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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">skuif na kantbalk</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">versteek</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigasie </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Tuisblad" title="Besoek die Tuisblad [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Tuisblad</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Gebruikersportaal" title="Meer oor die projek, wat jy kan doen, nuttige skakels"><span>Gebruikersportaal</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Geselshoekie" title="Agtergrondinligting oor aktuele sake"><span>Geselshoekie</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Onlangse_wysigings" title="'n Lys van onlangse wysigings [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Onlangse wysigings</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Lukraak" title="Laai 'n lukrake bladsye [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Lukrake bladsy</span></a></li><li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Contents" title="Vind meer uit oor iets"><span>Hulp</span></a></li><li id="n-Sandput" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Sandput"><span>Sandput</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Tuisblad" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" 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</ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Voorkoms"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Voorkoms" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Voorkoms</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_af.wikipedia.org&uselang=af" class=""><span>Skenkings</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:SkepRekening&returnto=Mikroskoop" title="U word aangemoedig om 'n gebruiker te skep en aan te meld, hoewel dit nie verpligtend is nie." class=""><span>Skep gebruiker</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:Teken_in&returnto=Mikroskoop" title="U word aangemoedig om aan te meld. Dit is egter nie verpligtend nie. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Meld aan</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Meer opsies" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Persoonlike gereedskap" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Persoonlike gereedskap</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_af.wikipedia.org&uselang=af"><span>Skenkings</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:SkepRekening&returnto=Mikroskoop" title="U word aangemoedig om 'n gebruiker te skep en aan te meld, hoewel dit nie verpligtend is nie."><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Skep gebruiker</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:Teken_in&returnto=Mikroskoop" title="U word aangemoedig om aan te meld. Dit is egter nie verpligtend nie. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Meld aan</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Bladsye vir uitgemelde redakteurs <a href="/wiki/Hulp:Inleiding" aria-label="Leer meer oor redigering"><span>leer meer</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Mybydrae" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Bydraes</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Mybespreking" title="Bespreking oor bydraes van hierdie IP-adres [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Bespreking</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Werf"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Inhoud" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Inhoud</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">skuif na kantbalk</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">versteek</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Inleiding</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Optiese_mikroskoop" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optiese_mikroskoop"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Optiese mikroskoop</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Optiese_mikroskoop-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Wissel Optiese mikroskoop subafdeling</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Optiese_mikroskoop-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geskiedenis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geskiedenis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Geskiedenis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geskiedenis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voorbereidingstegnieke" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voorbereidingstegnieke"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Voorbereidingstegnieke</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voorbereidingstegnieke-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verligting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verligting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Verligting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verligting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skeidingsvermoë" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skeidingsvermoë"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Skeidingsvermoë</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skeidingsvermoë-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fasekontras-_en_interferensiemikroskoop" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fasekontras-_en_interferensiemikroskoop"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Fasekontras- en interferensiemikroskoop</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fasekontras-_en_interferensiemikroskoop-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elektronmikroskoop" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elektronmikroskoop"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Elektronmikroskoop</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Elektronmikroskoop-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Wissel Elektronmikroskoop subafdeling</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Elektronmikroskoop-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Konstruksie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Konstruksie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Konstruksie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Konstruksie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voorbereidingstegnieke_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voorbereidingstegnieke_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Voorbereidingstegnieke</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voorbereidingstegnieke_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftastingsmikroskoop" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftastingsmikroskoop"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Aftastingsmikroskoop</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftastingsmikroskoop-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sien_ook" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sien_ook"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sien ook</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sien_ook-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronnellys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronnellys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Bronnellys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronnellys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eksterne_skakels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eksterne_skakels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Eksterne skakels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eksterne_skakels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Inhoud" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Wissel die inhoudsopgawe" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Wissel die inhoudsopgawe</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mikroskoop</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Gaan na 'n artikel in 'n ander taal. Beskikbaar in 128 tale" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-128" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">128 tale</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Амикроскоп – Abkasies" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Амикроскоп" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkasies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Аԥсшәа</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopio" title="Microscopio – Aragonees" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Microscopio" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%B1" title="مجهر – Arabies" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مجهر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0" title="অণুবীক্ষণ যন্ত্ৰ – Assamees" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="অণুবীক্ষণ যন্ত্ৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopiu" title="Microscopiu – Asturies" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Microscopiu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Azerbeidjans" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbeidjans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Baskir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Baskir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskopyo" title="Mikroskopyo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Mikroskopyo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Мікраскоп – Belarussies" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мікраскоп" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarussies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Мікраскоп – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мікраскоп" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A8k%C3%A8r_kuman" title="Kèkèr kuman – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Kèkèr kuman" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Bulgaars" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgaars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8" title="खुर्दबीन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="खुर्दबीन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B2%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9E%E1%80%80%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="မုဲက်ခရိုသကိုပ် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="မုဲက်ခရိုသကိုပ်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="অণুবীক্ষণ যন্ত্র – Bengaals" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অণুবীক্ষণ যন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bengaals" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Bosnies" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopi" title="Microscopi – Katalaans" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Microscopi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Katalaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C4%93ng-m%C3%AC-gi%C3%A1ng" title="Hiēng-mì-giáng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hiēng-mì-giáng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86" title="وردبین – Sorani" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="وردبین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Sorani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Tsjeggies" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Tsjeggies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrosk%C3%B2p" title="Mikroskòp – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Mikroskòp" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsgop" title="Microsgop – Wallies" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Microsgop" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Wallies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Deens" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Deens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Duits" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="Duits" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Μικροσκόπιο – Grieks" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μικροσκόπιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Grieks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope – Engels" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Microscope" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="Engels" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskopo" title="Mikroskopo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mikroskopo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopio" title="Microscopio – Spaans" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Microscopio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskoop" title="Mikroskoop – Estnies" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mikroskoop" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estnies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskopio" title="Mikroskopio – Baskies" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mikroskopio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Baskies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%BE" title="میکروسکوپ – Persies" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میکروسکوپ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskooppi" title="Mikroskooppi – Fins" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mikroskooppi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Fins" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4hk%C3%BCsilm" title="Lähküsilm – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Lähküsilm" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope – Frans" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Microscope" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="Frans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskoop" title="Mikroskoop – Fries" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Mikroskoop" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Fries" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A1%AF%E5%BE%AE%E9%8F%A1" title="顯微鏡 – Gan-Sjinees" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="顯微鏡" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskopi" title="Mikroskopi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Mikroskopi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopio" title="Microscopio – Galisies" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Microscopio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galisies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mynreayrtan" title="Mynreayrtan – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Mynreayrtan" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C3%A9n-m%C3%AC-kiang" title="Hién-mì-kiang – Hakka-Sjinees" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Hién-mì-kiang" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4" title="מיקרוסקופ – Hebreeus" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מיקרוסקופ" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebreeus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80" title="सूक्ष्मदर्शी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सूक्ष्मदर्शी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Kroaties" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Kroaties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikwosk%C3%B2p" title="Mikwoskòp – Haïtiaans" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Mikwoskòp" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haïtiaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroszk%C3%B3p" title="Mikroszkóp – Hongaars" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mikroszkóp" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hongaars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Մանրադիտակ – Armeens" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մանրադիտակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armeens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopio" title="Microscopio – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Microscopio" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Indonesies" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskopo" title="Mikroskopo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mikroskopo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sm%C3%A1sj%C3%A1" title="Smásjá – Yslands" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Smásjá" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Yslands" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopio" title="Microscopio – Italiaans" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Microscopio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italiaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A1%95%E5%BE%AE%E9%8F%A1" title="顕微鏡 – Japannees" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="顕微鏡" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japannees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maikroskuop" title="Maikroskuop – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Maikroskuop" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Javaans" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98" title="მიკროსკოპი – Georgies" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მიკროსკოპი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Microscope" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Kazaks" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazaks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8D" title="មីក្រូទស្សន៍ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="មីក្រូទស្សន៍" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE_%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%95" title="ಸೂಕ್ಷ್ಮ ದರ್ಶಕ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸೂಕ್ಷ್ಮ ದರ್ಶಕ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%84%EB%AF%B8%EA%B2%BD" title="현미경 – Koreaans" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="현미경" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Koreaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%AEkroskop" title="Mîkroskop – Koerdies" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mîkroskop" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Koerdies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Kirgisies" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kirgisies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopium" title="Microscopium – Latyn" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Microscopium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Luxemburgs" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxemburgs" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscoap" title="Microscoap – Limburgs" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Microscoap" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgs" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Microscope" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskopas" title="Mikroskopas – Litaus" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mikroskopas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Litaus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskops" title="Mikroskops – Letties" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mikroskops" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Letties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikraoskaopy" title="Mikraoskaopy – Malgassies" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Mikraoskaopy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malgassies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Masedonies" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Masedonies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF" title="സൂക്ഷ്മദർശിനി – Malabaars" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സൂക്ഷ്മദർശിനി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malabaars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%95" title="सूक्ष्मदर्शक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सूक्ष्मदर्शक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Maleis" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Maleis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%B9%E1%80%80%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="မိုက္ကရိုစကုပ် – Birmaans" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မိုက္ကရိုစကုပ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Birmaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micruscopio" title="Micruscopio – Neapolitaans" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Micruscopio" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscoop" title="Microscoop – Nederlands" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Microscoop" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Nederlands" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Nuwe Noors" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Nuwe Noors" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Boeknoors" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Boeknoors" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maekrosek%C3%B4po" title="Maekrosekôpo – Noord-Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Maekrosekôpo" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Noord-Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho sa Leboa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%CA%BCosh_doo_yit%CA%BC%C3%ADinii_bee_n%C3%ADl%CA%BC%C3%ADn%C3%AD" title="Chʼosh doo yitʼíinii bee nílʼíní – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Chʼosh doo yitʼíinii bee nílʼíní" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsc%C3%B2pi_optic" title="Microscòpi optic – Oksitaans" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Microscòpi optic" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Oksitaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifargaa" title="Shifargaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Shifargaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Pools" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Pools" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsc%C3%B2pi" title="Microscòpi – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Microscòpi" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%BE" title="مائکروسکوپ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مائکروسکوپ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%BE" title="مایکروسکوپ – Pasjtoe" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مایکروسکوپ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pasjtoe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsc%C3%B3pio" title="Microscópio – Portugees" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Microscópio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portugees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%27unaqhawana" title="T'unaqhawana – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="T'unaqhawana" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscop" title="Microscop – Roemeens" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Microscop" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Roemeens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopu" title="Microscopu – Aromanies" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Microscopu" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Russies" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Sakhaans" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Sakhaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A" title="خوردبيني – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="خوردبيني" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskohpa" title="Mikroskohpa – Noord-Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Mikroskohpa" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Noord-Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Serwo-Kroaties" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serwo-Kroaties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%BA" title="අන්වීක්ෂය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අන්වීක්ෂය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Microscope" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Slowaaks" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slowaaks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Sloweens" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Sloweens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongoradatu" title="Dongoradatu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Dongoradatu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheybaar" title="Sheybaar – Somalies" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Sheybaar" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somalies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskopi" title="Mikroskopi – Albanees" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mikroskopi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Serwies" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serwies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Sundanees" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Sweeds" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Sweeds" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadubini" title="Hadubini – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Hadubini" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF" title="நுண்நோக்கி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நுண்நோக்கி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B7%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF" title="సూక్ష్మదర్శిని – Teloegoe" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సూక్ష్మదర్శిని" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Teloegoe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Микроскоп – Tadjiks" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Микроскоп" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tadjiks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%8C" title="กล้องจุลทรรศน์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กล้องจุลทรรศน์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskopyo" title="Mikroskopyo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mikroskopyo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Turks" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%89%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%88%D9%BE" title="مىكروسكوپ – Uighur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="مىكروسكوپ" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uighur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF" title="Мікроскоп – Oekraïens" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мікроскоп" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Oekraïens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86" title="خرد بین – Oerdoe" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خرد بین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Oerdoe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskop" title="Mikroskop – Oezbeeks" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mikroskop" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Oezbeeks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADnh_hi%E1%BB%83n_vi" title="Kính hiển vi – Viëtnamees" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kính hiển vi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Viëtnamees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroskopyo" title="Mikroskopyo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Mikroskopyo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E9%95%9C" title="显微镜 – Wu-Sjinees" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="显微镜" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98" title="მიკროსკოპი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მიკროსკოპი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A4" title="מיקראסקאפ – Jiddisj" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מיקראסקאפ" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Jiddisj" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A1%AF%E5%BE%AE%E9%8F%A1" title="顯微鏡 – Chinees" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="顯微鏡" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C3%A1n-b%C3%AE-ki%C3%A0%E2%81%BF" title="Hián-bî-kiàⁿ – Min Nan-Sjinees" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hián-bî-kiàⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Min Nan-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A1%AF%E5%BE%AE%E9%8F%A1" title="顯微鏡 – Kantonees" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="顯微鏡" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Kantonees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q196538#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Wysig skakels tussen tale" class="wbc-editpage">Wysig skakels</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Naamruimtes"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mikroskoop" title="Bekyk die inhoudbladsy [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Bladsy</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bespreking:Mikroskoop" rel="discussion" title="Bespreking oor die inhoudbladsy [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Bespreking</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">in Wikipedia, die vrye ensiklopedie</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="af" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Microscope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Microscope.jpg/220px-Microscope.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Microscope.jpg/330px-Microscope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Microscope.jpg/440px-Microscope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>'n Ou ligmikroskoop</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Electron_microscope-CNAM_43819-IMG_0518.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Electron_microscope-CNAM_43819-IMG_0518.jpg/220px-Electron_microscope-CNAM_43819-IMG_0518.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Electron_microscope-CNAM_43819-IMG_0518.jpg/330px-Electron_microscope-CNAM_43819-IMG_0518.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Electron_microscope-CNAM_43819-IMG_0518.jpg/440px-Electron_microscope-CNAM_43819-IMG_0518.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1816" data-file-height="2729" /></a><figcaption>'n Elektronmikroskoop</figcaption></figure> <p>Die <b>mikroskoop</b> is 'n <a href="/wiki/Instrument" class="mw-disambig" title="Instrument">instrument</a> met vergrotingslense wat kleiner voorwerpe sodanig vergroot dat dit wat nie met die <a href="/wiki/Oog" title="Oog">oog</a> gesien kan word nie, mikroskopies besigtig kan word. 'n Mikroskoop is 'n optiese instrument met behulp waarvan aansienlik vergrote beelde van baie klein voorwerpe verkry kan word, wat die ondersoek van sulke voorwerpe moontlik maak of vergemaklik (<a href="/wiki/Grieks" title="Grieks">Grieks</a>: <i>mikras</i> = "klein" en <i>skopein</i> = "ondersoek"). </p><p>Daar is verskeie tipes mikroskope: </p> <ul><li>Ligmikroskoop</li> <li>Oordragelektronmikroskoop</li> <li>Skandeerelektronmikroskoop</li></ul> <p>Wie die mikroskoop uigevind het, en wanneer die <a href="/wiki/Uitvinding" title="Uitvinding">uitvinding</a> plaasgevind het, is ongelukkig onbekend. Dit is wel bekend dat dit die werk van 'n Nederlander was. Miskien was dit Zacharias Janszoon of sy seun Hans, twee brilmakers in die Nederlandse stad <a href="/wiki/Middelburg,_Belgi%C3%AB" title="Middelburg, België">Middelburg</a>. Of dalk was dit Hans Lippershey, 'n ander beroemde Nederlandse lens- en brilmaker. </p><p>Nog bespiegelinge is dat dit moontlik dieselfde persoon was wat ook die eerste <a href="/wiki/Teleskoop" title="Teleskoop">teleskoop</a> gebou het. Of dat die uitvinding van die teleskoop tot die uitvinding van die mikroskoop gelei het. </p><p>Die berigte oor die eerste teleskope en mikroskope is ongelukkig so onvolledig dat die ware verhaal oor die ontstaan van die twee instrumente onbekend is. Al sekerheid is dat albei in <a href="/wiki/Nederland" title="Nederland">Nederland</a> ontstaan het, waarskynlik tussen <a href="/wiki/1590" title="1590">1590</a> en <a href="/wiki/1610" title="1610">1610</a>. </p><p>Die algemeenste tipe is die optiese mikroskoop, waarby 'n ligbron en 'n lensstelsel gebruik word om 'n vergrote beeld te verkry. Die maksimumvergroting wat hiermee moontlik is, is nagenoeg 1000 maal. In plaas van lig kan 'n mens ook straling van baie korter <a href="/wiki/Golflengte" title="Golflengte">golflengtes</a> as ondersoekmiddel gebruik. Die vergroting wat verkry kan word, is dan teoreties hoër. Jare lank was daar egter geen lense bekend wat vir sulke straling geskik was nie. Die oplossing vir die probleem is gevind in die gebruik van elektronbundels waarby elektriese en magnetiese velde as "lense" kan dien. Op hierdie manier is die elektronmikroskoop en sy skouspelagtige jonger broer, die aftastingsmikroskoop, ontwikkel. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Optiese_mikroskoop">Optiese mikroskoop</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Wysig afdeling: Optiese mikroskoop" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Optiese mikroskoop"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ten einde twee nabyliggende voorwerpe afsonderlik te kan waarneem, moet die twee beelde op die <a href="/wiki/Retina" class="mw-redirect" title="Retina">retina</a> ver genoeg van mekaar lê. Dit kan bereik word deur die twee voorwerpe van nader te beskou, maar die minimumafstand word beperk deur die ooglens se vermoë om steeds 'n skerp beeld op die retina te vorm. </p><p>Met behulp van 'n vergrootglas kan voorwerpe van nog naderby ondersoek word en die vroegste mikroskope was weinig meer as sterk vergrootglase. Die konstruksie van sterk vergrootglase was egter 'n besonder moeilike taak, en in pogings om 'n sterker vergroting te verkry, is die moderne konstruksie van die mikroskoop bewerkstellig. Die moderne mikroskoop het 'n lensstelsel (objektief) wat 'n vergrote beeld vorm van die voorwerpe wat bestudeer moet word, sowel as 'n okulêr (oogglas) waarmee die gevormde beeld van naby bekyk kan word. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geskiedenis">Geskiedenis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Wysig afdeling: Geskiedenis" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Geskiedenis"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Die eenvoudigste eenlensmikroskoop dateer waarskynlik uit die middel van die 15e eeu. Die eerste persoon wat daarin geslaag het om vergrote beelde van klein voorwerpe te verkry, was waarskynlik die teleskoopbouer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giovanni_du_Pont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giovanni du Pont (bladsy bestaan nie)">Giovanni du Pont</a>, wat in 1614 'n artikel gepubliseer het oor 'n gewysigde teleskoop waarmee vergrote beelde gevorm kon word. Belangstelling in die mikroskoop is verder aangemoedig deur die Engelsman <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> (1635-1703). In sy boek <i>Micrographia</i> het hy die belangrike tegniek vir die maak van 'n snit (seksie) van die materiaal wat bestudeer moet word, beskryf. </p><p>'n Snit is 'n uiters dun, deursigtige skyfie wat met behulp van deurvallende lig bestudeer kan word. Hooke het die snitte op deurskynende mika-plaatjies gemonteer. Hierdie metode het dit teoreties moontlik gemaak om selstrukture waar te neem. Voor Hooke sy bydraes gelewer het is voorwerpe met behulp van weerkaatste lig ondersoek, waarby natuurlik slegs die uitwendige strukture waargeneem kon word. Klein kristalle, klein plantjies of <a href="/wiki/Insek" title="Insek">insekte</a> is aan 'n speldpunt vasgegom. </p><p>Hooke kan ook beskou word as die uitvinder van die kondensor. Hy was nie daarmee tevrede om waarnemings slegs by daglig te doen nie (dit was te beperkend), en het met klein olielampies as ligbron geëksperimenteer. Om soveel moontlik lig op die voorwerp te konsentreer, het hy 'n bolfles gebruik. In Hooke se voetspore het die Italiaanse arts Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) gevolg, wat talle belangrike anatomiese strukture - onder meer die liggaampies van Malpighi in die niere - ontdek het. </p><p>Die Nederlanders Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680) en <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> (1632-1723) en die Engelsman Nehemiah Crew (1641-1712) het ook belangrike bydraes gelewer. Crew het in die bestudering van plante gespesialiseer, terwyl Swammerdam diere bestudeer het (sy snitte van bye en ander insekte was wêreldberoemd). Van Leeuwenhoek het die grondslag gelê vir die <a href="/wiki/Mikrobiologie" title="Mikrobiologie">mikrobiologie</a>, dit wil sê die studie van eensellige en ander <a href="/wiki/Mikro%C3%B6rganisme" title="Mikroörganisme">mikroörganismes</a>. </p><p>Die resultate van hierdie vroeë navorsers se werk was soms verbasend goed, maar het in groot mate afgehang van die gehalte van die lense wat hulle gebruik het. Hul waarnemings kon dikwels nie deur hul tydgenote bevestig word nie, en is dus nie altyd in wetenskaplike kringe aanvaar nie. Gevolglik was die mikroskoop dekades lank 'n soort speelding waarmee geleerdes hulle nie wou bemoei nie. Dit was eintlik eers gedurende die 19de eeu dat navorsers hul beskouing begin verander het. </p><p>Die instrument het toe sy huidige vorm begin aanneem en die lensstelsel kon ook deur wetenskaplike berekenings ontwerp word, met 'n gevolglike eenvormigheid in gehalte. Die moontlikheid om fyn lyne op glas te <a href="/wiki/Etswerk" title="Etswerk">ets</a> het meegebring dat die vermoë van mikroskooplense nou ook gemeet en getoets kon word. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voorbereidingstegnieke">Voorbereidingstegnieke</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Wysig afdeling: Voorbereidingstegnieke" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Voorbereidingstegnieke"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biologiese snitte toon dikwels min detail wanneer dit baie vergroot word. Die onderskeie strukture het verskillende ligbrekingsindekse, maar dit veroorsaak slegs faseverskille in die deurvallende ligstrale - iets wat nie deur die oog waargeneem kan word nie. Die menslike oog kan slegs verskille in helderheid en kleur waarneem. 'n Tegniek is egter ontwikkel waarvolgens bepaalde dele van 'n voorbereide mikroskoopskyfie gekleur word, terwyl ander dele deursigtig bly. </p><p>Dikwels sterf die selle gedeeltelik vanweë die opname van die kleurstofchemikalieë en dit is natuurlik 'n groot nadeel, veral by biochemiese navorsing. Dit maak dit ook onmoontlik om verskynsels soos seldeling by een en dieselfde sel te volg. 'n Newegevolg van hierdie tegniek was dat die farmaseutiese nywerheid begin belangstel het in stowwe wat spesifiek deur bakterieë en dies meer opgeneem kon word. Talle geneesmiddels is uit hierdie navorsing ontwikkel. Snitte word gemaak met 'n gemeganiseerde mes, die mikrotoom. </p><p>Die snylem is dikwels 'n skerp glassplinter. Die snit word op 'n vloeistofoppervlak opgevang en dan versigtig op 'n glasskyf geplaas, waarna dit gekleur kan word. Hierna word 'n dekglasie oor die snit geplaas. Die dekglasie, met 'n standaardbrekingsindeks en dikte (1 ,18 mm), vorm 'n onmisbare deel van die optiese stelsel. Geen lug mag tussen die dekglasie en die snit vasgevang word nie: 'n vloeistof kan bygevoeg word om dit te bewerkstellig. Snitte wat lank bewaar moet word, word in kunshars gegiet. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verligting">Verligting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Wysig afdeling: Verligting" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Verligting"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Deursigtige snitte kan met deurvallende lig (dit wil sê die lig val van onder af deur die snit) bestudeer word. Ondeursigtige snitte moet deur syverligting (van bo maar van die kant) of weerkaatste lig (reg van bo) bestudeer word. Laasgenoemde word met 'n spesiale metaalmikroskoop gedoen wat toegerus is met 'n parallelle buis waarin 'n lamp gemonteer is wat die voorwerp deur die objektief verlig via 'n <a href="/wiki/Prisma" title="Prisma">prisma</a> wat lig van slegs een kant af deurlaat (vertikale verligting). </p><p>Die lig wat van die oppervlak weerkaats word, val ook deur die prisma. By die bestudering van gepoleerde oppervlakke word spesiale etstegnieke gebruik. Gedeeltes met 'n afwykende of versteurde struktuur word dieper geëts en is dus as 'n soort reliëf waarneembaar. Gewoonlik word voorbereide snitte verlig deur 'n sterk kunsmatige ligbron wat via 'n hol spieël (of via een of meer plat spieëls en 'n kondensor) 'n skerp ligkol op die gemonteerde snit gooi. </p><p>Die kondensor is gewoonlik 'n eenvoudige lensstelsel, maar vir optimale resultate word 'n gekorrigeerde aplanatiese kondensor gebruik. By kritieke verligting word 'n filament (gloeidraad) van 'n spesiale lamp presies op die voorbereide snit geprojekteer. Die <a href="/wiki/Galaktiese_filament" title="Galaktiese filament">filament</a> moet 'n groot, egalig gloeiende oppervlak hê. Vir lampe met 'n normale gloeidraad word <a href="/w/index.php?title=K%C3%B6hler-verligting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Köhler-verligting (bladsy bestaan nie)">Köhler-verligting</a> gebruik. In hierdie geval word die gloeidraad op die diafragma voor die kondensor geprojekteer. </p><p>Die diafragma word dan sover moontlik gesluit totdat die opening presies so groot is soos die beeld van die gloeidraad (dit skakel weerkaatsings en ligverspreiding uit). Die kondensor projekteer die sterk verligte beeld van die <a href="/wiki/Diafragmagetal" class="mw-redirect" title="Diafragmagetal">diafragma</a> presies op die voorbereide snit. 'n Bykomstige diafragma voor die lamp word vervolgens so ver gesluit dat slegs die waargenome beeld verlig word: ligverspreiding word hierdeur ook verder teëgewerk. By donkerveldverligting word 'n spesiale kondensor gebruik. </p><p>Dit bevat 'n lugblasie waardeur ligstrale wat deur die middel van die kondensor val, volkome weerkaats word. Die voorbereide snit word dan slegs verlig deur 'n hol keëllig waarvan die strale die objektief nie direk bereik nie. Wat dus waargeneem word, is 'n verligte voorwerp teen 'n donker agtergrond. 'n Belangrike voordeel is dat die aanwesigheid (nie die vorm nie) van deeltjies wat kleiner is as die skeidingsvermoë, vasgestel kan word. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skeidingsvermoë"><span id="Skeidingsvermo.C3.AB"></span>Skeidingsvermoë</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Wysig afdeling: Skeidingsvermoë" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Skeidingsvermoë"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Namate die vergrotingsvermoë van 'n mikroskoop verhoog word, verminder die aanwins aan waarneembare detail totdat daar geen verdere aanwins meer is nie. Baie mikroskope het 'n maksimumvergroting van 1 000 maal, hoewel meer as twee maal hierdie syfer met spesiale apparaat behaal kan word. Die fynste waarneembare detail word uitgedruk in terme van die skeidingsvermoë, dit wil sê die kleinste afstand tussen twee punte waarby hulle nog duidelik afsonderlik waargeneem kan word. </p><p>Skeidingsvermoë word beperk deur die golfkenmerke van lig, en in die besonder deur straalbuigingsverskynsels langs die rande van die objektief. Om hierdie rede sal ligpunte by beeldvorming altyd ligkolle vorm, met 'n kenmerkende verloop van die helderheid. </p><p>Die formule vir die bepaling van skeidingsvermoë <i>ov</i> is <i>ov</i> = 0,6 λ/<i>n</i> sin α, waar λ die golflengte van die gebruikte lig is, <i>n</i> die brekingsindeks in die voorwerpruimte en α die helfte van die openingshoek van die objektief: <i>n</i> sin α heet die numeriese opening (numeriese apertuur; NA) van die objektief in gebruik. (Eintlik is dit die NA van die ligbundel wat deur die objektief val. In hierdie verband kan die term NA ook met betrekking tot elektronbundels gebruik word.) Goeie olie-immersie-objektiewe het 'n NA van 1,40, wat meebring dat die skeidingsvermoë vir geel lig ongeveer 2500 Å (<a href="/wiki/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m_(eenheid)" title="Ångström (eenheid)">angström</a>) is (λ = 6000 Å = 6 x 10<sup>−7</sup> m). </p><p>Lensfoute, ligverspreiding en lae kontraste in die voorbereide snit voorkom dat hierdie syfer in die praktyk behaal word, maar 3 000 tot 4000 Å is wel prakties bereikbaar. Met <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> lig (tot 2000 Å) kan 'n beter skeidingsvermoë bereik word, maar die aanwins is gering in vergelyking met die tegniese probleme. </p><p>Vir strale met nog korter golflengtes was gepaste lense nie beskikbaar nie, totdat elektronmagnetiese lense vir elektronbundels (met 'n golflengte van minder as 1 Å) suksesvol ontwikkel is. Die elektronmikroskoop kan dus 'n veel beter skeidingsvermoë bereik. Die optiese mikroskoop lewer die beste resultate in die vorm van ŉ refleksiemikroskoop, waar die lensstelsel vervang is deur 'n spieëlstelsel wat minder aberrasies (foute) openbaar. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fasekontras-_en_interferensiemikroskoop">Fasekontras- en interferensiemikroskoop</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Wysig afdeling: Fasekontras- en interferensiemikroskoop" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Fasekontras- en interferensiemikroskoop"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Die Nederlander Frits Zernike (1888-1966) het in 1933 'n fasekontrasmikroskoop ontwerp waarin faseverskille sigbaar gemaak kon word. Hiervoor het Zernike in 1953 die <a href="/wiki/Nobelprys_vir_fisika" title="Nobelprys vir fisika">Nobelprys vir fisika</a> ontvang. Hy het gebruik gemaak van die teorieë van die Duitser <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Abbe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernst Abbe (bladsy bestaan nie)">Ernst Abbe</a> (1840-1905), wat die eerste wetenskaplike was wat dieptestudies oor optiese instrumente gedoen het en wat die Zeiss-maatskappy daarmee help uitbrei het. Abbe het die ligbeeld wat deur een lens verkry word, beskou as die som van 'n ligbundel wat reg deur 'n lens val en 'n aantal gebreekte buigingsbundels (Abbe se buigingsteorie). </p><p>Zernike se idee was om 'n kunsmatige faseverskil tussen die regdeurgaande bundels en die gebreekte bundels te skep. Bestaande faseverskille kon dan omgesit word in intensiteitsverskille wat onmiddellik waarneembaar is. Later is verskeie konstruksies ontwerp vir 'n interferensie mikroskoop, waarin 'n ligbundel verdeel is in 'n bundel wat deur die voorbereide snit val, en in 'n verwysingsbundel. Deur die twee bundels weer te verenig, is faseverskille deur interferensie sigbaar gemaak. </p><p>Die vertolking van die beelde wat met hierdie instrumente verkry word, is meer ingewikkeld as die van 'n gewone mikroskoop. Die relatief eenvoudige fasekontrasmikroskoop word gebruik vir regstreekse waarnemings van lewende selle en materiale wat nie gekleur kan word nie, soos byvoorbeeld deursigtige kristalle. Met behulp van spesiale verligtingstelsels kan weerkaatsende oppervlakke (metale en gemetaliseerde strukture) bestudeer word, waarby onreëlmatighede In die oppervlak as helderheidskontraste sigbaar word. Vir meetdoeleindes moet 'n mens egter die heelwat in gewikkelde interferensiemikroskoop gebruik. Daarmee kan klein faseverskille baie noukeurig bepaal word, en daaruit kan 'n mens dadelik die ruheid van die oppervlak bepaal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elektronmikroskoop">Elektronmikroskoop</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Wysig afdeling: Elektronmikroskoop" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Elektronmikroskoop"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1924 het Louis de Broglie (gebore 1892) die teorie voorgestel dat die beweging van klein partikels golfkenmerke toon. Hul golflengte λ hang af van hul snelheid <i>v</i> en massa <i>m</i> volgens λ = <i>h/mv</i>, waar <i>h</i> die konstante van <a href="/wiki/Konstante_van_Planck" title="Konstante van Planck">Planck</a> is. Vir elektrone word snelheid gewoonlik nie gegee nie, maar wel hul energie (E = ½<i>mv</i><sup>2</sup>, dus v=  Elektrone kan afgebuig word in elektriese en/of magnetiese velde en in 1926 het <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Busch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hans Busch (bladsy bestaan nie)">Hans Busch</a> (gebore 1884) die gedagte geopper dat dit moontlik moet wees om hierdie velde so saam te stel dat 'n lenswerking ontstaan. </p><p>Reeds in 1931 het die Duitsers Max Knoll (gebore 1897) en Ernst Ruska (gebore 1906) 'n elektronmikroskoop volgens hierdie beginsel gebou. Die apparaat het 'n beter skeidingsvermoë as die bestaande optiese mikroskope gehad. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Konstruksie">Konstruksie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Wysig afdeling: Konstruksie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Konstruksie"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>'n Elektronkanon word gebruik as bron van elektrone. Dit bestaan uit 'n gloeiende katode waaruit elektrone vrygestel word en 'n versnellingsanode wat aan 'n spanningsbron van 20 000 tot 100 000 V gekoppel is. Die elektrone wat die kanon verlaat, het 'n energie van 20 000 tot 100 000 eV met 'n bygaande golflengte van nagenoeg 0,15-0,03 Å, wat tienduisende kere kleiner as die golflengte van sigbare lig is. <a href="/wiki/Elektronbundel_Ioonbron" title="Elektronbundel Ioonbron">Elektronbundels</a> met hierdie hoeveelheid energie het 'n sterk wisselwerking met materie en is dus besonder geskik vir navorsingsdoeleindes. </p><p>Vir spesiale toepassings word elektronbundels van 1 000 000 eV en meer gebruik. Hierdie elektronbundels het 'n beter indringingsvermoë, sodat die inwendige struktuur van metale ook ondersoek kan word. Die elektronbundels wat normaalweg gebruik word, word ook deur <a href="/wiki/Lug" class="mw-redirect" title="Lug">lug</a> geabsorbeer, wat 'n hoë <a href="/wiki/Vakuum" title="Vakuum">vakuum</a> binne die mikroskoop 'n vereiste maak (10-<sup>2</sup> tot 10<sup>−3</sup> Pa). Dit is slegs moontlik as die snitte wat ondersoek moet word, geheel en al ontwater is; gevolglik is alle lewende biologiese snitte uitgeskakel. </p><p>Bowendien kan allerlei onvoorsiene struktuurveranderings (krimping, ensovoorts) tydens die droogproses intree. Die elektronbundel uit die elektronkanon word deur een of meer kondensorstelsels op die voorbereide snitte gekonsentreer. In die transmissie-elektronmikroskoop word die elektrone wat deur die voorbereide snit gaan, deur middel van 'n lensstelsel direk op 'n fluoresseerskerm of op 'n fotografiese plaat gewerp. 'n Gedeelte van die elektrone sal in die voorbereide snit versprei word in direkte verhouding tot die massa by enige gegewe punt. </p><p>Swaar metale versprei byvoorbeeld meer elektrone as <a href="/wiki/Koolstof" title="Koolstof">koolstof</a> en <a href="/wiki/Waterstof" title="Waterstof">waterstof</a>. Die vergroting kan gereguleer word deur die sterkte van die elektriese en magnetiese velde van die lensstelsels te wissel. Die maksimumvergroting wat bereik kan word, is ongeveer 1 miljoen maal met 'n skeidingsvermoë van nagenoeg 3 Å, wat beduidend swakker as die teoretiese perk is. Die rede hiervoor is dat die lense dikwels nie homogeen is nie en die gewone lensfoute, soos sferiese aberrasie, ensovoorts, moeilik korrigeerbaar is. </p><p>Dit bring mee dat besonder klein lensopeninge gebruik moet word, met 'n ooreenkomstige verhoging in straalbuiging en 'n relatiewe verlaging in skeidingsvermoë. 'n Verhoging van die elektronenergie ten einde ŉ korter golflengte te verkry, het in die praktyk 'n ongunstige uitwerking op skeidingsvermoë. Voorbereide snitte wat vir die elektronbundels ondeurdringbaar is, kan (behalwe in 'n aftastingsmikroskoop) soms in 'n spesiale emissie-elektronmikroskoop onder-soek word. Alle modelle hiervan is gebaseer op die vrystelling van elektrone uit die snitte deur dit byvoorbeeld te verhit, te bestraal, of op 'n hoë negatiewe spanning te bring. Die toe passings hiervan is beperk. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voorbereidingstegnieke_2">Voorbereidingstegnieke</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Wysig afdeling: Voorbereidingstegnieke" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Voorbereidingstegnieke"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biologiese snitte is meestal 300 tot 800 Å dik en word in 'n ultramikrotoom gesny. Die snitte word gewoonlik op 'n dun vliesie met 'n dikte van ongeveer 50 Å gelê en na droging, ensovoorts, via die vakuumsluis in die mikroskoop geplaas. Die vliesie kan bestaan uit 'n opgedampte lagie koolstof of uit 'n kunsstof waarvan ŉ verdunde oplossing op 'n laag water uitgegiet word en dan toegelaat word om te verdamp. Die vliesie word deur 'n dun metaalgaas ondersteun. </p><p>'n Groot aantal snitte kan vinnig gedroog word deur dit in alkohol te doop. Die kontraste binne die snitte word gewoonlik verhoog deur dit in oplossings van swaar metale te week. Die oppervlakreliëf kan goed sigbaar gemaak word deur middel van die skadutegniek, waarby die snit noukeurig met 'n swaar metaal bestof word. Vaste stowwe word deur elektrochemiese etstegnieke tot ultradun foelie gesny. </p><p>Waar die belangstelling hoofsaaklik gaan om roosterfoute, verplasings en dies meer, kan dikker foelies (ongeveer 5000 Å met 'n elektronbundel wat so energieryk moontlik is) aangewend word as wanneer die struktuur self ondersoek moet word (500-1 000Å). Met suiwer <a href="/wiki/Kristallografie" title="Kristallografie">kristalle</a> ontstaan buigingspatrone en dit maak die gebruik van objektiewe lense agter die snit oorbodig. Uit die buigingspatroon kan die kristalstruktuur bepaal word. Oppervlakke wat, om watter rede ook al, nie geskik is om regstreeks bestudeer te word nie, kan volgens die replikategniek behandel word. </p><p>Die oppervlak word eers afgedek met 'n kunshars, wat toegelaat word om goed te droog. Die harshuid word vervolgens van die oppervlak afgetrek en met 'n ander kunsstof gevul. Hierna word die harshuid opgelos en 'n presiese replika van die oorspronklike oppervlak word verkry. Die replika kan dan verder behandel word deur beskaduwing of damping van swaar metale. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftastingsmikroskoop">Aftastingsmikroskoop</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Wysig afdeling: Aftastingsmikroskoop" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Aftastingsmikroskoop"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In baie toepassings is die elektronmikroskoop en die optiese mikroskoop deur die aftastingsmikroskoop verdring. In hierdie instrument word die voorbereide snit deur 'n uiters dun elektronbundel afgetas. Die aftasting geskied volgens 'n lynpatroon soortgelyk aan die van 'n televisiebeeldbuis. Elektrone wat deur die voorwerp versprei of losgeslaan word (sekondêre elektrone), word deur 'n detektor versamel. </p><p>Die klein stroomsterkte van die versamelde elektrone (ongeveer 10- 13 Å) word versterk, meestal deur fotovermenigvuldigers, en word gebruik om die intensiteit van die elektronestraal na die beeldskerm te reguleer. Die beweging van hierdie elektronestraal is presies gesinchroniseer met die straal wat die voorwerp aftas. Die vergroting word gereguleer deur die afbuigspanning in die mikroskoop te verander, wat meebring dat 'n groter of kleiner gedeelte van die voorwerp afgetas word. </p><p>Gewoonlik word elektronbundels gebruik met 'n energie van 1 000 tot 20 000 eV by 'n vergroting van 10 tot 100 000 maal en 'n skeidingsvermoë tot ongeveer 200 Å. Die totale aftastyd duur van enkele sekondes tot ongeveer 'n halfuur vir optimale gehalte. Die skeidingsvermoë word veral beperk deur die uiters klein numeriese opening (NA) van die elektronbundel, maar lensfoute en dies meer word natuurlik uitgeskakel. Die klein NA lewer egter 'n aansienlike uitbreiding van die velddiepteskerpte, deur middel waarvan ongelyke voorwerpe in hul geheel skerp afgebeeld kan word. </p><p>Hierdeur word 'n besonder getroue beeld verkry, veral as die voorwerp met metale beskadu is. Die aftastingsmikroskoop is ook besonder geskik vir die maak van stereo-opnames, wat deur die kanteling van die voorwerp in die mikroskoop bewerkstellig word. Die beelde wat verkry word, kan op 'n videoband bewaar word. Fotografiese opnames vind plaas met behulp van skermbeeldfotografie, gewoonlik met 'n kitsfotoapparaat. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sien_ook">Sien ook</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Wysig afdeling: Sien ook" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Sien ook"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elektronmikroskopie" title="Elektronmikroskopie">Elektronmikroskopie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bronnellys">Bronnellys</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Wysig afdeling: Bronnellys" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Bronnellys"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W%C3%AAreldspektrum" title="Wêreldspektrum">Wêreldspektrum</a>, 1982, <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0908409605" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0908409605</a>, volume 19, bl. 74</li> <li><i>Dokter in die huis</i>, Dr <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Elfen" title="Jan van Elfen">Jan van Elfen</a>, 1993 <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0624032345" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0 624 03234 5</a></li> <li>KENNIS,  vol 6, 1980, bl. 1104–1105, <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0798108282" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0 7981 0828 2</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eksterne_skakels">Eksterne skakels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Wysig afdeling: Eksterne skakels" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikroskoop&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Eksterne skakels"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikimedia Commons logo"><img alt="Wikimedia Commons logo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> het meer media in die kategorie <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Microscopes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Microscopes">Mikroskoop</a>.</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Wiktionary_small.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Wiktionary_small.svg/12px-Wiktionary_small.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Wiktionary_small.svg/18px-Wiktionary_small.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Wiktionary_small.svg/24px-Wiktionary_small.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikiwoordeboek" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikiwoordeboek">Wikiwoordeboek</a> het 'n inskrywing vir <a href="https://af.wiktionary.org/wiki/mikroskoop" class="extiw" title="wikt:mikroskoop">mikroskoop</a>.</li></ul> <div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Normdata_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q196538&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th 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style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122210609">cb122210609</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122210609">(data)</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gemeinsame_Normdatei" title="Gemeinsame Normdatei">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4039237-5">4039237-5</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh92003375">sh92003375</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">NARA</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10662661">10662661</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565496">00565496</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="National Library of the Czech Republic">NKC</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph263229&CON_LNG=ENG">ph263229</a></span></span></li></ul> 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