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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sexual reproduction in ascomycetes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sexual_reproduction_in_ascomycetes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conidia_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conidia_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Conidia formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conidia_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Budding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Budding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Budding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Budding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics_of_ascomycetes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics_of_ascomycetes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Characteristics of ascomycetes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characteristics_of_ascomycetes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modern classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outdated_taxon_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outdated_taxon_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Outdated taxon names</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outdated_taxon_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metabolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Metabolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution_and_living_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_and_living_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Distribution and living environment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_and_living_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reproduction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asexual_reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asexual_reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Asexual reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asexual_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asexual_spores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asexual_spores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Asexual spores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asexual_spores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conidiogenesis_and_dehiscence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conidiogenesis_and_dehiscence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>Conidiogenesis and dehiscence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conidiogenesis_and_dehiscence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heterokaryosis_and_parasexuality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heterokaryosis_and_parasexuality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Heterokaryosis and parasexuality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heterokaryosis_and_parasexuality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Sexual reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation_of_sexual_spores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_of_sexual_spores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1</span> <span>Formation of sexual spores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_of_sexual_spores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ecology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lichens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lichens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Lichens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lichens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_endophytes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_endophytes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Mycorrhizal fungi and endophytes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_endophytes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbiotic_relationships_with_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbiotic_relationships_with_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Symbiotic relationships with animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbiotic_relationships_with_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_disease_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_disease_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Plant disease interactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_disease_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_disease_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_disease_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Human disease interactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_disease_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beneficial_effects_for_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beneficial_effects_for_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Beneficial effects for humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beneficial_effects_for_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cited_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Cited texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 67 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-67" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">67 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B2%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فطريات زقية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فطريات زقية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kis%C9%99li_g%C3%B6b%C9%99l%C9%99kl%C9%99r" title="Kisəli göbələklər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kisəli göbələklər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%86%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Аскаміцэты – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аскаміцэты" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D1%8A%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Торбести гъби – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Торбести гъби" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomicots" title="Ascomicots – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ascomicots" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houby_v%C5%99eckov%C3%BDtrusn%C3%A9" title="Houby vřeckovýtrusné – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Houby vřeckovýtrusné" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A6ksvampe" title="Sæksvampe – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sæksvampe" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlauchpilze" title="Schlauchpilze – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schlauchpilze" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kottseened" title="Kottseened – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kottseened" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BC%CF%8D%CE%BA%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Ασκομύκητες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ασκομύκητες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Askomikotoj" title="Askomikotoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Askomikotoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="قارچ‌های کیسه‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قارچ‌های کیسه‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomicetos" title="Ascomicetos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ascomicetos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EB%82%AD%EA%B7%A0%EB%AC%B8" title="자낭균문 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자낭균문" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80_%D5%BD%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Պայուսակավոր սնկեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պայուսակավոր սնկեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gljive_mje%C5%A1inarke" title="Gljive mješinarke – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Gljive mješinarke" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asksveppir" title="Asksveppir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Asksveppir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%A7" title="פטריות שק – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פטריות שק" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ჩანთიანი სოკოები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩანთიანი სოკოები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Аскомицеттер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аскомицеттер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%83_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%83_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Баштыкчалуу козу карындар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Баштыкчалуу козу карындар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asku_s%C4%93nes" title="Asku sēnes – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Asku sēnes" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auk%C5%A1liagryb%C5%ABnai" title="Aukšliagrybūnai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Aukšliagrybūnai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B6ml%C5%91sgomb%C3%A1k" title="Tömlősgombák – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tömlősgombák" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Торбести габи – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Торбести габи" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B2%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%87" title="فطريات زقيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فطريات زقيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Askomikota" title="Askomikota – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Askomikota" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomyceten" title="Ascomyceten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ascomyceten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E5%9A%A2%E8%8F%8C%E9%96%80" title="子嚢菌門 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="子嚢菌門" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekksporesopper" title="Sekksporesopper – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sekksporesopper" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Askomitsetsimonlar" title="Askomitsetsimonlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Askomitsetsimonlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workowce" title="Workowce – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Workowce" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayaqacha_k%27allampa" title="Wayaqacha k'allampa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Wayaqacha k'allampa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Аскомицеты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аскомицеты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vreckat%C3%A9_huby" title="Vreckaté huby – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vreckaté huby" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gljive_me%C5%A1inarke" title="Gljive mešinarke – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Gljive mešinarke" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gljive_me%C5%A1inarke" title="Gljive mešinarke – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Gljive mešinarke" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotelosienet" title="Kotelosienet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kotelosienet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spors%C3%A4ckssvampar" title="Sporsäckssvampar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sporsäckssvampar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF" title="பைப்பூஞ்சைத் தொகுதி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பைப்பூஞ்சைத் தொகுதி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B_%D0%B3%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B1%D3%99%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Сумкалы гөмбәләр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Сумкалы гөмбәләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8F%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BE" title="ఏస్కోమైకోటా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఏస్కోమైకోటా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Askl%C4%B1_mantarlar" title="Asklı mantarlar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Asklı mantarlar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Аскомікотові гриби – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аскомікотові гриби" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomicete" title="Ascomicete – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Ascomicete" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Ascomycota" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E5%9B%8A%E8%8F%8C%E9%97%A8" title="子囊菌门 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="子囊菌门" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E5%9B%8A%E8%8F%8C%E9%96%80" title="子囊菌門 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="子囊菌門" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E5%9B%8A%E8%8F%8C%E9%97%A8" title="子囊菌门 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="子囊菌门" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q174726#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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/><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: Early <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>-present<span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;"><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:17.583076923077px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.22px; width:14.807692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:70.027692307692px; width:7.9470769230769px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:77.974769230769px; width:20.564923076923px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.539692307692px; width:20.294153846154px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.732307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:171.56615384615px; width:26.095384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.540307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20184615385px; width:6.9249230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:84.615384615385px; width:135.38461538462px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:84.615384615385px; width:135.38461538462px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:85.615384615385px; width:133.38461538462px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Scarlet_elf_cap_cadnant_dingle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Scarlet_elf_cap_cadnant_dingle.jpg/220px-Scarlet_elf_cap_cadnant_dingle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Scarlet_elf_cap_cadnant_dingle.jpg/330px-Scarlet_elf_cap_cadnant_dingle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Scarlet_elf_cap_cadnant_dingle.jpg/440px-Scarlet_elf_cap_cadnant_dingle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1276" data-file-height="984" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%"><i><a href="/wiki/Sarcoscypha_coccinea" title="Sarcoscypha coccinea">Sarcoscypha coccinea</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(145,250,250)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Ascomycota" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Subkingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dikarya" title="Dikarya">Dikarya</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Division: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ascomycota</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Berk." class="mw-redirect" title="Berk.">Berk.</a>) <a href="/wiki/Caval.-Sm." class="mw-redirect" title="Caval.-Sm.">Caval.-Sm.</a> (1998)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(145,250,250)">Subdivisions and classes </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Pezizomycotina" title="Pezizomycotina">Pezizomycotina</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Arthoniomycetes" title="Arthoniomycetes">Arthoniomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Coniocybomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniocybomycetes">Coniocybomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dothideomycetes" title="Dothideomycetes">Dothideomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eurotiomycetes" title="Eurotiomycetes">Eurotiomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Geoglossomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoglossomycetes">Geoglossomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Laboulbeniomycetes" title="Laboulbeniomycetes">Laboulbeniomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lecanoromycetes" title="Lecanoromycetes">Lecanoromycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leotiomycetes" title="Leotiomycetes">Leotiomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lichinomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichinomycetes">Lichinomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Omnivoromycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Omnivoromycetes (page does not exist)">Omnivoromycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Orbiliomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbiliomycetes">Orbiliomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pezizomycetes" title="Pezizomycetes">Pezizomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sordariomycetes" title="Sordariomycetes">Sordariomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xylonomycetes" title="Xylonomycetes">Xylonomycetes</a></dd> <dd>"Unplaced orders" <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Lahmiales" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahmiales">Lahmiales</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Itchiclahmadion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Itchiclahmadion (page does not exist)">Itchiclahmadion</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triblidiales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triblidiales (page does not exist)">Triblidiales</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycotina" title="Saccharomycotina">Saccharomycotina</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycetes" title="Saccharomycetes">Saccharomycetes</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycotina" title="Taphrinomycotina">Taphrinomycotina</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Archaeorhizomyces" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeorhizomyces">Archaeorhizomyces</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Neolectomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolectomycetes">Neolectomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumocystis">Pneumocystidomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomycetes" title="Schizosaccharomycetes">Schizosaccharomycetes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycetes" title="Taphrinomycetes">Taphrinomycetes</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p><b>Ascomycota</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> of the kingdom <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a> that, together with the <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a>, forms the subkingdom <a href="/wiki/Dikarya" title="Dikarya">Dikarya</a>. Its members are commonly known as the <b>sac fungi</b> or <b>ascomycetes</b>. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The defining feature of this fungal group is the "<a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">ascus</a>" (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%80%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἀσκός">ἀσκός</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>askós</i></span>)</i> 'sac, wineskin'), a microscopic <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual structure</a> in which nonmotile <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Ascospore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascospore">ascospores</a>, are formed. However, some species of Ascomycota are <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual</a> and thus do not form asci or ascospores. Familiar examples of sac fungi include <a href="/wiki/Morels" class="mw-redirect" title="Morels">morels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Truffle" title="Truffle">truffles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yeast#Beer" title="Yeast">brewers'</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bakers%27_yeast" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakers' yeast">bakers' yeast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xylaria" title="Xylaria">dead man's fingers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cup_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Cup fungi">cup fungi</a>. The fungal <a href="/wiki/Symbionts" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbionts">symbionts</a> in the majority of <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichens</a> (loosely termed "ascolichens") such as <i><a href="/wiki/Cladonia" title="Cladonia">Cladonia</a></i> belong to the Ascomycota. </p><p>Ascomycota is a <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> group (containing all of the descendants of a common ancestor). Previously placed in the <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a> along with asexual species from other fungal taxa, asexual (or <a href="/wiki/Teleomorph,_anamorph_and_holomorph" title="Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph">anamorphic</a>) ascomycetes are now identified and classified based on <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> or <a href="/wiki/Physiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological">physiological</a> similarities to ascus-bearing <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a>, and by <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</a> analyses of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequences.<sup id="cite_ref-Lutzoni_2004_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lutzoni_2004-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-James_2006_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-James_2006-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ascomycetes are of particular use to humans as sources of medicinally important compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Antibacterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibacterial">antibiotics</a>, as well as for <a href="/wiki/Fermenting" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermenting">fermenting</a> bread, alcoholic beverages, and cheese. Examples of ascomycetes include <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium" title="Penicillium">Penicillium</a></i> species on cheeses and those producing antibiotics for treating bacterial <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious diseases</a>. </p><p>Many ascomycetes are <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>, both of animals, including humans, and of plants. Examples of ascomycetes that can cause infections in humans include <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_niger" title="Aspergillus niger">Aspergillus niger</a></i> and several tens of species that cause <a href="/wiki/Dermatophytosis" title="Dermatophytosis">skin infections</a>. The many <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">plant-pathogenic</a> ascomycetes include <a href="/wiki/Apple_scab" title="Apple scab">apple scab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice_blast" class="mw-redirect" title="Rice blast">rice blast</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ergot" title="Ergot">ergot</a> fungi, <a href="/wiki/Black_knot" class="mw-redirect" title="Black knot">black knot</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Powdery_mildew" title="Powdery mildew">powdery mildews</a>. The members of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Cordyceps" title="Cordyceps">Cordyceps</a></i> are <a href="/wiki/Entomopathogenic_fungus" title="Entomopathogenic fungus">entomopathogenic fungi</a>, meaning that they parasitise and kill insects. Other entomopathogenic ascomycetes have been used successfully in <a href="/wiki/Biological_pest_control" title="Biological pest control">biological pest control</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Beauveria" title="Beauveria">Beauveria</a></i>. </p><p>Several species of ascomycetes are biological <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organisms</a> in laboratory research. Most famously, <i><a href="/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></i>, several species of <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeasts</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></i> species are used in many <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a> studies. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_reproduction_in_ascomycetes">Sexual reproduction in ascomycetes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sexual reproduction in ascomycetes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ascomycetes are 'spore shooters'. They are fungi which produce microscopic spores inside special, elongated cells or sacs, known as 'asci', which give the group its name. </p><p>Asexual reproduction is the dominant form of propagation in the Ascomycota, and is responsible for the rapid spread of these fungi into new areas. Asexual reproduction of ascomycetes is very diverse from both structural and functional points of view. The most important and general is production of conidia, but chlamydospores are also frequently produced. Furthermore, Ascomycota also reproduce asexually through budding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conidia_formation">Conidia formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Conidia formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Asexual reproduction may occur through vegetative reproductive spores, the <a href="/wiki/Conidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Conidia">conidia</a>. The asexual, non-motile haploid spores of a fungus, which are named after the Greek word for dust (conia), are hence also known as <em>conidiospores</em>. The conidiospores commonly contain one nucleus and are products of mitotic cell divisions and thus are sometimes called <em>mitospores</em>, which are genetically identical to the mycelium from which they originate. They are typically formed at the ends of specialized hyphae, the conidiophores. Depending on the species they may be dispersed by wind or water, or by animals. Conidiophores may simply branch off from the mycelia or they may be formed in fruiting bodies. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conidia_Formation_Redraw.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Conidia_Formation_Redraw.svg/334px-Conidia_Formation_Redraw.svg.png" decoding="async" width="334" height="424" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Conidia_Formation_Redraw.svg/501px-Conidia_Formation_Redraw.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Conidia_Formation_Redraw.svg/667px-Conidia_Formation_Redraw.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="725" data-file-height="921" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>The hypha that creates the sporing (conidiating) tip can be very similar to the normal hyphal tip, or it can be differentiated. The most common differentiation is the formation of a bottle shaped cell called a <em><a href="/wiki/Phialide" title="Phialide">phialide</a></em>, from which the spores are produced. Not all of these asexual structures are a single hypha. In some groups, the conidiophores (the structures that bear the conidia) are aggregated to form a thick structure. </p><p>E.g. In the order <i>Moniliales,</i> all of them are single hyphae with the exception of the aggregations, termed as coremia or synnema. These produce structures rather like corn-stokes, with many conidia being produced in a mass from the aggregated conidiophores. </p><p>The diverse conidia and conidiophores sometimes develop in asexual sporocarps with different characteristics (e.g. acervulus, pycnidium, sporodochium). Some species of ascomycetes form their structures within plant tissue, either as parasite or saprophytes. These fungi have evolved more complex asexual sporing structures, probably influenced by the cultural conditions of plant tissue as a substrate. These structures are called the <em><a href="/wiki/Sporodochium" title="Sporodochium">sporodochium</a></em>. This is a cushion of conidiophores created from a pseudoparenchymatous <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stroma_(mycology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stroma (mycology) (page does not exist)">stroma</a> in plant tissue. The <em><a href="/wiki/Pycnidium" title="Pycnidium">pycnidium</a></em> is a globose to flask-shaped parenchymatous structure, lined on its inner wall with conidiophores. The <em><a href="/wiki/Acervulus" title="Acervulus">acervulus</a></em> is a flat saucer shaped bed of conidiophores produced under a plant cuticle, which eventually erupt through the cuticle for dispersal. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conidia_Formation_Image.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Conidia_Formation_Image.png/333px-Conidia_Formation_Image.png" decoding="async" width="333" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Conidia_Formation_Image.png/500px-Conidia_Formation_Image.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Conidia_Formation_Image.png/666px-Conidia_Formation_Image.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1241" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Budding">Budding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Budding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Asexual reproduction process in ascomycetes also involves the budding which we clearly observe in yeast. This is termed a "blastic process". It involves the blowing out or blebbing of the hyphal tip wall. The blastic process can involve all wall layers, or there can be a new cell wall synthesized which is extruded from within the old wall. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Budding.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Budding.png/337px-Budding.png" decoding="async" width="337" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Budding.png 1.5x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>The initial events of budding can be seen as the development of a ring of chitin around the point where the bud is about to appear. This reinforces and stabilizes the cell wall. Enzymatic activity and turgor pressure act to weaken and extrude the cell wall. New cell wall material is incorporated during this phase. Cell contents are forced into the progeny cell, and as the final phase of mitosis ends a cell plate, the point at which a new cell wall will grow inwards from, forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics_of_ascomycetes">Characteristics of ascomycetes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Characteristics of ascomycetes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ascomycota are morphologically diverse. The group includes organisms from unicellular yeasts to complex cup fungi.</li> <li>98% of <a href="/wiki/Lichens" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichens">lichens</a> have an Ascomycota as the fungal part of the lichen.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>There are 2000 identified genera and 30,000 species of Ascomycota.</li> <li>The unifying characteristic among these diverse groups is the presence of a reproductive structure known as the <em>ascus</em>, though in some cases it has a reduced role in the life cycle.</li> <li>Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance. Some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation, plus truffles and morels, which are held as gourmet delicacies.</li> <li>Many of them cause tree diseases, such as Dutch elm disease and apple blights.</li> <li>Some of the plant pathogenic ascomycetes are apple scab, rice blast, the ergot fungi, black knot, and the powdery mildews.</li> <li>The yeasts are used to produce alcoholic beverages and breads. The mold <i>Penicillium</i> is used to produce the antibiotic penicillin.</li> <li>Almost half of all members of the phylum Ascomycota form <em>symbiotic</em> associations with algae to form lichens.</li> <li>Others, such as morels (a highly prized edible fungi), form important <em>mycorrhizal</em> relationships with plants, thereby providing enhanced water and nutrient uptake and, in some cases, protection from insects.</li> <li>Most ascomycetes are terrestrial or parasitic. However, some have adapted to marine or freshwater environments. As of 2015, there were 805 <a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">marine fungi</a> in the Ascomycota, distributed among 352 genera.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_et_al._2015_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones_et_al._2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The cell walls of the hyphae are variably composed of <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta-glucan" title="Beta-glucan">β-glucans</a>, just as in Basidiomycota. However, these fibers are set in a matrix of glycoprotein containing the sugars galactose and mannose.</li> <li>The mycelium of ascomycetes is usually made up of <a href="/wiki/Hypha#Classification_based_on_cell_division" title="Hypha">septate hyphae</a>. However, there is not necessarily any fixed number of nuclei in each of the divisions.</li> <li>The septal walls have septal pores which provide cytoplasmic continuity throughout the individual hyphae. Under appropriate conditions, nuclei may also migrate between septal compartments through the septal pores.</li> <li>A unique character of the Ascomycota (but not present in all ascomycetes) is the presence of <a href="/wiki/Woronin_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Woronin bodies">Woronin bodies</a> on each side of the septa separating the hyphal segments which control the septal pores. If an adjoining hypha is ruptured, the Woronin bodies block the pores to prevent loss of cytoplasm into the ruptured compartment. The Woronin bodies are spherical, hexagonal, or rectangular membrane bound structures with a crystalline protein matrix.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_classification">Modern classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Modern classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three <a href="/wiki/Subphylum" title="Subphylum">subphyla</a> that are described and accepted: </p> <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Pezizomycotina" title="Pezizomycotina">Pezizomycotina</a></i> are the largest subphylum and contains all ascomycetes that produce <a href="/wiki/Ascocarp" title="Ascocarp">ascocarps</a> (fruiting bodies), except for one genus, <i><a href="/wiki/Neolecta" title="Neolecta">Neolecta</a></i>, in the <a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycotina" title="Taphrinomycotina">Taphrinomycotina</a>. It is roughly equivalent to the previous taxon, <i>Euascomycetes</i>. The Pezizomycotina includes most macroscopic "ascos" such as <a href="/wiki/Truffle" title="Truffle">truffles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ergot" title="Ergot">ergot</a>, ascolichens, <a href="/wiki/Pezizaceae" title="Pezizaceae">cup fungi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Discomycetes" title="Discomycetes">discomycetes</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sordariomycetes" title="Sordariomycetes">pyrenomycetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gyromitra_esculenta" title="Gyromitra esculenta">lorchels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ophiocordyceps_sinensis" title="Ophiocordyceps sinensis">caterpillar fungus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also contains microscopic fungi such as <a href="/wiki/Powdery_mildew" title="Powdery mildew">powdery mildews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trichophyton" title="Trichophyton">dermatophytic</a> fungi, and <a href="/wiki/Laboulbeniales" title="Laboulbeniales">Laboulbeniales</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycotina" title="Saccharomycotina">Saccharomycotina</a></i> comprise most of the "true" yeasts, such as <a href="/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast">baker's yeast</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida (genus)">Candida</a></i>, which are single-celled (unicellular) fungi, which reproduce vegetatively by budding. Most of these species were previously classified in a taxon called <i>Hemiascomycetes</i>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycotina" title="Taphrinomycotina">Taphrinomycotina</a></i> include a disparate and <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</a> group within the Ascomycota that was recognized following molecular (<a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>) analyses. The taxon was originally named <i><a href="/wiki/Archiascomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Archiascomycetes">Archiascomycetes</a></i> (or <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeascomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeascomycetes">Archaeascomycetes</a></i>). It includes hyphal fungi (<i><a href="/wiki/Neolecta" title="Neolecta">Neolecta</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Taphrina" title="Taphrina">Taphrina</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeorhizomyces" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeorhizomyces">Archaeorhizomyces</a></i>), fission yeasts (<i><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces" title="Schizosaccharomyces">Schizosaccharomyces</a></i>), and the mammalian lung parasite <i><a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumocystis">Pneumocystis</a></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outdated_taxon_names">Outdated taxon names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Outdated taxon names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several outdated taxon names—based on morphological features—are still occasionally used for species of the Ascomycota. These include the following sexual (<a href="/wiki/Teleomorph,_anamorph_and_holomorph" title="Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph">teleomorphic</a>) groups, defined by the structures of their sexual <a href="/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporocarp (fungi)">fruiting bodies</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Discomycetes" title="Discomycetes">Discomycetes</a>, which included all species forming <a href="/wiki/Ascocarp" title="Ascocarp">apothecia</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrenomycetes">Pyrenomycetes</a>, which included all sac fungi that formed <a href="/wiki/Ascocarp" title="Ascocarp">perithecia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ascocarp" title="Ascocarp">pseudothecia</a>, or any structure resembling these morphological structures; and the Plectomycetes, which included those species that form <a href="/wiki/Ascocarp" title="Ascocarp">cleistothecia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hemiascomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemiascomycetes">Hemiascomycetes</a> included the yeasts and yeast-like fungi that have now been placed into the <a href="/wiki/Saccharomycotina" title="Saccharomycotina">Saccharomycotina</a> or <a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycotina" title="Taphrinomycotina">Taphrinomycotina</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Euascomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Euascomycetes">Euascomycetes</a> included the remaining species of the Ascomycota, which are now in the <a href="/wiki/Pezizomycotina" title="Pezizomycotina">Pezizomycotina</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Neolecta" title="Neolecta">Neolecta</a>, which are in the Taphrinomycotina. </p><p>Some ascomycetes do not reproduce sexually or are not known to produce <a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">asci</a> and are therefore <a href="/wiki/Teleomorph,_anamorph_and_holomorph" title="Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph">anamorphic</a> species. Those anamorphs that produce <a href="/wiki/Conidium" title="Conidium">conidia</a> (mitospores) were previously described as <a href="/wiki/Mitosporic_Ascomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitosporic Ascomycota">mitosporic Ascomycota</a>. Some taxonomists placed this group into a separate <a href="/wiki/Form_classification" title="Form classification">artificial phylum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Deuteromycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteromycota">Deuteromycota</a> (or "Fungi Imperfecti"). Where recent <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular analyses</a> have identified close relationships with ascus-bearing taxa, anamorphic species have been grouped into the Ascomycota, despite the absence of the defining ascus. Sexual and asexual isolates of the same species commonly carry different <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial</a> species names, as, for example, <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_nidulans" title="Aspergillus nidulans">Aspergillus nidulans</a></i> and <i>Emericella nidulans</i>, for asexual and sexual isolates, respectively, of the same species. </p><p>Species of the Deuteromycota were classified as Coelomycetes if they produced their conidia in minute flask- or saucer-shaped conidiomata, known technically as <i>pycnidia</i> and <i>acervuli</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hyphomycetes" title="Hyphomycetes">Hyphomycetes</a> were those species where the <a href="/wiki/Conidiophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Conidiophore">conidiophores</a> (<i>i.e.</i>, the hyphal structures that carry conidia-forming cells at the end) are free or loosely organized. They are mostly isolated but sometimes also appear as bundles of cells aligned in parallel (described as <i>synnematal</i>) or as cushion-shaped masses (described as <i>sporodochial</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ophiocordyceps_caloceroides.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ophiocordyceps_caloceroides.jpg/220px-Ophiocordyceps_caloceroides.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ophiocordyceps_caloceroides.jpg/330px-Ophiocordyceps_caloceroides.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ophiocordyceps_caloceroides.jpg/440px-Ophiocordyceps_caloceroides.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a><figcaption> A member of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Ophiocordyceps" title="Ophiocordyceps">Ophiocordyceps</a></i> which is parasitic on arthropods. Note the elongated stromata. Species unknown, perhaps <i>Ophiocordyceps caloceroides</i>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:04_01_02_life_cycle_Ascomycota,_ascus_(M._Piepenbring).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/04_01_02_life_cycle_Ascomycota%2C_ascus_%28M._Piepenbring%29.svg/220px-04_01_02_life_cycle_Ascomycota%2C_ascus_%28M._Piepenbring%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/04_01_02_life_cycle_Ascomycota%2C_ascus_%28M._Piepenbring%29.svg/330px-04_01_02_life_cycle_Ascomycota%2C_ascus_%28M._Piepenbring%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/04_01_02_life_cycle_Ascomycota%2C_ascus_%28M._Piepenbring%29.svg/440px-04_01_02_life_cycle_Ascomycota%2C_ascus_%28M._Piepenbring%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3727" data-file-height="2937" /></a><figcaption>Ascomycete life cycle</figcaption></figure> <p>Most species grow as filamentous, microscopic structures called <a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a> or as budding single cells (yeasts). Many <a href="/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">interconnected</a> hyphae form a <a href="/wiki/Thallus" title="Thallus">thallus</a> usually referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">mycelium</a>, which—when visible to the naked eye (macroscopic)—is commonly called <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">mold</a>. During sexual reproduction, many Ascomycota typically produce large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">asci</a>. The ascus is often contained in a multicellular, occasionally readily visible fruiting structure, the <a href="/wiki/Ascocarp" title="Ascocarp">ascocarp</a> (also called an <i>ascoma</i>). Ascocarps come in a very large variety of shapes: cup-shaped, club-shaped, potato-like, spongy, seed-like, oozing and pimple-like, coral-like, nit-like, golf-ball-shaped, perforated tennis ball-like, cushion-shaped, plated and feathered in miniature (<a href="/wiki/Laboulbeniales" title="Laboulbeniales">Laboulbeniales</a>), microscopic classic Greek shield-shaped, stalked or sessile. They can appear solitary or clustered. Their texture can likewise be very variable, including fleshy, like charcoal (carbonaceous), leathery, rubbery, gelatinous, slimy, powdery, or cob-web-like. Ascocarps come in multiple colors such as red, orange, yellow, brown, black, or, more rarely, green or blue. Some ascomyceous fungi, such as <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, grow as single-celled yeasts, which—during sexual reproduction—develop into an ascus, and do not form fruiting bodies. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xylaria_hypoxylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Xylaria_hypoxylon.jpg/220px-Xylaria_hypoxylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Xylaria_hypoxylon.jpg/330px-Xylaria_hypoxylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Xylaria_hypoxylon.jpg/440px-Xylaria_hypoxylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The "candlesnuff fungus" in its asexual state, <i><a href="/wiki/Xylaria_hypoxylon" title="Xylaria hypoxylon">Xylaria hypoxylon</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichenized</a> species, the thallus of the fungus defines the shape of the <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> colony. Some <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_switching" title="Phenotypic switching">dimorphic</a> species, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a></i>, can switch between growth as single cells and as filamentous, multicellular hyphae. Other species are <a href="/wiki/Pleomorphism_(microbiology)" title="Pleomorphism (microbiology)">pleomorphic</a>, exhibiting asexual (anamorphic) as well as a sexual (teleomorphic) growth forms. </p><p>Except for lichens, the non-reproductive (vegetative) mycelium of most ascomycetes is usually inconspicuous because it is commonly embedded in the substrate, such as soil, or grows on or inside a living host, and only the ascoma may be seen when fruiting. <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigmentation</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a> in hyphal walls, along with prolific growth on surfaces can result in visible mold colonies; examples include <i><a href="/wiki/Cladosporium" title="Cladosporium">Cladosporium</a></i> species, which form black spots on bathroom caulking and other moist areas. Many ascomycetes cause food spoilage, and, therefore, the pellicles or moldy layers that develop on jams, juices, and other foods are the mycelia of these species or occasionally <a href="/wiki/Mucoromycotina" title="Mucoromycotina">Mucoromycotina</a> and almost never <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sooty_mold" title="Sooty mold">Sooty molds</a> that develop on plants, especially in the tropics are the thalli of many species.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2009)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smardz-Morchella-Ejdzej-2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Smardz-Morchella-Ejdzej-2006.jpg/179px-Smardz-Morchella-Ejdzej-2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="179" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Smardz-Morchella-Ejdzej-2006.jpg/269px-Smardz-Morchella-Ejdzej-2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Smardz-Morchella-Ejdzej-2006.jpg/358px-Smardz-Morchella-Ejdzej-2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1900" /></a><figcaption>The ascocarp of a <a href="/wiki/Morchella" title="Morchella">morel</a> contains numerous apothecia.</figcaption></figure> <p>Large masses of yeast cells, asci or ascus-like cells, or conidia can also form macroscopic structures. For example. <i><a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumocystis">Pneumocystis</a></i> species can colonize lung cavities (visible in x-rays), causing a form of <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asci of <i><a href="/wiki/Ascosphaera" title="Ascosphaera">Ascosphaera</a></i> fill <a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">honey bee</a> <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pupa" title="Pupa">pupae</a> causing mummification with a chalk-like appearance, hence the name "chalkbrood".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yeasts for small colonies <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a> and <a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a>, and excessive growth of <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida (genus)">Candida</a></i> species in the mouth or vagina causes "thrush", a form of <a href="/wiki/Candidiasis" title="Candidiasis">candidiasis</a>. </p><p>The cell walls of the ascomycetes almost always contain <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta-glucan" title="Beta-glucan">β-glucans</a>, and divisions within the hyphae, called "<a href="/wiki/Septum#In_mycology" title="Septum">septa</a>", are the internal boundaries of individual cells (or compartments). The cell wall and septa give stability and rigidity to the hyphae and may prevent loss of <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> in case of local damage to cell wall and <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a>. The septa commonly have a small opening in the center, which functions as a <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasmic</a> connection between adjacent cells, also sometimes allowing cell-to-cell movement of <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclei</a> within a hypha. Vegetative hyphae of most ascomycetes contain only one nucleus per cell (<i><a href="/wiki/Uninucleate" title="Uninucleate">uninucleate</a></i> hyphae), but <a href="/wiki/Multinucleate" title="Multinucleate">multinucleate</a> cells—especially in the apical regions of growing hyphae—can also be present. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metabolism">Metabolism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Metabolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In common with other fungal phyla, the Ascomycota are <a href="/wiki/Heterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophy">heterotrophic</a> organisms that require <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> as energy sources. These are obtained by feeding on a variety of organic substrates including dead matter, foodstuffs, or as <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbionts</a> in or on other living organisms. To obtain these nutrients from their surroundings, ascomycetous fungi secrete powerful <a href="/wiki/Digestive_enzyme" title="Digestive enzyme">digestive enzymes</a> that break down organic substances into smaller molecules, which are then taken up into the cell. Many species live on dead plant material such as leaves, twigs, or logs. Several species colonize plants, animals, or other fungi as <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic symbionts</a> and derive all their metabolic energy in form of nutrients from the tissues of their hosts. </p><p>Owing to their long evolutionary history, the Ascomycota have evolved the capacity to break down almost every organic substance. Unlike most organisms, they are able to use their own <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> to digest plant <a href="/wiki/Biopolymer" title="Biopolymer">biopolymers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">Collagen</a>, an abundant structural protein in animals, and <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">keratin</a>—a protein that forms hair and nails—, can also serve as food sources. Unusual examples include <i><a href="/wiki/Aureobasidium_pullulans" title="Aureobasidium pullulans">Aureobasidium pullulans</a></i>, which feeds on wall paint, and the kerosene fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Amorphotheca_resinae" title="Amorphotheca resinae">Amorphotheca resinae</a></i>, which feeds on aircraft fuel (causing occasional problems for the airline industry), and may sometimes block fuel pipes.<sup id="cite_ref-Hendey_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hendey-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other species can resist high <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic stress</a> and grow, for example, on salted fish, and a few ascomycetes are aquatic. </p><p>The Ascomycota is characterized by a high degree of specialization; for instance, certain species of <a href="/wiki/Laboulbeniales" title="Laboulbeniales">Laboulbeniales</a> attack only one particular leg of one particular insect species. Many Ascomycota engage in symbiotic relationships such as in lichens—symbiotic associations with green <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>—in which the fungal symbiont directly obtains products of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. In common with many basidiomycetes and <a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a>, some ascomycetes form symbioses with plants by colonizing the roots to form <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhizal</a> associations. The Ascomycota also represents several <a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_fungus" title="Carnivorous fungus">carnivorous fungi</a>, which have developed hyphal traps to capture small <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">amoebae</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Roundworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworm">roundworms</a> (<i>Nematoda</i>), <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">tardigrades</a>, and small arthropods such as <a href="/wiki/Springtail" title="Springtail">springtails</a> (<i>Collembola</i>). </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypomyces_completus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hypomyces_completus.jpg/250px-Hypomyces_completus.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Hypomyces_completus.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption><i>Hypomyces completus</i> on culture medium</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution_and_living_environment">Distribution and living environment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Distribution and living environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Ascomycota are represented in all land ecosystems worldwide, occurring on all continents including <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spores and hyphal fragments are <a href="/wiki/Fungus#Spore_dispersal" title="Fungus">dispersed</a> through the atmosphere and freshwater environments, as well as ocean beaches and tidal zones. The distribution of species is variable; while some are found on all continents, others, as for example the white <a href="/wiki/Truffle" title="Truffle">truffle</a> <i>Tuber magnatum</i>, only occur in isolated locations in Italy and Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distribution of plant-parasitic species is often restricted by host distributions; for example, <i><a href="/wiki/Cyttaria" title="Cyttaria">Cyttaria</a></i> is only found on <i><a href="/wiki/Nothofagus" title="Nothofagus">Nothofagus</a></i> (Southern Beech) in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asexual_reproduction">Asexual reproduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Asexual reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Asexual reproduction is the dominant form of propagation in the Ascomycota, and is responsible for the rapid spread of these fungi into new areas. It occurs through vegetative reproductive spores, the <a href="/wiki/Conidium" title="Conidium">conidia</a>. The conidiospores commonly contain one nucleus and are products of <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitotic</a> cell divisions and thus are sometimes called mitospores, which are genetically identical to the mycelium from which they originate. They are typically formed at the ends of specialized <a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a>, the <i>conidiophores</i>. Depending on the species they may be <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">dispersed</a> by wind or water, or by animals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asexual_spores">Asexual spores</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Asexual spores"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different types of asexual spores can be identified by colour, shape, and how they are released as individual spores. Spore types can be used as taxonomic characters in the classification within the Ascomycota. The most frequent types are the single-celled spores, which are designated <i>amerospores</i>. If the spore is divided into two by a cross-wall (<a href="/wiki/Septum#In_mycology" title="Septum">septum</a>), it is called a <i>didymospore</i>. </p> <table align="right" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trichoderma_aggressivum.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Trichoderma_aggressivum.jpeg/250px-Trichoderma_aggressivum.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Trichoderma_aggressivum.jpeg/375px-Trichoderma_aggressivum.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Trichoderma_aggressivum.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="398" /></a><figcaption>Conidiospores of <i>Trichoderma aggressivum</i>, diameter approx. 3μm</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aspergillus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Aspergillus.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="167" /></a><figcaption>Conidiophores of molds of the genus <i>Aspergillus</i>; conidiogenesis is blastic-phialidic</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trichoderma_harzianum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Trichoderma_harzianum.jpg/200px-Trichoderma_harzianum.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Trichoderma_harzianum.jpg/300px-Trichoderma_harzianum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Trichoderma_harzianum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="447" /></a><figcaption>Conidiophores of <i><a href="/wiki/Trichoderma_harzianum" title="Trichoderma harzianum">Trichoderma harzianum</a></i>; conidiogenesis is blastic-phialidic</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trichoderma_fertile.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trichoderma_fertile.jpg/200px-Trichoderma_fertile.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trichoderma_fertile.jpg/300px-Trichoderma_fertile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Trichoderma_fertile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>Conidiophores of <i>Trichoderma fertile</i> with vase-shaped phialides and newly formed conidia on their ends (bright points)</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>When there are two or more cross-walls, the classification depends on spore shape. If the septae are <i>transversal</i>, like the rungs of a ladder, it is a <i>phragmospore</i>, and if they possess a net-like structure it is a <i>dictyospore</i>. In <i>staurospores</i> ray-like arms radiate from a central body; in others (<i>helicospores</i>) the entire spore is wound up in a spiral like a spring. Very long worm-like spores with a length-to-diameter ratio of more than 15:1, are called <i>scolecospores</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conidiogenesis_and_dehiscence">Conidiogenesis and dehiscence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Conidiogenesis and dehiscence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Important characteristics of the anamorphs of the Ascomycota are <i>conidiogenesis</i>, which includes spore formation and dehiscence (separation from the parent structure). Conidiogenesis corresponds to <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a> in animals and plants and can be divided into two fundamental forms of development: <i>blastic</i> conidiogenesis, where the spore is already evident before it separates from the conidiogenic hypha, and <i>thallic</i> conidiogenesis, during which a cross-wall forms and the newly created cell develops into a spore. The spores may or may not be generated in a large-scale specialized structure that helps to spread them. </p><p>These two basic types can be further classified as follows: </p> <ul><li><i>blastic-acropetal</i> (repeated budding at the tip of the conidiogenic hypha, so that a chain of spores is formed with the youngest spores at the tip),</li> <li><i>blastic-synchronous</i> (simultaneous spore formation from a central cell, sometimes with secondary acropetal chains forming from the initial spores),</li> <li><i>blastic-sympodial</i> (repeated sideways spore formation from behind the leading spore, so that the oldest spore is at the main tip),</li> <li><i>blastic-annellidic</i> (each spore separates and leaves a ring-shaped scar inside the scar left by the previous spore),</li> <li><i>blastic-phialidic</i> (the spores arise and are ejected from the open ends of special conidiogenic cells called <a href="/wiki/Phialide" title="Phialide">phialides</a>, which remain constant in length),</li> <li><i>basauxic</i> (where a chain of conidia, in successively younger stages of development, is emitted from the mother cell),</li> <li><i>blastic-retrogressive</i> (spores separate by formation of crosswalls near the tip of the conidiogenic hypha, which thus becomes progressively shorter),</li> <li><i>thallic-arthric</i> (double cell walls split the conidiogenic hypha into cells that develop into short, cylindrical spores called <i>arthroconidia</i>; sometimes every second cell dies off, leaving the arthroconidia free),</li> <li><i>thallic-solitary</i> (a large bulging cell separates from the conidiogenic hypha, forms internal walls, and develops to a <i>phragmospore</i>).</li></ul> <p>Sometimes the conidia are produced in structures visible to the naked eye, which help to distribute the spores. These structures are called "conidiomata" (singular: <a href="/wiki/Conidium" title="Conidium">conidioma</a>), and may take the form of <i><a href="/wiki/Pycnidium" title="Pycnidium">pycnidia</a></i> (which are flask-shaped and arise in the fungal tissue) or <i>acervuli</i> (which are cushion-shaped and arise in host tissue). </p><p>Dehiscence happens in two ways. In <i>schizolytic</i> dehiscence, a double-dividing wall with a central lamella (layer) forms between the cells; the central layer then breaks down thereby releasing the spores. In <i><a href="/wiki/Rhexolytic" title="Rhexolytic">rhexolytic</a></i> dehiscence, the cell wall that joins the spores on the outside degenerates and releases the conidia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heterokaryosis_and_parasexuality">Heterokaryosis and parasexuality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Heterokaryosis and parasexuality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several Ascomycota species are not known to have a sexual cycle. Such asexual species may be able to undergo genetic recombination between individuals by processes involving <i>heterokaryosis</i> and <i>parasexual</i> events. </p><p>Parasexuality refers to the process of heterokaryosis,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> caused by merging of two hyphae belonging to different individuals, by a process called <i><a href="/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">anastomosis</a></i>, followed by a series of events resulting in genetically different <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nuclei</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">mycelium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The merging of nuclei is not followed by <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiotic events</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a> formation and results in an increased number of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> per nuclei. <i><a href="/wiki/Mitotic_crossover" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitotic crossover">Mitotic crossover</a></i> may enable <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">recombination</a>, i.e., an exchange of genetic material between <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a>. The chromosome number may then be restored to its <a href="/wiki/Ploidy#Haploid_and_monoploid" title="Ploidy">haploid</a> state by <a href="/wiki/Telophase" title="Telophase">nuclear division</a>, with each daughter nuclei being genetically different from the original parent nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, nuclei may lose some chromosomes, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Aneuploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aneuploid">aneuploid</a> cells. <i>Candida albicans</i> (class Saccharomycetes) is an example of a fungus that has a parasexual cycle (see <a href="/wiki/Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasexual_cycle" title="Parasexual cycle">Parasexual cycle</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_reproduction">Sexual reproduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sexual reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypocrea_virens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Hypocrea_virens.jpg" decoding="async" width="115" height="401" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="115" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Ascus of <i>Hypocrea virens</i> with eight two-celled Ascospores</figcaption></figure> <p>Sexual reproduction in the Ascomycota leads to the formation of the <i>ascus</i>, the structure that defines this fungal group and distinguishes it from other fungal phyla. The ascus is a tube-shaped vessel, a <i>meiosporangium</i>, which contains the sexual spores produced by <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> and which are called <i>ascospores</i>. </p><p>Apart from a few exceptions, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a></i>, most ascomycetes are <a href="/wiki/Ploidy#Haploid_and_monoploid" title="Ploidy">haploid</a>, i.e., they contain one set of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> per nucleus. During sexual reproduction there is a <a href="/wiki/Ploidy#Diploid" title="Ploidy">diploid</a> phase, which commonly is very short, and meiosis restores the haploid state. The sexual cycle of one well-studied representative species of Ascomycota is described in greater detail in <i><a href="/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></i>. Also, the adaptive basis for the maintenance of sexual reproduction in the Ascomycota <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> was reviewed by Wallen and Perlin.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29619017_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29619017-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They concluded that the most plausible reason for the maintenance of this capability is the benefit of <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">repairing DNA damage</a> by using <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">recombination</a> that occurs during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29619017_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29619017-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DNA damage can be caused by a variety of stresses such as nutrient limitation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Formation_of_sexual_spores">Formation of sexual spores</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Formation of sexual spores"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sexual part of the life cycle commences when two hyphal structures <a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">mate</a>. In the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Homothallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Homothallic">homothallic</a></i> species, mating is enabled between hyphae of the same fungal <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clone</a>, whereas in <i><a href="/wiki/Heterothallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterothallic">heterothallic</a></i> species, the two hyphae must originate from fungal clones that differ genetically, i.e., those that are of a different <a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">mating type</a>. Mating types are typical of the fungi and correspond roughly to the sexes in plants and animals; however one species may have more than two mating types, resulting in sometimes complex <a href="/wiki/Allorecognition#Allorecognition_phenomena" title="Allorecognition">vegetative incompatibility</a> systems. The <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_function_of_mating_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive function of mating type">adaptive function of mating type</a> is discussed in <i><a href="/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gametangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametangia">Gametangia</a> are sexual structures formed from hyphae, and are the generative cells. A very fine hypha, called <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trichogyne" class="extiw" title="wikt:trichogyne">trichogyne</a> emerges from one gametangium, the <i><a href="/wiki/Ascogonium" title="Ascogonium">ascogonium</a></i>, and merges with a gametangium (the <i>antheridium</i>) of the other fungal isolate. The nuclei in the antheridium then migrate into the ascogonium, and <a href="/wiki/Plasmogamy" title="Plasmogamy">plasmogamy</a>—the mixing of the <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a>—occurs. Unlike in animals and plants, plasmogamy is not immediately followed by the merging of the nuclei (called <i><a href="/wiki/Karyogamy" title="Karyogamy">karyogamy</a></i>). Instead, the nuclei from the two hyphae form pairs, initiating the <i>dikaryophase</i> of the sexual cycle, during which time the pairs of nuclei synchronously divide. Fusion of the paired nuclei leads to mixing of the genetic material and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">recombination</a> and is followed by <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>. A similar sexual cycle is present in the <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a> (Rhodophyta). A discarded hypothesis held that a second karyogamy event occurred in the ascogonium prior to ascogeny, resulting in a tetraploid nucleus which divided into four diploid nuclei by meiosis and then into eight haploid nuclei by a supposed process called <a href="/wiki/Brachymeiosis" title="Brachymeiosis">brachymeiosis</a>, but this hypothesis was disproven in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlile_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlile-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypomyces_chrysospermus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Hypomyces_chrysospermus.jpg/150px-Hypomyces_chrysospermus.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Hypomyces_chrysospermus.jpg/225px-Hypomyces_chrysospermus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Hypomyces_chrysospermus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>Unitunicate-inoperculate Asci of <i>Hypomyces chrysospermus</i></figcaption></figure> <p>From the fertilized ascogonium, <i>dinucleate</i> hyphae emerge in which each cell contains two nuclei. These hyphae are called <i>ascogenous</i> or fertile hyphae. They are supported by the vegetative mycelium containing uni– (or mono–) nucleate hyphae, which are sterile. The mycelium containing both sterile and fertile hyphae may grow into fruiting body, the <i><a href="/wiki/Ascocarp" title="Ascocarp">ascocarp</a></i>, which may contain millions of fertile hyphae. </p><p>An ascocarp is the fruiting body of the sexual phase in Ascomycota. There are five morphologically different types of ascocarp, namely: </p> <ul><li>Naked asci: these occur in simple ascomycetes; asci are produced on the organism's surface.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascocarp#Perithecium" title="Ascocarp">Perithecia</a>: Asci are in flask-shaped ascoma (perithecium) with a pore (ostiole) at the top.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascocarp#Cleistothecium" title="Ascocarp">Cleistothecia</a>: The ascocarp (a cleistothecium) is spherical and closed.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascocarp#Apothecium" title="Ascocarp">Apothecia</a>: The asci are in a bowl shaped ascoma (apothecium). These are sometimes called the "cup fungi".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascocarp#Pseudothecium" title="Ascocarp">Pseudothecia</a>: Asci with two layers, produced in pseudothecia that look like perithecia. The ascospores are arranged irregularly.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The sexual structures are formed in the fruiting layer of the ascocarp, the <a href="/wiki/Hymenium" title="Hymenium">hymenium</a>. At one end of ascogenous hyphae, characteristic U-shaped hooks develop, which curve back opposite to the growth direction of the hyphae. The two nuclei contained in the apical part of each hypha divide in such a way that the threads of their <a href="/wiki/Mitotic_spindle" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitotic spindle">mitotic spindles</a> run parallel, creating two pairs of genetically different nuclei. One daughter nucleus migrates close to the hook, while the other daughter nucleus locates to the basal part of the hypha. The formation of two parallel cross-walls then divides the hypha into three sections: one at the hook with one nucleus, one at the basal of the original hypha that contains one nucleus, and one that separates the U-shaped part, which contains the other two nuclei. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ascocarp2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Cross-section of a cup-shaped structure showing locations of developing meiotic asci (upper edge of cup, left side, arrows pointing to two gray-colored cells containing four and two small circles), sterile hyphae (upper edge of cup, right side, arrows pointing to white-colored cells with a single small circle in them), and mature asci (upper edge of cup, pointing to two gray-colored cells with eight small circles in them)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ascocarp2.png/220px-Ascocarp2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ascocarp2.png/330px-Ascocarp2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ascocarp2.png/440px-Ascocarp2.png 2x" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of an <a href="/wiki/Apothecium" class="mw-redirect" title="Apothecium">apothecium</a> (the typical cup-like reproductive structure of ascomycetes) showing sterile tissues as well as developing and mature asci.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fusion of the nuclei (karyogamy) takes place in the U-shaped cells in the hymenium, and results in the formation of a diploid <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>. The zygote grows into the <a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">ascus</a>, an elongated tube-shaped or cylinder-shaped capsule. Meiosis then gives rise to four <a href="/wiki/Ploidy#Haploid_and_monoploid" title="Ploidy">haploid</a> nuclei, usually followed by a further mitotic division that results in eight nuclei in each ascus. The nuclei along with some cytoplasma become enclosed within membranes and a cell wall to give rise to ascospores that are aligned inside the ascus like peas in a pod. </p><p>Upon opening of the ascus, ascospores may be dispersed by the wind, while in some cases the spores are forcibly ejected form the ascus; certain species have evolved spore cannons, which can eject ascospores up to 30 cm. away. When the spores reach a suitable substrate, they germinate, form new hyphae, which restarts the fungal life cycle. </p><p>The form of the ascus is important for classification and is divided into four basic types: unitunicate-operculate, unitunicate-inoperculate, bitunicate, or prototunicate. See the article on <a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">asci</a> for further details. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Ascomycota fulfil a central role in most land-based <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>. They are important <a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">decomposers</a>, breaking down organic materials, such as dead leaves and animals, and helping the <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">detritivores</a> (animals that feed on decomposing material) to obtain their nutrients. Ascomycetes, along with other fungi, can break down large <a href="/wiki/Biopolymer" title="Biopolymer">molecules</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>, and thus have important roles in nutrient cycling such as the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>. </p><p>The fruiting bodies of the Ascomycota provide food for many animals ranging from <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> and slugs and snails (<i><a href="/wiki/Gastropoda" title="Gastropoda">Gastropoda</a></i>) to <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a> and larger mammals such as <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wild_boar" title="Wild boar">wild boars</a>. </p><p>Many ascomycetes also form <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> relationships with other organisms, including plants and animals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lichens">Lichens</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Lichens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">Lichen</a></div> <p>Probably since early in their evolutionary history, the Ascomycota have formed symbiotic associations with <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> (<i>Chlorophyta</i>), and other types of <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>. These mutualistic associations are commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichens</a>, and can grow and persist in terrestrial regions of the earth that are inhospitable to other organisms and characterized by extremes in temperature and humidity, including the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a>, and mountaintops. While the <a href="/wiki/Photoautotroph" title="Photoautotroph">photoautotrophic</a> algal partner generates metabolic energy through photosynthesis, the fungus offers a stable, supportive matrix and protects cells from radiation and dehydration. Around 42% of the Ascomycota (about 18,000 species) form lichens, and almost all the fungal partners of lichens belong to the Ascomycota. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_endophytes">Mycorrhizal fungi and endophytes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mycorrhizal fungi and endophytes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Members of the Ascomycota form two important types of relationship with plants: as <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhizal</a> fungi and as <a href="/wiki/Endophyte" title="Endophyte">endophytes</a>. Mycorrhiza are <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> associations of fungi with the root systems of the plants, which can be of vital importance for growth and persistence for the plant. The fine mycelial network of the fungus enables the increased uptake of mineral salts that occur at low levels in the soil. In return, the plant provides the fungus with metabolic energy in the form of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthetic</a> products. </p><p>Endophytic fungi live inside plants, and those that form mutualistic or <a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensal</a> associations with their host, do not damage their hosts. The exact nature of the relationship between endophytic fungus and host depends on the species involved, and in some cases fungal colonization of plants can bestow a higher resistance against insects, <a href="/wiki/Roundworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworm">roundworms</a> (nematodes), and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>; in the case of <a href="/wiki/Neotyphodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Neotyphodium">grass endophytes</a> the fungal symbiont produces poisonous <a href="/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloids</a>, which can affect the health of plant-eating (herbivorous) <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> and deter or kill insect herbivores.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbiotic_relationships_with_animals">Symbiotic relationships with animals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Symbiotic relationships with animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several ascomycetes of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Xylaria" title="Xylaria">Xylaria</a></i> colonize the nests of <a href="/wiki/Leafcutter_ant" title="Leafcutter ant">leafcutter ants</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Fungus-growing_ants" title="Fungus-growing ants">fungus-growing ants</a> of the tribe <a href="/wiki/Attini" class="mw-redirect" title="Attini">Attini</a>, and the fungal gardens of <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a> (Isoptera). Since they do not generate fruiting bodies until the insects have left the nests, it is suspected that, as confirmed in several cases of <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a> species, they may be cultivated.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2009)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bark_beetle" title="Bark beetle">Bark beetles</a> (family Scolytidae) are important symbiotic partners of ascomycetes. The female beetles transport fungal spores to new hosts in characteristic tucks in their skin, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mycetangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycetangia">mycetangia</a></i>. The beetle tunnels into the wood and into large chambers in which they lay their eggs. Spores released from the mycetangia germinate into hyphae, which can break down the wood. The beetle larvae then feed on the fungal mycelium, and, on reaching maturity, carry new spores with them to renew the cycle of infection. A well-known example of this is <a href="/wiki/Dutch_elm_disease" title="Dutch elm disease">Dutch elm disease</a>, caused by <i><a href="/wiki/Ophiostoma_ulmi" title="Ophiostoma ulmi">Ophiostoma ulmi</a></i>, which is carried by the European elm bark beetle, <i><a href="/wiki/Scolytus_multistriatus" title="Scolytus multistriatus">Scolytus multistriatus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Moser_2010_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moser_2010-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant_disease_interactions">Plant disease interactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Plant disease interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of their most harmful roles is as the agent of many plant diseases. For instance: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_elm_disease" title="Dutch elm disease">Dutch elm disease</a>, caused by the closely related species <i>Ophiostoma ulmi</i> and <i>Ophiostoma novo-ulmi</i>, has led to the death of many elms in Europe and North America.</li> <li>The originally Asian <a href="/wiki/Chestnut_blight" title="Chestnut blight"><i>Cryphonectria parasitica</i></a> is responsible for attacking Sweet Chestnuts (<i><a href="/wiki/Castanea_sativa" class="mw-redirect" title="Castanea sativa">Castanea sativa</a></i>), and virtually eliminated the once-widespread <a href="/wiki/American_Chestnut" class="mw-redirect" title="American Chestnut">American Chestnut</a> (<i>Castanea dentata</i>),</li> <li>A disease of <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> (<i>Zea mays</i>), which is especially prevalent in North America, is brought about by <i><a href="/wiki/Cochliobolus_heterostrophus" title="Cochliobolus heterostrophus">Cochliobolus heterostrophus</a></i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taphrina_deformans" title="Taphrina deformans">Taphrina deformans</a></i> causes <a href="/wiki/Leaf_curl" title="Leaf curl">leaf curl</a> of peach.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uncinula_necator" title="Uncinula necator">Uncinula necator</a></i> is responsible for the disease <a href="/wiki/Powdery_mildew" title="Powdery mildew">powdery mildew</a>, which attacks grapevines.</li> <li>Species of <i><a href="/wiki/Monilinia" title="Monilinia">Monilinia</a></i> cause brown rot of stone fruit such as peaches (<i>Prunus persica</i>) and sour cherries (<i>Prunus ceranus</i>).</li> <li>Members of the Ascomycota such as <i><a href="/wiki/Stachybotrys_chartarum" title="Stachybotrys chartarum">Stachybotrys chartarum</a></i> are responsible for fading of woolen textiles, which is a common problem especially in the tropics.</li> <li>Blue-green, red and brown <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">molds</a> attack and spoil foodstuffs – for instance <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_italicum" title="Penicillium italicum">Penicillium italicum</a></i> rots oranges.</li> <li>Cereals infected with <i><a href="/wiki/Fusarium_graminearum" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusarium graminearum">Fusarium graminearum</a></i> contain <a href="/wiki/Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">mycotoxins</a> like <a href="/wiki/Deoxynivalenol" class="mw-redirect" title="Deoxynivalenol">deoxynivalenol</a> (DON), which causes <a href="/wiki/Fusarium_ear_blight" title="Fusarium ear blight">Fusarium ear blight</a> and skin and mucous membrane lesions when eaten by pigs.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cyclaneusma_needle_cast" title="Cyclaneusma needle cast">Cyclaneusma needle cast</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_disease_interactions">Human disease interactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Human disease interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_fumigatus" title="Aspergillus fumigatus">Aspergillus fumigatus</a></i>, the most common cause of fungal infection in the lungs of immune-compromised patients often resulting in death. Also the most frequent cause of <a href="/wiki/Allergic_bronchopulmonary_aspergillosis" title="Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis">Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis</a>, which often occurs in patients with <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">Cystic fibrosis</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">Asthma</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a></i>, a yeast that attacks the mucous membranes, can cause an infection of the mouth or vagina called thrush or <a href="/wiki/Candidiasis" title="Candidiasis">candidiasis</a>, and is also blamed for "yeast allergies".</li> <li>Fungi like <i><a href="/wiki/Epidermophyton" title="Epidermophyton">Epidermophyton</a></i> cause skin infections but are not very dangerous for people with healthy immune systems. However, if the immune system is damaged they can be life-threatening; for instance, <i><a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis_jirovecii" title="Pneumocystis jirovecii">Pneumocystis jirovecii</a></i> is responsible for severe lung infections that occur in <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> patients.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergot" title="Ergot">Ergot</a> (<i>Claviceps purpurea</i>) is a direct menace to humans when it attacks wheat or rye and produces highly poisonous <a href="/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloids</a>, causing <a href="/wiki/Ergotism" title="Ergotism">ergotism</a> if consumed. Symptoms include hallucinations, stomach cramps, and a burning sensation in the limbs ("<a href="/wiki/Ergotism" title="Ergotism">Saint Anthony's Fire</a>").</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_flavus" title="Aspergillus flavus">Aspergillus flavus</a></i>, which grows on peanuts and other hosts, generates <a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">aflatoxin</a>, which damages the liver and is highly carcinogenic.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Histoplasma_capsulatum" title="Histoplasma capsulatum">Histoplasma capsulatum</a></i> causes histoplasmosis, which affects immunocompromised patients.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blastomyces_dermatitidis" title="Blastomyces dermatitidis">Blastomyces dermatitidis</a></i> is the causal agent of blastomycosis, an invasive and often serious fungal infection found occasionally in humans and other animals in regions where the fungus is endemic.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paracoccidioides_brasiliensis" title="Paracoccidioides brasiliensis">Paracoccidioides brasiliensis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Paracoccidioides_lutzii" title="Paracoccidioides lutzii">Paracoccidioides lutzii</a></i> are the causal agents of <a href="/wiki/Paracoccidioidomycosis" title="Paracoccidioidomycosis">paracoccidioidomycosis</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coccidioides_immitis" title="Coccidioides immitis">Coccidioides immitis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Coccidioides_posadasii" title="Coccidioides posadasii">Coccidioides posadasii</a></i> are the causative agent of <a href="/wiki/Coccidioidomycosis" title="Coccidioidomycosis">coccidioidomycosis</a> (valley fever).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Talaromyces_marneffei" title="Talaromyces marneffei">Talaromyces marneffei</a></i>, formerly called <i>Penicillium marneffei</i> causes <a href="/wiki/Talaromycosis" title="Talaromycosis">talaromycosis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beneficial_effects_for_humans">Beneficial effects for humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Beneficial effects for humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the other hand, ascus fungi have brought some significant benefits to humanity. </p> <ul><li>The most famous case may be that of the mold <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_chrysogenum" title="Penicillium chrysogenum">Penicillium chrysogenum</a></i> (formerly <i>Penicillium notatum</i>), which, probably to attack competing bacteria, produces an antibiotic that, under the name of <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>, triggered a revolution in the treatment of bacterial infectious diseases in the 20th century.</li> <li>The medical importance of <i><a href="/wiki/Tolypocladium_niveum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolypocladium niveum">Tolypocladium niveum</a></i> as an <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">immunosuppressor</a> can hardly be exaggerated. It excretes <a href="/wiki/Ciclosporin" title="Ciclosporin">Ciclosporin</a>, which, as well as being given during <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Organ transplantation</a> to prevent rejection, is also prescribed for auto-immune diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a>. However, there is some doubt over the long-term side effects of the treatment.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg/180px-Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg/270px-Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg/360px-Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="903" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Stilton cheese veined with <i>Penicillium roqueforti</i></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Some ascomycete fungi can be easily altered through <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> procedures. They can then produce useful proteins such as <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_growth_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Human growth hormone">human growth hormone</a>, or TPa, which is employed to dissolve blood clots.</li> <li>Several species are common <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organisms</a> in biology, including <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></i>. The <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a> of some ascomycete fungi have been fully sequenced.</li> <li>Baker's Yeast (<i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i>) is used to make <a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>, during which process sugars such as <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> are fermented to make <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. Bakers use the yeast for carbon dioxide production, causing the bread to rise, with the ethanol boiling off during cooking. Most vintners use it for ethanol production, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere during fermentation. Brewers and traditional producers of <a href="/wiki/Sparkling_wine" title="Sparkling wine">sparkling wine</a> use both, with a primary fermentation for the alcohol and a secondary one to produce the carbon dioxide bubbles that provide the drinks with a "sparkling" texture in the case of wine and the desirable foam in the case of beer.</li> <li>Enzymes of <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_camemberti" title="Penicillium camemberti">Penicillium camemberti</a></i> play a role in the manufacture of the cheeses <a href="/wiki/Camembert" title="Camembert">Camembert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brie" title="Brie">Brie</a>, while those of <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_roqueforti" title="Penicillium roqueforti">Penicillium roqueforti</a></i> do the same for <a href="/wiki/Gorgonzola_(cheese)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorgonzola (cheese)">Gorgonzola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roquefort" title="Roquefort">Roquefort</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stilton_cheese" title="Stilton cheese">Stilton</a>.</li> <li>In Asia, <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_oryzae" title="Aspergillus oryzae">Aspergillus oryzae</a></i> is added to a pulp of soaked soya beans to make <a href="/wiki/Soy_sauce" title="Soy sauce">soy sauce</a> and is used to break down starch in rice and other grains into simple sugars for fermentation into East Asian alcoholic beverages such as <a href="/wiki/Huangjiu" title="Huangjiu">huangjiu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sake" title="Sake">sake</a>.</li> <li>Finally, some members of the Ascomycota are choice edibles; <a href="/wiki/Morchella" title="Morchella">morels</a> (<i>Morchella spp.</i>), <a href="/wiki/Truffle" title="Truffle">truffles</a> (<i>Tuber spp.</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Hypomyces_lactifluorum" title="Hypomyces lactifluorum">lobster mushroom</a> (<i>Hypomyces lactifluorum</i>) are some of the most sought-after fungal delicacies.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordyceps_militaris" title="Cordyceps militaris">Cordyceps militaris</a> is known for its numerous medicinal benefits, including supporting the immune system, reducing inflammation, providing antioxidant effects, enhancing metabolic health, improving athletic performance, and promoting respiratory health. It contains bioactive compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Cordycepin" title="Cordycepin">cordycepin</a>, cordycepic acid, <a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">adenosine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta-glucan" title="Beta-glucan">beta-glucans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ergosterol" title="Ergosterol">ergosterol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ascomycota_families_incertae_sedis" title="List of Ascomycota families incertae sedis">List of Ascomycota families <i>incertae sedis</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ascomycota_genera_incertae_sedis" title="List of Ascomycota genera incertae sedis">List of Ascomycota genera <i>incertae sedis</i></a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ascomycota&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Antimicrobial%2C+antioxidant%2C+anti-inflammatory%2C+and+cytotoxic+activities+of+Cordyceps+militaris+spent+substrate&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=e0291363&rft.date=2023-09-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10490986%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37682981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0291363&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023PLoSO..1891363Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Danyu&rft.au=Tang%2C+Qingjiu&rft.au=He%2C+Xianzhe&rft.au=Wang%2C+Yipeng&rft.au=Zhu%2C+Guangyong&rft.au=Yu%2C+Ling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10490986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAscomycota" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cited_texts">Cited texts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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Guildford, UK: Bios Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85996-150-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85996-150-6"><bdi>978-1-85996-150-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fungal+Biology%3A+Understanding+the+Fungal+Lifestyle&rft.place=Guildford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Bios+Scientific&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-85996-150-6&rft.aulast=Jennings&rft.aufirst=DH&rft.au=Lysek%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAscomycota" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008" class="citation book cs1">Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). <i>Dictionary of the Fungi</i> (10th ed.). Wallingford: CABI. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85199-826-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85199-826-8"><bdi>978-0-85199-826-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Fungi&rft.place=Wallingford&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=CABI&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-85199-826-8&rft.aulast=Kirk&rft.aufirst=PM&rft.au=Cannon%2C+PF&rft.au=Minter%2C+DW&rft.au=Stalpers%2C+JA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAscomycota" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorTaylor1993" class="citation book cs1">Taylor EL, Taylor TN (1993). <i>The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants</i>. Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-651589-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-651589-4"><bdi>0-13-651589-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biology+and+Evolution+of+Fossil+Plants&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-13-651589-4&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=EL&rft.au=Taylor%2C+TN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAscomycota" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Amorphea219" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-21px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Amoebozoa13" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discosea" title="Discosea">Discosea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubulinea" title="Tubulinea">Tubulinea</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Eumycetozoa" title="Eumycetozoa">Eumycetozoa</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variosea" class="mw-redirect" title="Variosea">Variosea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archamoebea" class="mw-redirect" title="Archamoebea">Archamoebea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutosea" title="Cutosea">Cutosea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">   <a href="/wiki/Obazoa" title="Obazoa">Obazoa</a>   </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadidae" title="Apusomonadidae">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Opisthokonta" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthokonta">Opisthokonta</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Holomycota14" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Holomycota" title="Holomycota">Holomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cristidiscoidea" title="Cristidiscoidea">Rotosphaerida</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></b>¹</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-32px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">   <a href="/wiki/Holozoa" title="Holozoa">Holozoa</a>   </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tunicaraptor" title="Tunicaraptor">Tunicaraptor</a></i></li> <li>†<i><a href="/wiki/Bicellum" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicellum">Bicellum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyosporea" title="Ichthyosporea">Ichthyosporea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluriformea" title="Pluriformea">Pluriformea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Filozoa" title="Filozoa">Filozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filasterea" title="Filasterea">Filasterea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Choanozoa" title="Choanozoa">Choanozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellata</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></b>¹</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;"><span style="margin:-34px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centroplasthelida" class="mw-redirect" title="Centroplasthelida">Centroplasthelida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">Haptophyta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">    <a href="/wiki/TSAR" class="mw-redirect" title="TSAR">TSAR</a>    </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">     <a href="/wiki/SAR_supergroup" title="SAR supergroup">SAR</a>     </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomyxa" title="Endomyxa">Endomyxa</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">Foraminifera</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Radiolaria" title="Radiolaria">Radiolaria</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colponemida" class="mw-redirect" title="Colponemida">Colponemida</a>*</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80); vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/Myzozoa" title="Myzozoa">Myzozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexa</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrompodellid" title="Chrompodellid">Chrompodellida</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellata</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkinsozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkinsozoa">Perkinsozoa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Platysulcus" title="Platysulcus">Platysulcus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Bigyra" title="Bigyra">Bigyra</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicosoecea" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicosoecea">Bicosoecida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placidozoa" title="Placidozoa">Placidozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagenista" title="Sagenista">Sagenista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Gyrista" title="Gyrista">Gyrista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Developea" class="mw-redirect" title="Developea">Developea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirsoniales" class="mw-redirect" title="Pirsoniales">Pirsoniales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphochytriomycetes" title="Hyphochytriomycetes">Hyphochytriomycetes</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ochrophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochrophyta">Ochrophyta</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Oomycetes">Oomycetes</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinophryida" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinophryida">Actinophryida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">     <a href="/wiki/CAM_clade" class="mw-redirect" title="CAM clade">CAM</a>     </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Pancryptista" title="Pancryptista">Pancryptista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Microheliella" title="Microheliella">Microheliella</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Palpitomonas" title="Palpitomonas">Palpitomonas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptophyta">Cryptophyta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picozoa" title="Picozoa">Picozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodelphidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodelphidia">Rhodelphidia</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></b></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Viridiplantae(Plants_sensu_lato)146" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Plant#Alternative_concepts" title="Plant">Plants <i>sensu lato</i></a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prasinodermophyta" title="Prasinodermophyta">Prasinodermophyta</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></b></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Streptophyta16" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Streptophyta" title="Streptophyta">Streptophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chlorokybus" title="Chlorokybus">Chlorokybus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mesostigma" title="Mesostigma">Mesostigma</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klebsormidiophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Klebsormidiophyceae">Klebsormidiophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyceae" title="Charophyceae">Charophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coleochaetophyceae" title="Coleochaetophyceae">Coleochaetophyceae</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Zygnematophyceae" title="Zygnematophyceae">Zygnematophyceae</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Embryophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophyta">Embryophyta</a></b>¹</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;"><span style="margin:-23px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavates</a>*</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jakobida" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobida">Jakobida</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tsukubamonas" title="Tsukubamonas">Tsukubamonas</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Discicristata" title="Discicristata">Discicristata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heterolobosea" title="Heterolobosea">Heterolobosea</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Barthelona" title="Barthelona">Barthelona</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anaeramoebae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anaeramoebae (page does not exist)">Anaeramoebae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaeromonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaeromonada">Anaeromonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fornicata" class="mw-redirect" title="Fornicata">Fornicata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabasalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parabasalia">Parabasalia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonadidae" title="Malawimonadidae">Malawimonadidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imasidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Imasidae">Imasidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.0em;"><span style="margin:-31px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Acritarch" title="Acritarch">Acritarchs</a></li> <li>†<i><a href="/wiki/Grypania" title="Grypania">Grypania</a></i></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Gunflint_chert" title="Gunflint chert">Gunflint microbiota</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Chitinozoan" title="Chitinozoan">Chitinozoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meteora_sporadica" title="Meteora sporadica">Meteora sporadica</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hemimastigophora47" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spironematellidae" title="Spironematellidae">Spironematellidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramastigidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramastigidae">Paramastigidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancyromonadidae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ancyromonadidae (page does not exist)">Ancyromonadidae</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planomonadidae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Planomonadidae (page does not exist)">Planomonadidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collodictyonidae" title="Collodictyonidae">Collodictyonidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantamonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantamonadida">Mantamonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigifilida" title="Rigifilida">Rigifilida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>¹traditional <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdoms</a> excluded from <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a></li> <li>*<a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> groups</li> <li><b>bold</b> denotes groups with over 1,000 species</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Opisthokont:_True_fungi_classification,_fungal_orders1079" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fungi_classification" title="Template talk:Fungi classification"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fungi classification"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Opisthokont:_True_fungi_classification,_fungal_orders1079" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">Opisthokont</a>: <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">True fungi</a> classification, <a href="/wiki/List_of_fungal_orders" title="List of fungal orders">fungal orders</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification">Bacteria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rozellomyceta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cryptomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptomycota">Rozellomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rozellomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rozellomycetes (page does not exist)">Rozellomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microsporidia" title="Microsporidia">Microsporidiomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Morellosporales</li> <li>Nucleophagales</li> <li>Paramicrosporidiales</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Microsporidia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiopsidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Chytridiopsidea">Chytridiopsidea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metchnikovellea" class="mw-redirect" title="Metchnikovellea">Metchnikovellea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsporea" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporea">Microsporea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aphelidiomyceta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Aphelidiomycota19" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aphelidiomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphelidiomycota">Aphelidiomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aphelida" title="Aphelida">Aphelidea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eumycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eumycota">Eumycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zoospore" title="Zoospore">Zoosporic</a> fungi<br />(paraphyletic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocallimastigomycetes">Neocallimastigomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Monoblepharomycota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Monoblepharomycota (page does not exist)">Monoblepharomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyaloraphidiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyaloraphidiomycetes">Hyaloraphidiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoblepharidomycetes" title="Monoblepharidomycetes">Monoblepharidomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>?<a href="/w/index.php?title=Caulochytriomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caulochytriomycetes (page does not exist)">Caulochytriomycetes</a></li> <li>?<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coenomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coenomycetes (page does not exist)">Coenomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanchytriomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sanchytriomycetes (page does not exist)">Sanchytriomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycetes" title="Chytridiomycetes">Chytridiomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physodermatomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Physodermatomycetes">Physodermatomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastocladiomycetes">Blastocladiomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a><br />(paraphyletic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Olpidiomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Olpidiomycota">Olpidiomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olpidiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Olpidiomycetes">Olpidiomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basidiobolomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidiobolomycota">Basidiobolomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basidiobolomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidiobolomycetes">Basidiobolomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Entomophthoromycota" title="Entomophthoromycota">Entomophthoromycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neozygitomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neozygitomycetes">Neozygitomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomophthoromycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Entomophthoromycetes">Entomophthoromycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kickxellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Kickxellomycota">Kickxellomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoopagomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoopagomycetes">Zoopagomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimargaritomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimargaritomycetes">Dimargaritomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ramicandelaberomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ramicandelaberomycetes (page does not exist)">Ramicandelaberomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kickxellomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kickxellomycetes">Kickxellomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mortierellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortierellomycota">Mortierellomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortierellomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortierellomycetes">Mortierellomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Calcarisporiellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcarisporiellomycota">Calcarisporiellomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcarisporiellomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcarisporiellomycetes">Calcarisporiellomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mucoromycota" title="Mucoromycota">Mucoromycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endogonomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogonomycetes">Endogonomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucoromycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucoromycetes">Mucoromycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palaeovesiarbusmycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Palaeovesiarbusmycetes (page does not exist)">Palaeovesiarbusmycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraglomeromycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paraglomeromycetes (page does not exist)">Paraglomeromycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeosporomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archaeosporomycetes (page does not exist)">Archaeosporomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Glomeromycetes">Glomeromycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dikarya" title="Dikarya">Dikarya</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Entorrhizomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Entorrhizomycota">Entorrhizomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entorrhizomycetes" title="Entorrhizomycetes">Entorrhizomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ascomycota</a><br />(sac fungi)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycotina" title="Taphrinomycotina">Taphrinomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeorhizomycetes" title="Archaeorhizomycetes">Archaeorhizomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolecta" title="Neolecta">Neolectomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novakomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Novakomycetes (page does not exist)">Novakomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumocystis">Pneumocystidomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomycetes" title="Schizosaccharomycetes">Schizosaccharomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycetes" title="Taphrinomycetes">Taphrinomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycotina" title="Saccharomycotina">Saccharomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alloascoideomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alloascoideomycetes (page does not exist)">Alloascoideomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dipodascomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dipodascomycetes (page does not exist)">Dipodascomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lipomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lipomycetes (page does not exist)">Lipomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pichiomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pichiomycetes (page does not exist)">Pichiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycetes" title="Saccharomycetes">Saccharomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sporopachydermiomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sporopachydermiomycetes (page does not exist)">Sporopachydermiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trigonopsidomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trigonopsidomycetes (page does not exist)">Trigonopsidomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pezizomycotina" title="Pezizomycotina">Pezizomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbiliomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbiliomycetes">Orbiliomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pezizomycetes" title="Pezizomycetes">Pezizomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dothideomyceta" class="mw-redirect" title="Dothideomyceta">Dothideomyceta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candelariomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Candelariomycetes">Candelariomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coniocybomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniocybomycetes">Coniocybomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichinomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichinomycetes">Lichinomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthoniomycetes" title="Arthoniomycetes">Arthoniomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collemopsidiomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collemopsidiomycetes (page does not exist)">Collemopsidiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dothideomycetes" title="Dothideomycetes">Dothideomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurotiomycetes" title="Eurotiomycetes">Eurotiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecanoromycetes" title="Lecanoromycetes">Lecanoromycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xylobotryomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xylobotryomycetes (page does not exist)">Xylobotryomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sordariomyceta" class="mw-redirect" title="Sordariomyceta">Sordariomyceta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xylonomycetes" title="Xylonomycetes">Xylonomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglossomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoglossomycetes">Geoglossomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leotiomycetes" title="Leotiomycetes">Leotiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboulbeniomycetes" title="Laboulbeniomycetes">Laboulbeniomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sareomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sareomycetes (page does not exist)">Sareomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sordariomycetes" title="Sordariomycetes">Sordariomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a><br />(with <a href="/wiki/Basidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidia">basidia</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pucciniomycotina" title="Pucciniomycotina">Pucciniomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritirachiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tritirachiomycetes">Tritirachiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixiomycetes" title="Mixiomycetes">Mixiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agaricostilbomycetes" title="Agaricostilbomycetes">Agaricostilbomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cystobasidiomycetes" title="Cystobasidiomycetes">Cystobasidiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbotryomycetes" title="Microbotryomycetes">Microbotryomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classiculomycetes" title="Classiculomycetes">Classiculomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomycocolacomycetes" title="Cryptomycocolacomycetes">Cryptomycocolacomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atractiellomycetes" title="Atractiellomycetes">Atractiellomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiculogloeomycetes" title="Spiculogloeomycetes">Spiculogloeomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pucciniomycetes" title="Pucciniomycetes">Pucciniomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ustilaginomycotina" title="Ustilaginomycotina">Ustilaginomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peribolosporomycetes" title="Peribolosporomycetes">Peribolosporomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monilielliomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Monilielliomycetes">Monilielliomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malasseziomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Malasseziomycetes">Malasseziomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ustilaginomycetes" title="Ustilaginomycetes">Ustilaginomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exobasidiomycetes" title="Exobasidiomycetes">Exobasidiomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Agaricomycotina" title="Agaricomycotina">Agaricomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacrymycetales" title="Dacrymycetales">Dacrymycetales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agaricomycetes" title="Agaricomycetes">Agaricomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallemiomycetes" title="Wallemiomycetes">Wallemiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartheletiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartheletiomycetes">Bartheletiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremellomycetes" title="Tremellomycetes">Tremellomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <a href="/wiki/Fungi_imperfecti" title="Fungi imperfecti">fungi imperfecti</a> (polyphyletic group).</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain41" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_on_Earth" title="Template talk:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain41" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> phyla/divisions by domain</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bacteria12" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneolota" class="mw-redirect" title="Balneolota">Balneolota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacteraceae" title="Deferribacteraceae">Deferribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomus_thermophilum" title="Dictyoglomus thermophilum">Dictyoglomota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota">Fusobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteriota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteriota">Ignavibacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiritimatiellota" title="Kiritimatiellota">Kiritimatiellota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerota" title="Lentisphaerota">Lentisphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasmatota" title="Mycoplasmatota">Mycoplasmatota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermota">Rhodothermota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermomicrobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermomicrobiota">Thermomicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaea11" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota">Euryarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Korarchaeota" title="Korarchaeota">Korarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota">Nanoarchaeota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrososphaerota" title="Nitrososphaerota">Nitrososphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota">Thermoproteota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_Richmond_Mine_acidophilic_nanoorganisms" title="Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms">Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Apusomonadida">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakobea" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobea">Jakobea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ascomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthocerotophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthocerotophyta">Anthocerotophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Moss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">Lycopodiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">Pteridophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Flatworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotricha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotricha">Gastrotricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulida">Gnathostomulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micrognathozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrognathozoa">Micrognathozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers3266" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers3266" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Ascomycota</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174726" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q174726">Q174726</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Australian_online_fauna_%26_flora_databases" title="Australian online fauna & flora databases">AusLichen</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.biodiversity.org.au/name/lichen/30016185">30016185</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">BioLib: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id14900">14900</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System" title="Barcode of Life Data System">BOLD</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bench.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_TaxonPage?taxid=34">34</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/5577">5577</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1ASCOP">1ASCOP</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/95">95</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/48250">48250</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Index_Fungorum" title="Index Fungorum">IndexFungorum</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90031">90031</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=610624">610624</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/MycoBank" title="MycoBank">MycoBank</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mycobank.org/MB/90031">90031</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=4890">4890</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">NZOR: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/7779fd79-e0d0-4f73-90fe-de1892b2e1a0">7779fd79-e0d0-4f73-90fe-de1892b2e1a0</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=439373">439373</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=212606">212606</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">PPE: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bladmineerders.nl/parasites/fungi/ascomycota/">ascomycota</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Index_Fungorum" title="Index Fungorum">SpeciesFungorum</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90031">90031</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Tropicos" title="Tropicos">Tropicos</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tropicos.org/name/100364589">100364589</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=21891">21891</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1470" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174726#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4179699-8">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85008564">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ascomycètes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11946056r">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ascomycètes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11946056r">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="vřeckaté houby"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116689&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000347743&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007295764205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: 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