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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_origin_hypotheses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_origin_hypotheses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Language origin hypotheses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Language_origin_hypotheses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Language origin hypotheses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Language_origin_hypotheses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_speculations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_speculations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early speculations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_speculations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problems_of_reliability_and_deception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problems_of_reliability_and_deception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Problems of reliability and deception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problems_of_reliability_and_deception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_"mother_tongues"_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"mother_tongues"_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>The "mother tongues" hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"mother_tongues"_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"obligatory_reciprocal_altruism"_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"obligatory_reciprocal_altruism"_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>The "obligatory reciprocal altruism" hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"obligatory_reciprocal_altruism"_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_gossip_and_grooming_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_gossip_and_grooming_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>The gossip and grooming hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_gossip_and_grooming_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ritual/speech_coevolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ritual/speech_coevolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Ritual/speech coevolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ritual/speech_coevolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tool_resiliency,_grammar_and_language_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tool_resiliency,_grammar_and_language_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Tool resiliency, grammar and language production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tool_resiliency,_grammar_and_language_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Humanistic_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humanistic_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Humanistic theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Humanistic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chomsky's_single-step_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chomsky's_single-step_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Chomsky's single-step theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chomsky's_single-step_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Romulus_and_Remus_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Romulus_and_Remus_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>The Romulus and Remus hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Romulus_and_Remus_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gestural_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gestural_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Gestural theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gestural_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tool-use_associated_sound_in_the_evolution_of_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tool-use_associated_sound_in_the_evolution_of_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Tool-use associated sound in the evolution of language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tool-use_associated_sound_in_the_evolution_of_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mirror_neurons_and_language_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mirror_neurons_and_language_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Mirror neurons and language origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mirror_neurons_and_language_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Putting-down-the-baby_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Putting-down-the-baby_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Putting-down-the-baby theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Putting-down-the-baby_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From-where-to-what_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From-where-to-what_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>From-where-to-what theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From-where-to-what_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammaticalisation_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammaticalisation_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>Grammaticalisation theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammaticalisation_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution-progression_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution-progression_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.13</span> <span>Evolution-progression model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-progression_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-domesticated_ape_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-domesticated_ape_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.14</span> <span>Self-domesticated ape theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-domesticated_ape_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speech_and_language_for_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speech_and_language_for_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Speech and language for communication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speech_and_language_for_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_development_and_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_development_and_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cognitive development and language</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cognitive_development_and_language-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cognitive development and language subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_development_and_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theory_of_mind" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_mind"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Theory of mind</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_mind-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Number_representation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number_representation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Number representation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number_representation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Linguistic structures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Linguistic_structures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Linguistic structures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lexical-phonological_principle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical-phonological_principle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Lexical-phonological principle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexical-phonological_principle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pidgins_and_creoles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pidgins_and_creoles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Pidgins and creoles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pidgins_and_creoles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Evolutionary timeline</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolutionary_timeline-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolutionary timeline subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primate_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primate_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Primate communication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primate_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ardipithecus_ramidus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ardipithecus_ramidus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span><i>Ardipithecus ramidus</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ardipithecus_ramidus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Homo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Homo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Early <i>Homo</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Homo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaic_Homo_sapiens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaic_Homo_sapiens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Archaic <i>Homo sapiens</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaic_Homo_sapiens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Homo_erectus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homo_erectus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span><i>Homo erectus</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homo_erectus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homo_heidelbergensis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homo_heidelbergensis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.2</span> <span><i>Homo heidelbergensis</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homo_heidelbergensis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homo_neanderthalensis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homo_neanderthalensis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.3</span> <span><i>Homo neanderthalensis</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homo_neanderthalensis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homo_sapiens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homo_sapiens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span><i>Homo sapiens</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homo_sapiens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descended_larynx" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descended_larynx"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Descended larynx</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descended_larynx-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Size_exaggeration_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size_exaggeration_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6.1</span> <span>Size exaggeration hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size_exaggeration_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonemic_diversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonemic_diversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Phonemic diversity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonemic_diversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_religion_and_mythology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_religion_and_mythology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>In religion and mythology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_religion_and_mythology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_experiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_experiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Historical experiments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>History of research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Origin of language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oorsprong_van_taal" title="Oorsprong van taal – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Oorsprong van taal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B5%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9" title="أصل اللغة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أصل اللغة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8" title="ভাষার উৎস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভাষার উৎস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen_del_llenguatge" title="Origen del llenguatge – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Origen del llenguatge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarddiad_iaith" title="Tarddiad iaith – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Tarddiad iaith" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachursprung" title="Sprachursprung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sprachursprung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keele_teke" title="Keele teke – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keele teke" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen_del_lenguaje" title="Origen del lenguaje – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Origen del lenguaje" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deveno_de_lingvo" title="Deveno de lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Deveno de lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hizkuntzaren_sorrera" title="Hizkuntzaren sorrera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hizkuntzaren sorrera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="خاستگاه زبان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خاستگاه زبان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origine_du_langage" title="Origine du langage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Origine du langage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%EC%9D%98_%EA%B8%B0%EC%9B%90" title="언어의 기원 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="언어의 기원" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%AB_%D5%AE%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Լեզվի ծագման տեսություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեզվի ծագման տեսություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="भाषा की उत्पत्ति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भाषा की उत्पत्ति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asal-mula_bahasa" title="Asal-mula bahasa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Asal-mula bahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origine_del_linguaggio_umano" title="Origine del linguaggio umano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Origine del linguaggio umano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%94" title="אבולוציה של השפה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבולוציה של השפה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ენის წარმოშობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ენის წარმოშობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origo_linguae" title="Origo linguae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Origo linguae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_nyelv_eredete" title="A nyelv eredete – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A nyelv eredete" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottogonie" title="Glottogonie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Glottogonie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E3%81%AE%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90" title="言語の起源 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="言語の起源" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origem_da_linguagem" title="Origem da linguagem – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Origem da linguagem" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Глоттогония – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Глоттогония" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA" title="භාෂාවේ සම්භවය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="භාෂාවේ සම්භවය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poreklo_jezika" title="Poreklo jezika – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Poreklo jezika" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kielen_synty" title="Kielen synty – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kielen synty" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5kets_ursprung" title="Språkets ursprung – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Språkets ursprung" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மொழியின் தோற்றம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மொழியின் தோற்றம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilin_k%C3%B6keni" title="Dilin kökeni – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dilin kökeni" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Походження мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Походження мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngu%E1%BB%93n_g%E1%BB%91c_ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Nguồn gốc ngôn ngữ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nguồn gốc ngôn ngữ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks linguistics-body"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(linguistics)" title="Internationalism (linguistics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>origin of language</b>, its relationship with <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>, and its consequences have been subjects of study for centuries. Scholars wishing to study the origins of language draw inferences from evidence such as the <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">fossil record</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_record" title="Archaeological record">archaeological evidence</a>, contemporary language diversity, studies of <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">language acquisition</a>, and comparisons between human <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> and systems of <a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">animal communication</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">other primates</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many argue for the close relation between the origins of language and the origins of <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">modern human behavior</a>, but there is little agreement about the facts and implications of this connection. </p><p>The shortage of direct, <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> has caused many scholars to regard the entire topic as unsuitable for serious study; in 1866, the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Society_of_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic Society of Paris">Linguistic Society of Paris</a> banned any existing or future debates on the subject, a prohibition which remained influential across much of the Western world until the late twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various hypotheses have been developed on the emergence of language.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a> by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> had provoked a surge of speculation on the origin of language over a century and a half ago, the speculations had not resulted in a scientific consensus by 1996.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, academic interest has returned to the topic in the early 1990s. <a href="/wiki/Linguist" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguist">Linguists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologist">archaeologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">anthropologists</a> have renewed the investigation into the origin of language with modern methods.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Approaches">Approaches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Attempts to explain the origin of language take a variety of forms:<sup id="cite_ref-Ulbæk1998_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ulbæk1998-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>"Continuity theories" build on the idea that language exhibits so much complexity that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form; therefore it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among humans' primate ancestors.</li> <li>"Discontinuity theories" take the opposite approach, stating that language, as a unique trait that cannot be compared to anything found among non-humans, must have appeared fairly suddenly during the course of <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>.</li> <li>Some theories consider language mostly as an innate faculty—largely genetically encoded.</li> <li>Other theories regard language as a mainly <a href="/wiki/Cultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural">cultural</a> system that is learned through social interaction.</li></ul> <p>Most linguistic scholars as of 2024<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> favor continuity-based theories, but they vary in how they hypothesize language development.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some among those who consider language as mostly innate avoid speculating about specific precursors in nonhuman primates, stressing simply that the language faculty must have evolved gradually.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those who consider language as learned socially, such as <a href="/wiki/Michael_Tomasello" title="Michael Tomasello">Michael Tomasello</a>, consider it developing from the cognitively controlled aspects of primate communication, mostly gestural rather than vocal.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where vocal precursors are concerned, many continuity theorists envisage language as evolving from early human capacities for song.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vaneechoutte2014_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaneechoutte2014-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>, a proponent of discontinuity theory, argues that a single change occurred in humans before leaving Africa, coincident with the Great Leap approximately 100,000 years ago, in which a common language faculty developed in a group of humans and their descendants. Chomsky bases his argument on the observation that any human baby of any culture can be raised in a different culture and will completely assimilate the language and behavior of the new culture in which they were raised. This implies that no major change to the human language faculty has occurred since they left Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Transcending the continuity-versus-discontinuity divide, some scholars view the emergence of language as the consequence of some kind of social transformation<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that, by generating unprecedented levels of public trust, liberated a genetic potential for linguistic creativity that had previously lain dormant.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knight2008_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Ritual/speech coevolution theory" exemplifies this approach.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight1998_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight1998-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knight2006_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight2006-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars in this intellectual camp point to the fact that even <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobos</a> have latent symbolic capacities that they rarely—if ever—use in the wild.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Objecting to the sudden mutation idea, these authors argue that even if a chance mutation were to install a language organ in an evolving bipedal primate, it would be adaptively useless under all known primate social conditions. A very specific social structure – one capable of upholding unusually high levels of public accountability and trust – must have evolved before or concurrently with language to make reliance on "cheap signals" (e.g. words) an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">evolutionarily stable strategy</a>. </p><p>Since the emergence of language lies so far back in <a href="/wiki/Human_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human prehistory">human prehistory</a>, the relevant developments have left no direct historical traces, and comparable processes cannot be observed today. Despite this, the emergence of new sign languages in modern times—<a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Sign_Language" title="Nicaraguan Sign Language">Nicaraguan Sign Language</a>, for example—may offer insights into the developmental stages and creative processes necessarily involved.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another approach inspects early human fossils, looking for traces of physical adaptation to language use.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Arensburg1989_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arensburg1989-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, when the <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> of extinct humans can be recovered, the presence or absence of genes considered to be language-relevant—<a href="/wiki/FOXP2" title="FOXP2">FOXP2</a>, for example—may prove informative.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another approach, this time archaeological, involves invoking <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_behavior" title="Symbolic behavior">symbolic behavior</a> (such as repeated ritual activity) that may leave an archaeological trace—such as mining and modifying ochre pigments for <a href="/wiki/Body-painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Body-painting">body-painting</a>—while developing theoretical arguments to justify inferences from <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolism</a> in general to language in particular.<sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood2009_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood2009-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The time range for the evolution of language or its anatomical prerequisites extends, at least in principle, from the phylogenetic divergence of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> (2.3 to 2.4 million years ago) from <i><a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">Pan</a></i> (5 to 6 million years ago) to the emergence of full <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">behavioral modernity</a> some 50,000–150,000 years ago. Few dispute that <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i> probably lacked vocal communication significantly more sophisticated than that of <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a> in general,<sup id="cite_ref-Arcadi2000_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arcadi2000-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but scholarly opinions vary as to the developments since the appearance of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> some 2.5 million years ago. Some scholars assume the development of primitive language-like systems (<i>proto-language</i>) as early as <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i>, while others place the development of <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_communication" title="Symbolic communication">symbolic communication</a> only with <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> (1.8 million years ago) or with <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i> (0.6 million years ago) and the development of language proper with <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i>, currently estimated at less than 200,000 years ago. </p><p>Using statistical methods to estimate the time required to achieve the current spread and diversity in modern languages, <a href="/wiki/Johanna_Nichols" title="Johanna Nichols">Johanna Nichols</a>—a linguist at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>—argued in 1998 that vocal languages must have begun diversifying in the human species at least 100,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of this kind are not universally accepted, but jointly considering genetic, archaeological, palaeontological, and much other evidence indicates that language likely emerged somewhere in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Middle Stone Age</a>, roughly contemporaneous with the speciation of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_origin_hypotheses">Language origin hypotheses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Language origin hypotheses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_speculations">Early speculations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early speculations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I cannot doubt that language owes its origin to the imitation and modification, aided by signs and gestures, of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals, and man's own instinctive cries.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Charles Darwin, 1871. <i>The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex</i><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote><p> In 1861, historical linguist <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> published a list of speculative theories concerning the origins of spoken language:<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><ul><li><i>Bow-wow</i>. The <i>bow-wow</i> or <i>cuckoo</i> theory, which Müller attributed to the German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a>, saw early words as imitations of the cries of beasts and birds.</li> <li><i>Pooh-pooh</i>. The <i>pooh-pooh</i> theory saw the <a href="/wiki/Interjectional_theory" title="Interjectional theory">first words as emotional interjections and exclamations</a> triggered by pain, pleasure, surprise, etc.</li> <li><i>Ding-dong</i>. Müller suggested what he called the <i>ding-dong</i> theory, which states that all things have a vibrating natural resonance, echoed somehow by humans in their earliest words.</li> <li><i>Yo-he-ho</i>. The <i>yo-he-ho</i> theory claims that language emerged from collective rhythmic labor; that is, the attempt to synchronize muscular efforts resulting in sounds such as <i>heave</i> alternating with sounds such as <i>ho</i>.</li> <li><i>Ta-ta</i>. The <i>ta-ta</i> theory did not feature in Max Müller's list, having been proposed in 1930 by Sir Richard Paget.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <i>ta-ta</i> theory, humans made the earliest words by tongue movements that mimicked manual gestures, rendering them audible.</li></ul> <p>Most scholars today consider all such theories not so much wrong—they occasionally offer peripheral insights—as naïve and irrelevant.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem with these theories is that they rest on the assumption that once early humans had discovered a workable <i>mechanism</i> for linking sounds with meanings, language would automatically have evolved.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Much earlier, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Muslim scholars</a> developed theories on the origin of language.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their theories were of five general types:<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i>Naturalist</i>: There is a natural relationship between expressions and the things they signify. Language thus emerged from a natural human inclination to imitate the sounds of nature.</li> <li><i>Conventionalist</i>: Language is a social convention. The names of things are <a href="/wiki/Arbitrariness#Linguistics" title="Arbitrariness">arbitrary</a> inventions of humans.</li> <li><i>Revelationist</i>: Language was gifted to humans by <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">God</a>, and it was thus God—and not humans—who named everything.</li> <li><i>Revelationist-Conventionalist</i>: God revealed to humans a core base of language – enabling humans to communicate with each other – and then humans invented the rest of language.</li> <li><i>Non-Committal</i>: The view that conventionalist and revelationist theories are equally plausible.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problems_of_reliability_and_deception">Problems of reliability and deception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Problems of reliability and deception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a></div> <p>From the perspective of signalling theory, the main obstacle to the evolution of language-like communication in nature is not a mechanistic one. Rather, it is the fact that symbols—arbitrary associations of sounds or other perceptible forms with corresponding meanings—are unreliable and may as well be false.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem of reliability was not recognized at all by Darwin, Müller or the other early evolutionary theorists. </p><p>Animal vocal signals are, for the most part, intrinsically reliable. When a cat purrs, the signal constitutes direct evidence of the animal's contented state. The signal is trusted, not because the cat is inclined to be honest, but because it just cannot fake that sound. Primate vocal calls may be slightly more manipulable, but they remain reliable for the same reason—because they are hard to fake.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodall1986_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodall1986-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Primate social intelligence is "<a href="/wiki/Machiavellian_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavellian intelligence">Machiavellian</a>"; that is, <a href="/wiki/Self-serving" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-serving">self-serving</a> and unconstrained by moral scruples. Monkeys, apes and particularly humans often attempt to deceive each other, while at the same time remaining constantly on guard against falling victim to deception themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paradoxically, it is theorized that primates' resistance to deception is what blocks the evolution of their signalling systems along language-like lines. Language is ruled out because the best way to guard against being deceived is to ignore all signals except those that are instantly verifiable. Words automatically fail this test.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight1998_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight1998-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Words are easy to fake. Should they turn out to be lies, listeners will adapt by ignoring them in favor of hard-to-fake indices or cues. For language to work, listeners must be confident that those with whom they are on speaking terms are generally likely to be honest.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A peculiar feature of language is <a href="/wiki/Displacement_(linguistics)" title="Displacement (linguistics)">displaced reference</a>, which means reference to topics outside the currently perceptible situation. This property prevents utterances from being corroborated in the immediate "here" and "now". For this reason, language presupposes relatively high levels of mutual trust in order to become established over time as an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">evolutionarily stable strategy</a>. This stability is born of a longstanding mutual trust and is what grants language its authority. A theory of the origins of language must therefore explain why humans could begin <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">trusting cheap signals</a> in ways that other animals apparently cannot. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_"mother_tongues"_hypothesis"><span id="The_.22mother_tongues.22_hypothesis"></span>The "mother tongues" hypothesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The "mother tongues" hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "mother tongues" hypothesis was proposed in 2004 as a possible solution to this problem.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitch2004_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitch2004-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/W._Tecumseh_Fitch" title="W. Tecumseh Fitch">W. Tecumseh Fitch</a> suggested that the Darwinian principle of "<a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">kin selection</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – the convergence of genetic interests between relatives – might be part of the answer. Fitch suggests that languages were originally "mother tongues". If language evolved initially for communication between mothers and their own biological offspring, extending later to include adult relatives as well, the interests of speakers and listeners would have tended to coincide. Fitch argues that shared genetic interests would have led to sufficient trust and cooperation for intrinsically unreliable signals—words—to become accepted as trustworthy and so begin evolving for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics of this theory point out that kin selection is not unique to humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Tallerman2013_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tallerman2013-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So even if one accepts Fitch's initial premises, the extension of the posited "mother tongue" networks from close relatives to more distant relatives remains unexplained.<sup id="cite_ref-Tallerman2013_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tallerman2013-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fitch argues, however, that the extended period of physical immaturity of human infants and the postnatal growth of the human brain give the human-infant relationship a different and more extended period of intergenerational dependency than that found in any other species.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitch2004_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitch2004-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_"obligatory_reciprocal_altruism"_hypothesis"><span id="The_.22obligatory_reciprocal_altruism.22_hypothesis"></span>The "obligatory reciprocal altruism" hypothesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The "obligatory reciprocal altruism" hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ib Ulbæk<sup id="cite_ref-Ulbæk1998_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ulbæk1998-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> invokes another standard Darwinian principle—"<a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">reciprocal altruism</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—to explain the unusually high levels of intentional honesty necessary for language to evolve. "Reciprocal altruism" can be expressed as the principle that <i>if you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours</i>. In linguistic terms, it would mean that <i>if you speak truthfully to me, I'll speak truthfully to you</i>. Ordinary Darwinian reciprocal altruism, Ulbæk points out, is a relationship established between frequently interacting individuals. For language to prevail across an entire community, however, the necessary reciprocity would have needed to be enforced universally instead of being left to individual choice. Ulbæk concludes that for language to evolve, society as a whole must have been subject to moral regulation. </p><p>Critics point out that this theory fails to explain when, how, why or by whom "obligatory reciprocal altruism" could possibly have been enforced.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight2006_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight2006-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various proposals have been offered to remedy this defect.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight2006_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight2006-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further criticism is that language does not work on the basis of reciprocal altruism anyway. Humans in conversational groups do not withhold information to all except listeners likely to offer valuable information in return. On the contrary, they seem to want to <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">advertise to the world</a> their access to socially relevant information, broadcasting that information without expectation of reciprocity to anyone who will listen.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_gossip_and_grooming_hypothesis">The gossip and grooming hypothesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The gossip and grooming hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gossip, according to <a href="/wiki/Robin_Dunbar" title="Robin Dunbar">Robin Dunbar</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Grooming,_Gossip_and_the_Evolution_of_Language" title="Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language">Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language</a></i>, language does for group-living humans what <a href="/wiki/Social_grooming" title="Social grooming">manual grooming</a> does for other primates – it allows individuals to service their relationships and so maintain their alliances on the basis of the principle: <i>if you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours</i>. Dunbar argues that as humans began living in increasingly larger social groups, the task of manually grooming all one's friends and acquaintances became so time-consuming as to be unaffordable.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar1996_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar1996-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to this problem, humans developed "a cheap and ultra-efficient form of grooming"—<i>vocal grooming</i>. To keep allies happy, one now needs only to "groom" them with low-cost vocal sounds, servicing multiple allies simultaneously while keeping both hands free for other tasks. Vocal grooming then evolved gradually into vocal language—initially in the form of "gossip".<sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar1996_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar1996-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dunbar's hypothesis seems to be supported by adaptations, in the structure of language, to the function of narration in general.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics of this theory point out that the efficiency of "vocal grooming"—the fact that words are so cheap—would have undermined its capacity to signal commitment of the kind conveyed by time-consuming and costly manual grooming.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further criticism is that the theory does nothing to explain the crucial transition from vocal grooming – the production of pleasing but meaningless sounds – to the cognitive complexities of syntactical speech. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ritual/speech_coevolution"><span id="Ritual.2Fspeech_coevolution"></span>Ritual/speech coevolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ritual/speech coevolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ritual/speech coevolution theory was originally proposed by social anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Roy_Rappaport" title="Roy Rappaport">Roy Rappaport</a><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before being elaborated by anthropologists such as Chris Knight,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jerome Lewis,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nick Enfield,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Camilla Power<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Ian Watts.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cognitive scientist and robotics engineer <a href="/wiki/Luc_Steels" title="Luc Steels">Luc Steels</a><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is another prominent supporter of this general approach, as is biological anthropologist and neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/Terrence_Deacon" title="Terrence Deacon">Terrence Deacon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more recent champion of the approach is the Chomskyan specialist in linguistic syntax, Cedric Boeckx.<sup id="cite_ref-Boeckx_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boeckx-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These scholars argue that there can be no such thing as a "theory of the origins of language". This is because language is not a separate adaptation, but an internal aspect of something much wider—namely, the entire domain known to anthropologists as human <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_culture" title="Symbolic culture">symbolic culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attempts to explain language independently of this wider context have failed, say these scientists, because they are addressing a problem with no solution. Language would not work outside its necessary environment of confidence-building social mechanisms and institutions. For example, it would not work for a nonhuman ape communicating with others of its kind in the wild. Not even the cleverest nonhuman ape could make language work under such conditions. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Lie and alternative, inherent in language ... pose problems to any society whose structure is founded on language, which is to say all human societies. I have therefore argued that if there are to be words at all it is necessary to establish <i>The Word</i>, and that The Word is established by the invariance of liturgy.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Roy Rappaport<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Advocates of this school of thought point out that words are cheap. Should an especially clever nonhuman ape, or even a group of articulate nonhuman apes, try to use words in the wild, they would carry no conviction. The primate vocalizations that do carry conviction—those they actually use—are unlike words, in that they are emotionally expressive, intrinsically meaningful, and reliable because they are relatively costly and hard to fake. </p><p>Oral and gestural languages consist of pattern-making whose cost is essentially zero. As pure social conventions, signals of this kind cannot evolve in a Darwinian social world—they are a theoretical impossibility.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being intrinsically unreliable, language works only if one can build up a reputation for trustworthiness within a certain kind of society—namely, one where symbolic cultural facts (sometimes called "institutional facts") can be established and maintained through collective social endorsement.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any hunter-gatherer society, the basic mechanism for establishing trust in symbolic cultural facts is collective <i>ritual</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the task facing researchers into the origins of language is more multidisciplinary than is usually supposed. It involves addressing the evolutionary emergence of human ritual, kinship, religion and symbolic culture taken as a whole, with language an important but subsidiary component. </p><p>In a 2023 article, Cedric Boeckx<sup id="cite_ref-Boeckx_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boeckx-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> endorses the Rappaport/Searle/Knight way of capturing the "special" nature of human words. Words are symbols. This means that, from a standpoint in Darwinian signal evolution theory, they are "patently false signals." Words are facts, but "facts whose existence depends entirely on subjective belief".<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In philosophical terms, they are "institutional facts": fictions that are granted factual status within human social institutions<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this standpoint, according to Boeckx, linguistic utterances are symbolic to the extent that they are patent falsehoods serving as guides to communicative intentions. "They are communicatively useful untruths, as it were."<sup id="cite_ref-Boeckx_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boeckx-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reason why words can survive among humans despite being false is largely down to a matter of trust. The corresponding origins theory is that language can only have begun to evolve from the moment humans started reciprocally faking in communicatively helpful ways, i.e., when they became capable of upholding the levels of trust necessary for linguistic communication to work. </p><p>The point here is that an ape or other nonhuman must always carry at least some of the burden of generating the trust necessary for communication to work. That is, in order to be taken seriously, each signal it emits must be a patently reliable one, trusted because it is rooted in some way in the real world. But now imagine what might happen under social conditions where trust could be taken for granted. The signaller could stop worrying about reliability and concentrate instead on perceptual discriminability. Carried to its conclusion, this should permit digital signaling—the cheapest and most efficient kind of communication. </p><p>From this philosophical standpoint, animal communication cannot be digital because it does not have the luxury of being patently false. Costly signals of any kind can only be evaluated on an analog scale. Put differently, truly symbolic, digital signals become socially acceptable only under highly unusual conditions—such as those internal to a ritually bonded community whose members are not tempted to lie.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Critics of the speech/ritual co-evolution idea theory include Noam Chomsky, who terms it the "non-existence" hypothesis—a denial of the very existence of language as an object of study for natural science.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chomsky's own theory is that language emerged in an instant and in perfect form,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> prompting his critics in turn, to retort that only something that does not exist—a theoretical construct or convenient scientific fiction—could possibly emerge in such a miraculous way.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight2008_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The controversy remains unresolved. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tool_resiliency,_grammar_and_language_production"><span id="Tool_resiliency.2C_grammar_and_language_production"></span>Tool resiliency, grammar and language production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tool resiliency, grammar and language production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a> tool use began during the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic" title="Lower Paleolithic">Lower Paleolithic</a> approximately 1.75 million years ago. Studies focusing on the lateralization of Acheulean tool production and language production have noted similar areas of blood flow when engaging in these activities separately; this theory suggests that the brain functions needed for the production of tools across generations is consistent with the brain systems required for producing language. Researchers used functional transcranial Doppler ultrasonography (fTDC) and had participants perform activities related to the creation of tools using the same methods during the Lower Paleolithic as well as a task designed specifically for word generation.<sup id="cite_ref-Uomini2013_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uomini2013-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The purpose of this test was to focus on the planning aspect of Acheulean tool making and cued word generation in language (an example of cued word generation would be trying to list all words beginning with a given letter). Theories of language developing alongside tool use has been theorized by multiple individuals;<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, until recently, there has been little empirical data to support these hypotheses. Focusing on the results of the study performed by Uomini <i>et al.</i> evidence for the usage of the same brain areas has been found when looking at cued word generation and Acheulean tool use. The relationship between tool use and language production is found in working and planning memory respectively and was found to be similar across a variety of participants, furthering evidence that these areas of the brain are shared.<sup id="cite_ref-Uomini2013_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uomini2013-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This evidence lends credibility to the theory that language developed alongside tool use in the Lower Paleolithic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humanistic_theory">Humanistic theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Humanistic theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanistic</a> tradition considers language as a human invention. <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Antoine Arnauld</a> gave a detailed description of his idea of the origin of language in <a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a>. According to Arnauld, people are social and rational by nature, and this urged them to create language as a means to communicate their ideas to others. Language construction would have occurred through a slow and gradual process.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In later theory, especially in <a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">functional linguistics</a>, the primacy of communication is emphasised over psychological needs.<sup id="cite_ref-Daneš1987_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daneš1987-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The exact way language evolved is however not considered as vital to the study of languages. <a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structural linguist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a> abandoned <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">evolutionary linguistics</a> after having come to the firm conclusion that it would not be able to provide any further revolutionary insight after the completion of the major works in <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> by the end of the 19th century. Saussure was particularly sceptical of the attempts of <a href="/wiki/August_Schleicher" title="August Schleicher">August Schleicher</a> and other Darwinian linguists to access prehistorical languages through series of reconstructions of <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Saussure's solution to the problem of language evolution involves dividing <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_linguistics" title="Theoretical linguistics">theoretical linguistics</a> in two. Evolutionary and historical linguistics are renamed as <a href="/wiki/Diachronic_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diachronic linguistics">diachronic linguistics</a>. It is the study of <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">language change</a>, but it has only limited explanatory power due to the inadequacy of all of the reliable research material that could ever be made available. <a href="/wiki/Synchronic_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronic linguistics">Synchronic linguistics</a>, in contrast, aims to widen scientists' understanding of language through a study of a given contemporary or historical language stage as a system in its own right.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although Saussure put much focus on diachronic linguistics, later structuralists who equated structuralism with the synchronic analysis were sometimes criticised of ahistoricism. According to <a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">structural anthropologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>, language and meaning—in opposition to "knowledge, which develops slowly and progressively"—must have appeared in an instant.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Structuralism, as first introduced to <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>, is nonetheless a type of humanistic evolutionary theory which explains diversification as necessitated by growing complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a shift of focus to functional explanation after Saussure's death. Functional structuralists including the <a href="/wiki/Prague_Linguistic_Circle" class="mw-redirect" title="Prague Linguistic Circle">Prague Circle</a> linguists and <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Martinet" title="André Martinet">André Martinet</a> explained the growth and maintenance of structures as being necessitated by their functions.<sup id="cite_ref-Daneš1987_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daneš1987-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, novel technologies make it necessary for people to invent new words, but these may lose their function and be forgotten as the technologies are eventually replaced by more modern ones. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chomsky's_single-step_theory"><span id="Chomsky.27s_single-step_theory"></span>Chomsky's single-step theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Chomsky's single-step theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Chomsky's single-mutation theory, the emergence of language resembled the formation of a crystal; with <a href="/wiki/Digital_infinity" title="Digital infinity">digital infinity</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Seed_crystal" title="Seed crystal">seed crystal</a> in a super-saturated primate brain, on the verge of blossoming into the human mind, by physical law, once <a href="/wiki/Universal_Darwinism" title="Universal Darwinism">evolution</a> added a single small but crucial keystone.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, in this theory, language appeared rather suddenly within the history of human evolution. Chomsky, writing with computational linguist and computer scientist Robert C. Berwick, suggests that this scenario is completely compatible with modern biology. They note that "none of the recent accounts of human language evolution seem to have completely grasped the shift from conventional Darwinism to its fully <a href="/wiki/Stochastic" title="Stochastic">stochastic</a> modern version – specifically, that there are stochastic effects not only due to sampling like directionless drift, but also due to directed stochastic variation in fitness, migration, and heritability – indeed, all the "forces" that affect individual or gene frequencies<span class="nowrap"> </span>… All this can affect evolutionary outcomes—outcomes that as far as we can make out are not brought out in recent books on the evolution of language, yet would arise immediately in the case of any new genetic or individual innovation, precisely the kind of scenario likely to be in play when talking about language's emergence." </p><p>Citing evolutionary geneticist <a href="/wiki/Svante_P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo" title="Svante Pääbo">Svante Pääbo</a>, they concur that a substantial difference must have occurred to differentiate <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> to "prompt the relentless spread of our species, who had never crossed open water, up and out of Africa and then on across the entire planet in just a few tens of thousands of years.<span class="nowrap"> </span>… What we do not see is any kind of 'gradualism' in new tool technologies or innovations like fire, shelters, or figurative art." Berwick and Chomsky therefore suggest language emerged approximately between 200,000 years ago and 60,000 years ago (between the appearance of the first anatomically modern humans in southern Africa and the last exodus from Africa respectively). "That leaves us with about 130,000 years, or approximately 5,000–6,000 generations of time for evolutionary change. This is not 'overnight in one generation' as some have (incorrectly) inferred—but neither is it on the scale of geological eons. It's time enough—within the ballpark for what Nilsson and Pelger (1994) estimated as the time required for the full evolution of a <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> eye from a single cell, even without the invocation of any 'evo-devo' effects."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The single-mutation theory of language evolution has been directly questioned on different grounds. A formal analysis of the probability of such a mutation taking place and going to fixation in the species has concluded that such a scenario is unlikely, with multiple mutations with more moderate fitness effects being more probable.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another criticism has questioned the logic of the argument for single mutation and puts forward that from the formal simplicity of <a href="/wiki/Merge_(linguistics)" title="Merge (linguistics)">Merge</a>, the capacity Berwick and Chomsky deem the core property of human language that emerged suddenly, one cannot derive the (number of) evolutionary steps that led to it.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Romulus_and_Remus_hypothesis">The Romulus and Remus hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Romulus and Remus hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Recursion#In_language" title="Recursion">Recursion § In language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_synthesis" title="Prefrontal synthesis">Prefrontal synthesis</a></div> <p>The Romulus and Remus hypothesis, proposed by neuroscientist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrey_Vyshedskiy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrey Vyshedskiy (page does not exist)">Andrey Vyshedskiy</a>, seeks to address the question as to why the modern speech apparatus originated over 500,000 years before the earliest signs of modern human imagination. This hypothesis proposes that there were two phases that led to modern recursive language. The phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Recursion#In_language" title="Recursion">recursion</a> occurs across multiple linguistic domains, arguably most prominently in <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>. Thus, by nesting a structure such as a sentence or a word within themselves, it enables the generation of potentially (<a href="/wiki/Countable_set" title="Countable set">countably</a>) infinite new variations of that structure. For example, the base sentence [Peter likes apples.] can be nested in <a href="/wiki/Irrealis_mood" title="Irrealis mood">irrealis</a> clauses to produce [[Mary said [Peter likes apples.]], [Paul believed [Mary said [Peter likes apples.]]] and so forth.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first phase includes the slow development of non-recursive language with a large vocabulary along with the modern speech apparatus, which includes changes to the hyoid bone, increased voluntary control of the muscles of the diaphragm, the evolution of the FOXP2 gene, as well as other changes by 600,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then, the second phase was a rapid <a href="#Chomsky's_single-step_theory">Chomskian single step</a>, consisting of three distinct events that happened in quick succession around 70,000 years ago and allowed the shift from non-recursive to recursive language in early hominins. </p> <ol><li>A genetic mutation that slowed down the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_synthesis" title="Prefrontal synthesis">prefrontal synthesis</a> (PFS) critical period of at least two children that lived together.</li> <li>This allowed these children to create recursive elements of language such as spatial prepositions.</li> <li>Then this merged with their parents' non-recursive language to create recursive language.<sup id="cite_ref-Vyshedskiy2019_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vyshedskiy2019-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>It is not enough for children to have a modern prefrontal cortex (PFC) to allow the development of PFS; the children must also be mentally stimulated and have recursive elements already in their language to acquire PFS. Since their parents would not have invented these elements yet, the children would have had to do it themselves, which is a common occurrence among young children that live together, in a process called <a href="/wiki/Cryptophasia" title="Cryptophasia">cryptophasia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that delayed PFC development would have allowed more time to acquire PFS and develop recursive elements. </p><p>Delayed PFC development also comes with negative consequences, such as a longer period of reliance on one's parents to survive and lower survival rates. For modern language to have occurred, PFC delay had to have an immense survival benefit in later life, such as PFS ability. This suggests that the mutation that caused PFC delay and the development of recursive language and PFS occurred simultaneously, which lines up with evidence of a genetic bottleneck around 70,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This could have been the result of a few individuals who developed PFS and recursive language which gave them significant competitive advantage over all other humans at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Vyshedskiy2019_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vyshedskiy2019-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gestural_theory">Gestural theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gestural theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The gestural theory states that human language developed from <a href="/wiki/Gesture" title="Gesture">gestures</a> that were used for simple communication. </p><p>Two types of evidence support this theory. </p> <ol><li>Gestural language and vocal language depend on similar neural systems. The regions on the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cortex</a> that are responsible for mouth and hand movements border each other.</li> <li>Nonhuman <a href="/wiki/Primates" class="mw-redirect" title="Primates">primates</a> can use gestures or symbols for at least primitive communication, and some of their gestures resemble those of humans, such as the "begging posture", with the hands stretched out, which humans share with chimpanzees.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Research has found strong support for the idea that <a href="/wiki/Oral_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral communication">oral communication</a> and sign language depend on similar neural structures. Patients who used sign language, and who suffered from a left-<a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">hemisphere</a> <a href="/wiki/Lesion" title="Lesion">lesion</a>, showed the same disorders with their sign language as vocal patients did with their oral language.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other researchers found that the same left-hemisphere brain regions were active during sign language as during the use of vocal or written language.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Primate gesture is at least partially genetic: different nonhuman apes will perform gestures characteristic of their species, even if they have never seen another ape perform that gesture. For example, gorillas beat their breasts. This shows that gestures are an intrinsic and important part of primate communication, which supports the idea that language evolved from gesture.<sup id="cite_ref-Arbib2008_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arbib2008-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further evidence suggests that gesture and language are linked. In humans, manually gesturing has an effect on concurrent vocalizations, thus creating certain natural vocal associations of manual efforts. Chimpanzees move their mouths when performing fine motor tasks. These mechanisms may have played an evolutionary role in enabling the development of intentional vocal communication as a supplement to gestural communication. Voice modulation could have been prompted by preexisting manual actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Arbib2008_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arbib2008-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From infancy, gestures both supplement and predict speech.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This addresses the idea that gestures quickly change in humans from a sole means of communication (from a very young age) to a supplemental and predictive behavior that is used despite the ability to communicate verbally. This too serves as a parallel to the idea that gestures developed first and language subsequently built upon it. </p><p>Two possible scenarios have been proposed for the development of language,<sup id="cite_ref-Rizzolatti_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rizzolatti-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one of which supports the gestural theory: </p> <ol><li>Language developed from the calls of human ancestors.</li> <li>Language was derived from gesture.</li></ol> <p>The first perspective that language evolved from the calls of human ancestors seems logical because both humans and animals make sounds or cries. One evolutionary reason to refute this is that, anatomically, the centre that controls calls in monkeys and other animals is located in a completely different part of the brain than in humans. In monkeys, this centre is located in the depths of the brain related to emotions. In the human system, it is located in an area unrelated to emotion. Humans can communicate simply to communicate—without emotions. So, anatomically, this scenario does not work.<sup id="cite_ref-Rizzolatti_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rizzolatti-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that language was derived from gesture<sup id="cite_ref-Kendon2017_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kendon2017-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>(humans communicated by gesture first and sound was attached later). </p><p>The important question for gestural theories is why there was a shift to vocalization. Various explanations have been proposed: </p> <ol><li>Human ancestors started to use more and more tools, meaning that their hands were occupied and could no longer be used for gesturing.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Manual gesturing requires that speakers and listeners be visible to one another. In many situations, they might need to communicate, even without visual contact—for example after nightfall or when foliage obstructs visibility.</li> <li>A composite hypothesis holds that early language took the form of part gestural and part vocal <a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">mimesis</a> (imitative 'song-and-dance'), combining modalities because all signals (like those of nonhuman apes and monkeys) still needed to be costly in order to be intrinsically convincing. In that event, each multi-media display would have needed not just to disambiguate an intended meaning but also to inspire confidence in the signal's reliability. The suggestion is that only once community-wide contractual understandings had come into force<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> could trust in communicative intentions be automatically assumed, at last allowing <i>Homo sapiens</i> to shift to a more efficient default format. Since vocal distinctive features (sound contrasts) are ideal for this purpose, it was only at this point—when intrinsically persuasive body-language was no longer required to convey each message—that the decisive shift from manual gesture to the current primary reliance on <i>spoken</i> language occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight2008_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knight1998_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight1998-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>A comparable hypothesis states that in 'articulate' language, gesture and vocalisation are intrinsically linked, as language evolved from equally intrinsically linked dance and song.<sup id="cite_ref-Vaneechoutte2014_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaneechoutte2014-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Humans still use manual and facial gestures when they speak, especially when people meet who have no language in common.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also a great number of <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a> still in existence, commonly associated with Deaf communities. These sign languages are equal in complexity, sophistication, and expressive power, to any oral language.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cognitive functions are similar and the parts of the brain used are similar. The main difference is that the "phonemes" are produced on the outside of the body, articulated with hands, body, and facial expression, rather than inside the body articulated with tongue, teeth, lips, and breathing.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Compare the <a href="/wiki/Motor_theory_of_speech_perception" title="Motor theory of speech perception">motor theory of speech perception</a>.) </p><p>Critics of gestural theory note that it is difficult to name serious reasons why the initial pitch-based vocal communication (which is present in primates) would be abandoned in favor of the much less effective non-vocal, gestural communication.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Corballis" title="Michael Corballis">Michael Corballis</a> has pointed out that it is supposed that primate vocal communication (such as alarm calls) cannot be controlled consciously, unlike hand movement, and thus it is not credible as precursor to human language; primate vocalization is rather homologous to and continued in involuntary reflexes (connected with basic human emotions) such as screams or laughter (the fact that these can be faked does not disprove the fact that genuine involuntary responses to fear or surprise exist).<sup id="cite_ref-Kendon2017_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kendon2017-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, gesture is not generally less effective, and depending on the situation can even be advantageous, for example in a loud environment or where it is important to be silent, such as on a hunt. Other challenges to the "gesture-first" theory have been presented by researchers in <a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">psycholinguistics</a>, including <a href="/wiki/David_McNeill" title="David McNeill">David McNeill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tool-use_associated_sound_in_the_evolution_of_language">Tool-use associated sound in the evolution of language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tool-use associated sound in the evolution of language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proponents of the motor theory of language evolution have primarily focused on the visual domain and communication through observation of movements. The <i>Tool-use sound hypothesis</i> suggests that the production and perception of sound also contributed substantially, particularly <i>incidental sound of locomotion</i> (<i>ISOL</i>) and <i>tool-use sound</i> (<i>TUS</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Larsson2015_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsson2015-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human bipedalism resulted in rhythmic and more predictable <i>ISOL</i>. That may have stimulated the evolution of musical abilities, auditory working memory, and abilities to produce complex vocalizations, and to mimic natural sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the human brain proficiently extracts information about objects and events from the sounds they produce, <i>TUS</i>, and mimicry of <i>TUS</i>, might have achieved an iconic function. The prevalence of sound symbolism in many extant languages supports this idea. Self-produced TUS activates multimodal brain processing (<a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neurons</a>, hearing, <a href="/wiki/Proprioception" title="Proprioception">proprioception</a>, touch, vision), and <i>TUS</i> stimulates primate audiovisual mirror neurons, which is likely to stimulate the development of association chains. Tool use and auditory gestures involve motor-processing of the forelimbs, which is associated with the evolution of vertebrate vocal communication. The production, perception, and mimicry of <i>TUS</i> may have resulted in a limited number of vocalizations or protowords that were associated with tool use.<sup id="cite_ref-Larsson2015_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsson2015-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A new way to communicate about tools, especially when out of sight, would have had selective advantage. A gradual change in acoustic properties, meaning, or both could have resulted in arbitrariness and an expanded repertoire of words. Humans have been increasingly exposed to <i>TUS</i> over millions of years, coinciding with the period during which spoken language evolved. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mirror_neurons_and_language_origins">Mirror neurons and language origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mirror neurons and language origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In humans, <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional MRI</a> studies have reported finding areas homologous to the monkey <a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">mirror neuron</a> system in the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">inferior frontal cortex</a>, close to <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a>, one of the language regions of the brain. This has led to suggestions that human language evolved from a gesture performance/understanding system implemented in mirror neurons. Mirror neurons have been said to have the potential to provide a mechanism for action-understanding, imitation-learning, and the simulation of other people's behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This hypothesis is supported by some <a href="/wiki/Cytoarchitectonics" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoarchitectonics">cytoarchitectonic</a> homologies between monkey premotor area F5 and human Broca's area.<sup id="cite_ref-Petrides2005_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petrides2005-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rates of vocabulary expansion link to the ability of children to vocally mirror non-words and so to acquire the new word pronunciations. Such <a href="/wiki/Speech_repetition" title="Speech repetition">speech repetition</a> occurs automatically, quickly<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and separately in the brain to <a href="/wiki/Speech_perception" title="Speech perception">speech perception</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, such vocal imitation can occur without comprehension such as in <a href="/wiki/Speech_shadowing" title="Speech shadowing">speech shadowing</a><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Echolalia" title="Echolalia">echolalia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Petrides2005_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petrides2005-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further evidence for this link comes from a recent study in which the brain activity of two participants was measured using fMRI while they were gesturing words to each other using hand gestures with a game of <a href="/wiki/Charades" title="Charades">charades</a>—a modality that some have suggested might represent the evolutionary precursor of human language. Analysis of the data using <a href="/wiki/Granger_Causality" class="mw-redirect" title="Granger Causality">Granger Causality</a> revealed that the mirror-neuron system of the observer indeed reflects the pattern of activity of in the motor system of the sender, supporting the idea that the motor concept associated with the words is indeed transmitted from one brain to another using the mirror system.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not all linguists agree with the above arguments, however. In particular, supporters of Noam Chomsky argue against the possibility that the mirror neuron system can play any role in the hierarchical recursive structures essential to syntax.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Putting-down-the-baby_theory">Putting-down-the-baby theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Putting-down-the-baby theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Dean_Falk" title="Dean Falk">Dean Falk</a>'s "putting-down-the-baby" theory, vocal interactions between early hominid mothers and infants began a sequence of events that led, eventually, to human ancestors' earliest words.<sup id="cite_ref-Falk2004_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Falk2004-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic idea is that evolving human mothers, unlike their counterparts in other primates, could not move around and forage with their infants clinging onto their backs. Loss of fur in the human case left infants with no means of clinging on. Frequently, therefore, mothers had to put their babies down. As a result, these babies needed to be reassured that they were not being abandoned. Mothers responded by developing 'motherese'—an infant-directed communicative system embracing facial expressions, body language, touching, patting, caressing, laughter, tickling, and emotionally expressive contact calls. The argument is that language developed out of this interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-Falk2004_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Falk2004-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mental_and_Social_Life_of_Babies" title="The Mental and Social Life of Babies">The Mental and Social Life of Babies</a></i>, psychologist <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaye" title="Kenneth Kaye">Kenneth Kaye</a> noted that no usable adult language could have evolved without interactive communication between very young children and adults. "No symbolic system could have survived from one generation to the next if it could not have been easily acquired by young children under their normal conditions of social life."<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From-where-to-what_theory">From-where-to-what theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: From-where-to-what theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:From_where_to_what.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/From_where_to_what.png/220px-From_where_to_what.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/From_where_to_what.png/330px-From_where_to_what.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/From_where_to_what.png/440px-From_where_to_what.png 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of the "from where to what" model of language evolution</figcaption></figure> <p>The "from where to what" model is a language evolution model that is derived primarily from the organization of <a href="/wiki/Language_processing_in_the_brain" title="Language processing in the brain">language processing in the brain</a> into two structures: the auditory dorsal stream and the auditory ventral stream.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It hypothesizes seven stages of language evolution (see illustration). Speech originated for the purpose of exchanging contact calls between mothers and their offspring to find one another in the event they became separated (illustration part 1). The contact calls could be modified with intonations in order to express either a higher or lower level of distress (illustration part 2). The use of two types of contact calls enabled the first question-answer conversation. In this scenario, the child would emit a low-level distress call to express a desire to interact with an object, and the mother would respond with either another low-level distress call (to express approval of the interaction) or a high-level distress call (to express disapproval) (illustration part 3). Over time, the improved use of intonations and vocal control led to the invention of unique calls (phonemes) associated with distinct objects (illustration part 4). At first, children learned the calls (phonemes) from their parents by imitating their lip-movements (illustration part 5). Eventually, infants were able to encode into long-term memory all the calls (phonemes). Consequentially, mimicry via lip-reading was limited to infancy and older children learned new calls through mimicry without lip-reading (illustration part 6). Once individuals became capable of producing a sequence of calls, this allowed multi-syllabic words, which increased the size of their vocabulary (illustration part 7). The use of words, composed of sequences of syllables, provided the infra structure for communicating with sequences of words (i.e. sentences). </p><p>The theory's name is derived from the two auditory streams, which are both found in the brains of humans and other primates. The auditory ventral stream is responsible for sound recognition, and so it is referred to as the auditory <i>what</i> stream.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In primates, the auditory dorsal stream is responsible for <a href="/wiki/Sound_localization" title="Sound localization">sound localization</a>, and thus it is called the auditory <i>where</i> stream. Only in humans (in the left hemisphere) is it also responsible for other processes associated with language use and acquisition, such as speech repetition and production, integration of phonemes with their lip movements, perception and production of intonations, phonological <a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a> (long-term memory storage of the sounds of words), and phonological working memory (the temporary storage of the sounds of words).<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some evidence also indicates a role in recognizing others by their voices.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emergence of each of these functions in the auditory dorsal stream represents an intermediate stage in the evolution of language. </p><p>A contact call origin for human language is consistent with animal studies, as like human language, contact call discrimination in monkeys is lateralised to the left hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mice with knock-out to language related genes (such as <a href="/wiki/FOXP2" title="FOXP2">FOXP2</a> and <a href="/wiki/SRPX2" title="SRPX2">SRPX2</a>) also resulted in the pups no longer emitting contact calls when separated from their mothers.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supporting this model is also its ability to explain unique human phenomena, such as the use of intonations when converting words into commands and questions, the tendency of infants to mimic vocalizations during the first year of life (and its disappearance later on) and the protruding and visible <a href="/wiki/Human_lip" class="mw-redirect" title="Human lip">human lips</a>, which are not found in other apes. This theory could be considered an elaboration of the putting-down-the-baby theory of language evolution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammaticalisation_theory">Grammaticalisation theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Grammaticalisation theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"<a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a>" is a continuous historical process in which free-standing words develop into grammatical appendages, while these in turn become ever more specialized and grammatical. An initially "incorrect" usage, in becoming accepted, leads to <a href="/wiki/Unforeseen_consequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Unforeseen consequence">unforeseen consequences</a>, triggering knock-on effects and extended sequences of change. Paradoxically, grammar evolves because, in the final analysis, humans care less about grammatical niceties than about making themselves understood.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If this is how grammar evolves today, according to this school of thought, similar principles at work can be legitimately inferred among distant human ancestors, when grammar itself was first being established.<sup id="cite_ref-Deutscher2005_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deutscher2005-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heine2007_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine2007-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to reconstruct the evolutionary transition from early language to languages with complex grammars, it is necessary to know which hypothetical sequences are plausible and which are not. In order to convey abstract ideas, the first recourse of speakers is to fall back on immediately recognizable concrete imagery, very often deploying <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphors</a> rooted in shared bodily experience.<sup id="cite_ref-Lakoff_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lakoff-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A familiar example is the use of concrete terms such as "belly" or "back" to convey abstract meanings such as "inside" or "behind". Equally metaphorical is the strategy of representing temporal patterns on the model of spatial ones. For example, English speakers might say "It is going to rain", modelled on "I am going to London." This can be abbreviated colloquially to "It's gonna rain." Even when in a hurry, English speakers do not say "I'm gonna London"—the contraction is restricted to the job of specifying tense. From such examples it can be seen why grammaticalisation is consistently unidirectional—from concrete to abstract meaning, not the other way around.<sup id="cite_ref-Deutscher2005_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deutscher2005-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Grammaticalization theorists picture early language as simple, perhaps consisting only of nouns.<sup id="cite_ref-Heine2007_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine2007-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>p. 111</sup> Even under that extreme theoretical assumption, however, it is difficult to imagine what would realistically have prevented people from using, say, "spear" as if it were a verb ("Spear that pig!"). People might have used their nouns as verbs or their verbs as nouns as occasion demanded. In short, while a noun-only language might seem theoretically possible, grammaticalization theory indicates that it cannot have remained fixed in that state for any length of time.<sup id="cite_ref-Deutscher2005_144-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deutscher2005-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heine2012_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine2012-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Creativity drives grammatical change.<sup id="cite_ref-Heine2012_148-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine2012-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This presupposes a certain attitude on the part of listeners. Instead of punishing deviations from accepted usage, listeners must prioritise imaginative mind-reading. Imaginative creativity—emitting a leopard alarm when no leopard was present, for example—is not the kind of behaviour which, say, <a href="/wiki/Vervet_monkey" title="Vervet monkey">vervet monkeys</a> would appreciate or reward.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Creativity and reliability are incompatible demands; for "Machiavellian" primates as for animals generally, the overriding pressure is to demonstrate reliability.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If humans escape these constraints, it is because in their case, listeners are primarily interested in mental states. </p><p>To focus on mental states is to accept fictions—inhabitants of the imagination—as potentially informative and interesting. An example is metaphor: a metaphor is, literally, a false statement.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i>, Romeo declares "Juliet is the sun!". Juliet is a woman, not a ball of plasma in the sky, but human listeners are not (or not usually) pedants insistent on point-by-point factual accuracy. They want to know what the speaker has in mind. Grammaticalisation is essentially based on metaphor. To outlaw its use would be to stop grammar from evolving and, by the same token, to exclude all possibility of expressing abstract thought.<sup id="cite_ref-Lakoff_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lakoff-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A criticism of all this is that while grammaticalization theory might explain language change today, it does not satisfactorily address the really difficult challenge—explaining the initial transition from primate-style communication to language as it is known today. Rather, the theory assumes that language already exists. As <a href="/wiki/Bernd_Heine" title="Bernd Heine">Bernd Heine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tania_Kuteva" title="Tania Kuteva">Tania Kuteva</a> acknowledge: "Grammaticalisation requires a linguistic system that is used regularly and frequently within a community of speakers and is passed on from one group of speakers to another".<sup id="cite_ref-Heine2007_146-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heine2007-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outside modern humans, such conditions do not prevail. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution-progression_model">Evolution-progression model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Evolution-progression model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human language is used for self-expression; however, expression displays different stages. The consciousness of self and feelings represents the stage immediately prior to the external, phonetic expression of feelings in the form of sound (i.e. language). Intelligent animals such as dolphins, Eurasian magpies, and chimpanzees live in communities, wherein they assign themselves roles for group survival and show emotions such as sympathy.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When such animals view their reflection (<a href="/wiki/Mirror_test" title="Mirror test">mirror test</a>), they recognize themselves and exhibit <a href="/wiki/Self-consciousness" title="Self-consciousness">self-consciousness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notably, humans evolved in a quite different environment than that of these animals. Human survival became easier with the development of tools, shelter, and fire, thus facilitating further advancement of social interaction, self-expression, and tool-making, as for hunting and gathering.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increasing brain size allowed advanced provisioning and tools and the technological advances during the Palaeolithic era that built upon the previous evolutionary innovations of bipedalism and hand versatility allowed the development of human language.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-domesticated_ape_theory">Self-domesticated ape theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Self-domesticated ape theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to a study investigating the song differences between <a href="/wiki/White-rumped_munia" title="White-rumped munia">white-rumped munias</a> and its domesticated counterpart (<a href="/wiki/Society_finch" title="Society finch">Bengalese finch</a>), the wild munias use a highly stereotyped song sequence, whereas the domesticated ones sing a highly unconstrained song. In wild finches, song syntax is subject to female preference—<a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>—and remains relatively fixed. However, in the Bengalese finch, natural selection is replaced by breeding, in this case for colorful plumage, and thus, decoupled from selective pressures, stereotyped song syntax is allowed to drift. It is replaced, supposedly within 1000 generations, by a variable and learned sequence. Wild finches, moreover, are thought incapable of learning song sequences from other finches.<sup id="cite_ref-Soma2009_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soma2009-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the field of <a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">bird vocalization</a>, brains capable of producing only an innate song have very simple neural pathways: the primary forebrain motor centre, called the robust nucleus of <a href="/wiki/Arcopallium" title="Arcopallium">arcopallium</a>, connects to midbrain vocal outputs, which in turn project to brainstem motor nuclei. By contrast, in brains capable of learning songs, the arcopallium receives input from numerous additional forebrain regions, including those involved in learning and social experience. Control over song generation has become less constrained, more distributed, and more flexible.<sup id="cite_ref-Soma2009_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soma2009-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One way to think about human evolution is that humans are <a href="/wiki/Self-domestication#In_humans" title="Self-domestication">self-domesticated apes</a>. Just as domestication relaxed selection for stereotypic songs in the finches—mate choice was supplanted by choices made by the aesthetic sensibilities of bird breeders and their customers—so might human cultural domestication have relaxed selection on many of their primate behavioural traits, allowing old pathways to degenerate and reconfigure. Given the highly indeterminate way that mammalian brains develop – they basically construct themselves "bottom up", with one set of neuronal interactions preparing for the next round of interactions – degraded pathways would tend to seek out and find new opportunities for synaptic hookups. Such inherited de-differentiations of brain pathways might have contributed to the functional complexity that characterises human language. And, as exemplified by the finches, such de-differentiations can occur in very rapid time-frames.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Speech_and_language_for_communication">Speech and language for communication</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Speech and language for communication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Origin of speech</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px 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1.6em!important;padding:0!important;width:auto;display:block}body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox.mbox-small-left{font-size:100%;width:auto;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This section has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Origin_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Origin of language">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Origin_of_language" title="Talk:Origin of language">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <pre> Much of the language in this section is vague and does not match the encyclopedic tone. </pre> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A distinction can be drawn between <a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">speech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. Language is not necessarily spoken: it might alternatively be written or signed. Speech is among a number of different methods of encoding and transmitting linguistic information, albeit arguably<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (November 2024)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> the most natural one.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some scholars, such as Noam Chomsky, view language as an initially cognitive development, its "externalisation" to serve communicative purposes occurring later in human evolution. According to one such school of thought, the key feature distinguishing human language is <a href="/wiki/Recursion" title="Recursion">recursion</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hauser2002_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hauser2002-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (in this context, the iterative embedding of phrases within phrases). Other scholars—notably <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Everett" title="Daniel Everett">Daniel Everett</a>—deny that recursion is universal, citing certain languages (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_language" title="Pirahã language">Pirahã</a>) which allegedly<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (November 2024)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> lack this feature.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ability to ask questions is considered by some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (May 2021)">like whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> to distinguish language from non-human systems of communication.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some captive primates (notably bonobos and chimpanzees), having learned to use rudimentary signing to communicate with their human trainers, proved able to respond correctly to complex questions and requests. Yet they failed to ask even the simplest questions themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, human children are able to ask their first questions (using only question <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a>) at the babbling period of their development, long before they start using syntactic structures. Although babies from different cultures acquire native languages from their social environment, all languages of the world without exception—tonal, non-tonal, intonational and accented—use similar rising "question intonation" for <a href="/wiki/Yes%E2%80%93no_question" title="Yes–no question">yes–no questions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Except, of course, the ones that don't.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Questionable intent of this sentence makes the sentence read more like a comment made in spite rather than a part of the paragraph. One statement should not be made for it to immediately be rebutted in the next sentence. (November 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This fact is a strong evidence of the universality of <a href="/wiki/Question_intonation" class="mw-redirect" title="Question intonation">question intonation</a>. In general, according to some authors<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (November 2024)">like whom?</span></a></i>]</sup>, sentence intonation/pitch is pivotal in spoken grammar and is the basic information used by children to learn the grammar of whatever language.<sup id="cite_ref-Vaneechoutte2014_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaneechoutte2014-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cognitive_development_and_language">Cognitive development and language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Cognitive development and language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Language users have high-level reference (or <a href="/wiki/Deixis" title="Deixis">deixis</a>)—the ability to refer to things or states of being that are not in the immediate realm of the speaker. This ability is often related to theory of mind, or an awareness of the other as a being like the self with individual wants and intentions. According to Chomsky, Hauser and Fitch (2002), there are six main aspects of this high-level reference system: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">Theory of mind</a></li> <li>Capacity to acquire non-linguistic conceptual representations, such as the object/kind distinction</li> <li>Referential vocal signals</li> <li>Imitation as a rational, intentional system</li> <li>Voluntary control over signal production as evidence of intentional communication</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_cognition" title="Numerical cognition">Number representation</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hauser2002_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hauser2002-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_of_mind">Theory of mind</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Theory of mind"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">Theory of mind</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Simon_Baron-Cohen" title="Simon Baron-Cohen">Simon Baron-Cohen</a> (1999) argues that theory of mind must have preceded language use, based on evidence of use of the following characteristics as much as 40,000 years ago: intentional communication, repairing failed communication, teaching, intentional persuasion, intentional deception, building shared plans and goals, intentional sharing of focus or topic, and pretending. Moreover, Baron-Cohen argues that many primates show some, but not all, of these abilities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Call and Tomasello's research on chimpanzees supports this, in that individual chimps seem to understand that other chimps have awareness, knowledge, and intention, but do not seem to understand false beliefs. Many primates show some tendencies toward a theory of mind, but not a full one as humans have.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ultimately, there is some consensus within the field that a theory of mind is necessary for language use. Thus, the development of a full theory of mind in humans was a necessary precursor to full language use.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Number_representation">Number representation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Number representation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In one particular study, rats and pigeons were required to press a button a certain number of times to get food. The animals showed very accurate distinction for numbers less than four, but as the numbers increased, the error rate increased.<sup id="cite_ref-Hauser2002_159-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hauser2002-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another, the <a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">primatologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Tetsuro_Matsuzawa" title="Tetsuro Matsuzawa">Tetsuro Matsuzawa</a> attempted to teach chimpanzees Arabic numerals.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference between primates and humans in this regard was very large, as it took the chimps thousands of trials to learn 1–9, with each number requiring a similar amount of training time; yet, after learning the meaning of 1, 2 and 3 (and sometimes 4), children (after the age of 5.5 to 6) easily comprehend the value of greater integers by using a <a href="/wiki/Successor_function" title="Successor function">successor function</a> (i.e. 2 is 1 greater than 1, 3 is 1 greater than 2, 4 is 1 greater than 3; once 4 is reached it seems most children <a href="/wiki/Eureka_effect" title="Eureka effect">suddenly understand</a> that the value of any integer <i>n</i> is 1 greater than the previous integer).<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Put simply, other primates learn the meaning of numbers one by one, similar to their approach to other referential symbols, while children first learn an arbitrary list of symbols (1, 2, 3, 4...) and then later learn their precise meanings.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These results can be seen as evidence for the application of the "open-ended generative property" of language in human numeral cognition.<sup id="cite_ref-Hauser2002_159-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hauser2002-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistic_structures">Linguistic structures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Linguistic structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexical-phonological_principle">Lexical-phonological principle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Lexical-phonological principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hockett (1966) details a list of features regarded as essential to describing human language.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the domain of the lexical-phonological principle, two features of this list are most important: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(linguistics)" title="Productivity (linguistics)">Productivity</a>: users can create and understand completely novel messages. <ul><li>New messages are freely coined by blending, analogizing from, or transforming old ones.</li> <li>Either new or old elements are freely assigned new semantic loads by circumstances and context. This says that in every language, new idioms constantly come into existence.</li></ul></li> <li>Duality (of Patterning): a large number of meaningful elements are made up of a conveniently small number of independently meaningless yet message-differentiating elements.</li></ul> <p>The sound system of a language is composed of a finite set of simple phonological items. Under the specific <a href="/wiki/Phonotactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonotactic">phonotactic</a> rules of a given language, these items can be recombined and concatenated, giving rise to <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> and the open-ended lexicon. A key feature of language is that a simple, finite set of phonological items gives rise to an infinite lexical system wherein rules determine the form of each item, and meaning is inextricably linked with form. Phonological syntax, then, is a simple combination of pre-existing phonological units. Related to this is another essential feature of human language: lexical syntax, wherein pre-existing units are combined, giving rise to semantically novel or distinct lexical items.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This paragraph needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">This paragraph needs citation(s)</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Certain elements of the lexical-phonological principle are known to exist outside of humans. While all (or nearly all) have been documented in some form in the natural world, very few coexist within the same species. Bird-song, singing nonhuman apes, and the songs of whales all display phonological syntax, combining units of sound into larger structures apparently devoid of enhanced or novel meaning. Certain other primate species do have simple phonological systems with units referring to entities in the world. However, in contrast to human systems, the units in these primates' systems normally occur in isolation, betraying a lack of lexical syntax. There is new<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (May 2021)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> evidence to suggest that Campbell's monkeys also display lexical syntax, combining two calls (a predator alarm call with a "boom", the combination of which denotes a lessened threat of danger), however it is still unclear whether this is a lexical or a morphological phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pidgins_and_creoles">Pidgins and creoles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Pidgins and creoles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgins</a> are significantly simplified languages with only rudimentary grammar and a restricted vocabulary. In their early stage, pidgins mainly consist of nouns, verbs, and adjectives with few or no articles, prepositions, conjunctions or auxiliary verbs. Often the grammar has no fixed <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> and the words have no <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Diamond1992_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diamond1992-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If contact is maintained between the groups speaking the pidgin for long periods of time, the pidgins may become more complex over many generations. If the children of one generation adopt the pidgin as their native language it develops into a <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole language</a>, which becomes fixed and acquires a more complex grammar, with fixed phonology, syntax, morphology, and syntactic embedding. The syntax and morphology of such languages may often have local innovations not obviously derived from any of the parent languages. </p><p>Studies of creole languages around the world have suggested that they display remarkable similarities in grammar<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and are developed uniformly from pidgins in a single generation. These similarities are apparent even when creoles do not have any common language origins. In addition, creoles are similar, despite being developed in isolation from each other. <a href="/wiki/Language_bioprogram_theory" title="Language bioprogram theory">Syntactic similarities</a> include <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a> word order. Even when creoles are derived from languages with a different word order they often develop the SVO word order. Creoles tend to have similar usage patterns for definite and indefinite articles, and similar movement rules for phrase structures even when the parent languages do not.<sup id="cite_ref-Diamond1992_173-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diamond1992-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_timeline">Evolutionary timeline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Evolutionary timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.95em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Hominin timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_timeline" title="Template talk:Human timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:50.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−10 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:47.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−9 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:40.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−8 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−7 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:32.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−6 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−5 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:-0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#FFE4F1"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.665em;height:23.335em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.667em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1231500821">@supports(writing-mode:vertical-lr){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-text{letter-spacing:-0.12em;line-height:1em;text-orientation:upright;writing-mode:vertical-lr;width:1em}}</style><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Miocene</span></a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:12.900em;height:13.765em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.883em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.058em;height:12.841em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.421em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.000em;height:36.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-6.7em;left:-0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-18.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominini</a></b></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:48.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:46.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Samburupithecus" title="Samburupithecus">Samburupithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus" title="Ouranopithecus">Ouranopithecus</a></span></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_turkae" title="Ouranopithecus turkae">Ou. turkae</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_macedoniensis" title="Ouranopithecus macedoniensis">Ou. macedoniensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0.4em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Chororapithecus" title="Chororapithecus">Chororapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:35.000em;height:10.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.75em;left:-0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Oreopithecus" title="Oreopithecus">Oreopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.75em;left:-0.4em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sivapithecus" title="Sivapithecus">Sivapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Graecopithecus" title="Graecopithecus">Graecopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-1.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2.5em;left:0.15em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. praegens</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. tugenensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.000em;height:6.850em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-3.75em;left:-0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.425em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.700em;height:1.150em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.575em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Ar. kadabba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:21.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">Ar. ramidus</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:16.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:3em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Au. africanus</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">Au. afarensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Au. anamensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#DCEEFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:8.250em;height:5.750em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.9em;left:-0.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.875em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">Au. garhi</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.570em;height:9.430em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.5em;left:-1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.715em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">Au. sediba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:-0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.500em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.7em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.750em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern human">Homo sapiens</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.200em;left:1.300em;width:3.900em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.100em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:1.050em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.8em;left:2.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.525em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.4em;left:2.8em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:8.500em;left:11.700em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution#Hominidae" title="Timeline of human evolution">Earlier apes</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:45.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Earliest bipedal</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:29.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Earliest sign of <i>Ardipithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Earliest sign of <i>Australopithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age#Beginning_of_the_Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Earliest stone tools</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/LD_350-1" title="LD 350-1">Earliest sign of<br /> <i>Homo</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:10.600em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa" title="Early expansions of hominins out of Africa">Dispersal beyond Africa</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.550em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Earliest language</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Earliest fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cooking#History" title="Cooking">cooking</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.6em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Rock_art#East_Asia" title="Rock art">Earliest rock art</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.625em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Clothing#Origin_and_history" title="Clothing">Earliest clothes</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.250em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Modern humans</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:21.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:0.25em;left:-5em;width:8.8em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:110%"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">H o m i n i d s</a></span></b></span></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:3.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:3.25em;left:-5em;width:8.8em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:85%;"><b><span style="font-size:85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">P a r a n t h r o p u s</a></span></span></b></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primate_communication">Primate communication</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Primate communication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Field primatologists can give useful insights into <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great ape</a> communication in the wild.<sup id="cite_ref-Arcadi2000_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arcadi2000-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One notable finding is that nonhuman primates, including the other great apes, produce calls that are graded, as opposed to categorically differentiated, with listeners striving to evaluate subtle gradations in signallers' emotional and bodily states. Nonhuman apes seemingly find it extremely difficult to produce vocalisations in the absence of the corresponding emotional states.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodall1986_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodall1986-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In captivity, nonhuman apes have been taught rudimentary forms of sign language or have been persuaded to use <a href="/wiki/Lexigrams" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexigrams">lexigrams</a>—symbols that do not graphically resemble the corresponding words—on computer keyboards. Some nonhuman apes, such as <a href="/wiki/Kanzi" title="Kanzi">Kanzi</a>, have been able to learn and use hundreds of lexigrams.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's areas</a> in the primate brain are responsible for controlling the muscles of the face, tongue, mouth, and larynx, as well as recognizing sounds. Primates are known to make "vocal calls", and these calls are generated by circuits in the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the wild, the communication of <a href="/wiki/Vervet_monkey" title="Vervet monkey">vervet monkeys</a> has been the most extensively studied.<sup id="cite_ref-Diamond1992_173-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diamond1992-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are known to make up to ten different vocalizations. Many of these are used to warn other members of the group about approaching predators. They include a "leopard call", a "snake call", and an "eagle call".<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each call triggers a different defensive strategy in the monkeys who hear the call and scientists were able to elicit predictable responses from the monkeys using loudspeakers and prerecorded sounds. Other vocalisations may be used for identification. If an infant monkey calls, its mother turns toward it, but other vervet mothers turn instead toward that infant's mother to see what she will do.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, researchers have demonstrated that chimpanzees (in captivity) use different "words" in reference to different foods. They recorded vocalisations that chimps made in reference, for example, to grapes, and then other chimps pointed at pictures of grapes when they heard the recorded sound.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ardipithecus_ramidus"><i>Ardipithecus ramidus</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Ardipithecus ramidus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A study published in <i>HOMO: Journal of Comparative Human Biology</i> in 2017 claims that <i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">Ardipithecus ramidus</a></i>, a hominin dated at approximately 4.5<a href="/wiki/Mega-annum" class="mw-redirect" title="Mega-annum">Ma</a>, shows the first evidence of an anatomical shift in the hominin lineage suggestive of increased vocal capability.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark2017_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark2017-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This study compared the skull of <i>A. ramidus</i> with 29 chimpanzee skulls of different ages and found that in numerous features <i>A. ramidus</i> clustered with the infant and juvenile measures as opposed to the adult measures. Such affinity with the shape dimensions of infant and juvenile chimpanzee skull architecture, it was argued, may have resulted in greater vocal capability. This assertion was based on the notion that the chimpanzee vocal tract ratios that prevent speech are a result of growth factors associated with puberty—growth factors absent in <i>A. ramidus</i> ontogeny. <i>A. ramidus</i> was also found to have a degree of <a href="/wiki/Neck" title="Neck">cervical</a> <a href="/wiki/Lordosis" title="Lordosis">lordosis</a> more conducive to vocal modulation when compared with chimpanzees as well as cranial base architecture suggestive of increased vocal capability. </p><p>What was significant in this study, according to the authors,<sup id="cite_ref-Clark2017_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark2017-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the observation that the changes in skull architecture that correlate with reduced aggression are the same changes necessary for the evolution of early hominin vocal ability. In integrating data on anatomical correlates of primate mating and social systems with studies of skull and vocal tract architecture that facilitate speech production, the authors argue that <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">paleoanthropologists</a> prior to their study have failed to understand the important relationship between early hominin social evolution and the evolution of our species' capacities for language. </p><p>While the skull of <i>A. ramidus</i>, according to the authors, lacks the anatomical impediments to speech evident in chimpanzees, it is unclear what the vocal capabilities of this early hominin were. While they suggest <i>A. ramidus</i>—based on similar vocal tract ratios—may have had vocal capabilities equivalent to a modern human infant or very young child, they concede this is a debatable and speculative hypothesis. However, they do claim that changes in skull architecture through processes of social selection were a necessary prerequisite for language evolution. As they write: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We propose that as a result of paedomorphic morphogenesis of the cranial base and craniofacial morphology <i>Ar. ramidus</i> would have not been limited in terms of the mechanical components of speech production as chimpanzees and bonobos are. It is possible that <i>Ar. ramidus</i> had vocal capability approximating that of chimpanzees and bonobos, with its idiosyncratic skull morphology not resulting in any significant advances in speech capability. In this sense the anatomical features analysed in this essay would have been exapted in later more voluble species of hominin. However, given the selective advantages of pro-social vocal synchrony, we suggest the species would have developed significantly more complex vocal abilities than chimpanzees and bonobos.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark2017_182-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark2017-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Homo">Early <i>Homo</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Early Homo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anatomically, some scholars believe that features of <a href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">bipedalism</a> developed in the <a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">australopithecines</a> around 3.5 million years ago. Around this time, these structural developments within the skull led to a more prominently L-shaped vocal tract.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In order to generate the sounds modern <i>Homo sapiens</i> are capable of making, such as vowels, it is vital that Early Homo populations must have a specifically shaped voice track and a lower sitting larynx.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opposing research previously suggested that Neanderthals were physically incapable of creating the full range of vocals seen in modern humans due to the differences in larynx placement. Establishing distinct larynx positions through fossil remains of <i>Homo sapiens</i> and Neanderthals would support this theory; however, modern research has revealed that the hyoid bone was indistinguishable in the two populations. Though research has shown a lower sitting larynx is important to producing speech, another theory states it may not be as important as once thought.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cataldo, Migliano, and Vinicius report speech alone appears inadequate for transmitting stone tool-making knowledge, and suggest that speech may have emerged due to an increase in complex social interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaic_Homo_sapiens">Archaic <i>Homo sapiens</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Archaic Homo sapiens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Hmmmmm" redirects here. For Humming, see <a href="/wiki/Humming_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Humming (disambiguation)">Humming (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Steven_Mithen" title="Steven Mithen">Steven Mithen</a> proposed the term <i>Hmmmmm</i> for the pre-linguistic system of communication posited to have been used by archaic <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i>, beginning with <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i> and reaching the highest sophistication in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Pleistocene" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Pleistocene">Middle Pleistocene</a> with <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_neanderthalensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo neanderthalensis">Homo neanderthalensis</a></i>. <i>Hmmmmm</i> is an acronym for <i>h</i>olistic (non-compositional), <i>m</i>anipulative (utterances are commands or suggestions, not descriptive statements), <i>m</i>ulti-<i>m</i>odal (acoustic as well as gestural and facial), <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of music"><i>m</i>usical</a>, and <i>m</i>imetic.<sup id="cite_ref-Mithen2006_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mithen2006-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Homo_erectus"><i>Homo erectus</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Homo erectus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidence for <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> potentially using language comes in the form of <a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a> tool usage. The use of abstract thought in the formation of Acheulean hand axes coincides with the symbol creation necessary for simple language.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent language theories present <a href="/wiki/Recursion" title="Recursion">recursion</a> as the unique facet of human language and theory of mind.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, breaking down language into its symbolic parts: separating meaning from the requirements of grammar, it becomes possible to see that language does not depend on either recursion or grammar. This can be evidenced by the <a href="/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_language" title="Pirahã language">Pirahã</a> language users in Brazil that have no myth or creation stories, no numbers and no colors within their language.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is to highlight that even though grammar may have been unavailable, use of foresight, planning and symbolic thought can be evidence of language as early as one million years ago with Homo <i>erectus</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Homo_heidelbergensis"><i>Homo heidelbergensis</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Homo heidelbergensis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis#Language" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis: Language</a></div> <p><i>Homo heidelbergensis</i> was a close relative (most probably a migratory descendant) of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i>. Some researchers believe this species to be the first hominin to make controlled vocalisations, possibly mimicking animal vocalisations,<sup id="cite_ref-Mithen2006_187-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mithen2006-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that as <i>Homo heidelbergensis</i> developed more sophisticated culture, proceeded from this point and possibly developed an early form of symbolic language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Homo_neanderthalensis"><i>Homo neanderthalensis</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Homo neanderthalensis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_behavior#Language" title="Neanderthal behavior">Neanderthal behavior: Language</a></div> <p>The discovery in 1989 of the (Neanderthal) Kebara 2 hyoid bone suggests that Neanderthals may have been anatomically capable of producing sounds similar to modern humans.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hypoglossal_nerve" title="Hypoglossal nerve">hypoglossal nerve</a>, which passes through the hypoglossal canal, controls the movements of the tongue, which may have enabled voicing for size exaggeration (see size exaggeration hypothesis below) or may reflect speech abilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Arensburg1989_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arensburg1989-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, although Neanderthals may have been anatomically able to speak, <a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Klein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard G. Klein">Richard G. Klein</a> in 2004 doubted that they possessed a fully modern language. He largely bases his doubts on the fossil record of archaic humans and their stone tool kit. Bart de Boer in 2017 acknowledges this ambiguity of a universally accepted Neanderthal vocal tract; however, he notes the similarities in the thoracic vertebral canal, potential air sacs, and hyoid bones between modern humans and Neanderthals to suggest the presence of complex speech.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For two million years following the emergence of <i>Homo habilis</i>, the stone tool technology of hominins changed very little. Klein, who has worked extensively on ancient stone tools, describes the crude stone tool kit of archaic humans as impossible to break down into categories based on their function, and reports that Neanderthals seem to have had little concern for the final aesthetic form of their tools. Klein argues that the Neanderthal brain may have not reached the level of complexity required for modern speech, even if the physical apparatus for speech production was well-developed.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue of the Neanderthal's level of cultural and technological sophistication remains a controversial one.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Based on computer simulations used to evaluate that evolution of language that resulted in showing three stages in the evolution of syntax, Neanderthals are thought to have been in stage 2, showing they had something more evolved than proto-language but not quite as complex as the language of modern humans.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some researchers, applying auditory bioengineering models to computerised tomography scans of Neanderthal skulls, have asserted that Neanderthals had auditory capacity very similar to that of anatomically modern humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Conde-Valverde2021_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conde-Valverde2021-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These researchers claim that this finding implies that "Neanderthals evolved the auditory capacities to support a vocal communication system as efficient as modern human speech."<sup id="cite_ref-Conde-Valverde2021_203-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conde-Valverde2021-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homo_sapiens"><i>Homo sapiens</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Homo sapiens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">Anatomically modern humans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></div> <p>Anatomically modern humans begin to <a href="/wiki/Omo_remains" title="Omo remains">appear in the fossil record</a> in Ethiopia some 200,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there is still much debate as to whether behavioural modernity emerged in Africa at around the same time, a growing number of archaeologists nowadays<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (May 2021)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> invoke the southern African Middle Stone Age use of red ochre pigments—for example at <a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a>—as evidence that modern anatomy and behaviour co-evolved.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These archaeologists argue strongly that if modern humans at this early stage were using red ochre pigments for ritual and symbolic purposes, they probably had symbolic language as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood2009_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood2009-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">recent African origins hypothesis</a>, from around 60,000 – 50,000 years ago<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a group of humans left Africa and began migrating to occupy the rest of the world, carrying language and symbolic culture with them.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descended_larynx">Descended larynx</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Descended larynx"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Origin_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Origin of language">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Illu_larynx.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Illu_larynx.jpg" decoding="async" width="520" height="276" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="276" /></a></span> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a> (or <i>voice box</i>) is an organ in the neck housing the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_folds" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal folds">vocal folds</a>, which are responsible for <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a>. In humans, the larynx is <i>descended</i>. The human species is not unique in this respect: goats, dogs, pigs and tamarins lower the larynx temporarily, to emit loud calls.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several deer species have a permanently lowered larynx, which may be lowered still further by males during their roaring displays.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lions, jaguars, cheetahs and domestic cats also do this.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, laryngeal descent in nonhumans (according to Philip Lieberman) is not accompanied by descent of the hyoid; hence the tongue remains horizontal in the oral cavity, preventing it from acting as a pharyngeal articulator.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Larynx</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Larynx_external_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Larynx_external_en.svg/250px-Larynx_external_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Larynx_external_en.svg/375px-Larynx_external_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Larynx_external_en.svg/500px-Larynx_external_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="950" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Anatomy of the larynx, <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">anterolateral</a> view</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q501032" class="extiw" title="d:Q501032">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Despite all this, scholars remain divided as to how "special" the human vocal tract really is. It has been shown that the larynx does descend to some extent during development in chimpanzees, followed by hyoidal descent.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As against this, Philip Lieberman points out that only humans have evolved permanent and substantial laryngeal descent in association with hyoidal descent, resulting in a curved tongue and two-tube vocal tract with 1:1 proportions. He argues that Neanderthals and early anatomically modern humans could not have possessed supralaryngeal vocal tracts capable of producing "fully human speech".<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uniquely in the human case, simple contact between the <a href="/wiki/Epiglottis" title="Epiglottis">epiglottis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soft_palate" title="Soft palate">velum</a> is no longer possible, disrupting the normal mammalian separation of the respiratory and digestive tracts during swallowing. Since this entails substantial costs—increasing the risk of choking while swallowing food—we are forced to ask what benefits might have outweighed those costs. The obvious benefit—so it is claimed—must have been speech. But this idea has been vigorously contested. One objection is that humans are in fact not seriously at risk of choking on food: medical statistics indicate that accidents of this kind are extremely rare.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another objection is that in the view of most scholars, speech as it is known emerged relatively late in human evolution, roughly contemporaneously with the emergence of <i>Homo sapiens</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A development as complex as the reconfiguration of the human vocal tract would have required much more time, implying an early date of origin. This discrepancy in timescales undermines the idea that human vocal flexibility was initially driven by selection pressures for speech, thus not excluding that it was selected for e.g. improved singing ability. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Size_exaggeration_hypothesis">Size exaggeration hypothesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Size exaggeration hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To lower the larynx is to increase the length of the vocal tract, in turn lowering <a href="/wiki/Formant" title="Formant">formant</a> frequencies so that the voice sounds "deeper"—giving an impression of greater size. John Ohala argues that the function of the lowered larynx in humans, especially males, is probably to enhance threat displays rather than speech itself.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ohala points out that if the lowered larynx were an adaptation for speech, adult human males would be expected to be better adapted in this respect than adult females, whose larynx is considerably less low. However, females outperform males in verbal tests,<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> falsifying this whole line of reasoning. </p><p><a href="/wiki/W._Tecumseh_Fitch" title="W. Tecumseh Fitch">W. Tecumseh Fitch</a> likewise argues that this was the original selective advantage of laryngeal lowering in the human species. Although (according to Fitch) the initial lowering of the larynx in humans had nothing to do with speech, the increased range of possible formant patterns was subsequently co-opted for speech. Size exaggeration remains the sole function of the extreme laryngeal descent observed in male deer. Consistent with the size exaggeration hypothesis, a second descent of the larynx occurs at puberty in humans, although only in males. In response to the objection that the larynx is descended in human females, Fitch suggests that mothers vocalizing to protect their infants would also have benefited from this ability.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonemic_diversity">Phonemic diversity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Phonemic diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2011, Quentin Atkinson published a survey of <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> from 500 different languages as well as <a href="/wiki/Language_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Language families">language families</a> and compared their phonemic diversity by region, number of speakers and distance from Africa. The survey revealed that African languages had the largest number of phonemes, and <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_languages" title="Oceanic languages">Oceania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_America" title="Languages of South America">South America</a> had the smallest number. After allowing for the number of speakers, the phonemic diversity was compared to over 2000 possible origin locations. Atkinson's "best fit" model is that language originated in western, central, or southern Africa between 80,000 and 160,000 years ago. This predates the hypothesized <a href="/wiki/Coastal_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal migration">southern coastal peopling</a> of Arabia, India, southeast Asia, and Australia. It would also mean that the origin of language occurred at the same time as the emergence of symbolic culture.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerous linguists<sup id="cite_ref-Cysouw2012_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cysouw2012-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wang2012_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang2012-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pereltsvaig2012_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pereltsvaig2012-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have criticized Atkinson's paper as misrepresenting both the phonemic data and processes of linguistic change, as language complexity does not necessarily correspond to age, and of failing to take into account the borrowing of phonemes from neighbouring languages, as some <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> have done with click consonants.<sup id="cite_ref-Pereltsvaig2012_222-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pereltsvaig2012-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recreations of his method gave possible origins of language in the Caucasus<sup id="cite_ref-Cysouw2012_220-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cysouw2012-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Turkmenistan,<sup id="cite_ref-Wang2012_221-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang2012-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in addition to southern and eastern Africa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_religion_and_mythology">In religion and mythology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: In religion and mythology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mythical_origins_of_language" title="Mythical origins of language">Mythical origins of language</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Divine_language" title="Divine language">Divine language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adamic_language" title="Adamic language">Adamic language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_(Vienna)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="30000" data-file-height="21952" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tower_of_Babel_(Bruegel)" title="The Tower of Babel (Bruegel)">The Tower of Babel</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder" title="Pieter Bruegel the Elder">Pieter Bruegel the Elder</a> (1563)</figcaption></figure> <p>The search for the origin of language has a long history in <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a>. Most mythologies do not credit humans with the invention of language but speak of a <a href="/wiki/Divine_language" title="Divine language">divine language</a> predating human language. Mystical languages used to communicate with animals or spirits, such as the <a href="/wiki/Language_of_the_birds" title="Language of the birds">language of the birds</a>, are also common, and were of particular interest during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81c" title="Vāc">Vāc</a> is the Hindu goddess of speech, or "speech personified". As <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>'s "sacred utterance", she has a cosmological role as the "Mother of the <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">Vedas</a>". The <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a>' story maintains that only a man, <a href="/wiki/Coxcox" title="Coxcox">Coxcox</a>, and a woman, <a href="/wiki/Xochiquetzal" class="mw-redirect" title="Xochiquetzal">Xochiquetzal</a>, survived a flood, having floated on a piece of bark. They found themselves on land and had many children who were at first born unable to speak, but subsequently, upon the arrival of a dove, were endowed with language, although each one was given a different speech such that they could not understand one another.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Old Testament, the Book of Genesis (chapter 11) says that God prevented the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a> from being completed through a miracle that made its construction workers start speaking different languages. After this, they migrated to other regions, grouped together according to which of the newly created languages they spoke, explaining the origins of languages and nations outside of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_experiments">Historical experiments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Historical experiments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Language_deprivation_experiments" title="Language deprivation experiments">Language deprivation experiments</a></div> <p>History contains a number of anecdotes about people who attempted to discover the origin of language by experiment. The first such tale was told by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a></i> 2.2). He relates that Pharaoh Psammetichus (probably <a href="/wiki/Psammetichus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Psammetichus I">Psammetichus I</a>, 7th century BC) had two children raised by a shepherd, with the instructions that no one should speak to them, but that the shepherd should feed and care for them while listening to determine their first words. When one of the children cried "bekos" with outstretched arms the shepherd concluded that the word was <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a>, because that was the sound of the Phrygian word for 'bread'. From this, Psammetichus concluded that the first language was Phrygian. King <a href="/wiki/James_IV_of_Scotland" title="James IV of Scotland">James IV of Scotland</a> is said to have tried a similar experiment; his children were supposed to have spoken <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both the medieval monarch <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a> are said to have tried similar experiments; the children involved in these experiments did not speak. The current situation of deaf people also points into this direction.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_research">History of research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: History of research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></div> <p>Modern linguistics did not begin until the late 18th century, and the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Animism#Philosophy" title="Animism">animist</a> theses of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Christoph_Adelung" title="Johann Christoph Adelung">Johann Christoph Adelung</a> remained influential well into the 19th century. The question of language origin seemed inaccessible to methodical approaches, and in 1866 the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Society_of_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic Society of Paris">Linguistic Society of Paris</a> famously banned all discussion of the origin of language, deeming it to be an unanswerable problem. An increasingly systematic approach to <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> developed in the course of the 19th century, reaching its culmination in the <a href="/wiki/Neogrammarian" title="Neogrammarian">Neogrammarian</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Brugmann" title="Karl Brugmann">Karl Brugmann</a> and others.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>However, scholarly interest in the question of the origin of language has only gradually been rekindled<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#WPCOLLOQUIAL" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles"><span title="The word or phrase preceding this tag is a colloquialism. Please replace it with literal language. (May 2021)">colloquialism</span></a></i>]</sup> from the 1950s on (and then controversially) with ideas such as <a href="/wiki/Universal_grammar" title="Universal grammar">universal grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_comparison" title="Mass comparison">mass comparison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">glottochronology</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The "origin of language" as a subject in its own right emerged from studies in <a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">neurolinguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">psycholinguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>. The <i><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Bibliography" title="Linguistic Bibliography">Linguistic Bibliography</a></i> introduced "Origin of language" as a separate heading in 1988, as a sub-topic of psycholinguistics. Dedicated research institutes of <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">evolutionary linguistics</a> are a recent phenomenon, emerging only in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolinguistics" title="Biolinguistics">Biolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bouba/kiki_effect" title="Bouba/kiki effect">Bouba/kiki effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow-wow_theory" title="Bow-wow theory">Bow-wow theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_infinity" title="Digital infinity">Digital infinity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Essay_on_the_Origin_of_Languages" title="Essay on the Origin of Languages">Essay on the Origin of Languages</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Evolutionary psychology of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOXP2_and_human_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="FOXP2 and human evolution">FOXP2 and human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_anthropology" title="Generative anthropology">Generative anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_origins_of_language" title="Neurobiological origins of language">Neurobiological origins of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_society" title="Origins of society">Origins of society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Origin of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Duplicated_citations plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-cleanup-link_rot" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg/40px-Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg/60px-Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg/80px-Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>contains several duplicated citations</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> It is recommended to use <a href="/wiki/Help:Footnotes#WP:NAMEDREFS" title="Help:Footnotes">named references</a> to consolidate citations that are used multiple times.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output 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.citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShah2023" class="citation news cs1">Shah, Sonia (20 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/20/magazine/animal-communication.html#permid=127890141">"The Animals Are Talking. What Does It Mean?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20230921140922/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/20/magazine/animal-communication.html#permid=127890141">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. pp. 346–349. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954111-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954111-9"><bdi>978-0-19-954111-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+conditions+for+the+evolutionary+emergence+of+language&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+handbook+of+language+evolution&rft.pages=346-349&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954111-9&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Power%2C+Camilla&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chrisknight.co.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2007%2F09%2FKnight-Power-Social-Conditions1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRappaport1999" class="citation book cs1">Rappaport, Roy (1999). <i>Ritual and religion in the making of humanity</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29690-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29690-8"><bdi>978-0-521-29690-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ritual+and+religion+in+the+making+of+humanity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29690-8&rft.aulast=Rappaport&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knight2008-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Knight2008_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knight2008_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knight2008_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2008" class="citation journal cs1">Knight, C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chrisknight.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/JCS_Knight_CRC.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Honest fakes' and language origins"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Consciousness Studies</i>. <b>15</b> (10–11): 236–248.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Consciousness+Studies&rft.atitle=%27Honest+fakes%27+and+language+origins&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=10%E2%80%9311&rft.pages=236-248&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chrisknight.co.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2007%2F09%2FJCS_Knight_CRC.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2010" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Chris (2010). "The origins of symbolic culture". In Frey, Ulrich J.; Störmer, Charlotte; Willführ, Kai P. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chrisknight.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/The-Origins-of-Symbolic-Culture.pdf"><i>Homo Novus: a human without illusion</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Berlin: Springer. pp. 193–211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-12141-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-12141-8"><bdi>978-3-642-12141-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+origins+of+symbolic+culture&rft.btitle=Homo+Novus%3A+a+human+without+illusion&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=193-211&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-642-12141-8&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chrisknight.co.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2007%2F09%2FThe-Origins-of-Symbolic-Culture.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knight1998-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Knight1998_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knight1998_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knight1998_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight1998" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Chris (1998). "Ritual/speech coevolution: a solution to the problem of deception". In Hurford, James R.; Studdert-Kennedy, Michael; Knight, Chris (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chrisknight.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/knight_ritual_speech_coevolution.pdf"><i>Approaches to the evolution of language: social and cognitive base</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 68–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63964-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63964-4"><bdi>978-0-521-63964-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ritual%2Fspeech+coevolution%3A+a+solution+to+the+problem+of+deception&rft.btitle=Approaches+to+the+evolution+of+language%3A+social+and+cognitive+base&rft.pages=68-91&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-63964-4&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chrisknight.co.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2007%2F09%2Fknight_ritual_speech_coevolution.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knight2006-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Knight2006_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knight2006_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knight2006_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2006" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Chris (2006). "Language co-evolved with the rule of law". In Cangelosi, Angelo; Smith, Andrew D. M.; Kenny Smith (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chrisknight.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/knight-springer-online-fulltext.pdf"><i>The evolution of language: proceedings of the 6th international conference (EVOLANG6), Rome, Italy, 12–15 April 200</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. World Scientific. pp. 168–175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-256-656-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-256-656-0"><bdi>978-981-256-656-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+co-evolved+with+the+rule+of+law&rft.btitle=The+evolution+of+language%3A+proceedings+of+the+6th+international+conference+%28EVOLANG6%29%2C+Rome%2C+Italy%2C+12%E2%80%9315+April+200&rft.pages=168-175&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-981-256-656-0&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chrisknight.co.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2008%2F01%2Fknight-springer-online-fulltext.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavage-RumbaughMcDonald1988" class="citation book cs1">Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue; McDonald, Kelly (1988). "Deception and social manipulation in symbol-using apes". In Byrne, Richard W.; Whiten, Andrew (eds.). <i>Machiavellian intelligence: social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and human</i>. Oxford: Clarendon. pp. 224–237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852175-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852175-4"><bdi>978-0-19-852175-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Deception+and+social+manipulation+in+symbol-using+apes&rft.btitle=Machiavellian+intelligence%3A+social+expertise+and+the+evolution+of+intellect+in+monkeys%2C+apes%2C+and+human&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=224-237&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852175-4&rft.aulast=Savage-Rumbaugh&rft.aufirst=Sue&rft.au=McDonald%2C+Kelly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kegl, J., A. Senghas and M. Coppola (1998). 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"On the speech of Neandertal Man". <i>Linguistic Inquiry</i>. <b>2</b>: 203–222.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+Inquiry&rft.atitle=On+the+speech+of+Neandertal+Man&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=203-222&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Lieberman&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Crelin%2C+E.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arensburg1989-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arensburg1989_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arensburg1989_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArensburgTillierVandermeerschDuday1989" class="citation journal cs1">Arensburg, B.; Tillier, A. M.; Vandermeersch, B.; Duday, H.; Schepartz, L. A.; Rak, Y. (1989). "A Middle Palaeolithic human hyoid bone". <i>Nature</i>. <b>338</b> (6218): 758–760. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Natur.338..758A">1989Natur.338..758A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F338758a0">10.1038/338758a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2716823">2716823</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4309147">4309147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+Middle+Palaeolithic+human+hyoid+bone&rft.volume=338&rft.issue=6218&rft.pages=758-760&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F338758a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4309147%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2716823&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Natur.338..758A&rft.aulast=Arensburg&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Tillier%2C+A.+M.&rft.au=Vandermeersch%2C+B.&rft.au=Duday%2C+H.&rft.au=Schepartz%2C+L.+A.&rft.au=Rak%2C+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillerCann2009" class="citation book cs1">Diller, Karl C.; Cann, Rebecca L. (2009). "Evidence Against a Genetic-Based Revolution in Language 50,000 Years Ago". In Botha, Rudolf P.; Knight, Chris (eds.). <i>The cradle of language</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 135–149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954586-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954586-5"><bdi>978-0-19-954586-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidence+Against+a+Genetic-Based+Revolution+in+Language+50%2C000+Years+Ago&rft.btitle=The+cradle+of+language&rft.pages=135-149&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954586-5&rft.aulast=Diller&rft.aufirst=Karl+C.&rft.au=Cann%2C+Rebecca+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Henshilwood2009-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Henshilwood2009_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Henshilwood2009_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenshilwoodDubreuil2009" class="citation book cs1">Henshilwood, Christopher Stuart; Dubreuil, Benoît (2009). "Reading the Artefacts: Gleaning Language Skills From the Middle Stone Age in Southern Africa". In Botha, Rudolf P.; Knight, Chris (eds.). <i>The cradle of language</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 41–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954586-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954586-5"><bdi>978-0-19-954586-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reading+the+Artefacts%3A+Gleaning+Language+Skills+From+the+Middle+Stone+Age+in+Southern+Africa&rft.btitle=The+cradle+of+language&rft.pages=41-61&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954586-5&rft.aulast=Henshilwood&rft.aufirst=Christopher+Stuart&rft.au=Dubreuil%2C+Beno%C3%AEt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2009" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Chris (2009). 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(2001) <i>Dictionary of Ancient Deities</i> (Oxford: OUP)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPennock2000" class="citation book cs1">Pennock, Robert T. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aC1OccYnX0sC&q=Tower+of+Babel:+The+Evidence+Against+the+New+Creationism"><i>Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism</i></a>. Bradford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-66165-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-66165-2"><bdi>978-0-262-66165-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tower+of+Babel%3A+The+Evidence+against+the+New+Creationism&rft.pub=Bradford&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-262-66165-2&rft.aulast=Pennock&rft.aufirst=Robert+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaC1OccYnX0sC%26q%3DTower%2Bof%2BBabel%3A%2BThe%2BEvidence%2BAgainst%2Bthe%2BNew%2BCreationism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay1728" class="citation book cs1">Lindsay, Robert (1728). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_AKUvAAAAMAAJ"><i>The history of Scotland: from 21 February 1436. to March, 1565. In which are contained accounts of many remarkable passages altogether differing from our other historians; and many facts are related, either concealed by some, or omitted by others</i></a>. Baskett & Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_AKUvAAAAMAAJ/page/n125">104</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Scotland%3A+from+21+February+1436.+to+March%2C+1565.+In+which+are+contained+accounts+of+many+remarkable+passages+altogether+differing+from+our+other+historians%3B+and+many+facts+are+related%2C+either+concealed+by+some%2C+or+omitted+by+others&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Baskett+%26+Co.&rft.date=1728&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_AKUvAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeena2021" class="citation book cs1">Meena, Ram Lakhan (3 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y1Y7EAAAQBAJ&q=Dedicated+research+institutes+of+evolutionary+linguistics+are+a+recent+phenomenon,+emerging+only+in+the+1990s"><i>Current Trends of Applied Linguistics</i></a>. K.K. Publications<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Current+Trends+of+Applied+Linguistics&rft.pub=K.K.+Publications&rft.date=2021-08-03&rft.aulast=Meena&rft.aufirst=Ram+Lakhan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy1Y7EAAAQBAJ%26q%3DDedicated%2Bresearch%2Binstitutes%2Bof%2Bevolutionary%2Blinguistics%2Bare%2Ba%2Brecent%2Bphenomenon%2C%2Bemerging%2Bonly%2Bin%2Bthe%2B1990s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Duplicated_citations plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-cleanup-link_rot" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg/40px-Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg/60px-Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg/80px-Ionicons_duplicate-sharp.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>contains several duplicated citations</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> It is recommended to use <a href="/wiki/Help:Footnotes#WP:NAMEDREFS" title="Help:Footnotes">named references</a> to consolidate citations that are used multiple times.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllott1989" class="citation book cs1">Allott, Robin. (1989). <i>The Motor Theory of Language Origin</i>. Sussex, England: Book Guild. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86332-359-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86332-359-1"><bdi>978-0-86332-359-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Motor+Theory+of+Language+Origin&rft.place=Sussex%2C+England&rft.pub=Book+Guild&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-86332-359-1&rft.aulast=Allott&rft.aufirst=Robin.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmstrongStokoeWilcox1995" class="citation book cs1">Armstrong, David F.; Stokoe, William C.; Wilcox, Sherman E. (1995). <i>Gesture and the Nature of Language</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46772-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46772-8"><bdi>978-0-521-46772-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gesture+and+the+Nature+of+Language&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-46772-8&rft.aulast=Armstrong&rft.aufirst=David+F.&rft.au=Stokoe%2C+William+C.&rft.au=Wilcox%2C+Sherman+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBothaEveraert2013" class="citation book cs1">Botha, Rudolf P.; Everaert, Martin, eds. (2013). <i>The Evolutionary Emergence of Language: Evidence and Inference</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965484-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965484-0"><bdi>978-0-19-965484-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolutionary+Emergence+of+Language%3A+Evidence+and+Inference&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-965484-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBothaKnight2009" class="citation book cs1">Botha, Rudolf P.; Knight, Chris (2009). <i>The Prehistory of Language</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954587-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954587-2"><bdi>978-0-19-954587-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prehistory+of+Language&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954587-2&rft.aulast=Botha&rft.aufirst=Rudolf+P.&rft.au=Knight%2C+Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurling2005" class="citation book cs1">Burling, Robbins (2005). <i>The Talking Ape: How Language Evolved</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927940-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927940-1"><bdi>978-0-19-927940-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Talking+Ape%3A+How+Language+Evolved&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-927940-1&rft.aulast=Burling&rft.aufirst=Robbins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCangelosiGrecoHarnad2002" class="citation book cs1">Cangelosi, Angelo; Greco, Alberto; <a href="/wiki/Stevan_Harnad" title="Stevan Harnad">Harnad, Stevan</a> (2002). "Symbol Grounding and the Symbolic Theft Hypothesis". In Cangelosi, Angelo; Parisi, Domenico (eds.). <i>Simulating the Evolution of Language</i>. London; New York: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-428-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-428-4"><bdi>978-1-85233-428-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Symbol+Grounding+and+the+Symbolic+Theft+Hypothesis&rft.btitle=Simulating+the+Evolution+of+Language&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85233-428-4&rft.aulast=Cangelosi&rft.aufirst=Angelo&rft.au=Greco%2C+Alberto&rft.au=Harnad%2C+Stevan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorballis2002" class="citation book cs1">Corballis, Michael C. (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromhandtomoutho0000corb"><i>From Hand to Mouth: The Origins of Language</i></a></span>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08803-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08803-7"><bdi>978-0-691-08803-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Hand+to+Mouth%3A+The+Origins+of+Language&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08803-7&rft.aulast=Corballis&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromhandtomoutho0000corb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1997" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (1997). <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55967-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55967-6"><bdi>978-0-521-55967-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+Language&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55967-6&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>de Grolier, E. (ed.), 1983. <i>The Origin and Evolution of Language</i>. Paris: Harwood Academic Publishers.</li> <li>Dessalles, J-L., 2007. <i>Why We Talk: The Evolutionary Origins of Language</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199563463" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199563463">978-0199563463</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorKnightLewis2015" class="citation book cs1">Dor, Dan; Knight, Chris; Lewis, Jerome (2015). <i>The Social Origins of Language</i>. 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Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-1076-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-1076-1"><bdi>978-0-7486-1076-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Culture%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+View&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-1076-1&rft.aulast=Dunbar&rft.aufirst=Robin+Ian+MacDonald&rft.au=Knight%2C+Chris&rft.au=Power%2C+Camilla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverett2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Everett" title="Daniel Everett">Everett, Daniel L.</a> (2017). <i>How Language Began: The Story of Humanity's Greatest Invention</i>. New York: Liveright. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-795-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-795-5"><bdi>978-0-87140-795-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Language+Began%3A+The+Story+of+Humanity%27s+Greatest+Invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Liveright&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-87140-795-5&rft.aulast=Everett&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitch2010" class="citation book cs1">Fitch, W. Tecumseh (2010). <i>The Evolution of Language</i>. 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John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58811-237-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58811-237-8"><bdi>978-1-58811-237-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Language+out+of+Pre-Language&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-58811-237-8&rft.aulast=Giv%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Talmy&rft.au=Malle%2C+Bertram+F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarnad1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Harnad" title="Stevan Harnad">Harnad, Stevan R.</a> (1976). Steklis, Horst D.; Lancaster, Jane (eds.). <i>Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech</i>. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, v. 280. New York: New York Academy of Sciences. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89072-026-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-89072-026-6"><bdi>0-89072-026-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+and+Evolution+of+Language+and+Speech&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences%2C+v.+280&rft.pub=New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-89072-026-6&rft.aulast=Harnad&rft.aufirst=Stevan+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillert2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dieter_Hillert" title="Dieter Hillert">Hillert, Dieter</a> (2014). <i>The Nature of Language: Evolution, Paradigms and Circuits</i>. New York: Springer Nature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4939-0609-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4939-0609-3"><bdi>978-1-4939-0609-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Language%3A+Evolution%2C+Paradigms+and+Circuits&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4939-0609-3&rft.aulast=Hillert&rft.aufirst=Dieter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurford1990" class="citation book cs1">Hurford, James R. (1990). "Nativist and Functional Explanations in Language Acquisition". In Roca, I. M. 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Dordrecht, Holland Providence, RI: Foris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789067655064" title="Special:BookSources/9789067655064"><bdi>9789067655064</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nativist+and+Functional+Explanations+in+Language+Acquisition&rft.btitle=Logical+issues+in+language+acquisition&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+Holland+Providence%2C+RI&rft.pub=Foris&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9789067655064&rft.aulast=Hurford&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lel.ed.ac.uk%2F~jim%2Frocapaper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurford2007" class="citation book cs1">Hurford, James R. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920785-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920785-5"><bdi>978-0-19-920785-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Meaning%3A+Language+in+the+Light+of+Evolution&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-920785-5&rft.aulast=Hurford&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurfordStuddert-KennedyKnight1998" class="citation book cs1">Hurford, James R.; Studdert-Kennedy, Michael.; Knight, Chris (1998). <i>Approaches to the Evolution of Language: Social and Cognitive Bases</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63964-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63964-4"><bdi>978-0-521-63964-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Approaches+to+the+Evolution+of+Language%3A+Social+and+Cognitive+Bases&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-63964-4&rft.aulast=Hurford&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft.au=Studdert-Kennedy%2C+Michael.&rft.au=Knight%2C+Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneally2007" class="citation book cs1">Kenneally, Christine. 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New York: Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03490-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03490-1"><bdi>978-0-670-03490-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Word%3A+The+Search+for+the+Origins+of+Language&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-670-03490-1&rft.aulast=Kenneally&rft.aufirst=Christine.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffirstwordsearchf00kenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2016" class="citation journal cs1">Knight, Chris (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chrisknight.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Mysteries-and-puzzles-2016.pdf">"Puzzles and Mysteries in the Origin of Language"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Language and Communication</i>. <b>50</b>: 12–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.langcom.2016.09.002">10.1016/j.langcom.2016.09.002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Communication&rft.atitle=Puzzles+and+Mysteries+in+the+Origin+of+Language&rft.volume=50&rft.pages=12-21&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.langcom.2016.09.002&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chrisknight.co.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F09%2FMysteries-and-puzzles-2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnightStuddert-KennedyHurford2000" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Chris; Studdert-Kennedy, Michael.; Hurford, James R. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78157-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78157-2"><bdi>978-0-521-78157-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolutionary+Emergence+of+Language%3A+Social+Function+and+the+Origins+of+Linguistic+Form&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78157-2&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Studdert-Kennedy%2C+Michael.&rft.au=Hurford%2C+James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKomarova2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Komarova" title="Natalia Komarova">Komarova, Natalia L.</a> (2006). 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Moscow: URSS. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9785484010011/page/164">164–179</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-484-01001-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-484-01001-1"><bdi>978-5-484-01001-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+and+Mathematics%3A+An+evolutionary+model+of+grammatical+communication&rft.btitle=History+and+mathematics.+Analyzing+and+modeling+global+development&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=164-179&rft.pub=URSS&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-5-484-01001-1&rft.aulast=Komarova&rft.aufirst=Natalia+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9785484010011%2Fpage%2F164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lenneberg, E. H. 1967. <i>Biological Foundations of Language</i>. New York: Wiley. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471526261" title="Special:BookSources/9780471526261">9780471526261</a></li> <li>Leroi-Gourhan, A. 1993. <i>Gesture and Speech</i>. Trans. A. Bostock Berger. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262121736" title="Special:BookSources/9780262121736">9780262121736</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieberman1991" class="citation book cs1">Lieberman, Philip (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uniquelyhumanevo00lieb"><i>Uniquely Human: The Evolution of Speech, Thought, and Selfless Behavior</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-92182-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-92182-5"><bdi>978-0-674-92182-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uniquely+Human%3A+The+Evolution+of+Speech%2C+Thought%2C+and+Selfless+Behavior&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-674-92182-5&rft.aulast=Lieberman&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funiquelyhumanevo00lieb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieberman2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lieberman, P. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140611203314/http://www.cog.brown.edu/people/lieberman/pdfFiles/Lieberman%20P.%202007.%20The%20evolution%20of%20human%20speech,%20Its%20anatom.pdf">"The Evolution of Human Speech: Its Anatomical and Neural Bases"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>48</b> (1): 39–66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F509092">10.1086/509092</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28651524">28651524</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cog.brown.edu/people/lieberman/pdfFiles/Lieberman%20P.%202007.%20The%20evolution%20of%20human%20speech,%20Its%20anatom.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 11 June 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Human+Speech%3A+Its+Anatomical+and+Neural+Bases&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-66&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F509092&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28651524%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lieberman&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cog.brown.edu%2Fpeople%2Flieberman%2FpdfFiles%2FLieberman%2520P.%25202007.%2520The%2520evolution%2520of%2520human%2520speech%2C%2520Its%2520anatom.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieberman2006" class="citation book cs1">Lieberman, Philip. (2006). <i>Toward an Evolutionary Biology of Language</i>. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02184-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02184-6"><bdi>978-0-674-02184-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+an+Evolutionary+Biology+of+Language&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02184-6&rft.aulast=Lieberman&rft.aufirst=Philip.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Logan, Robert K. 2007. <i>The Extended Mind: The Emergence of Language, the Human Mind and Culture</i>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442691803" title="Special:BookSources/9781442691803">9781442691803</a></li> <li>MacNeilage, P. 2008. <i>The Origin of Speech</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199581580" title="Special:BookSources/9780199581580">9780199581580</a></li> <li>Mazlumyan, Victoria 2008. <i>Origins of Language and Thought</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0977391515" title="Special:BookSources/0977391515">0977391515</a>.</li> <li>Mithen, Stephen 2006. <i>The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780753820513" title="Special:BookSources/9780753820513">9780753820513</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinker2007" class="citation book cs1">Pinker, Steven (2007). <i>The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language</i>. New York: HarperPerennial ModernClassics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-133646-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-133646-1"><bdi>978-0-06-133646-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+Instinct%3A+How+the+Mind+Creates+Language&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperPerennial+ModernClassics&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-06-133646-1&rft.aulast=Pinker&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigin+of+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Tomasello, M. 2008. <i>Origins of Human Communication</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262261203" title="Special:BookSources/9780262261203">9780262261203</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Origin_of_language&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div 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href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glottogony" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:glottogony">glottogony</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://center-for-nonverbal-studies.org/htdocs/9701.html">Origin of Language – Givens, David B.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140104204431/http://www.accessexcellence.org/BF/bf02/klein/index.php">Behavioral and Biological Origins of Modern Humans – Klein, Richard G.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090201021708/http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201/test1materials/origin_of_language.htm">The Origin of Language – Vajda, Edward</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170720011703/http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201/test4materials/childlangacquisition.htm">First Language Acquisition – Vajda, Edward</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christenebrowne.com/video-on-demand/">Speaking in Tongues: The History of Language</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140221154334/http://www.christenebrowne.com/video-on-demand/">Archived</a> 21 February 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scienceandrevolution.org/">Decoding Chomsky: Science and revolutionary politics – Chris Knight</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_evolution" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_evolution" title="Template:Human evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_evolution" title="Template talk:Human evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_evolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_taxonomy" title="Human taxonomy">Taxonomy</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominins</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">Last common ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">Australopithecines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">A. kadabba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">A. ramidus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">A. afarensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">A. africanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">A. anamensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_bahrelghazali" title="Australopithecus bahrelghazali">A. bahrelghazali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_deyiremeda" title="Australopithecus deyiremeda">A. deyiremeda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">A. garhi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">A. sediba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_aethiopicus" title="Paranthropus aethiopicus">P. aethiopicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei">P. boisei</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">P. robustus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Humans and<br />proto-humans<br />(<i>Homo</i>)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Proto-humans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_gautengensis" title="Homo gautengensis">H. gautengensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">H. naledi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penghu_1" title="Penghu 1">H. tsaichangensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">H. e. erectus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dmanisi_hominins" title="Dmanisi hominins">H. e. georgicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lantian_Man" title="Lantian Man">H. e. lantianensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Man" title="Nanjing Man">H. e. nankinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">H. e. pekinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">H. e. soloensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tautavel_Man" title="Tautavel Man">H. e. tautavelensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuanmou_Man" title="Yuanmou Man">H. e. yuanmouensis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">H. floresiensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_longi" title="Homo longi">H. longi</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">H. luzonensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">H. neanderthalensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rhodesiensis" title="Homo rhodesiensis">H. rhodesiensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Homo_sapiens" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_human" title="Early modern human"><i>H. s. sapiens</i> (archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herto_Man" title="Herto Man">H. s. idaltu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manot_1" title="Manot 1">Manot people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tam_Pa_Ling_Cave" title="Tam Pa Ling Cave">Tam Pa Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Deer_Cave_people" title="Red Deer Cave people">Red Deer Cave people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> (→ <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">Homo antecessor</a></i>)<sup>?</sup> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i> → <i>archaic Homo sapiens</i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_hypothesis" title="Gathering hypothesis">Gathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">Endurance running</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-domestication#In_humans" title="Self-domestication">Self-domestication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Diet <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans#The_cooking_hypothesis" title="Control of fire by early humans">Cooking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis" title="Expensive tissue hypothesis">Expensive tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis#Diet" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Shore-based</a></li></ul></li> <li>Drugs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drunken_monkey_hypothesis" title="Drunken monkey hypothesis">Drunken monkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_models_of_human_drug_use" title="Evolutionary models of human drug use">Evolutionary models of human drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoned_ape_theory" title="Stoned ape theory">Stoned ape theory</a></li></ul></li> <li>Behavior <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killer_ape_theory" title="Killer ape theory">Killer ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_eye_hypothesis" title="Cooperative eye hypothesis">Cooperative eye</a></li></ul></li> <li>Life history <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grandmother_hypothesis" title="Grandmother hypothesis">Grandmother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarch_hypothesis" title="Patriarch hypothesis">Patriarch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bipedalism_in_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of bipedalism in humans">Bipedalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_evolution_in_humans" title="Muscular evolution in humans">Muscles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of skin color">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans" title="Cold and heat adaptations in humans">Thermoregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour#Hypotheses_for_the_evolutionary_origins_of_SDL" title="Sexual division of labour">Gender roles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of modern humans">Origin of modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">Recent African origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">Multiregional origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interbreeding_between_archaic_and_modern_humans" title="Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans">Archaic admixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">Early migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Human prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline">Human timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_evolution_theorists" title="Category:Human evolution theorists">Theorists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_evolution_books" title="Category:Human evolution books">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">Fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Human evolutionary developmental biology">Human evolutionary developmental biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_evolution" title="Category:Human evolution">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_evolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human evolution">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_communication" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_communication" title="Template:Animal communication"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_communication" title="Template talk:Animal communication"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_communication" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal communication"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_communication" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_training" title="Animal training">Animal training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_cognitivism" title="Anecdotal cognitivism">Anecdotal cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioacoustics" title="Bioacoustics">Bioacoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_deception_in_animals" title="Tactical deception in animals">Tactical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOXP2" title="FOXP2">FOXP2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOXP2_and_human_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="FOXP2 and human evolution">FOXP2 and human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_call" title="Mating call">Mating call</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_communication" title="Seismic communication">Seismic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-anointing_in_animals" title="Self-anointing in animals">Self-anointing in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_animal" title="Talking animal">Talking animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal-specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_in_aquatic_animals" title="Communication in aquatic animals">Aquatic animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whale_vocalization" title="Whale vocalization">Whale vocalization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_learning_and_communication" title="Bee learning and communication">Bees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bumblebee_communication" title="Bumblebee communication">Bumblebees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talking_bird" title="Talking bird">Talking birds</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_communication" title="Cat communication">Cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_communication" title="Dog communication">Dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_communication" title="Elephant communication">Elephants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_hearing_and_communication" title="Frog hearing and communication">Frogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_communication_in_insects" title="Chemical communication in insects">Insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizard_communication" title="Lizard communication">Lizards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_communication" title="Wolf communication">Wolves</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roar_(vocalization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roar (vocalization)">Roar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Talking_birds" title="Category:Talking birds">Category:Talking birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Individual_apes_involved_in_language_studies" title="Category:Individual apes involved in language studies">Category:Individual apes involved in language studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prehistoric_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template talk:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prehistoric_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system#Stone_Age_subdivisions" title="Three-age system">Subdivisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">New Stone Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Tools" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Tools</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">Farming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founder_crops" title="Founder crops">Founder crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard / plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">Celt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging_stick" title="Digging stick">Digging stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goad" title="Goad">Goad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_products_revolution" title="Secondary products revolution">Secondary products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">Sickle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Food processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_oven" title="Earth oven">Earth oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinding_slab" title="Grinding slab">Grinding slab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_stone" title="Ground stone">Ground stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">Hearth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9F%C4%B1kl%C4%B1_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk#Hearths" title="Aşıklı Höyük">Aşıklı Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qesem_cave#Fire" title="Qesem cave">Qesem cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(stone)" title="Mano (stone)">Manos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">Mortar and pestle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_storage_pits" title="Prehistoric storage pits">Storage pits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archery" title="History of archery">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Hunting" title="Gravettian">Nets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_fragment_(Palart_310)" title="Baton fragment (Palart 310)">baton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears" title="Schöningen spears">Schöningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_arrowhead" title="Transverse arrowhead">Transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_Island_projectile_point" title="Bare Island projectile point">Bare Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_point" title="Cascade point">Cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creswellian_culture" title="Creswellian culture">Cresswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_point" title="Cumberland point">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamoka_projectile_point" title="Lamoka projectile point">Lamoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manis_Mastodon_site" title="Manis Mastodon site">Manis Mastodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_drive_system" title="Game drive system">Game drive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Toolmaking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">Earliest toolmaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupstone" title="Cupstone">Cupstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hardening" title="Fire hardening">Fire hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafting" title="Hafting">Hafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">Hand axe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grooves_(archaeology)" title="Grooves (archaeology)">Grooves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">Lithic core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">Lithic reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitage" title="Debitage">debitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Lithic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">Microblade technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime%27s_Graves" title="Grime's Graves">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">Prepared-core technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_platform" title="Striking platform">Striking platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_stone" title="Tool stone">Tool stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniface" title="Uniface">Uniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yubetsu_technique" title="Yubetsu technique">Yubetsu technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Other tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">Adze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stitching_awl" title="Stitching awl">Awl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Use_of_animal_remains" title="Gravettian">bone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">Axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannerstone" title="Bannerstone">Bannerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">Blade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_blade" title="Prismatic blade">prismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">Bone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">Burin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe#History" title="Canoe">Canoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">Chopper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopping_tool" title="Chopping tool">tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaver_(Stone_Age_tool)" title="Cleaver (Stone Age tool)">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_tool" title="Denticulate tool">Denticulate tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microlith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racloir" title="Racloir">Racloir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scraper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grattoir_de_c%C3%B4t%C3%A9" title="Grattoir de côté">side</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_stick#Paleolithic_tally_sticks" title="Tally stick">Tally stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons#Copper_Age" title="History of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronocice_pot" title="Bronocice pot">illustration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Ceremonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Standing stones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_megalith_architecture" title="British megalith architecture">British megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_megalith_architecture" title="Nordic megalith architecture">Nordic megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burdei" title="Burdei">Burdei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_dwelling" title="Cliff dwelling">Cliff dwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">Hut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">Mudbrick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit-house" title="Pit-house">Pit-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_pueblitos" title="Navajo pueblitos">Pueblitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abri_de_la_Madeleine" title="Abri de la Madeleine">Abri de la Madeleine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">Roundhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_pile_dwellings_around_the_Alps" title="Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps">Alp pile dwellings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar" title="Ness of Brodgar">Stone roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">Wattle and daub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Water management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet#History" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Archaeological features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_mound" title="Burnt mound">Burnt mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulacht_fiadh" title="Fulacht fiadh">fulacht fiadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure" title="Causewayed enclosure">Causewayed enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_enclosure" title="Tor enclosure">Tor enclosure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe" title="Neolithic circular enclosures in Central Europe">Circular enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_Circle" title="Goseck Circle">Goseck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus" title="Cursus">Cursus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henge" title="Henge">Henge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornborough_Henges" title="Thornborough Henges">Thornborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements" title="Megalithic architectural elements">Megalithic architectural elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_extant_buildings" title="List of oldest extant buildings">Oldest extant buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_circle" title="Timber circle">Timber circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_trackway" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber trackway">Timber trackway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Track" title="Sweet Track">Sweet Track</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arts_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Material goods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Baskets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beadwork" title="Beadwork">Beadwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed#History" title="Bed">Beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">Clothing/textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hide_materials" title="History of hide materials">Hides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoe#History" title="Shoe">shoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi#Clothes_and_shoes" title="Ötzi">Ötzi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery#History" title="Jewellery">Jewelry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amber#Use" title="Amber">amber use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror#History" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery#History" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-marked_pottery" title="Cord-marked pottery">Cord-marked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_ware" title="Grooved ware">Grooved ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">Jōmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstan_ware" title="Unstan ware">Unstan ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle#History" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">Wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areni-1_winery" title="Areni-1 winery">winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press#Early_history" title="History of the wine press">wine press</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Upper Paleolithic">Art of the Upper Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Middle_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Middle Paleolithic">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Archaeological_remains_and_material_culture_from_the_Middle_Stone_Age_levels" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stone_Age_art" title="List of Stone Age art">List of Stone Age art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_stone" title="Bird stone">Bird stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairn" title="Cairn">Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carved_stone_balls" title="Carved stone balls">Carved stone balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark" title="Cup and ring mark">Cup and ring mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hill_figure" title="Hill figure">Hill figure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_stones" title="Guardian stones">Guardian stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Pre-history" title="History of painting">painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment#History" title="Pigment">pigment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">Megalithic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroform" title="Petroform">Petroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosomatoglyph" title="Petrosomatoglyph">Petrosomatoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">Rock art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock_cupule" title="Rock cupule">Rock cupule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#Prehistoric_periods" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_menhir" title="Statue menhir">Statue menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">Stone circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" title="List of stone circles">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circles_in_the_British_Isles_and_Brittany" title="Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany">British Isles and Brittany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Burial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Burial mounds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowl_barrow" title="Bowl barrow">Bowl barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_barrow" title="Round barrow">Round barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_mounds_in_the_United_States" title="List of burial mounds in the United States">U.S. sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">Chamber tomb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotswold-Severn_Group" title="Cotswold-Severn Group">Cotswold-Severn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">Cist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_kistvaens" title="Dartmoor kistvaens">Dartmoor kistvaens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clava_cairn" title="Clava cairn">Clava cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_cairn" title="Court cairn">Court cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation#History" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_dolmen" title="Great dolmen">Great dolmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">Funeral pyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transepted_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Transepted gallery grave">transepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge-shaped_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge-shaped gallery grave">wedge-shaped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jar_burial" title="Jar burial">Jar burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_barrow" title="Long barrow">Long barrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_barrow" title="Unchambered long barrow">unchambered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8nsalen" title="Grønsalen">Grønsalen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">Megalithic tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_dolmen" title="Rectangular dolmen">Rectangular dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_cairn" title="Ring cairn">Ring cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_dolmen" title="Simple dolmen">Simple dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_box_grave" title="Stone box grave">Stone box grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_cairn" title="Tor cairn">Tor cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_cairn" title="Unchambered long cairn">Unchambered long cairn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeoastronomical_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeoastronomical sites by country">sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Evolutionary musicology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">music archaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Spiritual drug use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">trepanning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_drum" title="Alligator drum">Alligator drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_flute" title="Paleolithic flute">flutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_(instrument)" title="Gudi (instrument)">gudi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort#Symbolism" title="Howiesons Poort">symbolism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Long-range_comparative_linguistics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Template:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Template talk:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Long-range_comparative_linguistics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Long-range <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">Comparative method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_dictionary" title="Etymological dictionary">Etymological dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">Glottochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">Lexicostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">Linguistic reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">Internal reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrofamily" title="Macrofamily">Macrofamily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_comparison" title="Mass comparison">Mass comparison</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolinguistics" title="Paleolinguistics">Paleolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list" title="Dolgopolsky list">Dolgopolsky list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig%E2%80%93Jakarta_list" title="Leipzig–Jakarta list">Leipzig–Jakarta list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-human_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-human language">Proto-human</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borean_languages" title="Borean languages">Borean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Amerind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamo-Dravidian_languages" title="Elamo-Dravidian languages">Elamo-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural-Altaic_languages" title="Ural-Altaic languages">Ural-Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Uralic_languages" title="Sino-Uralic languages">Sino-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Caucasian_languages" title="Dené–Caucasian languages">Dené–Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austric_languages" title="Austric languages">Austric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific_languages" title="Indo-Pacific languages">Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Bengtson" title="John Bengtson">John Bengtson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Bla%C5%BEek" title="Václav Blažek">Václav Blažek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Bomhard" title="Allan R. Bomhard">Allan R. Bomhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Burlak" title="Svetlana Burlak">Svetlana Burlak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aharon_Dolgopolsky" title="Aharon Dolgopolsky">Aharon Dolgopolsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dybo" title="Vladimir Dybo">Vladimir Dybo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_C._Fleming" title="Harold C. Fleming">Harold C. Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Helimski" title="Eugene Helimski">Eugene Helimski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladislav_Illich-Svitych" title="Vladislav Illich-Svitych">Vladislav Illich-Svitych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Frederik Kortlandt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Manaster_Ramer" title="Alexis Manaster Ramer">Alexis Manaster Ramer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Nikolaev_(linguist)" title="Sergei Nikolaev (linguist)">Sergei Nikolaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorin_Paliga" title="Sorin Paliga">Sorin Paliga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holger_Pedersen_(linguist)" title="Holger Pedersen (linguist)">Holger Pedersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilia_Peiros" title="Ilia Peiros">Ilia Peiros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martine_Robbeets" title="Martine Robbeets">Martine Robbeets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merritt_Ruhlen" title="Merritt Ruhlen">Merritt Ruhlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Shevoroshkin" title="Vitaly Shevoroshkin">Vitaly Shevoroshkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Starostin" title="Georgiy Starostin">Georgiy Starostin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Sergei Starostin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Trombetti" title="Alfredo Trombetti">Alfredo Trombetti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Language_Relationship" title="Journal of Language Relationship">Journal of Language Relationship</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mother_Tongue_(journal)" title="Mother Tongue (journal)">Mother Tongue</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Etymological_Dictionary_of_the_Altaic_Languages" title="Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages">Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa" title="The Languages of Africa">The Languages of Africa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions and schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Human_Languages" title="Evolution of Human Languages">Evolution of Human Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Linguistics_of_the_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences">Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_School_of_Comparative_Linguistics" title="Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics">Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_State_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Russian State University for the Humanities">Russian State University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Institute" title="Santa Fe Institute">Santa Fe Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Category:Long-range comparative linguistics">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_impacts_of_cars" title="Societal impacts of cars">Societal impacts of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a 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