="/wiki/Guardafui_Channel" title="Guardafui Channel">Guardafui Channel</a> and Indian Ocean to the east, and Ethiopia to the west. The country borders <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a>. It lies between latitudes <a href="/wiki/2nd_parallel_south" title="2nd parallel south">2°S</a> and <a href="/wiki/12th_parallel_north" title="12th parallel north">12°N</a>, and longitudes <a href="/wiki/41st_meridian_east" title="41st meridian east">41°</a> and <a href="/wiki/52nd_meridian_east" title="52nd meridian east">52°E</a>. Strategically located at the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Bab_el_Mandeb" class="mw-redirect" title="Bab el Mandeb">Bab el Mandeb</a> gateway to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>, the country occupies the tip of a region that, due to its resemblance on the map to a <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhinoceros</a>' horn, is commonly referred to as the Horn of Africa.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Waters">Waters</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Somalia" title="Islands of Somalia">Islands of Somalia</a></div> Somalia has the longest coastline on the mainland of Africa,<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a> with a seaboard that stretches 3,333 kilometres (2,071 mi). Its terrain consists mainly of <a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">plateaus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">plains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Highland" title="Highland">highlands</a>. The nation has a total area of 637,657 square kilometres (246,201 sq mi) of which constitutes land, with 10,320 square kilometres (3,980 sq mi) of water. Somalia's land boundaries extend to about 2,340 kilometres (1,450 mi); 58 kilometres (36 mi) of that is shared with Djibouti, 682 kilometres (424 mi) with Kenya, and 1,626 kilometres (1,010 mi) with Ethiopia. Its maritime claims include <a href="/wiki/Territorial_waters" title="Territorial waters">territorial waters</a> of 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi).<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> Somalia has several islands and archipelagos on its coast, including the <a href="/wiki/Bajuni_Islands" title="Bajuni Islands">Bajuni Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Saad_ad-Din_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Saad ad-Din Islands">Saad ad-Din Archipelago</a>: see <a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Somalia" title="Islands of Somalia">islands of Somalia</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juba_river_downstream_Jamaame.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Juba_river_downstream_Jamaame.jpg/220px-Juba_river_downstream_Jamaame.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Juba_river_downstream_Jamaame.jpg/330px-Juba_river_downstream_Jamaame.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Juba_river_downstream_Jamaame.jpg/440px-Juba_river_downstream_Jamaame.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Jubba_River" title="Jubba River">Jubba River</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habitat">Habitat</h3></div> Somalia contains seven terrestrial ecoregions: <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_montane_forests" title="Ethiopian montane forests">Ethiopian montane forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Zanzibar%E2%80%93Inhambane_coastal_forest_mosaic" title="Northern Zanzibar–Inhambane coastal forest mosaic">Northern Zanzibar–Inhambane coastal forest mosaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Acacia%E2%80%93Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets" title="Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets">Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_xeric_grasslands_and_shrublands" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands">Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hobyo_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Hobyo grasslands and shrublands">Hobyo grasslands and shrublands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_montane_xeric_woodlands" title="Somali montane xeric woodlands">Somali montane xeric woodlands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/East_African_mangroves" title="East African mangroves">East African mangroves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> In the north, a scrub-covered, semi-desert plain referred as the <a href="/wiki/Guban" title="Guban">Guban</a> lies parallel to the Gulf of Aden <a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">littoral</a>. With a width of twelve kilometres in the west to as little as two kilometres in the east, the plain is bisected by watercourses that are essentially beds of dry sand except during the rainy seasons. When the rains arrive, the Guban's low bushes and grass clumps transform into lush vegetation.<a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> This coastal strip is part of the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_xeric_grasslands_and_shrublands" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands">Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregion</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cal_Madow" title="Cal Madow">Cal Madow</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">mountain range</a> in the northeastern part of the country. Extending from several kilometres west of the city of <a href="/wiki/Bosaso" title="Bosaso">Bosaso</a> to the northwest of <a href="/wiki/Erigavo" title="Erigavo">Erigavo</a>, it features Somalia's highest <a href="/wiki/Summit_(topography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Summit (topography)">peak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shimbiris" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimbiris">Shimbiris</a>, which sits at an elevation of about 2,416 metres (7,927 ft).<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> The rugged east–west ranges of the Karkaar Mountains also lie to the interior of the Gulf of Aden littoral.<a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> In the central regions, the country's northern mountain ranges give way to shallow plateaus and typically dry watercourses that are referred to locally as the Ogo. The Ogo's western plateau, in turn, gradually merges into the <a href="/wiki/Haud" title="Haud">Haud</a>, an important grazing area for livestock.<a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the <a href="/wiki/Jubba_River" title="Jubba River">Jubba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shebelle_River" title="Shebelle River">Shabele</a>, both of which begin in the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Highlands" title="Ethiopian Highlands">Ethiopian Highlands</a>. These rivers mainly flow southwards, with the Jubba River entering the Indian Ocean at <a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a>. The Shabele River at one time apparently used to enter the sea near <a href="/wiki/Merca" title="Merca">Merca</a>, but now reaches a point just southwest of Mogadishu. After that, it consists of swamps and dry reaches before finally disappearing in the desert terrain east of <a href="/wiki/Jilib" title="Jilib">Jilib</a>, near the Jubba River.<a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environment">Environment</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somcoralreef.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Somcoralreef.jpg/300px-Somcoralreef.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="443" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Somcoralreef.jpg/450px-Somcoralreef.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Somcoralreef.jpg/600px-Somcoralreef.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="1949" /></a><figcaption>Somalia's <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>, ecological parks and protected areas</figcaption></figure> Somalia is a <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semi-arid</a> country with about 1.64% <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable land</a>.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> The first local environmental organizations were Ecoterra Somalia and the Somali Ecological Society, both of which helped promote awareness about ecological concerns and mobilized environmental programs in all governmental sectors as well as in civil society. From 1971 onward, a massive tree-planting campaign on a nationwide scale was introduced by the Siad Barre government to halt the advance of thousands of acres of wind-driven <a href="/wiki/Sand_dune" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand dune">sand dunes</a> that threatened to engulf towns, roads and farm land.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> By 1988, 265 hectares of a projected 336 hectares had been treated, with 39 range reserve sites and 36 forestry plantation sites established.<a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> In 1986, the Wildlife Rescue, Research and Monitoring Centre was established by Ecoterra International, with the goal of sensitizing the public to ecological issues. This educational effort led in 1989 to the so-called "Somalia proposal" and a decision by the Somali government to adhere to the <a href="/wiki/CITES" title="CITES">Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora</a> (CITES), which established for the first time a worldwide ban on the trade of elephant <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_views_of_Kismayo_06_(8071381265).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Aerial_views_of_Kismayo_06_%288071381265%29.jpg/220px-Aerial_views_of_Kismayo_06_%288071381265%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Aerial_views_of_Kismayo_06_%288071381265%29.jpg/330px-Aerial_views_of_Kismayo_06_%288071381265%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Aerial_views_of_Kismayo_06_%288071381265%29.jpg/440px-Aerial_views_of_Kismayo_06_%288071381265%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3322" data-file-height="2099" /></a><figcaption>The coast south of Mogadishu</figcaption></figure> Later, <a href="/wiki/Fatima_Jibrell" title="Fatima Jibrell">Fatima Jibrell</a>, a prominent Somali environmental activist, mounted a successful campaign to conserve old-growth forests of <a href="/wiki/Acacia" title="Acacia">acacia</a> trees in the northeastern part of Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-205">[203]</a> These trees, which can live for 500 years, were being cut down to make charcoal which was highly in demand in the Arabian Peninsula, where the region's <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> tribes believe the acacia to be sacred.<a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-205">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-IWD-207">[205]</a> However, while being a relatively inexpensive fuel that meets a user's needs, the production of charcoal often leads to <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IWD-207">[205]</a> As a way of addressing this problem, Jibrell and the Horn of Africa Relief and Development Organization (Horn Relief; now <a href="/wiki/Adeso" title="Adeso">Adeso</a>), an organization of which she was the founder and executive director, trained a group of teens to educate the public on the permanent damage that producing charcoal can create. In 1999, Horn Relief coordinated a peace march in the northeastern Puntland region of Somalia to put an end to the so-called "charcoal wars". As a result of Jibrell's lobbying and education efforts, the Puntland government in 2000 prohibited the exportation of charcoal. The government has also since enforced the ban, which has reportedly led to an 80% drop in exports of the product.<a href="#cite_note-Goldman-208">[206]</a> Jibrell was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Goldman_Environmental_Prize" title="Goldman Environmental Prize">Goldman Environmental Prize</a> in 2002 for her efforts against environmental degradation and desertification.<a href="#cite_note-Goldman-208">[206]</a> In 2008, she also won the <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>/<a href="/wiki/Buffett_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Buffett Foundation">Buffett Foundation</a> Award for Leadership in Conservation.<a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a> Following the massive <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">tsunami of December 2004</a>, there have also emerged allegations that after the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a> in the late 1980s, Somalia's long, remote shoreline was used as a dump site for the disposal of toxic waste. The huge waves that battered northern Somalia after the tsunami are believed to have stirred up tons of nuclear and toxic waste that might have been dumped illegally in the country by foreign firms.<a href="#cite_note-Toxic-210">[208]</a> The <a href="/wiki/European_Green_Party" title="European Green Party">European Green Party</a> followed up these revelations by presenting before the press and the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> in <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a> copies of contracts signed by two European companies — the Italian Swiss firm, Achair Partners, and an Italian <a href="/wiki/Waste_broker" title="Waste broker">waste broker</a>, Progresso — and representatives of the then President of Somalia, the faction leader Ali Mahdi Mohamed, to accept 10 million tonnes of toxic waste in exchange for $80 million (then about £60 million).<a href="#cite_note-Toxic-210">[208]</a> According to reports by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> (UNEP), the waste has resulted in far higher than normal cases of respiratory infections, mouth ulcers and bleeding, abdominal haemorrhages and unusual skin infections among many inhabitants of the areas around the northeastern towns of <a href="/wiki/Hobyo" title="Hobyo">Hobyo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benadir" class="mw-redirect" title="Benadir">Benadir</a> on the Indian Ocean coast — diseases consistent with radiation sickness. UNEP adds that the situation along the Somali coastline poses a very serious environmental hazard not only in Somalia, but also in the eastern Africa sub-region.<a href="#cite_note-Toxic-210">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate">Climate</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Somalia" title="Climate change in Somalia">Climate change in Somalia</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_SOM_1991%E2%80%932020.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_SOM_1991%E2%80%932020.svg/300px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_SOM_1991%E2%80%932020.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_SOM_1991%E2%80%932020.svg/450px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_SOM_1991%E2%80%932020.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_SOM_1991%E2%80%932020.svg/600px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_SOM_1991%E2%80%932020.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1184" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Köppen–Geiger climate classification map at 1-km resolution for Somalia 1991–2020</figcaption></figure> Owing to Somalia's proximity to the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>, there is not much seasonal variation in its climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 30 to 40 °C (86 to 104 °F), except at higher elevations along the eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. In Mogadishu, for instance, average afternoon highs range from 28 to 32 °C (82 to 90 °F) in April. Some of the highest mean annual temperatures in the world have been recorded in the country; <a href="/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> on the northwestern coast has an afternoon high that averages more than 38 °C (100 °F) from June through September. Nationally, mean daily minimums usually vary from about 15 to 30 °C (59 to 86 °F).<a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> The greatest range in climate occurs in northern Somalia, where temperatures sometimes surpass 45 °C (113 °F) in July on the littoral plains and drop below the freezing point during December in the highlands.<a href="#cite_note-ClimateSom-194">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> In this region, relative humidity ranges from about 40% in the mid-afternoon to 85% at night, changing somewhat according to the season.<a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> Unlike the climates of most other countries at this latitude, conditions in Somalia range from arid in the northeastern and central regions to <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semiarid</a> in the northwest and south. In the northeast, annual rainfall is less than 100 mm (4 in); in the central plateaus, it is about 200 to 300 mm (8 to 12 in). The northwestern and southwestern parts of the nation, however, receive considerably more rain, with an average of 510 to 610 mm (20 to 24 in) falling per year. Although the coastal regions are hot and humid throughout the year, the hinterland is typically dry and hot.<a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> There are four main seasons around which pastoral and agricultural life revolve, and these are dictated by shifts in the wind patterns. From December to March is the Jilal, the harshest dry season of the year. The main rainy season, referred to as the Gu, lasts from April to June. This period is characterized by the southwest monsoons, which rejuvenate the pasture land, especially the central plateau, and briefly transform the desert into lush vegetation. From July to September is the second dry season, the Xagaa (pronounced "Hagaa"). The Dayr, which is the shortest rainy season, lasts from October to December.<a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> The tangambili periods that intervene between the two monsoons (October–November and March–May) are hot and humid.<a href="#cite_note-Hadden-201">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wildlife">Wildlife</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Somalia" title="Wildlife of Somalia">Wildlife of Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sambalaxx.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sambalaxx.jpg/220px-Sambalaxx.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sambalaxx.jpg/330px-Sambalaxx.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sambalaxx.jpg/440px-Sambalaxx.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>A camel in the northern mountains</figcaption></figure> Somalia contains a variety of mammals due to its geographical and climatic diversity. Wildlife still occurring includes <a href="/wiki/Cheetah" title="Cheetah">cheetah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reticulated_giraffe" title="Reticulated giraffe">reticulated giraffe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baboon" title="Baboon">baboon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serval" title="Serval">serval</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_bush_elephant" title="African bush elephant">elephant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bushpig" title="Bushpig">bushpig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gazelle" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibex" title="Ibex">ibex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kudu" title="Kudu">kudu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dik-dik" title="Dik-dik">dik-dik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oribi" title="Oribi">oribi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_wild_ass" title="Somali wild ass">Somali wild ass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reedbuck" title="Reedbuck">reedbuck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%A9vy%27s_zebra" title="Grévy's zebra">Grévy's zebra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elephant_shrew" title="Elephant shrew">elephant shrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rock_hyrax" title="Rock hyrax">rock hyrax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Golden_mole" title="Golden mole">golden mole</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antelope" title="Antelope">antelope</a>. It also has a large population of the <a href="/wiki/Dromedary_camel" class="mw-redirect" title="Dromedary camel">dromedary camel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mukasa81-211">[209]</a> Somalia is home to around 727 species of birds. Of these, eight are endemic, one has been introduced by humans, and one is rare or accidental. Fourteen species are globally threatened. Birds species found exclusively in the country include the <a href="/wiki/Columba_oliviae" class="mw-redirect" title="Columba oliviae">Somali Pigeon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alaemon_hamertoni" class="mw-redirect" title="Alaemon hamertoni">Alaemon hamertoni</a> (Alaudidae), Lesser Hoopoe-Lark, <a href="/wiki/Heteromirafra_archeri" class="mw-redirect" title="Heteromirafra archeri">Heteromirafra archeri</a> (Alaudidae), Archer's Lark, <a href="/wiki/Mirafra_ashi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirafra ashi">Mirafra ashi</a>, Ash's Bushlark, <a href="/wiki/Mirafra_somalica" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirafra somalica">Mirafra somalica</a> (Alaudidae), Somali Bushlark, <a href="/wiki/Spizocorys_obbiensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spizocorys obbiensis">Spizocorys obbiensis</a> (Alaudidae), Obbia Lark, <a href="/wiki/Carduelis_johannis" class="mw-redirect" title="Carduelis johannis">Carduelis johannis</a> (Fringillidae), and Warsangli Linnet.<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> Somalia's territorial waters are prime fishing grounds for highly migratory marine species, such as tuna. A narrow but productive continental shelf contains several <a href="/wiki/Demersal" class="mw-redirect" title="Demersal">demersal</a> fish and <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustacean</a> species.<a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a> Fish species found exclusively in the nation include Cirrhitichthys randalli (<a href="/wiki/Cirrhitidae" title="Cirrhitidae">Cirrhitidae</a>), Symphurus fuscus (<a href="/wiki/Cynoglossidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynoglossidae">Cynoglossidae</a>), Parapercis simulata OC (<a href="/wiki/Pinguipedidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinguipedidae">Pinguipedidae</a>), Cociella somaliensis OC (<a href="/wiki/Platycephalidae" title="Platycephalidae">Platycephalidae</a>), and Pseudochromis melanotus (<a href="/wiki/Pseudochromidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudochromidae">Pseudochromidae</a>). There are roughly 235 species of reptiles. Of these, almost half live in the northern areas. Reptiles endemic to Somalia include the Hughes' <a href="/wiki/Saw-scaled_viper" class="mw-redirect" title="Saw-scaled viper">saw-scaled viper</a>, the Southern Somali garter snake, a racer (Platyceps messanai), a diadem snake (Spalerosophis josephscorteccii), the Somali <a href="/wiki/Sand_boa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand boa">sand boa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Angled_worm_lizard" title="Angled worm lizard">angled worm lizard</a>, a spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx macfadyeni), Lanza's agama, a gecko (Hemidactylus granchii), the Somali semaphore <a href="/wiki/Gecko" title="Gecko">gecko</a>, and a sand lizard (<a href="/wiki/Mesalina" title="Mesalina">Mesalina</a> or <a href="/wiki/Eremias" title="Eremias">Eremias</a>). A colubrid snake (Aprosdoketophis andreonei) and Haacke-Greer's skink (Haackgreerius miopus) are endemic species.<a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics_and_government">Politics and government</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Somalia" title="Politics of Somalia">Politics of Somalia</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:163px;max-width:163px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:187px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud-ldn2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud-ldn2.jpg/161px-Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud-ldn2.jpg" decoding="async" width="161" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud-ldn2.jpg/242px-Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud-ldn2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud-ldn2.jpg/322px-Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud-ldn2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="337" data-file-height="394" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud" title="Hassan Sheikh Mohamud">Hassan Sheikh Mohamud</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_Somalia" title="President of Somalia">President</a> since 2022</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:175px;max-width:175px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:187px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:AU_delegation_meets_Somalia_Prime_Minister_to_discuss_support_and_collaboration_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/AU_delegation_meets_Somalia_Prime_Minister_to_discuss_support_and_collaboration_%28cropped%29.jpg/173px-AU_delegation_meets_Somalia_Prime_Minister_to_discuss_support_and_collaboration_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/AU_delegation_meets_Somalia_Prime_Minister_to_discuss_support_and_collaboration_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="256" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hamza_Abdi_Barre" title="Hamza Abdi Barre">Hamza Abdi Barre</a> <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">Prime Minister</a> since 2022</div></div></div></div></div> Somalia is a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary">parliamentary</a> <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative democratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a>. The <a href="/wiki/President_of_Somalia" title="President of Somalia">President of Somalia</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief" title="Commander-in-chief">commander-in-chief</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Armed_Forces" title="Somali Armed Forces">Somali Armed Forces</a> and selects a <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">Prime Minister</a> to act as <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">head of government</a>.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Somalia" title="Federal Parliament of Somalia">Federal Parliament of Somalia</a> is the national parliament of Somalia. The bicameral National Legislature consists of the House of the People (lower house) and the <a href="/wiki/Somalian_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalian Senate">Senate</a> (upper house), whose members are elected to serve four-year terms. The parliament elects the President, Speaker of Parliament and Deputy Speakers. It also has the authority to pass and veto laws.<a href="#cite_note-Ajssihnp-216">[214]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UNPOS_CONFERENCE_SEPT_5th_and_6th,_Mogadishu_Somalia_(6129246599)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/UNPOS_CONFERENCE_SEPT_5th_and_6th%2C_Mogadishu_Somalia_%286129246599%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-UNPOS_CONFERENCE_SEPT_5th_and_6th%2C_Mogadishu_Somalia_%286129246599%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/UNPOS_CONFERENCE_SEPT_5th_and_6th%2C_Mogadishu_Somalia_%286129246599%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-UNPOS_CONFERENCE_SEPT_5th_and_6th%2C_Mogadishu_Somalia_%286129246599%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/UNPOS_CONFERENCE_SEPT_5th_and_6th%2C_Mogadishu_Somalia_%286129246599%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-UNPOS_CONFERENCE_SEPT_5th_and_6th%2C_Mogadishu_Somalia_%286129246599%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1045" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Osman_Jawari" title="Mohamed Osman Jawari">Sharif Hassan Sheikh Aden</a>, former Speaker of Parliament</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Somalia" title="Judiciary of Somalia">Judiciary of Somalia</a> is defined by the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Somalia" title="Constitution of Somalia">Provisional Constitution</a> of the Federal Republic of Somalia. Adopted on 1 August 2012 by a National Constitutional Assembly in Mogadishu,<a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a> the document was formulated by a committee of specialists chaired by attorney and Speaker of the Federal Parliament, <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Osman_Jawari" title="Mohamed Osman Jawari">Mohamed Osman Jawari</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> It provides the legal foundation for the existence of the Federal Republic and source of legal authority.<a href="#cite_note-Frspc-220">[218]</a> The national court structure is organized into three tiers: the Constitutional Court, Federal Government level courts and <a href="/wiki/States_and_regions_of_Somalia" title="States and regions of Somalia">State</a> level courts. A nine-member Judicial Service Commission appoints any Federal tier member of the judiciary. It also selects and presents potential Constitutional Court judges to the House of the People of the Federal Parliament for approval. If endorsed, the President appoints the candidate as a judge of the Constitutional Court. The five-member Constitutional Court adjudicates issues pertaining to the constitution, in addition to various Federal and sub-national matters.<a href="#cite_note-Frspc-220">[218]</a> Somali law draws from a mixture of three different systems: <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">customary law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a> According to 2023 <a href="/wiki/V-Dem_Democracy_indices" class="mw-redirect" title="V-Dem Democracy indices">V-Dem Democracy indices</a> Somalia is the 5th least <a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Africa" title="Democracy in Africa">democratic country in Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vdem_dataset-222">[220]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">collapse of Somalia in 1991</a>, there were no relations or any contact between the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Somaliland" title="Government of Somaliland">Somaliland government</a>, which declared itself a country, and the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Somalia">government of Somalia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Somalia" title="Foreign relations of Somalia">Foreign relations of Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2015_01_25_Turkish_President_Visit_to_Somalia-1_(16176887607).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/2015_01_25_Turkish_President_Visit_to_Somalia-1_%2816176887607%29.jpg/220px-2015_01_25_Turkish_President_Visit_to_Somalia-1_%2816176887607%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/2015_01_25_Turkish_President_Visit_to_Somalia-1_%2816176887607%29.jpg/330px-2015_01_25_Turkish_President_Visit_to_Somalia-1_%2816176887607%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/2015_01_25_Turkish_President_Visit_to_Somalia-1_%2816176887607%29.jpg/440px-2015_01_25_Turkish_President_Visit_to_Somalia-1_%2816176887607%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3682" data-file-height="2450" /></a><figcaption>President of Somalia <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Sheikh_Mohamud" title="Hassan Sheikh Mohamud">Hassan Sheikh Mohamud</a> with Turkish President <a href="/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan" title="Recep Tayyip Erdoğan">Recep Tayyip Erdogan</a> opening the new terminal of Aden Abdulle International Airport in Mogadishu, Somalia. (25 January 2015)</figcaption></figure> Somalia's <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Somalia" title="Foreign relations of Somalia">foreign relations</a> are handled by the President as the head of state, the Prime Minister as the head of government, and the federal <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Somalia)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Somalia)">Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Frspc-220">[218]</a> According to Article 54 of the national constitution, the allocation of powers and resources between the Federal Government and the Federal Republic of Somalia's constituent Federal Member States shall be negotiated and agreed upon by the Federal Government and the Federal Member States, except in matters pertaining to foreign affairs, national defence, citizenship and immigration, and monetary policy. Article 53 also stipulates that the Federal Government shall consult the Federal Member States on major issues related to international agreements, including negotiations vis-a-vis foreign trade, finance and treaties.<a href="#cite_note-Frspc-220">[218]</a> The Federal Government maintains <a href="/wiki/Bilateralism" title="Bilateralism">bilateral relations</a> with a number of other central governments in the international community. Among these are <a href="/wiki/Djibouti%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="Djibouti–Somalia relations">Djibouti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="Ethiopia–Somalia relations">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="Egypt–Somalia relations">Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Somalia%E2%80%93United_Arab_Emirates_relations" title="Somalia–United Arab Emirates relations">United Arab Emirates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somalia%E2%80%93Yemen_relations" title="Somalia–Yemen relations">Yemen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somalia%E2%80%93Turkey_relations" title="Somalia–Turkey relations">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="Italy–Somalia relations">Italy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Somalia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Somalia–United Kingdom relations">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="Denmark–Somalia relations">Denmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="France–Somalia relations">France</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Somalia%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Somalia–United States relations">United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="China–Somalia relations">People's Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="Japan–Somalia relations">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="Russia–Somalia relations">Russian Federation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Somalia%E2%80%93South_Korea_relations" title="Somalia–South Korea relations">South Korea</a>. Additionally, Somalia has several <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Somalia" title="List of diplomatic missions of Somalia">diplomatic missions</a> abroad. There are likewise various <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_in_Somalia" title="List of diplomatic missions in Somalia">foreign embassies and consulates</a> based in the capital Mogadishu and elsewhere in the country. Somalia is also a member of many international organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, African Union and <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>. It was a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> in 1969.<a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a> Other memberships include the <a href="/wiki/African_Development_Bank" title="African Development Bank">African Development Bank</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_African_Community" title="East African Community">East African Community</a>, <a href="/wiki/Group_of_77" title="Group of 77">Group of 77</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Authority_on_Development" title="Intergovernmental Authority on Development">Intergovernmental Authority on Development</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Bank_for_Reconstruction_and_Development" title="International Bank for Reconstruction and Development">International Bank for Reconstruction and Development</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">International Civil Aviation Organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Development_Association" title="International Development Association">International Development Association</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Finance_Corporation" title="International Finance Corporation">International Finance Corporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="World Federation of Trade Unions">World Federation of Trade Unions</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Somali_Armed_Forces" title="Somali Armed Forces">Somali Armed Forces</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonel_Abdullahi_Ahmed_Irro_-_1977.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Colonel_Abdullahi_Ahmed_Irro_-_1977.jpg/225px-Colonel_Abdullahi_Ahmed_Irro_-_1977.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Colonel_Abdullahi_Ahmed_Irro_-_1977.jpg/338px-Colonel_Abdullahi_Ahmed_Irro_-_1977.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Colonel_Abdullahi_Ahmed_Irro_-_1977.jpg/450px-Colonel_Abdullahi_Ahmed_Irro_-_1977.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1037" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Colonel" title="Colonel">Colonel</a> <a href="/wiki/Abdullahi_Ahmed_Irro" title="Abdullahi Ahmed Irro">Abdullahi Ahmed Irro</a>, the commander of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Armed_Forces" title="Somali Armed Forces">Somali Armed Forces</a>, pictured in 1977.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Somali_Armed_Forces" title="Somali Armed Forces">Somali Armed Forces</a> (SAF) are the military forces of the Federal Republic of Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> Headed by the President as Commander in Chief, they are constitutionally mandated to ensure the nation's sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity.<a href="#cite_note-Frspc-220">[218]</a> The SAF was initially made up of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Army" title="Somali National Army">Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Navy" title="Somali Navy">Navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Air_Force" title="Somali Air Force">Air Force</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Police_Force" title="Somali Police Force">Police Force</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Service_(Somalia)" title="National Security Service (Somalia)">National Security Service</a>.<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> In the post-independence period, it grew to become among the larger militaries on the continent.<a href="#cite_note-Ramsbotham_222-152">[150]</a> The subsequent outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">civil war</a> in 1991 led to the disbandment of the Somali National Army.<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a> In 2004, the gradual process of reconstituting the military was put in motion with the establishment of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). The Somali Armed Forces are now overseen by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(Somalia)" title="Ministry of Defence (Somalia)">Ministry of Defence</a> of the Federal Government of Somalia, formed in mid-2012. In January 2013, the Somali federal government also re-opened the national intelligence service in Mogadishu, renaming the agency the <a href="/wiki/National_Intelligence_and_Security_Agency" title="National Intelligence and Security Agency">National Intelligence and Security Agency</a> (NISA).<a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Somaliland_Armed_Forces" title="Somaliland Armed Forces">Somaliland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puntland_Security_Force" title="Puntland Security Force">Puntland</a> regional governments maintain their own security and police forces. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_rights">Human rights</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Somalia" title="Human rights in Somalia">Human rights in Somalia</a></div> Both male and female <a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Somalia">same-sex sexual activity</a> are <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">punishable by death</a> within Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a> On October 3, 2020, a <a href="/wiki/UN" class="mw-redirect" title="UN">UN</a> human rights investigator raised concerns over Somali government's backtracking of human rights commitments.<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Somalia" title="Economy of Somalia">Economy of Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_Somalia_Tupolev_Tu-154.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Air_Somalia_Tupolev_Tu-154.jpg/220px-Air_Somalia_Tupolev_Tu-154.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Air_Somalia_Tupolev_Tu-154.jpg/330px-Air_Somalia_Tupolev_Tu-154.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Air_Somalia_Tupolev_Tu-154.jpg/440px-Air_Somalia_Tupolev_Tu-154.jpg 2x" data-file-width="826" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Air_Somalia" title="Air Somalia">Air Somalia</a> Tupolev <a href="/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-154" title="Tupolev Tu-154">Tu-154</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sharjah_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharjah (city)">Sharjah</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>. Somalia today has several private airlines.</figcaption></figure> According to the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Somalia" title="Central Bank of Somalia">Central Bank of Somalia</a>, despite experiencing civil unrest, Somalia has maintained a healthy informal <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a>, based mainly on <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Remittance" title="Remittance">remittance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Wire_transfer" title="Wire transfer">money transfer</a> companies and <a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Somalia" title="Communications in Somalia">telecommunications</a>.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cbsef2-54">[52]</a> Owing to a dearth of formal government statistics and the recent <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">civil war</a>, it is difficult to gauge the size or growth of the economy. For 1994, the CIA estimated the <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> at $3.3 billion.<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a> In 2001, it was estimated to be $4.1 billion.<a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> By 2009, the CIA estimated that the GDP had grown to $5.731 billion, with a projected real growth rate of 2.6%.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> According to a 2007 <a href="/wiki/British_Chambers_of_Commerce" title="British Chambers of Commerce">British Chambers of Commerce</a> report, the private sector also grew, particularly in the service sector. Unlike the pre-civil war period when most services and the industrial sector were <a href="/wiki/Government-owned_corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Government-owned corporation">government-run</a>, there has been substantial, albeit unmeasured, private investment in commercial activities; this has been largely financed by the <a href="/wiki/Somali_diaspora" title="Somali diaspora">Somali diaspora</a>, and includes trade and marketing, money transfer services, transportation, communications, fishery equipment, airlines, telecommunications, education, health, construction and hotels.<a href="#cite_note-Brcc-234">[232]</a> <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarian</a> economist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Leeson" title="Peter Leeson">Peter Leeson</a> attributes this increased economic activity to the Somali <a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">customary law</a> (referred to as <a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a>), which he suggests provides a stable environment to conduct business in.<a href="#cite_note-Petletbet-235">[233]</a> According to the Central Bank of Somalia, the country's GDP per capita as of 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somalia&action=edit">[update]</a> is $226, a slight reduction in real terms from 1990. About 43% of the population lives on less than 1 US dollar a day, with around 24% of those found in urban areas and 54% living in rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-Cbsef2-54">[52]</a> Somalia's economy consists of both traditional and modern production, with a gradual shift toward modern industrial techniques. Somalia has the largest population of camels in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEA._RosatiA._TewoldeC._Mosconi2007-236">[234]</a> According to the Central Bank of Somalia, about 80% of the population are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists, who keep goats, sheep, camels and cattle. The nomads also gather resins and gums to supplement their income.<a href="#cite_note-Cbsef2-54">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Somalia" title="Agriculture in Somalia">Agriculture in Somalia</a></div> Agriculture is the most important economic sector of Somalia. It accounts for about 65% of the GDP and employs 65% of the workforce.<a href="#cite_note-Brcc-234">[232]</a> Livestock contributes about 40% to GDP and more than 50% of export earnings.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> Other principal exports include <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">bananas</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a> are products for the domestic market.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> According to the Central Bank of Somalia, imports of goods total about $460 million per year, surpassing aggregate imports prior to the start of the civil war in 1991. Exports, which total about $270 million annually, have also surpassed pre-war aggregate export levels. Somalia has a trade deficit of about $190 million per year, but this is exceeded by remittances sent by Somalis in the diaspora, estimated to be about $1 billion.<a href="#cite_note-Cbsef2-54">[52]</a> With the advantage of being located near the Arabian Peninsula, Somali traders have increasingly begun to challenge <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>'s traditional dominance over the Gulf Arab livestock and meat market, offering quality animals at very low prices. In response, Gulf Arab states have started to make strategic investments in the country, with <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> building livestock export infrastructure and the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> purchasing large farmlands.<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a> Somalia is also a major world supplier of <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">myrrh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DP_World_Berbera_new_Port.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/DP_World_Berbera_new_Port.jpg/220px-DP_World_Berbera_new_Port.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/DP_World_Berbera_new_Port.jpg/330px-DP_World_Berbera_new_Port.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/DP_World_Berbera_new_Port.jpg/440px-DP_World_Berbera_new_Port.jpg 2x" data-file-width="725" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Berbera" title="Port of Berbera">Port of Berbera</a></figcaption></figure> The modest <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Secondary sector of the economy">industrial sector</a>, based on the processing of agricultural products, accounts for 10% of Somalia's GDP.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Chamber_of_Commerce_and_Industry" title="Somali Chamber of Commerce and Industry">Somali Chamber of Commerce and Industry</a>, over six private <a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">airline</a> firms also offer commercial flights to both domestic and international locations, including <a href="/wiki/Daallo_Airlines" title="Daallo Airlines">Daallo Airlines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jubba_Airways" title="Jubba Airways">Jubba Airways</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_Express_Airways" title="African Express Airways">African Express Airways</a>, East Africa 540, Central Air and Hajara.<a href="#cite_note-Scca-239">[237]</a> In 2008, the Puntland government signed a multimillion-dollar deal with <a href="/wiki/Dubai" title="Dubai">Dubai</a>'s Lootah Group, a regional industrial group operating in the Middle East and Africa. According to the agreement, the first phase of the investment is worth <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates_dirham" title="United Arab Emirates dirham">Dhs</a> 170 m and will see a set of new companies established to operate, manage and build <a href="/wiki/Bosaso" title="Bosaso">Bosaso</a>'s free trade zone and sea and airport facilities. The Bosaso Airport Company is slated to develop the airport complex to meet international standards, including a new 3,400 m (11,200 ft) runway, main and auxiliary buildings, taxi and apron areas, and security perimeters.<a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a> Prior to the outbreak of the civil war in 1991, the roughly 53 state-owned small, medium and large manufacturing firms were foundering, with the ensuing conflict destroying many of the remaining industries. However, primarily as a result of substantial local investment by the Somali diaspora, many of these small-scale plants have re-opened and newer ones have been created. The latter include fish-canning and meat-processing plants in the northern regions, as well as about 25 factories in the Mogadishu area, which manufacture <a href="/wiki/Pasta" title="Pasta">pasta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mineral_water" title="Mineral water">mineral water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confectionery" title="Confectionery">confections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plastic_bag" title="Plastic bag">plastic bags</a>, <a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">fabric</a>, hides and skins, <a href="/wiki/Detergent" title="Detergent">detergent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, foam <a href="/wiki/Mattress" title="Mattress">mattresses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pillow" title="Pillow">pillows</a>, fishing <a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boats</a>, carry out packaging, and <a href="/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">stone processing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Somtroap-241">[239]</a> In 2004, an $8.3 million <a href="/wiki/Coca-Cola" title="Coca-Cola">Coca-Cola</a> bottling plant also opened in the city, with investors hailing from various constituencies in Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a> <a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment" title="Foreign direct investment">Foreign investment</a> also included multinationals including <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dole_Food_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dole Food Company">Dole Fruit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monetary_and_payment_system">Monetary and payment system</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Somalia" title="Central Bank of Somalia">Central Bank of Somalia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Somali_shilling" title="Somali shilling">Somali shilling</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Obverse_2022_Somalia_1_oz_Silver_coin_Leopard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Obverse_2022_Somalia_1_oz_Silver_coin_Leopard.jpg/220px-Obverse_2022_Somalia_1_oz_Silver_coin_Leopard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Obverse_2022_Somalia_1_oz_Silver_coin_Leopard.jpg/330px-Obverse_2022_Somalia_1_oz_Silver_coin_Leopard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Obverse_2022_Somalia_1_oz_Silver_coin_Leopard.jpg/440px-Obverse_2022_Somalia_1_oz_Silver_coin_Leopard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>2022 Somalia 1 oz Silver coin Leopard (100 shillings)</figcaption></figure> The Central Bank of Somalia is the official <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">monetary authority</a> of Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-Cbsef2-54">[52]</a> In terms of financial management, it is in the process of assuming the task of both formulating and implementing <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">monetary policy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Monpol-244">[242]</a> Owing to a lack of confidence in the local currency, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US dollar</a> is widely accepted as a medium of exchange alongside the Somali shilling. <a href="/wiki/Dollarization" class="mw-redirect" title="Dollarization">Dollarization</a> notwithstanding, the large issuance of the Somali shilling has increasingly fuelled price hikes, especially for low value transactions. According to the Central Bank, this inflationary environment is expected to come to an end as soon as the bank assumes full control of monetary policy and replaces the presently circulating currency introduced by the private sector.<a href="#cite_note-Monpol-244">[242]</a> Although Somalia has had no central monetary authority for more than 15 years between the outbreak of the civil war in 1991 and the subsequent re-establishment of the Central Bank of Somalia in 2009, the nation's payment system is fairly advanced primarily due to the widespread existence of private <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Somalia#Finance" title="Economy of Somalia">money transfer operators</a> (MTO) that have acted as informal banking networks.<a href="#cite_note-Paysys-245">[243]</a> These remittance firms (<a href="/wiki/Hawala" title="Hawala">hawalas</a>) have become a large industry in Somalia, with an estimated US$1.6 billion annually remitted to the region by <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somalis</a> in the diaspora via money transfer companies.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> Most are members of the Somali Money Transfer Association (SOMTA), an umbrella organization that regulates the community's money transfer sector, or its predecessor, the Somali Financial Services Association (SFSA).<a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-Towhamrec-247">[245]</a> The largest of the Somali MTOs is <a href="/wiki/Dahabshiil" title="Dahabshiil">Dahabshiil</a>, a Somali-owned firm employing more than 2,000 people across 144 countries with branches in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dubai" title="Dubai">Dubai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Towhamrec-247">[245]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somshil5r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Somshil5r.jpg/220px-Somshil5r.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Somshil5r.jpg/330px-Somshil5r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Somshil5r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="202" /></a><figcaption>500 <a href="/wiki/Somali_shilling" title="Somali shilling">Somali shilling</a> banknote</figcaption></figure> With a significant improvement in local security, Somali expatriates began returning to the country for investment opportunities. Coupled with modest foreign investment, the inflow of funds have helped the Somali shilling increase considerably in value. By March 2014, the currency had appreciated by almost 60% against the U.S. dollar over the previous 12 months. The Somali shilling was the strongest among the 175 global currencies traded by <a href="/wiki/Bloomberg_L.P." title="Bloomberg L.P.">Bloomberg</a>, rising close to 50 percentage points higher than the next most robust global currency over the same period.<a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Somalia_Stock_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalia Stock Exchange">Somalia Stock Exchange</a> (SSE) is the national <a href="/wiki/Stock_exchange" title="Stock exchange">bourse</a> of Somalia. It was founded in 2012 to attract investment from both Somali-owned firms and global companies in order to accelerate the ongoing post-conflict reconstruction process in Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_and_natural_resources">Energy and natural resources</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mineral_industry_of_Somalia" title="Mineral industry of Somalia">Mineral industry of Somalia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration_in_Puntland" title="Oil exploration in Puntland">Oil exploration in Puntland</a></div> The World Bank reports that <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> is now in large part supplied by local businesses.<a href="#cite_note-Brcc-234">[232]</a> Among these domestic firms is the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Energy_Company" title="Somali Energy Company">Somali Energy Company</a>, which performs generation, transmission and distribution of electric power.<a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a> In 2010, the nation produced 310 million kWh and consumed 288.3 million kWh of electricity, ranked 170th and 177th, respectively, according to the CIA.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puntland_oil.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Puntland_oil.png/300px-Puntland_oil.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Puntland_oil.png/450px-Puntland_oil.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Puntland_oil.png 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration_in_Puntland" title="Oil exploration in Puntland">Oil blocks</a> in Puntland</figcaption></figure> Somalia has reserves of several natural resources, including <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">bauxite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>. The CIA reports that there are 5.663 billion cubic metres of proven natural gas reserves.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> The presence or extent of proven oil reserves in Somalia is uncertain. The CIA asserts that as of 2011<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somalia&action=edit">[update]</a> there are no proven reserves of oil in the country,<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> while <a href="/wiki/UNCTAD" class="mw-redirect" title="UNCTAD">UNCTAD</a> suggests that most proven oil reserves in Somalia lie off its northwestern coast, in the Somaliland region.<a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a> An oil group listed in <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Range_Resources" title="Range Resources">Range Resources</a>, estimates that the Puntland region in the northeast has the potential to produce 5 billion barrels (790×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 m3) to 10 billion barrels (1.6×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 m3) of oil,<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a> compared to the 6.7 billion barrels of proven oil reserves in Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a> As a result of these developments, the <a href="/wiki/Somalia_Petroleum_Corporation" title="Somalia Petroleum Corporation">Somalia Petroleum Corporation</a> was established by the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-254">[252]</a> In the late 1960s, UN geologists also discovered major uranium deposits and other rare mineral reserves in Somalia. The find was the largest of its kind, with industry experts estimating that the amount of the deposits could amount to over 25% of the world's then known uranium reserves of 800,000 tons.<a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a> In 1984, the IUREP Orientation Phase Mission to Somalia reported that the country had 5,000 tons of uranium reasonably assured resources (RAR), 11,000 tons of uranium estimated additional resources (EAR) in <a href="/wiki/Calcrete" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcrete">calcrete</a> deposits, as well as 0–150,000 tons of uranium speculative resources (SR) in <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> and calcrete deposits.<a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a> Somalia evolved into a major world supplier of uranium, with American, UAE, Italian and Brazilian mineral companies vying for extraction rights. Link Natural Resources has a stake in the central region, and Kilimanjaro Capital has a stake in the 1,161,400 acres (470,002 ha) Amsas-Coriole-Afgoi (ACA) Block, which includes uranium exploration.<a href="#cite_note-257">[255]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Trans-National_Industrial_Electricity_and_Gas_Company" title="Trans-National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company">Trans-National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> <a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(company)" title="Conglomerate (company)">conglomerate</a> based in Mogadishu. It unites five major Somali companies from the <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Security" title="Security">security</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> sectors, following a 2010 joint agreement signed in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> to provide electricity and gas infrastructure in Somalia. With an initial investment budget of $1 billion, the company launched the Somalia Peace Dividend Project, a labour-intensive energy program aimed at facilitating local industrialization initiatives. According to the Central Bank of Somalia, as the nation embarks on the path of reconstruction, the economy is expected not only to match its pre-civil war levels, but also to accelerate in growth and development due to Somalia's untapped natural resources.<a href="#cite_note-Cbsef2-54">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telecommunications_and_media">Telecommunications and media</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Somalia" title="Communications in Somalia">Communications in Somalia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Media_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Somalia">Media of Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hormuud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hormuud.jpg/170px-Hormuud.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hormuud.jpg/255px-Hormuud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Hormuud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="281" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hormuud_Telecom" title="Hormuud Telecom">Hormuud Telecom</a> building in Mogadishu</figcaption></figure> After the start of the civil war, various new telecommunications companies began to spring up and compete to provide missing infrastructure. Funded by Somali entrepreneurs and backed by expertise from <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> and Europe, these nascent telecommunications firms offer affordable <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a> and Internet services that are not available in many other parts of the continent. Customers can conduct <a href="/wiki/Electronic_funds_transfer" title="Electronic funds transfer">money transfers</a> (such as through the popular <a href="/wiki/Dahabshiil" title="Dahabshiil">Dahabshiil</a>) and other <a href="/wiki/Bank" title="Bank">banking</a> activities via mobile phones, as well as easily gain wireless Internet access.<a href="#cite_note-Telfirm-258">[256]</a> After forming partnerships with multinational corporations such as <a href="/wiki/Sprint_Nextel" class="mw-redirect" title="Sprint Nextel">Sprint</a>, <a href="/wiki/ITT_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="ITT Corporation">ITT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telenor" title="Telenor">Telenor</a>, these firms now offer the cheapest and clearest phone calls in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a> These Somali telecommunication companies also provide services to every city and town in Somalia. There are presently around 25 mainlines per 1,000 persons, and the local availability of telephone lines (tele-density) is higher than in neighbouring countries; three times greater than in adjacent Ethiopia.<a href="#cite_note-Somtroap-241">[239]</a> Prominent Somali telecommunications companies include <a href="/wiki/Golis_Telecom_Somalia" title="Golis Telecom Somalia">Golis Telecom Group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormuud_Telecom" title="Hormuud Telecom">Hormuud Telecom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somafone" title="Somafone">Somafone</a>, <a href="/wiki/NationLink_Telecom" title="NationLink Telecom">Nationlink</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netco_(Somalia)" title="Netco (Somalia)">Netco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telcom_(Somalia)" title="Telcom (Somalia)">Telcom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Somali_Telecom_Group" title="Somali Telecom Group">Somali Telecom Group</a>. Hormuud Telecom alone grosses about $40 million a year. Despite their rivalry, several of these companies signed an inter-connectivity deal in 2005 that allows them to set prices, maintain and expand their networks, and ensure that competition does not get out of control.<a href="#cite_note-Telfirm-258">[256]</a> The state-run <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Television" title="Somali National Television">Somali National Television</a> is the principal national public service TV channel. After a twenty-year hiatus, the station was officially re-launched on 4 April 2011.<a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a> Its radio counterpart <a href="/wiki/Radio_Mogadishu" title="Radio Mogadishu">Radio Mogadishu</a> also broadcasts from the capital. <a href="/wiki/Somaliland_National_TV" title="Somaliland National TV">Somaliland National TV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puntland_TV_and_Radio" title="Puntland TV and Radio">Puntland TV and Radio</a> air from the northern regions. Additionally, Somalia has several private television and radio networks. Among these are <a href="/wiki/Horn_Cable_Television" title="Horn Cable Television">Horn Cable Television</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universal_Television_(Somalia)" title="Universal Television (Somalia)">Universal TV</a>.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> The political Xog Doon and Xog Ogaal and Horyaal Sports broadsheets publish out of the capital. There are also a number of online media outlets covering local news,<a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a> including <a href="/wiki/Garowe_Online" title="Garowe Online">Garowe Online</a>, Wardheernews, and <a href="/wiki/Puntland_Post" title="Puntland Post">Puntland Post</a>. The internet <a href="/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain" title="Country code top-level domain">country code top-level domain</a> (ccTLD) for Somalia is <a href="/wiki/.so" title=".so">.so</a>. It was officially relaunched on 1 November 2010 by .SO Registry, which is regulated by the nation's Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications.<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a> In November 2013, following a Memorandum of Understanding signed with <a href="/wiki/Emirates_Post" title="Emirates Post">Emirates Post</a> in April of the year, the federal Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications officially reconstituted the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Postal_Service" title="Somali Postal Service">Somali Postal Service</a> (Somali Post).<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a> In October 2014, the ministry also relaunched postal delivery from abroad.<a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tourism">Tourism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Somalia" title="Tourism in Somalia">Tourism in Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laas_Geel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Laas_Geel.jpg/220px-Laas_Geel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Laas_Geel.jpg/330px-Laas_Geel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Laas_Geel.jpg/440px-Laas_Geel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>Ancient cave paintings at the <a href="/wiki/Laas_Geel" title="Laas Geel">Laas Geel</a>, Hargeisa</figcaption></figure> Somalia has a number of local attractions, consisting of historical sites, beaches, waterfalls, mountain ranges and national parks. The tourist industry is regulated by the national Ministry of Tourism. The autonomous Puntland and Somaliland regions maintain their own tourism offices.<a href="#cite_note-Ntmucig-265">[263]</a> The Somali Tourism Association (SOMTA) also provides consulting services from within the country on the national tourist industry.<a href="#cite_note-SOMTA-266">[264]</a> As of March 2015, the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife of the <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwestern Somalia">South West State</a> announced that it is slated to establish additional game reserves and wildlife ranges.<a href="#cite_note-Gswstrghtat-267">[265]</a> The United States Government recommends travelers to not travel to Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-268">[266]</a> Notable sights include the <a href="/wiki/Laas_Geel" title="Laas Geel">Laas Geel</a> caves containing Neolithic <a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">rock art</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Cal_Madow" title="Cal Madow">Cal Madow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Golis_Mountains" title="Golis Mountains">Golis Mountains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ogo_Mountains" title="Ogo Mountains">Ogo Mountains</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Iskushuban" title="Iskushuban">Iskushuban</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lamadaya" title="Lamadaya">Lamadaya</a> waterfalls; and the <a href="/wiki/Hargeisa_National_Park" title="Hargeisa National Park">Hargeisa National Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jilib_National_Park" title="Jilib National Park">Jilib National Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kismayo_National_Park" title="Kismayo National Park">Kismayo National Park</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lag_Badana_National_Park" title="Lag Badana National Park">Lag Badana National Park</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Somalia" title="Transport in Somalia">Transport in Somalia</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Somalia" title="List of airports in Somalia">List of airports in Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aden_Abdullah_Airport.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Aden_Abdullah_Airport.jpg/220px-Aden_Abdullah_Airport.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Aden_Abdullah_Airport.jpg/330px-Aden_Abdullah_Airport.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Aden_Abdullah_Airport.jpg/440px-Aden_Abdullah_Airport.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1023" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Aden_Adde_International_Airport" title="Aden Adde International Airport">Aden Adde International Airport</a></figcaption></figure> Somalia's network of roads is 22,100 km (13,700 mi) long. As of 2000<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somalia&action=edit">[update]</a>, 2,608 km (1,621 mi) streets are <a href="/wiki/Road_surface" title="Road surface">paved</a> and 19,492 km (12,112 mi) are unpaved.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> A 750 km (470 mi) highway connects major cities in the northern part of the country, such as <a href="/wiki/Bosaso" title="Bosaso">Bosaso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galkayo" title="Galkayo">Galkayo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Garowe" class="mw-redirect" title="Garowe">Garowe</a>, with towns in the south.<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_Aviation_Authority" title="Somali Civil Aviation Authority">Somali Civil Aviation Authority</a> (SOMCAA) is Somalia's national <a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_authority" title="Civil aviation authority">civil aviation authority</a> body. After a long period of management by the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Caretaker_Authority_for_Somalia" title="Civil Aviation Caretaker Authority for Somalia">Civil Aviation Caretaker Authority for Somalia</a> (CACAS), SOMCAA is slated to re-assume control of Somalia's airspace by 31 December 2013. Sixty-two airports across Somalia accommodate aerial transportation; seven of these have paved runways. Among the latter, four airports have runways of over 3,047 metres (9,997 ft); two are between 2,438 and 3,047 m (7,999 and 9,997 ft) and one is 1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 7,995 ft) long.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> There are fifty-five airports with unpaved landing areas. One has a runway of over 3,047 m; four are between 2,438 m and 3,047 m in length; twenty are 1,524 m to 2,437 m; twenty-four are 914 m to 1,523 m; and six are under 914 metres (2,999 ft).<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> Major airports in the nation include the <a href="/wiki/Aden_Adde_International_Airport" title="Aden Adde International Airport">Aden Adde International Airport</a> in Mogadishu, the <a href="/wiki/Hargeisa_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Hargeisa International Airport">Hargeisa International Airport</a> in Hargeisa, the <a href="/wiki/Kismayo_Airport" title="Kismayo Airport">Kismayo Airport</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Baidoa_Airport" title="Baidoa Airport">Baidoa Airport</a> in Baidoa, and the <a href="/wiki/Bender_Qassim_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Bender Qassim International Airport">Bender Qassim International Airport</a> in Bosaso. Established in 1964, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Airlines" title="Somali Airlines">Somali Airlines</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Flag_carrier" title="Flag carrier">flag carrier</a> of Somalia. It suspended operations during the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> However, a reconstituted Somali government later began preparations in 2012 for an expected relaunch of the airline,<a href="#cite_note-272">[270]</a> with the first new Somali Airlines aircraft scheduled for delivery by the end of December 2013.<a href="#cite_note-273">[271]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Chamber_of_Commerce_and_Industry" title="Somali Chamber of Commerce and Industry">Somali Chamber of Commerce and Industry</a>, the void created by the closure of Somali Airlines has since been filled by various Somali-owned private carriers. Over six of these private airline firms offer commercial flights to both domestic and international locations, including <a href="/wiki/Daallo_Airlines" title="Daallo Airlines">Daallo Airlines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jubba_Airways" title="Jubba Airways">Jubba Airways</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_Express_Airways" title="African Express Airways">African Express Airways</a>, East Africa 540, Central Air and Hajara.<a href="#cite_note-Scca-239">[237]</a> Possessing the longest coastline on the continent,<a href="#cite_note-FactbookCoastline2-17">[15]</a> Somalia has several major <a href="/wiki/Seaport" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaport">seaports</a>. Maritime transport facilities are found in the port cities of Mogadishu, Bosaso, <a href="/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Merca" title="Merca">Merca</a>. There is also one <a href="/wiki/Merchant_marine" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchant marine">merchant marine</a>. Established in 2008, it is cargo-based.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Somalia" title="Demographics of Somalia">Demographics of Somalia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Somalia_by_population" title="List of cities in Somalia by population">List of cities in Somalia by population</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;">Population<a href="#cite_note-UN_WPP-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-UN_WPP_2022-19">[17]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#cfb;">Year </th> <th style="background:#cfb;">Million </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">1950</td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">2000</td> <td style="text-align:right;">9.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;">2021</td> <td style="text-align:right;">17.1 </td></tr></tbody></table> Somalia lacks reliable population data.<a href="#cite_note-274">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a> The country had an estimated population of around 17.1 million inhabitants in 2021;<a href="#cite_note-UN_WPP-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-UN_WPP_2022-19">[17]</a> the total population according to the 1975 census was 3.3 million.<a href="#cite_note-276">[274]</a> A <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a> survey conducted in 2013 and 2014 estimated the total population to be 12,316,895.<a href="#cite_note-277">[275]</a> About 85% of local residents are <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">ethnic Somalis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> who have historically inhabited the northern part of the country.<a href="#cite_note-Abdullahi_2001_8_11-278">[276]</a> They have traditionally been organized into nomadic pastoral clans, loose empires, sultanates and city-states.<a href="#cite_note-Abdullahi_2001_138-279">[277]</a> <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Civil strife</a> in the early 1990s greatly increased the size of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_diaspora" title="Somali diaspora">Somali diaspora</a>, as many of the best educated Somalis left the country.<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> Non-Somali ethnic minority groups make up the remainder of Somalia's population, and are largely concentrated in the southern regions.<a href="#cite_note-Abdullahi_2001_8_11-278">[276]</a> They include <a href="/wiki/Bravanese_people" title="Bravanese people">Bravanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Bantu" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali Bantu">Bantus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bajuni_people" title="Bajuni people">Bajuni</a>, <a href="/wiki/People_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="People of Ethiopia">Ethiopians</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Oromo_people" title="Oromo people">Oromos</a>), <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Yemen" title="Demographics of Yemen">Yemenis</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somalis" title="Italian Somalis">Italians</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_people" title="British people">Britons</a>. The Bantus, the largest ethnic minority group in Somalia, are the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">slaves</a> who were brought in from southeastern Africa by Arab and Somali traders.<a href="#cite_note-281">[279]</a> In 1940, there were about 50,000 <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somalis" title="Italian Somalis">Italians</a> living in Italian Somaliland.<a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a> Most Europeans left after independence, while a small number of Westerners are still present in Somalia mainly working for <a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">international organizations</a> operating in Somalia. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Population_pyramid_of_Somalia_2015.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Population_pyramid_of_Somalia_2015.png/300px-Population_pyramid_of_Somalia_2015.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Population_pyramid_of_Somalia_2015.png/450px-Population_pyramid_of_Somalia_2015.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Population_pyramid_of_Somalia_2015.png/600px-Population_pyramid_of_Somalia_2015.png 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Population per age group</figcaption></figure> A sizable Somali diaspora exists in various <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western countries</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (particularly in the state of <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>) and in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> (particularly in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, as well on the Arabian peninsula, and several African nations, such as <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. The Somali diaspora is deeply involved in the politics and development of Somalia. The president of Somalia, <a href="/wiki/Farmaajo" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmaajo">Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed</a>, was a former diaspora Somali and held <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States" title="Citizenship of the United States">US citizenship</a> which he voluntarily renounced in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-283">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[282]</a> Somalia's population is expanding at a growth rate of 1.75% per annum and a birth rate of 40.87 births per 1,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Total_fertility_rate" title="Total fertility rate">total fertility rate</a> of Somalia is 6.08 children born per woman (2014 estimates), the fourth highest in the world, according to the <a href="/wiki/CIA_World_Factbook" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA World Factbook">CIA World Factbook</a>.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> Most local residents are young, with a median age of 17.7 years; about 44% of the population is between the ages of 0–14 years, 52.4% is between the ages of 15–64 years, and only 2.3% is 65 years of age or older.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sex_ratio" title="Sex ratio">gender ratio</a> is roughly balanced, with proportionally about as many men as women.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> There is little reliable statistical information on <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> in Somalia. Rough estimates have been made indicating a rate of urbanization of 4.79% per annum (2005–2010 est.), with many towns quickly growing into cities.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> Many ethnic minorities have also moved from rural areas to urban centres since the onset of the civil war, particularly to <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-285">[283]</a> As of 2008<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somalia&action=edit">[update]</a>, 37.7% of the nation's population live in towns and cities, with the percentage rapidly increasing.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Somalia" title="Languages of Somalia">Languages of Somalia</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> are the official languages of Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-Frspc-220">[218]</a> The Somali language is the mother tongue of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali people</a>, the nation's most populous ethnic group.<a href="#cite_note-factbook-1">[1]</a> It is a member of the <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Asiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> language family, and its nearest relatives are the <a href="/wiki/Oromo_language" title="Oromo language">Oromo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afar_language" title="Afar language">Afar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saho_language" title="Saho language">Saho</a> languages.<a href="#cite_note-286">[284]</a> Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages,<a href="#cite_note-287">[285]</a> with academic studies of it dating from before 1900. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somali_Stone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Somali_Stone.jpg/220px-Somali_Stone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Somali_Stone.jpg/330px-Somali_Stone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Somali_Stone.jpg/440px-Somali_Stone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="529" data-file-height="748" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stone_tablet" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone tablet">Stone tablet</a> from the 14th-century in the <a href="/wiki/Wadaad%27s_writing" title="Wadaad's writing">Wadaad</a> orthography</figcaption></figure> Somali <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> are divided into three main groups: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Somali" title="Northern Somali">Northern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benadiri_Somali" title="Benadiri Somali">Benadir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maay_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Maay language">Maay</a>. Northern Somali (or Northern-Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somali. Benadir (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on the <a href="/wiki/Benadir" class="mw-redirect" title="Benadir">Benadir</a> coast, from <a href="/wiki/Adale" title="Adale">Adale</a> to south of <a href="/wiki/Merca" title="Merca">Merca</a> including Mogadishu, as well as in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects have additional <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> that do not exist in Standard Somali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (<a href="/wiki/Rahanweyn" title="Rahanweyn">Rahanweyn</a>) clans in the southern areas of Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-288">[286]</a> Benadiri is the main dialect spoken in the country, in contrast to Northern Somali which is the main dialect spoken in Somaliland.<a href="#cite_note-289">[287]</a> A number of <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a> have been used over the years for transcribing the Somali language. Of these, the <a href="/wiki/Somali_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali alphabet">Somali alphabet</a> is the most widely used, and has been the official writing script in Somalia since the Supreme Revolutionary Council formally introduced it in October 1972.<a href="#cite_note-290">[288]</a> Other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writing Somali include the long-established <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic script</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wadaad%27s_writing" title="Wadaad's writing">Wadaad's writing</a>. Indigenous writing systems developed in the 20th century include the <a href="/wiki/Osmanya_alphabet" title="Osmanya alphabet">Osmanya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borama_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Borama alphabet">Borama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kaddare_alphabet" title="Kaddare alphabet">Kaddare</a> scripts.<a href="#cite_note-291">[289]</a> In addition to Somali, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> is an official national language in Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-Frspc-220">[218]</a> Around 2 million Somalis speak it<a href="#cite_note-ethnologue.com-292">[290]</a> due to centuries-old ties with the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, the far-reaching influence of the Arabic media, and religious education.<a href="#cite_note-Dubnov-293">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[293]</a> <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> is widely spoken and taught. It used to be an administrative language in the British Somaliland protectorate and due to <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> is now also prominent across Somalia. English is the <a href="/wiki/Medium_of_instruction" title="Medium of instruction">medium of instruction</a> at many universities across Somalia,<a href="#cite_note-296">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[295]</a> and is one of the primary working languages of major <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">NGOs</a> operating in Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-298">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-299">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[299]</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> was an official language in Italian Somaliland and during the trusteeship period, but its use significantly diminished following independence. It is now most frequently heard among older generations, government officials, and in educated circles.<a href="#cite_note-Dubnov-293">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue.com-292">[290]</a> Other minority languages include <a href="/wiki/Bravanese_dialect" title="Bravanese dialect">Bravanese</a>, a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili language</a> that is spoken along the coast by the <a href="/wiki/Bravanese_people" title="Bravanese people">Bravanese people</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Bajuni_dialect" title="Bajuni dialect">Kibajuni</a>, a Swahili dialect that is the mother tongue of the <a href="/wiki/Bajuni_people" title="Bajuni people">Bajuni</a> minority ethnic group. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_areas">Urban areas</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1219497266">.mw-parser-output .largestCities-table-background{background:#f9f9f9;color:#222}.mw-parser-output .largestCities-cell-background{background:#f0f0f0;color:#222}</style> <div> <table style="font-size:88%;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 100%; border: 1px solid darkgray;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="10" style="padding:0.3em 0.75em;"><div style="float:right; width:6em; height:2.6em"> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini" style="float: left;height:2.6em;"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Largest_cities_of_Somalia" title="Template:Largest cities of Somalia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Largest_cities_of_Somalia" title="Template talk:Largest cities of Somalia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Largest_cities_of_Somalia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Largest cities of Somalia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div> <div style="height:2.6em;line-height:1.3em;">Largest cities or towns in Somalia <div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal;">.</div></div> </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Somalia_by_population" title="List of cities in Somalia by population">Rank</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Somalia" title="List of cities in Somalia">Name</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of Somalia">Region</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Somalia_by_population" title="List of cities in Somalia by population">Pop.</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Somalia_by_population" title="List of cities in Somalia by population">Rank</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Somalia" title="List of cities in Somalia">Name</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of Somalia">Region</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Somalia_by_population" title="List of cities in Somalia by population">Pop.</a></th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="11" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Mogadishu.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mogadishu"><img alt="Mogadishu" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mogadishu.jpg/120px-Mogadishu.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mogadishu.jpg/180px-Mogadishu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mogadishu.jpg/240px-Mogadishu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="268" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Hargeisa_DJI_0227.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hargeisa"><img alt="Hargeisa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Aerial_view_of_Hargeisa_DJI_0227.jpg/120px-Aerial_view_of_Hargeisa_DJI_0227.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Aerial_view_of_Hargeisa_DJI_0227.jpg/180px-Aerial_view_of_Hargeisa_DJI_0227.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Aerial_view_of_Hargeisa_DJI_0227.jpg/240px-Aerial_view_of_Hargeisa_DJI_0227.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8192" data-file-height="3298" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Hargeisa" title="Hargeisa">Hargeisa</a> </td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">1</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Banaadir" title="Banaadir">Banaadir</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,330,708<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-reliefweb-303">[301]</a></td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">11</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Beledweyne" title="Beledweyne">Belad Weyne</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hiraan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiraan">Hiraan</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">278,118 <a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a> </td> <td rowspan="11" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Bosasport1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bossaso"><img alt="Bossaso" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Bosasport1.jpg/120px-Bosasport1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Bosasport1.jpg/180px-Bosasport1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Bosasport1.jpg/240px-Bosasport1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Bossaso" class="mw-redirect" title="Bossaso">Bossaso</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">2</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hargeisa" title="Hargeisa">Hargeisa</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Woqooyi_Galbeed" class="mw-redirect" title="Woqooyi Galbeed">Woqooyi Galbeed</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,346,651<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a></td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">12</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hudun" title="Hudun">Hudun</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sool,_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sool, Somalia">Sool</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">271,199<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">3</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Bossaso" class="mw-redirect" title="Bossaso">Bossaso</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Bari,_Somalia" title="Bari, Somalia">Bari</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">615,067<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a></td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">13</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afgooye" title="Afgooye">Afgooye</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Shabelle" title="Lower Shabelle">Lower Shabelle</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">265,684<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">4</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Borama" title="Borama">Borama</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Awdal" title="Awdal">Awdal</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">597,842<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a></td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">14</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Balcad" class="mw-redirect" title="Balcad">Balcad</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Shabelle" title="Middle Shabelle">Middle Shabelle</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">255,291<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">5</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Burco" class="mw-redirect" title="Burco">Burco</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Togdheer" title="Togdheer">Togdheer</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">589,975<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a></td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">15</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Woqooyi_Galbeed" class="mw-redirect" title="Woqooyi Galbeed">Woqooyi Galbeed</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">251,189<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">6</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Baidoa" title="Baidoa">Baidoa</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Bay,_Somalia" title="Bay, Somalia">Bay</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">546,957<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a></td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">16</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Las_Anod" title="Las Anod">Laas Caanood</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sool" title="Sool">Sool</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">246,020<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">7</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Gaalkacyo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaalkacyo">Gaalkacyo</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mudug" title="Mudug">Mudug</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">501,542<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a></td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">17</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Juba" title="Lower Juba">Lower Juba</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">243,043<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">8</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Laasqoray" class="mw-redirect" title="Laasqoray">Laasqoray</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sanaag" title="Sanaag">Sanaag</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">343,101 <a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a></td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">18</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afmadow" title="Afmadow">Afmadow</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Juba" title="Lower Juba">Lower Juba</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">231,017<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">9</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Garowe" class="mw-redirect" title="Garowe">Garowe</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Nugaal" title="Nugaal">Nugaal</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">289,103<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a></td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">19</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Jowhar,_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jowhar, Somalia">Jowhar</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Shabelle" title="Middle Shabelle">Middle Shabelle</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">221,044<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">10</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Qoryoley" title="Qoryoley">Qoriyoley</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Shabelle" title="Lower Shabelle">Lower Shabelle</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">286,402<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a></td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">20</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Saakow" title="Saakow">Saacow</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Juba" title="Middle Juba">Middle Juba</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">211,369<a href="#cite_note-citypopulation-302">[300]</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <div class="notheme barbox tright" style="overflow-x: auto;"> <div style="border:1px solid silver; font-size:88%; padding:0.4em; width:auto; background: white; color: black;"> <table style="text-align:left; border-collapse:collapse; width:100%;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ddd"><th style="text-align:center;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Religion in Somalia</a> 2010<a href="#cite_note-Pew-304">[302]</a></th></tr> <tr style="font-size:88%; height:4px;"> <td colspan="2" style="padding:0 4px; text-align:left;">Religion</td> <td style="width:100px; text-align:left;"></td> <td colspan="2" style="padding:0 4px; width:1em; text-align:right;">Percent</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Somalia" title="Islam in Somalia">Islam</a></td> <td style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;"><div style="background:green; width:99.8%; overflow: hidden;"> </div></td> <td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 1.2em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">99.8%</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0.4em; min-width: 8em;">Other</td> <td style="width: 100px; border-left: solid 1px silver; border-right: solid 1px silver;"><div style="background:red; width:0.2%; overflow: hidden;"> </div></td> <td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 1.2em; padding-right: 0.4em; text-align: right;">0.2%</td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Religion in Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosislsol2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Mosislsol2.jpg/170px-Mosislsol2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Mosislsol2.jpg/255px-Mosislsol2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Mosislsol2.jpg/340px-Mosislsol2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="346" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mosque_of_Islamic_Solidarity" title="Mosque of Islamic Solidarity">Mosque of Islamic Solidarity</a> in Mogadishu is the largest mosque in the Horn region.</figcaption></figure> According to the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>, 99.8% of Somalia's population is <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-304">[302]</a> The majority belong to the <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> branch of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'i</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic jurisprudence">Islamic jurisprudence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Abdullahi_2001_12-23">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystical</a> sect of Islam, is also well established, with many local jama'a (<a href="/wiki/Zaouia" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaouia">zawiya</a>) or congregations of the various <a href="/wiki/Tariqah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariqah">tariiqa</a> or Sufi orders.<a href="#cite_note-305">[303]</a> The constitution of Somalia likewise defines Islam as the state religion of the Federal Republic of Somalia, and Islamic <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> law as the basic source for national legislation. It also stipulates that no law that is inconsistent with the basic tenets of Shari'a can be enacted.<a href="#cite_note-Frspc-220">[218]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> is a minority religion in Somalia, with adherents representing less than 0.1% of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research Center.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-304">[302]</a> The number of Christians in Somalia is estimated at 1,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-economist-306">[304]</a> There is one <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholic</a> diocese for the whole country, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Mogadiscio" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Diocese of Mogadiscio">Diocese of Mogadishu</a>, which estimates that there were only about one hundred Catholic practitioners in 2004.<a href="#cite_note-307">[305]</a> In 1913, during the early part of the colonial era, there were virtually no Christians in the Somali territories, with only about 100–200 followers coming from the schools and orphanages of the few Catholic missions in the <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a> <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-308">[306]</a> There were also no known Catholic missions in Italian Somaliland during the same period.<a href="#cite_note-309">[307]</a> In the 1970s, during the reign of Somalia's then <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> government, church-run schools were closed and <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> sent home. There has been no <a href="/wiki/Archbishop" title="Archbishop">archbishop</a> in the country since 1989, and the <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu_Cathedral" title="Mogadishu Cathedral">cathedral</a> in Mogadishu was severely damaged during the civil war. In December 2013, the Ministry of Justice and Religious Affairs also released a directive prohibiting the celebration of Christian festivities in the country.<a href="#cite_note-310">[308]</a> According to the Pew Research Center, less than 0.1% of Somalia's population in 2010 were adherents of <a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">folk religions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-304">[302]</a> These mainly consisted of some non-Somali ethnic minority groups in the southern parts of the country, who practice <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a>. In the case of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Bantu" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali Bantu">Bantu</a>, these religious traditions were inherited from their ancestors in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Africa" title="Southeast Africa">Southeast Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-311">[309]</a> Additionally, according to the Pew Research Center, less than 0.1% of Somalia's population in 2010 were adherents of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Irreligion_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Irreligion by country">unaffiliated with any religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-304">[302]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Somalia" title="Healthcare in Somalia">Healthcare in Somalia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Child_marriage_in_Somalia" title="Child marriage in Somalia">Child marriage in Somalia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_expectancy_in_Somalia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Life_expectancy_in_Somalia.svg/220px-Life_expectancy_in_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Life_expectancy_in_Somalia.svg/330px-Life_expectancy_in_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Life_expectancy_in_Somalia.svg/440px-Life_expectancy_in_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Life expectancy in Somalia, 1950 to 2019</figcaption></figure> Until the collapse of the federal government in 1991, the organizational and administrative structure of Somalia's <a href="/wiki/Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">healthcare</a> sector was overseen by the Ministry of Health. Regional medical officials enjoyed some authority, but healthcare was largely centralized. The <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> government of former President of Somalia <a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a> had put an end to private medical practice in 1972.<a href="#cite_note-312">[310]</a> Much of the national budget was devoted to military expenditure, leaving few resources for healthcare, among other services.<a href="#cite_note-Petletbet-235">[233]</a> Somalia's public healthcare system was largely destroyed during the ensuing civil war. As with other previously nationalized sectors, informal providers have filled the vacuum and replaced the former government monopoly over healthcare, with access to facilities witnessing a significant increase.<a href="#cite_note-ANEITMIS-313">[311]</a> Many new healthcare centres, clinics, hospitals and pharmacies have in the process been established through home-grown Somali initiatives.<a href="#cite_note-ANEITMIS-313">[311]</a> The cost of medical consultations and treatment in these facilities is low, at $5.72 per visit in health centres (with a population coverage of 95%), and $1.89–3.97 per outpatient visit and $7.83–13.95 per bed day in primary through tertiary hospitals.<a href="#cite_note-314">[312]</a> Comparing the 2005–2010 period with the half-decade just prior to the outbreak of the conflict (1985–1990), <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> actually increased from an average of 47 years for men and women to 48.2 years for men and 51 years for women.<a href="#cite_note-Uhdrsom01-315">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-Udasom-316">[314]</a> Similarly, the number of one-year-olds fully immunized against <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> rose from 30% in 1985–1990 to 40% in 2000–2005,<a href="#cite_note-Uhdrsom01-315">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wbunses-317">[315]</a> and for <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, it grew nearly 20% from 31% to 50% over the same period.<a href="#cite_note-Uhdrsom01-315">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wbunses-317">[315]</a> The number of infants with low birth weight fell from 16 per 1,000 to 0.3, a 15% drop in total over the same time frame.<a href="#cite_note-Uhdrsom01-315">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-318">[316]</a> Between 2005 and 2010 as compared to the 1985–1990 period, <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a> per 1,000 births also fell from 152 to 109.6.<a href="#cite_note-Uhdrsom01-315">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-Udasom-316">[314]</a> Significantly, maternal mortality per 100,000 births fell from 1,600 in the pre-war 1985–1990 half-decade to 1,100 in the 2000–2005 period.<a href="#cite_note-Uhdrsom01-315">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[317]</a> The number of physicians per 100,000 people also rose from 3.4 to 4 over the same time frame,<a href="#cite_note-Uhdrsom01-315">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wbunses-317">[315]</a> as did the percentage of the population with access to sanitation services, which increased from 18% to 26%.<a href="#cite_note-Uhdrsom01-315">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wbunses-317">[315]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a> data on the midwifery workforce, there is a total of 429 midwives (including nurse-midwives) in Somalia, with a density of one midwife per 1,000 live births. Eight midwifery institutions presently exist in the country, two of which are private. Midwifery is regulated by the government, and a license is required to practice professionally. A live registry is also in place to keep track of licensed midwives. In addition, midwives in the country are officially represented by a local midwives association, with 350 registered members.<a href="#cite_note-320">[318]</a> According to a 2005 World Health Organization estimate, about 97.9% of Somalia's women and girls underwent <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-321">[319]</a> a pre-marital custom mainly endemic to the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">horn of Africa</a> and parts of the Near East.<a href="#cite_note-322">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-323">[321]</a> Encouraged by women in the community, it is primarily intended to protect chastity, deter promiscuity, and offer protection from assault.<a href="#cite_note-324">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-325">[323]</a> By 2013, UNICEF in conjunction with the Somali authorities reported that the prevalence rate among 1- to 14-year-old girls in the autonomous northern Puntland and Somaliland regions had dropped to 25% following a social and religious awareness campaign.<a href="#cite_note-326">[324]</a> About 93% of Somalia's male population is also reportedly circumcised.<a href="#cite_note-327">[325]</a> Somalia has one of the lowest <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> infection rates on the continent. This is attributed to the Muslim nature of Somali society and adherence of Somalis to Islamic morals.<a href="#cite_note-RCTHIV-328">[326]</a> While the estimated HIV prevalence rate in Somalia in 1987 (the first case report year) was 1% of adults,<a href="#cite_note-RCTHIV-328">[326]</a> a 2012 report from UNAIDS says that since 2004, estimates from 0.7% to 1% have been assumed.<a href="#cite_note-329">[327]</a> Although healthcare is now largely concentrated in the private sector, the country's public healthcare system is in the process of being rebuilt, and is overseen by the Ministry of Health. The Minister of Health is Qamar Adan Ali.<a href="#cite_note-330">[328]</a> The autonomous Puntland region maintains its own Ministry of Health,<a href="#cite_note-331">[329]</a> as does the Somaliland region in northwestern Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-332">[330]</a> Some of the prominent healthcare facilities in the country are <a href="/wiki/East_Bardera_Mothers_and_Children%27s_Hospital" title="East Bardera Mothers and Children's Hospital">East Bardera Mothers and Children's Hospital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abudwak_Maternity_and_Children%27s_Hospital" title="Abudwak Maternity and Children's Hospital">Abudwak Maternity and Children's Hospital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edna_Adan_Maternity_Hospital" title="Edna Adan Maternity Hospital">Edna Adan Maternity Hospital</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Bardera_Maternity_Unit" title="West Bardera Maternity Unit">West Bardera Maternity Unit</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somalia" title="Education in Somalia">Education in Somalia</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Somalia)" title="Ministry of Education (Somalia)">Ministry of Education</a> is officially responsible for education in Somalia, and oversees the nation's <a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">primary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">secondary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">technical and vocational</a> schools, as well as primary and technical <a href="/wiki/Teacher_education" title="Teacher education">teacher training</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nonformal_learning" title="Nonformal learning">non-formal education</a>. About 15% of the government's budget is allocated toward scholastic instruction.<a href="#cite_note-333">[331]</a> The autonomous Puntland and Somaliland macro-regions maintain their own Ministries of Education. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mogauniv1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Mogauniv1.jpg/220px-Mogauniv1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Mogauniv1.jpg/330px-Mogauniv1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Mogauniv1.jpg/440px-Mogauniv1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="659" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mogadishu_University" title="Mogadishu University">Mogadishu University</a>'s main campus in Mogadishu</figcaption></figure> Higher education in Somalia is now largely private. Several universities in the country, including <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu_University" title="Mogadishu University">Mogadishu University</a>, have been scored among the 100 best universities in Africa in spite of the harsh environment, which has been hailed as a triumph for <a href="/wiki/Grass-roots" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass-roots">grass-roots</a> initiatives.<a href="#cite_note-Somtroap-241">[239]</a> Other universities also offering higher education in the south include <a href="/wiki/Benadir_University" title="Benadir University">Benadir University</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Somalia_National_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalia National University">Somalia National University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kismayo_University" title="Kismayo University">Kismayo University</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Gedo" title="University of Gedo">University of Gedo</a>. In Puntland, higher education is provided by the <a href="/wiki/Puntland_State_University" title="Puntland State University">Puntland State University</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Africa_University" title="East Africa University">East Africa University</a>. In Somaliland, it is provided by <a href="/wiki/Amoud_University" title="Amoud University">Amoud University</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hargeisa" title="University of Hargeisa">University of Hargeisa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somaliland_University_of_Technology" title="Somaliland University of Technology">Somaliland University of Technology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burao_University" title="Burao University">Burao University</a>. <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">Qu'ranic schools</a> (also known as dugsi quran or mal'aamad quran) remain the basic system of traditional religious instruction. Known as the most stable local, non-formal system of education providing basic religious and moral instruction, their strength rests on community support and their use of locally made and widely available teaching materials. The Qu'ranic system, which teaches the greatest number of students relative to other educational sub-sectors, is often the only system accessible to Somalis in nomadic as compared to urban areas. To address shortcomings in religious instruction, the Somali government on its own part also subsequently established the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs, under which Qur'anic education is now regulated.<a href="#cite_note-334">[332]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Somalia" title="Culture of Somalia">Culture of Somalia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Somali_cuisine" title="Somali cuisine">Somali cuisine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banadir3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Banadir3.jpg/220px-Banadir3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Banadir3.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="296" /></a><figcaption>Assortment of various popular <a href="/wiki/Somali_cuisine" title="Somali cuisine">Somali dishes</a></figcaption></figure> Somali cuisine is an intricate and diverse fusion of a multitude of culinary influences, drawing from the rich tapestry of <a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine">Arab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_cuisine" title="Indian cuisine">Indian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">Italian</a> flavours. This culinary tapestry is a direct result of Somalia's longstanding heritage of vibrant trade and bustling commerce.<a href="#cite_note-335">[333]</a> The essential components that form the foundation of Somali dishes encompass staples like <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pasta" title="Pasta">pasta</a>, along with an extensive selection of <a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meats</a> ranging from <a href="/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton" title="Lamb and mutton">lamb</a> to <a href="/wiki/Beef" title="Beef">beef</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">chicken</a>. Aromatic <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cumin" title="Cumin">cumin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardamom" title="Cardamom">cardamom</a>, and coriander are frequently utilized to infuse dishes with tantalizing flavors.<a href="#cite_note-336">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[335]</a> The culinary landscape of Somali cuisine also boasts an impressive assortment of hearty <a href="/wiki/Stew" title="Stew">stews</a>, traditional <a href="/wiki/Flatbread" title="Flatbread">flatbreads</a>, and delectable <a href="/wiki/Pastry" title="Pastry">pastries</a>, with highlights like the beloved "<a href="/wiki/Lahoh" title="Lahoh">Canjeero/Lahooh</a>," a delightful variation of the tangy fermented <a href="/wiki/Pancake" title="Pancake">pancake</a>-like <a href="/wiki/Flatbread" title="Flatbread">flatbread</a> that is savoured not only in Somalia but also in its neighbouring countries like <a href="/wiki/Injera" title="Injera">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-338">[336]</a><a href="#cite_note-339">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-340">[338]</a> Additionally, a distinctive feature of Somali culinary tradition is the incorporation of <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camel</a> <a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a>. They are considered a delicacy and serve as cherished and fundamental elements in the rich tapestry of Somali cuisine.<a href="#cite_note-341">[339]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bariis_iskukaris" title="Bariis iskukaris">Somali rice</a>, the usual staple for <a href="/wiki/Dinner" title="Dinner">dinner</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lunch" title="Lunch">lunch</a>, is typically <a href="/wiki/Seasoning" title="Seasoning">seasoned</a> and mixed with various <a href="/wiki/Ingredient" title="Ingredient">ingredients</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a>, and, in a somewhat unique manner, <a href="/wiki/Raisin" title="Raisin">raisins</a>, adding a sweet note to the dish. Also, it is not uncommon for this dish to be presented in a visually appealing manner by incorporating multiple colors, as certain portions may be artificially tinted with shades of yellow or orange using <a href="/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a> to enhance its aesthetic appeal.<a href="#cite_note-342">[340]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Djiboutian_rice_(bariis)_and_fish_(kalluun),_Liver_(beerka)_with_vegetable_also_(Sabaayad)_pancakes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Djiboutian_rice_%28bariis%29_and_fish_%28kalluun%29%2C_Liver_%28beerka%29_with_vegetable_also_%28Sabaayad%29_pancakes.jpg/220px-Djiboutian_rice_%28bariis%29_and_fish_%28kalluun%29%2C_Liver_%28beerka%29_with_vegetable_also_%28Sabaayad%29_pancakes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Djiboutian_rice_%28bariis%29_and_fish_%28kalluun%29%2C_Liver_%28beerka%29_with_vegetable_also_%28Sabaayad%29_pancakes.jpg/330px-Djiboutian_rice_%28bariis%29_and_fish_%28kalluun%29%2C_Liver_%28beerka%29_with_vegetable_also_%28Sabaayad%29_pancakes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Djiboutian_rice_%28bariis%29_and_fish_%28kalluun%29%2C_Liver_%28beerka%29_with_vegetable_also_%28Sabaayad%29_pancakes.jpg/440px-Djiboutian_rice_%28bariis%29_and_fish_%28kalluun%29%2C_Liver_%28beerka%29_with_vegetable_also_%28Sabaayad%29_pancakes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption>Somali rice (bariis) and fish (kalluun), Liver (beer) with vegetable also (Sabaayad) pancakes</figcaption></figure> An enduring testament to the influence of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian colonial rule in Somalia</a> is the widespread adoption of <a href="/wiki/Pasta" title="Pasta">pasta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lasagna" title="Lasagna">lasagne</a> in the local culinary landscape, espicially in the south, showcasing how these dishes have seamlessly integrated into the traditional diet alongside rice.<a href="#cite_note-343">[341]</a><a href="#cite_note-344">[342]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">Tea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, both well-loved <a href="/wiki/Drink" title="Drink">beverages</a>, are also really popular. Among the early adopters of <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a> consumption were the Somalis, who have the historical distinction of being among the first individuals documented to have enjoyed this stimulating drink. Additionally, Somali merchants played a pivotal role in the global coffee trade, being one of the first to export coffee beans.<a href="#cite_note-345">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-346">[344]</a> The unique Somali coffee, known locally as '<a href="/wiki/Qahwah" class="mw-redirect" title="Qahwah">Qahwo</a>' and tea 'Shah', stand out due to their preparation method which involves a blend of various <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a> meticulously selected to enhance their rich and complex flavor profile.<a href="#cite_note-347">[345]</a> 'Xalwo', which is closely associated with <a href="/wiki/Omani_cuisine" title="Omani cuisine">Omani</a> '<a href="/wiki/Halva" title="Halva">Halwa</a>', is a smooth jelly-like treat that is made with a blend of <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a>, seeds, <a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">nuts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Caramelization" title="Caramelization">caramelized</a> <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-348">[346]</a> This delightful <a href="/wiki/Confectionery" title="Confectionery">confection</a> is well-loved in Somalia and is commonly served together with Somali '<a href="/wiki/Arabic_coffee" title="Arabic coffee">Qahwo</a>'. After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed using <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a> or <a href="/wiki/Incense" title="Incense">incense</a> (unsi), which is prepared inside an <a href="/wiki/Censer" title="Censer">incense burne</a>r referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Dabqaad" title="Dabqaad">dabqaad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-349">[347]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Somalia" title="Music of Somalia">Music of Somalia</a></div> Somalia has a rich musical heritage centred on traditional Somali <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>. Most Somali songs are <a href="/wiki/Pentatonic_scale" title="Pentatonic scale">pentatonic</a>. Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan or the Arabian Peninsula, but it is ultimately recognizable by its unique tunes and styles. Traditional instruments prominently featured in the music of Somalia include the <a href="/wiki/Oud" title="Oud">oud</a> <a href="/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lute</a>. It is often accompanied by small <a href="/wiki/Drums" class="mw-redirect" title="Drums">drums</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Reed_(instrument)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reed (instrument)">reed</a> <a href="/wiki/Flute" title="Flute">flute</a> in the background. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between <a href="/wiki/Lyricist" title="Lyricist">lyricists</a> (midho), <a href="/wiki/Songwriter" title="Songwriter">songwriters</a> (laxan) and <a href="/wiki/Singing" title="Singing">singers</a> (codka or "voice").<a href="#cite_note-350">[348]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Somalia">Literature of Somalia</a></div> The Somali community has been a source of many significant poets, writers, and Islamic figures over the years, a considerable proportion of whom have played a pivotal role in influencing and moulding the trajectory of Muslim scholarship and traditions, not just in the Horn of Africa but also reaching far into the Arabian Peninsula and other regions around the world. Somalia has also been called by, among others, the <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canadian</a> novelist and scholar <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Laurence" title="Margaret Laurence">Margaret Laurence</a>, a "Nation of <a href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">Poets</a>" and a "Nation of <a href="/wiki/Bards" class="mw-redirect" title="Bards">Bards</a>". Famed British explorer and writer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton" title="Richard Francis Burton">Richard Burton</a> eloquently wrote about Somalia:<blockquote>"The country teems, with 'poets, poetasters, poetitoes, poetaccios': every man has his recognized position in literature as accurately defined as though he had been reviewed in a century of magazines - the fine ear of this people causing them to take the greatest pleasure in harmonious sounds and poetical expressions, whereas a false quantity or a prosaic phrase excite their violent indignation."<a href="#cite_note-351">[349]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contemporary">Contemporary</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hadrawi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Hadrawi.jpg/220px-Hadrawi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Hadrawi.jpg/330px-Hadrawi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Hadrawi.jpg/440px-Hadrawi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Famed <a href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">poet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosopher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">orator</a> <a href="/wiki/Hadrawi" title="Hadrawi">Mohamed Ibrahim Warsame (Hadraawi)</a></figcaption></figure> With the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Somali_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> in 1972 as the nation's standard orthography, numerous contemporary Somali authors have also released novels, some of which have received worldwide acclaim. Among these modern authors, <a href="/wiki/Nuruddin_Farah" title="Nuruddin Farah">Nuruddin Farah</a> is the most renowned, receiving, among other honors, the 1998 <a href="/wiki/Neustadt_International_Prize_for_Literature" title="Neustadt International Prize for Literature">Neustadt international prize for Literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:32-16">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Farah_Awl" title="Farah Awl">Faarax M.J. Cawl</a> is another notable Somali author who is famous for his novel set in the <a href="/wiki/Dervish_movement_(Somali)" title="Dervish movement (Somali)">Dervish era</a>, Ignorance is the enemy of love. Somali poetry also thrived during this era with <a href="/wiki/Hadrawi" title="Hadrawi">Hadraawi</a> gaining national renown for his prose and poetry. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sports">Sports</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Somalia" title="Sports in Somalia">Sports in Somalia</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Association_football" title="Association football">Football</a> is the most popular sport in Somalia. Important domestic competitions are the <a href="/wiki/Somalia_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalia League">Somalia League</a> and <a href="/wiki/Somalia_Cup" title="Somalia Cup">Somalia Cup</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Somalia_national_football_team" title="Somalia national football team">Somalia national football team</a> playing internationally. <a href="/wiki/Basketball" title="Basketball">Basketball</a> is also played in the country. The <a href="/wiki/FIBA_Africa_Championship_1981" title="FIBA Africa Championship 1981">FIBA Africa Championship 1981</a> was hosted in Mogadishu from 15 to 23 December December 1981, during which the <a href="/wiki/Somalia_national_basketball_team" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalia national basketball team">national basketball team</a> received the bronze medal.<a href="#cite_note-352">[350]</a> In 2013, a <a href="/wiki/Somalia_national_bandy_team" title="Somalia national bandy team">Somalia national bandy team</a> was formed in <a href="/wiki/Borl%C3%A4nge" title="Borlänge">Borlänge</a>. It participated in the <a href="/wiki/Bandy_World_Championship_2014" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandy World Championship 2014">Bandy World Championship 2014</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Martial_arts" title="Martial arts">martial arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faisal_Jeylani_Aweys" title="Faisal Jeylani Aweys">Faisal Jeylani Aweys</a> and Mohamed Deq Abdulle of the <a href="/wiki/Somalia_national_taekwondo_team" title="Somalia national taekwondo team">national taekwondo team</a> took home a silver medal and fourth place, respectively, at the 2013 Open World <a href="/wiki/Taekwondo" title="Taekwondo">Taekwondo</a> Challenge Cup in <a href="/wiki/Tongeren" title="Tongeren">Tongeren</a>.<a href="#cite_note-353">[351]</a> Additionally, Mohamed Jama has won both world and European titles in <a href="/wiki/K-1" title="K-1">K-1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muay_Thai" title="Muay Thai">Thai Boxing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-354">[352]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Somali architecture</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gondereshe2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Gondereshe2008.jpg/200px-Gondereshe2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Gondereshe2008.jpg/300px-Gondereshe2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Gondereshe2008.jpg/400px-Gondereshe2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="331" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">Citadel</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gondershe" title="Gondershe">Gondershe</a></figcaption></figure>Somali architecture is a rich and diverse tradition of engineering and design. Spanning the country's ancient, medieval and early modern periods, it also embraces the fusion of Somalo-Islamic architecture with contemporary Western designs. In ancient Somalia, <a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">pyramidical</a> structures known in Somali as taalo were a popular burial style, with hundreds of these <a href="/wiki/Dry_stone" title="Dry stone">dry stone</a> monuments scattered around the country today. Houses were built of <a href="/wiki/Ashlar" title="Ashlar">dressed stone</a> similar to the ones in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-355">[353]</a> There are also examples of courtyards and large stone walls enclosing settlements, such as the Wargaade Wall. The adoption of Islam in Somalia's early medieval history brought <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architectural influences</a> from <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>. This stimulated a shift in construction from dry stone and other related materials to <a href="/wiki/Coral_rag" title="Coral rag">coral</a> stone, <a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">sun dried bricks</a>, and the widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs, such as mosques, were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue throughout the following centuries.<a href="#cite_note-356">[354]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/48px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/64px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Somalia" title="Portal:Somalia">Somalia portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Somalia-related_articles" title="Index of Somalia-related articles">Index of Somalia-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Somalia" title="Outline of Somalia">Outline of Somalia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/səˈmɑːliə, soʊ-/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">sə-MAH-lee-ə, soh-</a>;<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>: Soomaaliya <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[soːmaːlija]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osmanya_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmanya script">Osmanya script</a>: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: الصومال, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: aṣ-Ṣūmāl </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>: Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-factbook-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-28">ac</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-29">ad</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-30">ae</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-31">af</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-32">ag</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-33">ah</a> <a href="#cite_ref-factbook_1-34">ai</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia">"Somalia"</a>. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 10 November 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125103534/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Somalia&rft.date=2021-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fsomalia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1998" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, I. M. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k3QwAQAAIAAJ">Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar, and Saho</a>. 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Retrieved 16 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=population.un.org&rft.atitle=United+Nations%2C+Department+of+Economic+and+Social+Affairs%2C+Population+Division+%282022%29.+World+Population+Prospects+2022%2C+Online+Edition.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpopulation.un.org%2Fwpp%2FDownload%2FStandard%2FMostUsed%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IMFWEO.SO-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IMFWEO.SO_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IMFWEO.SO_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IMFWEO.SO_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IMFWEO.SO_7-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/SOM">"World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Somalia)"</a>. 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Retrieved 26 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IMF.org&rft.atitle=World+Economic+Outlook+Database%2C+April+2024+Edition.+%28Somalia%29&rft.date=2024-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imf.org%2Fexternal%2Fdatamapper%2Fprofile%2FSOM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/">"Gini Index coefficient"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a>. 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Retrieved 13 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Development+Report+2023%2F24&rft.pub=United+Nations+Development+Programme&rft.date=2024-03-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdr.undp.org%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fglobal-report-document%2Fhdr2023-24reporten.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Jones, Daniel</a> (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-12-539683-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-12-539683-2"><bdi>3-12-539683-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Pronouncing+Dictionary&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=3-12-539683-2&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Somalia">"Somalia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a>. 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Retrieved 4 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+Bank+Open+Data&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.worldbank.org%2Fcountry%2FSO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStudies1969" class="citation book cs1">Studies, American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Area (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R0pyAAAAMAAJ&dq=Somali+arab+ties&pg=PA235">Area Handbook for Somalia: Co-authors: Irving Kaplan [et Al.] Research and Writing Were Completed on June 15, 1969</a>. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 235.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Area+Handbook+for+Somalia%3A+Co-authors%3A+Irving+Kaplan+%5Bet+Al.%5D+Research+and+Writing+Were+Completed+on+June+15%2C+1969&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Studies&rft.aufirst=American+University+%28Washington%2C+D.+C.+%29+Foreign+Area&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR0pyAAAAMAAJ%26dq%3DSomali%2Barab%2Bties%26pg%3DPA235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061214023655/http://www.mepc.org/workshops/popstat.asp">"Middle East Policy Council – Muslim Populations Worldwide"</a>. 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Fellowes, p. 199. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasson1984" class="citation book cs1">Casson, Lionel (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9iu6AAAAIAAJ">Ancient Trade and Society</a>. Mich. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8143-1740-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8143-1740-5"><bdi>0-8143-1740-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160805112006/https://books.google.com/books?id=9iu6AAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 5 August 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Trade+and+Society&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Mich.&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-8143-1740-5&rft.aulast=Casson&rft.aufirst=Lionel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9iu6AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Truhart,_P._1984_pp.72-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Truhart,_P._1984_pp.72_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Truhart,_P._1984_pp.72_26-1">b</a> Truhart, P. (1984). Regents of nations: systematic chronology of states and their political representatives in past and present : a biographical reference book. pp.72 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuárez" class="citation book cs1">Suárez, Jorge Alejandro. 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Retrieved 19 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prehistoric+Cultures+of+the+Horn+of+Africa%3A+An+Analysis+of+the+Stone+Age+Cultural+and+Climatic+Succession+in+the+Somalilands+and+Eastern+Parts+of+Abyssinia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013-03-21&rft.isbn=978-1-107-63536-4&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhCb6xzeydigC%26q%3Dsomalia%2Bstillbay%2Bculture%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelsonTattersallCouveringBrooks2004" class="citation book cs1">Delson, Eric; Tattersall, Ian; Couvering, John Van; Brooks, Alison S. 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ABC-CLIO. pp. 29–31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37857-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37857-7"><bdi>978-0-313-37857-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175752/https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2024. 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The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4488-4797-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4488-4797-6"><bdi>978-1-4488-4797-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104928/https://books.google.com/books?id=RO4kS1IR71sC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illustrated+Timeline+of+the+History+of+the+World&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4488-4797-6&rft.aulast=Dalal&rft.aufirst=Roshen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRO4kS1IR71sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdel_Monem_A._H._Sayed2003" class="citation book cs1">Abdel Monem A. H. Sayed (2003). Zahi A. Hawass (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1E13DorsFMEC">Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology</a>. American Univ in Cairo Press. pp. 432–433. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/977-424-674-8" title="Special:BookSources/977-424-674-8"><bdi>977-424-674-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175753/https://books.google.com/books?id=1E13DorsFMEC">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptology+at+the+Dawn+of+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+Archaeology&rft.pages=432-433&rft.pub=American+Univ+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=977-424-674-8&rft.au=Abdel+Monem+A.+H.+Sayed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1E13DorsFMEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheeler_pg_526-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler_pg_526_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler_pg_526_79-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/geographyofherod00whee/geographyofherod00whee_djvu.txt">The Geography of Herodotus: Illustrated from Modern Researches and Discoveries</a> by James Talboys Wheeler, pg 1xvi, 315, 526 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kitto2-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kitto2_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kitto2_80-1">b</a> John Kitto, James Taylor, The popular cyclopædia of Biblical literature: condensed from the larger work, (Gould and Lincoln: 1856), p.302. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Suzanne Richard (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=khR0apPid8gC&pg=PA120">Near Eastern archaeology: a reader</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104928/https://books.google.com/books?id=khR0apPid8gC&pg=PA120">Archived</a> 23 January 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, EISENBRAUNS, p. 120 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57506-083-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-57506-083-3">1-57506-083-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWarmington1995">Warmington 1995</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-EHW-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EHW_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EHW_83-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWarmington1995">Warmington 1995</a>, p. 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWarmington1995">Warmington 1995</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWarmington1995">Warmington 1995</a>, pp. 185–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriggs2012" class="citation book cs1">Briggs, Phillip (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC">Somaliland</a>. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-371-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-371-9"><bdi>978-1-84162-371-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somaliland&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Bradt+Travel+Guides&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-84162-371-9&rft.aulast=Briggs&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM6NI2FejIuwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewispohoa-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Lewispohoa_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFI._M._Lewis1955" class="citation book cs1">I. M. Lewis (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peoplesofthehorn007763mbp">Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho</a>. International African Institute. p. 140.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peoples+of+the+Horn+of+Africa%3A+Somali%2C+Afar+and+Saho&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=International+African+Institute&rft.date=1955&rft.au=I.+M.+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeoplesofthehorn007763mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leo-88"><a href="#cite_ref-Leo_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAfricanus1526" class="citation book cs1">Africanus, Leo (1526). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyanddescr03porygoog#page/n180/mode/2up">The History and Description of Africa</a>. Hakluyt Society. pp. 51–54. Retrieved 2 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Description+of+Africa&rft.pages=51-54&rft.pub=Hakluyt+Society&rft.date=1526&rft.aulast=Africanus&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fhistoryanddescr03porygoog%23page%2Fn180%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis1994-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1994_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ioan_Lewis" title="Ioan Lewis">Lewis, Ioan M.</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9fAjtruUXjEC">Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society</a>. Lawrencewill, NJ: The Red Sea Press. pp. 102–106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-932415-93-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-932415-93-8"><bdi>0-932415-93-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+Bone%3A+The+Call+of+Kinship+in+Somali+Society&rft.place=Lawrencewill%2C+NJ&rft.pages=102-106&rft.pub=The+Red+Sea+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-932415-93-8&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Ioan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9fAjtruUXjEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Th._Houtsma1987" class="citation book cs1">M. Th. Houtsma (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zJU3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA125">E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936</a>. BRILL. pp. 125–126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08265-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-08265-4"><bdi>90-04-08265-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104929/https://books.google.com/books?id=zJU3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA125">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=E.J.+Brill%27s+First+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+1913%E2%80%931936&rft.pages=125-126&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=90-04-08265-4&rft.au=M.+Th.+Houtsma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzJU3AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNizar_HamzehHrair_Dekmejian2010" class="citation journal cs1">Nizar Hamzeh, A.; Hrair Dekmejian, R. (2010). "A Sufi Response to Political Islamism: Al-Abāsh of Lebanon". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 28 (2): 217–229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800063145">10.1017/S0020743800063145</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154765577">154765577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=A+Sufi+Response+to+Political+Islamism%3A+Al-Ab%C4%81sh+of+Lebanon&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=217-229&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800063145&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154765577%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nizar+Hamzeh&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Hrair+Dekmejian%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriggs2012" class="citation book cs1">Briggs, Philip (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&pg=PA10">Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia</a>. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-371-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84162-371-9"><bdi>978-1-84162-371-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104930/https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&pg=PA10">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bradt+Somaliland%3A+With+Addis+Ababa+%26+Eastern+Ethiopia&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Bradt+Travel+Guides&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-84162-371-9&rft.aulast=Briggs&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM6NI2FejIuwC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewispd-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewispd_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewispd_93-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1999" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, I. M. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA17">A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa</a>. James Currey Publishers. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85255-280-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-85255-280-7"><bdi>0-85255-280-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104930/https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA17">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Pastoral+Democracy%3A+A+Study+of+Pastoralism+and+Politics+Among+the+Northern+Somali+of+the+Horn+of+Africa&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=James+Currey+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-85255-280-7&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=I.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeK6SBJIckIsC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Lewis, I.M. (1999) A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, LIT Verlag Münster, p. 17, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8258-3084-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-8258-3084-5">3-8258-3084-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFageOliver1970" class="citation book cs1">Fage, John Donnelly; Oliver, Roland Anthony (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/papersinafricanp0000fage">Papers in African Prehistory</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09566-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09566-2"><bdi>978-0-521-09566-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Papers+in+African+Prehistory&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09566-2&rft.aulast=Fage&rft.aufirst=John+Donnelly&rft.au=Oliver%2C+Roland+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpapersinafricanp0000fage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._G._Ravenstein2010" class="citation book cs1">E. G. Ravenstein (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AwcPInJC__gC&pg=PA88">A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco Da Gama, 1497–1499</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01296-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01296-6"><bdi>978-1-108-01296-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104930/https://books.google.com/books?id=AwcPInJC__gC&pg=PA88">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Journal+of+the+First+Voyage+of+Vasco+Da+Gama%2C+1497%E2%80%931499&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-108-01296-6&rft.au=E.+G.+Ravenstein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAwcPInJC__gC%26pg%3DPA88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoussaume1976" class="citation journal cs1">Joussaume, Roger (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/ethio_0066-2127_1976_num_10_1_1157.pdf">"Fouille d'un tumulus à Ganda Hassan Abdi dans les monts du Harar"</a> (PDF). Annales d'Ethiopie. 10: 25–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fethio.1976.1157">10.3406/ethio.1976.1157</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+d%27Ethiopie&rft.atitle=Fouille+d%27un+tumulus+%C3%A0+Ganda+Hassan+Abdi+dans+les+monts+du+Harar&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=25-39&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fethio.1976.1157&rft.aulast=Joussaume&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2FdocAsPDF%2Fethio_0066-2127_1976_num_10_1_1157.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraukämper2002" class="citation book cs1">Braukämper, Ulrich (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HGnyk8Pg9NgC&pg=PA18">Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays</a>. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-5671-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-5671-7"><bdi>978-3-8258-5671-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+History+and+Culture+in+Southern+Ethiopia%3A+Collected+Essays&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-3-8258-5671-7&rft.aulast=Brauk%C3%A4mper&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHGnyk8Pg9NgC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Sir Reginald Coupland (1965) East Africa and its invaders: from the earliest times to the death of Seyyid Said in 1856, Russell & Russell, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_A._Alpers2009" class="citation book cs1">Edward A. Alpers (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DNHvb6nSN-AC&pg=PA79">East Africa and the Indian Ocean</a>. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-453-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-453-8"><bdi>978-1-55876-453-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104930/https://books.google.com/books?id=DNHvb6nSN-AC&pg=PA79">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Africa+and+the+Indian+Ocean&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-453-8&rft.au=Edward+A.+Alpers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDNHvb6nSN-AC%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNigel_Harris2003" class="citation book cs1">Nigel Harris (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S3oyoVIIlMQC&pg=PA22">The Return of Cosmopolitan Capital: Globalization, the State and War</a>. I.B.Tauris. pp. 22–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-786-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-786-4"><bdi>978-1-86064-786-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104931/https://books.google.com/books?id=S3oyoVIIlMQC&pg=PA22">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Return+of+Cosmopolitan+Capital%3A+Globalization%2C+the+State+and+War&rft.pages=22-&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-86064-786-4&rft.au=Nigel+Harris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS3oyoVIIlMQC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._J._Barendse2002" class="citation book cs1">R. J. Barendse (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qvq9dN8j5MC&pg=PA343">The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean world of the Seventeenth Century /c R.J. Barendse</a>. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 343–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0729-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0729-4"><bdi>978-0-7656-0729-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabian+Seas%3A+The+Indian+Ocean+world+of+the+Seventeenth+Century+%2Fc+R.J.+Barendse&rft.pages=343-&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-0729-4&rft.au=R.+J.+Barendse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qvq9dN8j5MC%26pg%3DPA343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlpers1976">Alpers 1976</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Caroline Sassoon (1978) Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: Aspects of Trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV–XIX Centuries, Vol. 43–47, British Archaeological Reports, p. 2, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86054-018-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-86054-018-9">0-86054-018-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Sir Reginald Coupland (1965) East Africa and Its Invaders: From the Earliest Times to the Death of Seyyid Said in 1856, Russell & Russell, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_A._Alpers2009" class="citation book cs1">Edward A. Alpers (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DNHvb6nSN-AC&pg=PA79">East Africa and the Indian Ocean</a>. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-453-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-453-8"><bdi>978-1-55876-453-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123104930/https://books.google.com/books?id=DNHvb6nSN-AC&pg=PA79">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. 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Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/">"Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa | Somalidiasporanews.com"</a> (in Somali). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210219181303/http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 February 2021. 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Clarendon Press. p. 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+East+Africa%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Oliver&rft.aufirst=Roland+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpGkMAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History (CRC Press, 2005), p. 1406. </li> <li id="cite_note-kenna2-121"><a href="#cite_ref-kenna2_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newspapers.library.wales/view/3640121/3640124/41/">"The fight in Somaliland"</a>. Rhyl Record and Advertiser. 2 January 1904. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210605003300/https://newspapers.library.wales/view/3640121/3640124/41/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2021 – via newspapers.library.wales.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rhyl+Record+and+Advertiser&rft.atitle=The+fight+in+Somaliland&rft.date=1904-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewspapers.library.wales%2Fview%2F3640121%2F3640124%2F41%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African history, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 1406. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamatar1982[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoralpoetrysomali00samapagen144_131],_135-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamatar1982[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoralpoetrysomali00samapagen144_131],_135_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSamatar1982">Samatar 1982</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oralpoetrysomali00sama/page/n144">131</a>, 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-cdtydiydc-124"><a href="#cite_ref-cdtydiydc_124-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoland_Anthony2007" class="citation book cs1">Roland Anthony (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iMRf1RZ9zkAC">Somalia in Pictures</a>. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822565864" title="Special:BookSources/9780822565864"><bdi>9780822565864</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somalia+in+Pictures&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Twenty-First+Century+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780822565864&rft.au=Roland+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiMRf1RZ9zkAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tripodi1999-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tripodi1999_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tripodi1999_125-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaolo_Tripodi1999" class="citation book cs1">Paolo Tripodi (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eJR3RAAACAAJ">The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu: From Colonial Administration to Operation Restore Hope</a>. Macmillan Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-22393-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-22393-9"><bdi>978-0-312-22393-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123105442/https://books.google.com/books?id=eJR3RAAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Colonial+Legacy+in+Somalia%3A+Rome+and+Mogadishu%3A+From+Colonial+Administration+to+Operation+Restore+Hope&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Macmillan+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-312-22393-9&rft.au=Paolo+Tripodi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeJR3RAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zolberg-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zolberg_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zolberg_126-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFZolbergSuhrkeAguayo1989">Zolberg, Suhrke & Aguayo 1989</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B9_yS_ynvzgC&pg=PA106">106</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwame_Anthony_AppiahHenry_Louis_Gates2003" class="citation book cs1">Kwame Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (26 November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cereWkyNJckC">Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience: the concise desk reference</a>. Running Press. p. 1749. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7624-1642-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7624-1642-4"><bdi>978-0-7624-1642-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123105443/https://books.google.com/books?id=cereWkyNJckC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africana%3A+the+encyclopedia+of+the+African+and+African+American+experience%3A+the+concise+desk+reference&rft.pages=1749&rft.pub=Running+Press&rft.date=2003-11-26&rft.isbn=978-0-7624-1642-4&rft.au=Kwame+Anthony+Appiah&rft.au=Henry+Louis+Gates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcereWkyNJckC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Helen_Chapin_Metz" title="Helen Chapin Metz">Helen Chapin Metz</a>, ed. (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/somalia">Somalia: A Country Study</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110805012513/http://countrystudies.us/somalia/">Archived</a> 5 August 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Federal Research Division (2004) Somalia: A Country Study, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, p. 38, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4191-4799-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4191-4799-4">1-4191-4799-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaitin1977">Laitin 1977</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Francis Vallat (1974) First report on succession of states in respect of treaties: International Law Commission twenty-sixth session 6 May – 26 July 1974, United Nations, p. 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaitin1977">Laitin 1977</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRousseau1996" class="citation book cs1">Rousseau, David Laurent (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=isYeAQAAMAAJ">Domestic political institutions and the evolution of international conflict</a>. University of Michigan. p. 231. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780591309287" title="Special:BookSources/9780591309287"><bdi>9780591309287</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171101175701/https://books.google.com/books?id=isYeAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2017. Retrieved 24 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Domestic+political+institutions+and+the+evolution+of+international+conflict&rft.pages=231&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780591309287&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=David+Laurent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DisYeAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barrington2006-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barrington2006_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barrington2006_134-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barrington2006_134-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchraeder2006">Schraeder 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pyWpKKlukLcC&pg=PA115">115</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Kevin Shillington (2005) Encyclopedia of African history, CRC Press, p. 360, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57958-245-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-57958-245-1">1-57958-245-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopædia_Britannica_2002_p.835-136"><a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Britannica_2002_p.835_136-0">^</a> Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p.835 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090116055005/http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm">"The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960"</a>. Buluugleey.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm">the original</a> on 16 January 2009. Retrieved 25 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+dawn+of+the+Somali+nation-state+in+1960&rft.pub=Buluugleey.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.buluugleey.com%2Fwarkiidanbe%2FGovernance.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htwin/articles/20060809.aspx">"The making of a Somalia state"</a>. Strategypage.com. 9 August 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160702033453/http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htwin/articles/20060809.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+making+of+a+Somalia+state&rft.pub=Strategypage.com&rft.date=2006-08-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.strategypage.com%2Fhtmw%2Fhtwin%2Farticles%2F20060809.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151011003402/http://www.somalilandlaw.com/The_1961_Referendum_Table1_Note.pdf">"The 1961 Referendum"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.somalilandlaw.com/The_1961_Referendum_Table1_Note.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+1961+Referendum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.somalilandlaw.com%2FThe_1961_Referendum_Table1_Note.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/LOC-HAK-510-5-8-1.pdf">https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/LOC-HAK-510-5-8-1.pdf</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL._Daniels2012" class="citation book cs1">L. Daniels, Christopher (2012). Somali Piracy and Terrorism in the Horn of Africa. Scarecrow Press. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810883109" title="Special:BookSources/9780810883109"><bdi>9780810883109</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somali+Piracy+and+Terrorism+in+the+Horn+of+Africa&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780810883109&rft.aulast=L.+Daniels&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdan_Sheikh1991" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Adan Sheikh, Mohamed (1991). Arrivederci a Mogadiscio (in Italian). Edizioni associate. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788826700700" title="Special:BookSources/9788826700700"><bdi>9788826700700</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arrivederci+a+Mogadiscio&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Edizioni+associate&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9788826700700&rft.aulast=Adan+Sheikh&rft.aufirst=Mohamed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHussein_Mohamed_AdamRichard_Ford1997" class="citation book cs1">Hussein Mohamed Adam; Richard Ford (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0m9yAAAAMAAJ">Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century</a>. Red Sea Press. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56902-073-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-56902-073-6"><bdi>1-56902-073-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123105443/https://books.google.com/books?id=0m9yAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mending+rips+in+the+sky%3A+options+for+Somali+communities+in+the+21st+century&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Red+Sea+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-56902-073-6&rft.au=Hussein+Mohamed+Adam&rft.au=Richard+Ford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0m9yAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver (1985) The Cambridge history of Africa, Vol. 8, Cambridge University Press, p. 478, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22409-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-22409-8">0-521-22409-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Grolierenc-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grolierenc_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grolierenc_145-1">b</a> The Encyclopedia Americana: complete in thirty volumes. Skin to Sumac, Vol. 25, Grolier: 1995, p. 214, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7172-0126-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7172-0126-0">0-7172-0126-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pjdlfw-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pjdlfw_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pjdlfw_146-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pjdlfw_146-2">c</a> de la Fosse Wiles, Peter John (1982) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lgMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279">The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123105443/https://books.google.com/books?id=lgMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279">Archived</a> 23 January 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Taylor & Francis, p. 279 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7099-2709-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7099-2709-6">0-7099-2709-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrving1977" class="citation book cs1">Irving, Kaplan (1977). Area Handbook for Somalia Volume 550. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 116.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Area+Handbook+for+Somalia+Volume+550&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Irving&rft.aufirst=Kaplan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChijioke_Njoku" class="citation book cs1">Chijioke Njoku, Raphael. The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313378584" title="Special:BookSources/9780313378584"><bdi>9780313378584</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Somalia&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.isbn=9780313378584&rft.aulast=Chijioke+Njoku&rft.aufirst=Raphael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Benjamin Frankel (1992) The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World, Gale Research, p. 306 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8103-8928-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8103-8928-2">0-8103-8928-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Oihe Yang (2000) Africa South of the Sahara 2001, 30th ed., Taylor and Francis, p. 1025 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85743-078-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-85743-078-6">1-85743-078-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGebru_Tareke2009">Gebru Tareke 2009</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dRIfYPTZxJsC&pg=PA182">182–6</a>. 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Vice.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vice&rft.atitle=Spaghetti+and+Bananas+Is+Somali+Comfort+Food&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vice.com%2Fen%2Farticle%2F595dw8%2Fspaghetti-and-bananas-is-somali-comfort-food&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cafedirect.co.uk/shop/the-history-of-coffee/#:~:text=Historians%20believe%20that%20coffee%20was%20being%20exported%20from%20Ethiopia%20to%20Yemen%20by%20Somali%20merchants%20at%20the%20beginning%20of%20the%2015th%20Century.%20Mocha%2C%20a%20city%20in%20Yemen%2C%20became%20the%20centre%20of%20the%20coffee%20trade%20around%20this%20time.">"The History of Coffee"</a>. Cafedirect. 19 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cafedirect&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Coffee&rft.date=2020-05-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cafedirect.co.uk%2Fshop%2Fthe-history-of-coffee%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DHistorians%2520believe%2520that%2520coffee%2520was%2520being%2520exported%2520from%2520Ethiopia%2520to%2520Yemen%2520by%2520Somali%2520merchants%2520at%2520the%2520beginning%2520of%2520the%252015th%2520Century.%2520Mocha%252C%2520a%2520city%2520in%2520Yemen%252C%2520became%2520the%2520centre%2520of%2520the%2520coffee%2520trade%2520around%2520this%2520time.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGavin1975" class="citation book cs1">Gavin, R. J. 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Hurst. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-903983-14-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-903983-14-3"><bdi>978-0-903983-14-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aden+Under+British+Rule%2C+1839-1967&rft.pub=Hurst&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-903983-14-3&rft.aulast=Gavin&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcscbDgqCsOMC%26q%3Dharar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mysomalifood.com/qahwe/">"Qahwe"</a>. mysomalifood. 12 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mysomalifood&rft.atitle=Qahwe&rft.date=2011-06-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mysomalifood.com%2Fqahwe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive-stories.com/Halwa-Mahyawa-and-Multiple-Registers-of-Life-in-the-Gulf#:~:text=Halwa/Xalwo,or%20sesame%20seeds.">"Halwa, Mahyawa and Multiple Registers of Life in the Gulf"</a>. archive-stories.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive-stories&rft.atitle=Halwa%2C+Mahyawa+and+Multiple+Registers+of+Life+in+the+Gulf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive-stories.com%2FHalwa-Mahyawa-and-Multiple-Registers-of-Life-in-the-Gulf%23%3A~%3Atext%3DHalwa%2FXalwo%2Cor%2520sesame%2520seeds.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdullahi2012" class="citation book cs1">Abdullahi, Mohammed (10 May 2012). Culture and Customs of Somalia (Culture and Customs of Africa). Greenwood Press. pp. 98–99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313313332" title="Special:BookSources/9780313313332"><bdi>9780313313332</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Customs+of+Somalia+%28Culture+and+Customs+of+Africa%29&rft.pages=98-99&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2012-05-10&rft.isbn=9780313313332&rft.aulast=Abdullahi&rft.aufirst=Mohammed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbdullahi2001">Abdullahi 2001</a>, pp. 170–1 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAbdullahi2001 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurton1986" class="citation book cs1">Burton, Richard (1986) [1856]. 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Retrieved 15 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1981+African+Championship+for+Men&rft.pub=FIBA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.fiba.com%2Fpages%2Feng%2Ffa%2Fevent%2Fp%2Fcid%2FAFMSM%2Fsid%2F2399%2F_%2F1981_African_Championship_for_Men%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131022175949/http://horseedmedia.net/2013/03/06/somalia-moves-forward-at-world-taekwondo-pictures/">"Somalia moves forward at world Taekwondo"</a>. Horseed Media. 6 March 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://horseedmedia.net/2013/03/06/somalia-moves-forward-at-world-taekwondo-pictures/">the original</a> on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Horseed+Media&rft.atitle=Somalia+moves+forward+at+world+Taekwondo&rft.date=2013-03-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhorseedmedia.net%2F2013%2F03%2F06%2Fsomalia-moves-forward-at-world-taekwondo-pictures%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2010-02-10/others/great-victory-for-malta-in-k1-kickboxing-270164/">"Great Victory for Malta in K1 Kickboxing"</a>. Malta Independent. 10 February 2010. Retrieved 18 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Malta+Independent&rft.atitle=Great+Victory+for+Malta+in+K1+Kickboxing&rft.date=2010-02-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.com.mt%2Farticles%2F2010-02-10%2Fothers%2Fgreat-victory-for-malta-in-k1-kickboxing-270164%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> John G. Jackson, J. Hampden Jackson (1972) Man, God and Civilization, Citadel Press, p. 216, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8065-0858-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8065-0858-2">0-8065-0858-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbdullahi2001">Abdullahi 2001</a>, p. 102 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAbdullahi2001 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>). </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiriye_Abdullahi2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Diriye_Abdullahi" title="Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi">Diriye Abdullahi, Mohamed</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VOPEEAAAQBAJ">Culture and Customs of Somalia</a>. Culture and customs of Africa. Westport, Conn: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31333-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31333-2"><bdi>978-0-313-31333-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Customs+of+Somalia&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn&rft.series=Culture+and+customs+of+Africa&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31333-2&rft.aulast=Diriye+Abdullahi&rft.aufirst=Mohamed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVOPEEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlpers1976" class="citation journal cs1">Alpers, Edward A. (1976). "Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa, c. 1500–1800". <a href="/wiki/The_International_Journal_of_African_Historical_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="The International Journal of African Historical Studies">The International Journal of African Historical Studies</a>. 9 (1): 22–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F217389">10.2307/217389</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/217389">217389</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+African+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Gujarat+and+the+Trade+of+East+Africa%2C+c.+1500%E2%80%931800&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-44&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F217389&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F217389%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Alpers&rft.aufirst=Edward+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGebru_Tareke2009" class="citation book cs1">Gebru Tareke (2009). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14163-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14163-4"><bdi>978-0-300-14163-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ethiopian+Revolution%3A+War+in+the+Horn+of+Africa&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-300-14163-4&rft.au=Gebru+Tareke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaitin1977" class="citation book cs1">Laitin, David D. (1977). Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46791-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46791-7"><bdi>978-0-226-46791-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics%2C+Language%2C+and+Thought%3A+The+Somali+Experience&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-226-46791-7&rft.aulast=Laitin&rft.aufirst=David+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLecarmeMaury1987" class="citation journal cs1">Lecarme, Jacqueline; Maury, Carole (1987). "A Software Tool for Research in Linguistics and Lexicography: Application to Somali". Computers and Translation. 2 (1): 21–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01540131">10.1007/BF01540131</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6515240">6515240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computers+and+Translation&rft.atitle=A+Software+Tool+for+Research+in+Linguistics+and+Lexicography%3A+Application+to+Somali&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=21-36&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01540131&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6515240%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lecarme&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline&rft.au=Maury%2C+Carole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMauri1971" class="citation book cs1">Mauri, Arnaldo (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=958442">"Banking Development in Somalia"</a>. In Dell'Amore, Giordano (ed.). Banking Systems in Africa. Milan: <a href="/wiki/Cariplo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cariplo">Cariplo</a> - Finafrica. pp. 209–217.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Banking+Development+in+Somalia&rft.btitle=Banking+Systems+in+Africa&rft.place=Milan&rft.pages=209-217&rft.pub=Cariplo+-+Finafrica&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Mauri&rft.aufirst=Arnaldo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D958442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamatar1982" class="citation book cs1">Samatar, Said S. (1982). Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-10457-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-10457-9"><bdi>978-0-521-10457-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oral+Poetry+and+Somali+Nationalism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-521-10457-9&rft.aulast=Samatar&rft.aufirst=Said+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchraeder2006" class="citation book cs1">Schraeder, Peter J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.umich.edu/pdf/0472098985-ch5.pdf">"From Irredentism to Secession: The Decline of Pan-Somali Nationalism"</a> (PDF). In Barrington, Lowell W. (ed.). After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States. Ann Arbor, MI: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. pp. 107–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-09898-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-09898-9"><bdi>978-0-472-09898-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Irredentism+to+Secession%3A+The+Decline+of+Pan-Somali+Nationalism&rft.btitle=After+Independence%3A+Making+and+Protecting+the+Nation+in+Postcolonial+and+Postcommunist+States&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pages=107-137&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-472-09898-9&rft.aulast=Schraeder&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.umich.edu%2Fpdf%2F0472098985-ch5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShay2014" class="citation book cs1">Shay, Shaul (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uqw0DwAAQBAJ">Somalia in Transition Since 2006</a>. New Brunswick: <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-5390-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-5390-3"><bdi>978-1-4128-5390-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somalia+in+Transition+Since+2006&rft.place=New+Brunswick&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-5390-3&rft.aulast=Shay&rft.aufirst=Shaul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duqw0DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarmington1995" class="citation book cs1">Warmington, Eric Herbert (1995). The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India. South Asia Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-215-0670-0" title="Special:BookSources/81-215-0670-0"><bdi>81-215-0670-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Commerce+Between+the+Roman+Empire+and+India&rft.pub=South+Asia+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=81-215-0670-0&rft.aulast=Warmington&rft.aufirst=Eric+Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZolbergSuhrkeAguayo1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aristide_Zolberg" title="Aristide Zolberg">Zolberg, Aristide R.</a>; Suhrke, Astri; <a href="/wiki/Sergio_Aguayo" title="Sergio Aguayo">Aguayo, Sergio</a> (1989). Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505592-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505592-4"><bdi>978-0-19-505592-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Escape+from+Violence%3A+Conflict+and+the+Refugee+Crisis+in+the+Developing+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505592-4&rft.aulast=Zolberg&rft.aufirst=Aristide+R.&rft.au=Suhrke%2C+Astri&rft.au=Aguayo%2C+Sergio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosatiTewoldeMosconi2007" class="citation book cs1">Rosati, A.; Tewolde, A.; Mosconi, C. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=av8qvZ-0sHUC&pg=PA169">Animal Production and Animal Science Worldwide</a>. WAAP book of the year. Wageningen: <a href="/wiki/Wageningen_Academic_Publishers" title="Wageningen Academic Publishers">Wageningen Academic Publishers</a>. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8686-034-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-8686-034-0"><bdi>978-90-8686-034-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animal+Production+and+Animal+Science+Worldwide&rft.place=Wageningen&rft.series=WAAP+book+of+the+year&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Wageningen+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-8686-034-0&rft.aulast=Rosati&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Tewolde%2C+A.&rft.au=Mosconi%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dav8qvZ-0sHUC%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASomalia" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Somalia at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Somalia" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Somalia">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Somalia" class="extiw" title="c:Somalia">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Somalia" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Somalia">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Somalia" class="extiw" title="q:Somalia">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Somalia" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Somalia">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Somalia" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Somalia">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Somalia" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Somalia">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Somalia" class="extiw" title="voy:Somalia">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/16px-Gnome-globe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/24px-Gnome-globe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/32px-Gnome-globe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_Somalia" class="extiw" title="commons:Atlas of Somalia">Wikimedia Atlas of Somalia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://humanitarianatlas.org/somalia/">Link to >100 maps of all Somali Regions, Districts and neighborhoods of Mogadishu</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.somaligov.net/">Federal Government of Somalia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150408021606/http://www.somaligov.net/">Archived</a> 8 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/">Somalia</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a>. <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ucblibraries.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?ho=t&l=en&q=somalia">Somalia</a> web resources provided by GovPubs at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Boulder_Libraries" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Colorado Boulder Libraries">University of Colorado Boulder Libraries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14094503">Somalia profile</a> from <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Somalia_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Somalia_topics" title="Template:Somalia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Somalia_topics" title="Template talk:Somalia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Somalia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Somalia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Somalia_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Somalia</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Somalia-related_articles" title="Index of Somalia-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laas_Geel" title="Laas Geel">Laas Geel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walashma_dynasty" title="Walashma dynasty">Walashma dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajuran_Sultanate" title="Ajuran Sultanate">Ajuran Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_the_Geledi" title="Sultanate of the Geledi">Sultanate of the Geledi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majeerteen_Sultanate" title="Majeerteen Sultanate">Majeerteen Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Hobyo" title="Sultanate of Hobyo">Sultanate of Hobyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsangali_Sultanate" title="Warsangali Sultanate">Warsangali Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dervish_movement_(Somali)" title="Dervish movement (Somali)">Dervish movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_Somaliland" title="Trust Territory of Somaliland">Trust Territory of Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland_War_of_Independence" title="Somaliland War of Independence">Somaliland War of Independence (1981–1991)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_genocide" title="Isaaq genocide">Isaaq genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Rebellion (1986–1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Somalia" title="Piracy off the coast of Somalia">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somalia_War_(2006%E2%80%932009)" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalia War (2006–2009)">Ethiopian intervention (2006–2009)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War_(2009%E2%80%93present)" title="Somali Civil War (2009–present)">(2009–present)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Somalia" title="Military history of Somalia">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Somalia" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Somalia">Postal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia" title="Coat of arms of Somalia"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg/200px-Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Somalia" title="Geography of Somalia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Somalia" title="List of cities in Somalia">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate of Somalia">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Somalia" title="Wildlife of Somalia">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Somalia" title="Greater Somalia">Greater Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardafui_Channel" title="Guardafui Channel">Guardafui Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafun" title="Hafun">Hafun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_Somalia" title="Category:Waterfalls of Somalia">Waterfalls</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iskushuban" title="Iskushuban">Iskushuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamadaya" title="Lamadaya">Lamadaya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_Somalia" title="Category:Mountain ranges of Somalia">Mountain ranges</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cal_Madow" title="Cal Madow">Cal Madow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buur_Dhaab" title="Buur Dhaab">Buur Dhaab</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Somalia" title="Category:Mountains of Somalia">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Bahaya" title="Mount Bahaya">Bahaya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islands_of_Somalia" title="Category:Islands of Somalia">Island</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bajuni_Islands" title="Bajuni Islands">Bajuni Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Somalia" title="Administrative divisions of Somalia">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awdal" title="Awdal">Awdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakool" title="Bakool">Bakool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banaadir" title="Banaadir">Banaadir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bari,_Somalia" title="Bari, Somalia">Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay,_Somalia" title="Bay, Somalia">Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galguduud" title="Galguduud">Galguduud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gedo" title="Gedo">Gedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sool" title="Sool">Sool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanaag" title="Sanaag">Sanaag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiran,_Somalia" title="Hiran, Somalia">Hiran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Juba" title="Middle Juba">Middle Juba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Juba" title="Lower Juba">Lower Juba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudug" title="Mudug">Mudug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nugal,_Somalia" title="Nugal, Somalia">Nugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Shebelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Shebelle">Middle Shebelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Shebelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Shebelle">Lower Shebelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togdheer" title="Togdheer">Togdheer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woqooyi_Galbeed" class="mw-redirect" title="Woqooyi Galbeed">Woqooyi Galbeed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/States_and_regions_of_Somalia" title="States and regions of Somalia">States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galmudug" title="Galmudug">Galmudug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khatumo" class="mw-redirect" title="Khatumo">Khatumo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirshabelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hirshabelle">Hirshabelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubaland" title="Jubaland">Jubaland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puntland" title="Puntland">Puntland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_State_of_Somalia" title="South West State of Somalia">South West Somalia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Somalia" title="Politics of Somalia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet of Somalia">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Somalia" title="Constitution of Somalia">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Somalia" title="Elections in Somalia">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Somalia" title="Foreign relations of Somalia">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Government_of_Somalia" title="Federal Government of Somalia">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Somalia" title="Human rights in Somalia">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Somalia">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Somalia" title="Judiciary of Somalia">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Law (Xeer)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Armed_Forces" title="Somali Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_Somalia" title="Political history of Somalia">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Somalia" title="Federal Parliament of Somalia">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Somalia" title="List of political parties in Somalia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Somalia" title="President of Somalia">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Somalia" title="List of presidents of Somalia">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister of Somalia">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Somalia" title="Economy of Somalia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Somalia" title="Agriculture in Somalia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Somalia" title="Central Bank of Somalia">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Somalia" title="List of companies of Somalia">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Somalia" title="Economic history of Somalia">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_Somalia" title="Exclusive economic zone of Somalia">EEZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_industry_of_Somalia" title="Mineral industry of Somalia">Mineral industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration_in_Puntland" title="Oil exploration in Puntland">Oil industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_shilling" title="Somali shilling">Shilling (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Somalia" title="Communications in Somalia">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Somalia" title="Tourism in Somalia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Somalia" title="Transport in Somalia">Transportation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Somalia" title="Category:Society of Somalia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qolobaa_Calankeed" title="Qolobaa Calankeed">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage_in_Somalia" title="Child marriage in Somalia">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Somalia" title="Coat of arms of Somalia">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Somalia" title="Demographics of Somalia">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_diaspora" title="Somali diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somalia" title="Education in Somalia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Somalia" title="Health in Somalia">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_Somalia" title="Mental health in Somalia">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Somalia" title="Flag of Somalia">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy_in_Somalia" title="Polygamy in Somalia">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Somalia" title="Public holidays in Somalia">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Somalia" title="Women in Somalia">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Somalia" title="Culture of Somalia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_art" title="Somali art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Somalia" title="Cinema of Somalia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_cuisine" title="Somali cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalian_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Somalia">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Somalia" title="Music of Somalia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Somalia" title="Sports in Somalia">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Somalia" title="Languages of Somalia">Languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Somalia" title="Category:Somalia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Somalia" title="Portal:Somalia">Portal</a></li></ul> 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aria-labelledby="Countries_and_regions_in_the_Somali_plate" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Somali_Plate" title="Template:Countries and regions in the Somali Plate"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Somali_Plate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Countries and regions in the Somali Plate (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/KwaZulu-Natal" title="KwaZulu-Natal">KwaZulu-Natal</a> (South Africa)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Region" title="Somali Region">Somali Region</a> (Ethiopia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_territories_of_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_of_Africa" title="Template:Countries of Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_of_Africa" title="Template talk:Countries of Africa"><abbr 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title="Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> (partly in Asia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px;padding:0 0.5em;"><div><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/100px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/200px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" title="Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Territorial_dispute" title="Territorial dispute">unclear sovereignty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependent territories</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scattered_Islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean">Îles Éparses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha">Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">African territories fully part of non-African states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantelleria" title="Pantelleria">Pantelleria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagie_Islands" title="Pelagie Islands">Pelagie Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savage_Islands" title="Savage Islands">Savage Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melilla" title="Melilla">Melilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plazas_de_soberan%C3%ADa" title="Plazas de soberanía">Plazas de soberanía</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Yemen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Africa" title="Category:Africa">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_bordering_the_Red_Sea" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_bordering_the_Red_Sea" title="Template:Countries bordering the Red Sea"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_bordering_the_Red_Sea" title="Template talk:Countries bordering the Red Sea"><abbr title="Discuss this 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data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/23px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/35px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/45px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg/23px-Flag_of_Eritrea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg/35px-Flag_of_Eritrea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg/46px-Flag_of_Eritrea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Somalia</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg/23px-Flag_of_Yemen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg/35px-Flag_of_Yemen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg/45px-Flag_of_Yemen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_territories_bordering_the_Indian_Ocean" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_and_territories_bordering_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template:Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_and_territories_bordering_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template talk:Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_and_territories_bordering_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_and_territories_bordering_the_Indian_Ocean" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Countries and territories bordering the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Indianocean.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Indian Ocean"><img alt="Map of the Indian Ocean" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Indianocean.PNG/100px-Indianocean.PNG" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Indianocean.PNG/150px-Indianocean.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Indianocean.PNG/200px-Indianocean.PNG 2x" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="330" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a> United Kingdom</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Island" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a> (Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a> (Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor" title="East Timor">Timor-Leste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Antarctic_Territory" title="Australian Antarctic Territory">Australian Antarctic Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands" title="French Southern and Antarctic Lands">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands" title="Heard Island and McDonald Islands">Heard Island and McDonald Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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the Arabian Sea"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_bordering_the_Arabian_Sea" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries bordering the Arabian Sea"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_bordering_the_Arabian_Sea" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Countries bordering the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/46px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Maldives.svg/23px-Flag_of_Maldives.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Maldives.svg/35px-Flag_of_Maldives.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Maldives.svg/45px-Flag_of_Maldives.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /> <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg/23px-Flag_of_Oman.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg/35px-Flag_of_Oman.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg/46px-Flag_of_Oman.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Somalia</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg/23px-Flag_of_Yemen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg/35px-Flag_of_Yemen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg/45px-Flag_of_Yemen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_League" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arab_League" title="Template:Arab League"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arab_League" title="Template talk:Arab League"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arab_League" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arab League"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_League" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_League" title="Category:Arab League">Arab League</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_the_Arab_League" title="Lists of the Arab League">Lists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Arab_League" title="Politics of the Arab League">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Arab_League" title="Charter of the Arab League">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Arab_League" title="Council of the Arab League">Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_League" title="Flag of the Arab League">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Arab_world" title="Geography of the Arab world">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_Arab_League" title="Headquarters of the Arab League">Headquarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arab_League" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Arab League">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Arab_League" title="Military of the Arab League">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Central_Command" title="United States Central Command">United States Central Command</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_military_bases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States military bases">United States military bases</a>)</li> <li>Joint Defence Council</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Parliament" title="Arab Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">Arab Union</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg/55px-Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg/83px-Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg/110px-Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="450" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Membership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Arab_League" title="Member states of the Arab League">Members</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Peace_Initiative" title="Arab Peace Initiative">Arab Peace Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League_monitors_in_Syria" title="Arab League monitors in Syria">Arab League monitors in Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Arab League–European Union relations">Arab League–European Union relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League">Foreign relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of the Arab League">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Arab_League" title="Economy of the Arab League">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_League_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of Arab League countries by GDP (nominal)">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Social_Council_(Arab_League)" title="Economic and Social Council (Arab League)">Economic and Social Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutions_of_the_Arab_League" title="Institutions of the Arab League">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_policies_of_the_Arab_League" title="Sport policies of the Arab League">Sport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_National_Olympic_Committees" title="Union of Arab National Olympic Committees">Union of Arab National Olympic Committees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Arab_Games" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan Arab Games">Pan Arab Games</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Non-Aligned_Movement" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Template:Non-Aligned Movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Template talk:Non-Aligned Movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Non-Aligned Movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Non-Aligned_Movement" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement#Members,_observers_and_guests" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Members</a> and the NAM</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Cyprus and the Non-Aligned Movement">Cyprus</a> ‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Egypt and the Non-Aligned Movement">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Ghana and the Non-Aligned Movement">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="India and the Non-Aligned Movement">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Malta and the Non-Aligned Movement">Malta</a> ‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Sri Lanka and the Non-Aligned Movement">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Tanzania and the Non-Aligned Movement">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Movement">Yugoslavia</a> ‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bureau</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordinating_Bureau_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordinating Bureau of the Non-Aligned Movement">Coordinating Bureau of the Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement_Centre_for_South-South_Technical_Cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Aligned Movement Centre for South-South Technical Cooperation">Centre for South-South Technical Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement#NAM_Centres" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Centre for Science and Technology of the Non-aligned and Other Developing Countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement#NAM_Centres" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Center for Human Rights and Cultural Diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement_Youth_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Aligned Movement Youth Organization">NAM Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAM_News_Network" title="NAM News Network">NAM News Network</a> (<a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_News_Agencies_Pool" title="Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool">News Agencies Pool</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Josip_Broz_Tito%22_Art_Gallery_of_the_Nonaligned_Countries" title=""Josip Broz Tito" Art Gallery of the Nonaligned Countries">"Josip Broz Tito" Art Gallery of the Nonaligned Countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Principles_of_Peaceful_Coexistence" title="Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence">Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Template:Non-Aligned_Movement_Summits" title="Template:Non-Aligned Movement Summits">Summits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brioni_Meeting" title="Brioni Meeting">Brioni Meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="1st Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="2nd Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">2nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="3rd Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4th_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="4th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5th_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="5th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6th_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="6th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7th_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="7th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8th_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="8th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="9th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10th_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="10th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="16th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="18th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_Summit_of_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="19th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement">19th</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Founders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito#Non-Alignment" title="Josip Broz Tito">Josip Broz Tito</a> (<a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukarno#Figurehead_president" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a> (<a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser#Adoption_of_neutralism" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> (<a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Houari_Boumediene#Foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Houari Boumediene">Houari Boumediene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro#Foreign_wars_and_NAM_Presidency:_1975–1979" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela#Foreign_affairs" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Morsi#Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Mohamed Morsi">Mohamed Morsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Maduro" title="Nicolás Maduro">Nicolás Maduro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirimavo_Bandaranaike" title="Sirimavo Bandaranaike">Sirimavo Bandaranaike</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>‡ denotes a former member state of the Non-Aligned Movement</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Union" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_Union" title="Template:African Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_Union" title="Template talk:African Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Union" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_African_Union" title="History of the African Union">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casablanca_Group" title="Casablanca Group">Casablanca Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monrovia_Group" title="Monrovia Group">Monrovia Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_and_Malagasy_Union" title="African and Malagasy Union">African and Malagasy Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Monetary_Union" title="African Monetary Union">Abuja Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirte_Declaration" title="Sirte Declaration">Sirte Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutive_Act_of_the_African_Union" title="Constitutive Act of the African Union">Lome Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity">Chairperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_General_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Secretary General of the Organisation of African Unity">Secretary General</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_African_Union" title="Geography of the African Union">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Countries_bordering_the_African_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Countries bordering the African Union">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_the_African_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme points of the African Union">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_African_Union" title="Member states of the African Union">Member states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_the_African_Union" title="Regions of the African Union">Regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organs_of_the_African_Union" title="Organs of the African Union">Organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Council_of_the_African_Union" title="Executive Council of the African Union">Executive Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_Representatives%27_Committee_of_the_African_Union" title="Permanent Representatives' Committee of the African Union">Permanent Representatives' Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialised_Technical_Committees_of_the_African_Union" title="Specialised Technical Committees of the African Union">Specialized Technical Committees</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_the_African_Union" title="Assembly of the African Union">Assembly</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_African_Union" title="Chairperson of the African Union">Chairperson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African_Union_Commission" title="African Union Commission">Commission</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_African_Union_Commission" title="Chairperson of the African Union Commission">Chairperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_African_Union_Commission" title="Chairperson of the African Union Commission">Deputy Chairperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union_Conference_Center_and_Office_Complex" title="African Union Conference Center and Office Complex">AUCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_African_Union_Commission_Chairperson_election" title="2025 African Union Commission Chairperson election">2025 election</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Parliament" title="Pan-African Parliament">Pan-African Parliament</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_the_Pan-African_Parliament" title="Bureau of the Pan-African Parliament">Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Pan-African_Parliament" title="Secretariat of the Pan-African Parliament">Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallagher_Convention_Centre" title="Gallagher Convention Centre">Gallagher Estate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Court_of_Justice_of_the_African_Union" title="Court of Justice of the African Union">African Court of Justice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Court_on_Human_and_Peoples%27_Rights" title="African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights">African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Council" title="Economic, Social and Cultural Council">ECOSOCC Committees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Security_Committee" title="Peace and Security Committee">Peace and Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Affairs_Committee_(African_Union)" title="Political Affairs Committee (African Union)">Political Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_and_Energy_Committee" title="Infrastructure and Energy Committee">Infrastructure and Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Affairs_and_Health_Committee" title="Social Affairs and Health Committee">Social Affairs and Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Resources,_Science,_and_Technology_Committee" title="Human Resources, Science, and Technology Committee">HR, Sciences and Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_and_Industry_Committee_(African_Union)" title="Trade and Industry Committee (African Union)">Trade and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_Economy_and_Agriculture_Committee" title="Rural Economy and Agriculture Committee">Rural Economy and Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Affairs_Committee_(African_Union)" title="Economic Affairs Committee (African Union)">Economic Affairs</a></li> <li>Women and Gender</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Cutting_Programs_Committee" title="Cross-Cutting Programs Committee">Cross-Cutting Programs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Financial institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Central_Bank" title="African Central Bank">African Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Monetary_Fund" title="African Monetary Fund">African Monetary Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Investment_Bank" title="African Investment Bank">African Investment Bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Security_Council" title="Peace and Security Council">Peace and Security Council</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Capacity_for_Immediate_Response_to_Crises" title="African Capacity for Immediate Response to Crises">ACIRC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Standby_Force" title="African Standby Force">African Standby Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panel_of_the_Wise" title="Panel of the Wise">Panel of the Wise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations%E2%80%93African_Union_Mission_in_Darfur" title="United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur">UNAMID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union_Mission_in_Burundi" title="African Union Mission in Burundi">AMIB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union_Mission_in_Sudan" title="African Union Mission in Sudan">AMIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union_Mission_to_Somalia" title="African Union Mission to Somalia">AMISOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MISCA" title="MISCA">MISCA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialised agencies and institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Centres_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention">Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_African_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of the African Union">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Peer_Review_Mechanism" title="African Peer Review Mechanism">APRM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_African_Union" title="Foreign relations of the African Union">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Charter_on_Human_and_Peoples%27_Rights" title="African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights">African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Commission_on_Human_and_Peoples%27_Rights" title="African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights">African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_the_African_Union" title="Enlargement of the African Union">Enlargement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Africa_Command" title="United States Africa Command">United States Africa Command</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_military_bases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States military bases">United States military bases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_ambassadors_to_the_African_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States ambassadors to the African Union">United States ambassadors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union%E2%80%93Ethiopia_relations" title="African Union–Ethiopia relations">African Union–Ethiopia relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_the_African_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols of the African Union">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Let_Us_All_Unite_and_Celebrate_Together" title="Let Us All Unite and Celebrate Together">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_the_African_Union" title="Emblem of the African Union">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_African_Union" title="Flag of the African Union">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union_Passport" title="African Union Passport">Passport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_African_Union" title="Economy of the African Union">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_central_banks_of_Africa" title="List of central banks of Africa">Currencies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gold_standard#Advocates" title="Gold standard">Gold standard</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Development_Bank" title="African Development Bank">Development Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Economic_Community" title="African Economic Community">African Economic Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Partnership_for_Africa%27s_Development" title="New Partnership for Africa's Development">NEPAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Continental_Free_Trade_Area" title="African Continental Free Trade Area">African Continental Free Trade Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_African_Air_Transport_Market" title="Single African Air Transport Market">Single African Air Transport Market</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Day" title="Africa Day">Africa Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Border_Day" title="African Border Day">African Border Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Monetary_Union" title="African Monetary Union">Afro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Latin_Africa" title="United States of Latin Africa">United States of Latin Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Federation" title="East African Federation">East African Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:African_Union" title="Category:African Union">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Community_of_Sahel–Saharan_States_(CEN-SAD)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Community_of_Sahel%E2%80%93Saharan_States" title="Template:Community of Sahel–Saharan States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_(OIC)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Template:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Template talk:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_(OIC)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> (OIC)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hissein_Brahim_Taha" title="Hissein Brahim Taha">Hissein Brahim Taha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Member states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_and_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Pakistan and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Pakistan-OIC relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Suspended</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;padding-right:0.75em;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Countries and territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus" title="Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;padding-right:0.75em;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Muslim communities</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moro_National_Liberation_Front" title="Moro National Liberation Front">Moro National Liberation Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;padding-right:0.75em;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">International organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">Economic Cooperation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Declarations" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Declarations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abuja_Declaration_(1989)" title="Abuja Declaration (1989)">Abuja Declaration (1989)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_Declaration_on_Human_Rights_in_Islam" title="Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam">Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OIC_Resolution_10/11" title="OIC Resolution 10/11">OIC Resolution 10/11</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OIC_Council_of_Foreign_Ministers_Resolution_10/37" title="OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37">OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sessions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Extraordinary" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="First Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Second Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Third Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Fifth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Sixth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Sixth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Seventh Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Seventh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Eighth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Eighth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Ninth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Ninth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Arab%E2%80%93Islamic_extraordinary_summit" title="2023 Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit">Arab–Islamic (2023)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by GDP (PPP)">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_GDP_per_capita_(PPP)" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by GDP per capita (PPP)">GDP per capita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_exports" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_imports" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by imports">Imports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_population" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_in_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest cities in Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member countries">Largest cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_member_states_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Education in the member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>1 As the "Turkish Cypriot State".</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Somalia&params=10_N_49_E_">10°N 49°E / 10°N 49°E / 10; 49</a> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1045#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1045#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1045#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1205351/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJgHgF9VhBm8JGPfDrCJDq">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4077509-4">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79060840">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15324606g">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15324606g">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571410">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35512242">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge130892&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX452886">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/fcrtt3qz3712wzg">Sweden</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=497/17043">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007562087505171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058612727806706">Catalonia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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[\"CITEREFBraukämper2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBriggs2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBritish_Chambers_of_Commerce2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurton1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasson1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChijioke_Njoku\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClar_Ni_Chonghaile2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCompagnon2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCookMaher2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalal2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelsonTattersallCouveringBrooks2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerby2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamondBellwood2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinersteinOlsonJoshiVynne2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinfin_Mulupi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiriye_Abdullahi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoya2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFE._G._Ravenstein2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_A._Alpers2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFageOliver1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFergusson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGavin1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGebru_Tareke2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGettleman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuliyeNoorBebeKosgey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGutherzDiazMénardBon2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFH._W._Seton-Karr1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodd1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHooyoshousecom2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHussein_Mohamed_AdamRichard_Ford1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFI._M._Lewis1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrving1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffrey_Gettleman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonathan_Clayton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoussaume1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamaal2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKapteijns2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhalif2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKilimanjaro_Capital_Ltd.2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKwame_Anthony_AppiahHenry_Louis_Gates2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFL._Daniels2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaitin1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLecarmeMaury1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevichMüller-Kahle1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinardAleganaNoorSnow2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._Th._Houtsma1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahmoud_Mohamed2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajid_Ahmed2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarc_Lacey2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMary_Harper2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMauri1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMire2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohamed_Diriye_Abdullahi2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMuddassar_Ahmed2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMueller2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukasa-Mugerwa1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNigel_Harris2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNizar_HamzehHrair_Dekmejian2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNjoku2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliver1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliver_RamsbothamTom_Woodhouse1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaolo_Tripodi1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Fricska\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Robertshaw1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetragliaRose2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillipson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._J._Barendse2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRice2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoland_Anthony2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosatiTewoldeMosconi2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRose\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRose_Oldfield_Hayes1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRousseau1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamatar1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamatar2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamatar2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchraeder2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStudies1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuárez\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFV-Dem_Institute2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVilla_Somalia2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarmington1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYlönen2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuusuf2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZeidCochran2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZolbergSuhrkeAguayo1989\"] = 1,\n [\"seasons\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 10,\n [\"African Union\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Arab League\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 4,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bar box\"] = 1,\n [\"Bar percent\"] = 2,\n [\"Catholic-hierarchy\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 66,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 55,\n [\"Cite press release\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite tweet\"] = 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= 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 9,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Somali Plate\"] = 1,\n [\"Somalia topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"UN_Population\"] = 7,\n [\"Update inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 14,\n [\"Wikiatlas\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","380","16.7"],["?","380","16.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","240","10.5"],["type","160","7.0"],["dataWrapper 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