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plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle sidebar-phi-pre">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle sidebar-phi-title"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image sidebar-phi-img"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/80px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/120px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/160px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above sidebar-phi-above"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy_and_thinking" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy and thinking">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_schools_and_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical schools and traditions">Philosophies</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Early modern philosophy</b> (also <b>classical modern philosophy</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schacht_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schacht-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early modern era of philosophy was a progressive movement of Western thought, exploring through theories and discourse such topics as mind and matter, is a period in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a> that overlaps with the beginning of the period known as <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</a>. It succeeded the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval era of philosophy</a>. Early modern philosophy is usually thought to have occurred between the 16th and 18th centuries, though some philosophers and historians may put this period slightly earlier. During this time, influential philosophers included <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>, all of whom contributed to the current understanding of philosophy. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> in history is around <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500</span>–1789, but the label "early modern philosophy" is typically used to refer to a narrower period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the narrowest sense, the term is used to refer principally to the <a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="17th-century philosophy">philosophy of the 17th century</a> and <a href="/wiki/18th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="18th-century philosophy">18th century</a>, typically beginning with <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>. 17th-century philosophers typically included in such analyses are <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>. The 18th century, often known as the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, included such early modern figures as <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schacht_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schacht-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term is sometimes used more broadly, including earlier thinkers from the 16th century such as <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Michel de Montaigne</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some definitions also broaden the range of thinkers included under the "early modern" moniker, such as <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>. By the broadest definition, the early modern period is said to have ended in 1804 with the death of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>. Considered in this way, the period extends from the last <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophers</a> to the final days of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>. Most scholars consider the period to begin with <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>’ <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditationes de Prima Philosophiae</a></i> (Meditations on First Philosophy) in Paris in 1641 and conclude with the work of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (<i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>) in the 1780s.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png/220px-Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png/330px-Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png/440px-Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Dispute between Queen Christina and René Descartes</figcaption></figure> <p>At the time, various thinkers faced difficult philosophical challenges: reconciling the tenets of classical <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> thought and <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a> with the new <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">technological advances</a> that followed in the wake of <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A modern <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanical image of the cosmos</a> in which mathematically definable <a href="/wiki/Universal_law" title="Universal law">universal laws</a> directed the motion of lifeless objects without the interference of something non-physical, specifically challenged established ways of thought about the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">body</a> and God. In response, philosophers, many of whom were involved in experimental advances, invented and perfected various perspectives on humans’ relationship to the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three critical historical events that shaped Western thought profoundly were the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, the progress of modern science, and the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant reformation">Protestant reformation</a> and its <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">resulting civil wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relationship between philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific research">scientific research</a> was complicated, as many early modern scientists considered themselves philosophers, conflating the two disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two fields would eventually separate. Contemporary philosophy's <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodological</a> concerns about scientific certainty remained regardless of such a separation.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early modern <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual tradition">intellectual era</a> also contributed to the development of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>. New philosophical theories, such as the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a>, civic existence, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, and rationalist thinking, were established.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a strong emphasis on the advancement and expansion of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, which placed a premium on <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoning</a>, and discovery to pursue reality.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Enlightenment_Period">Enlightenment Period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Enlightenment Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, also referred to as the Age of Enlightenment, was a <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical movement">philosophical movement</a> that dominated the realm of ideas in 18th-century Europe. It was founded on the principle that <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> is the fundamental source of power and legitimacy, and it promoted principles such as <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, progress, tolerance, fraternity, <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">constitutional</a> governance, and <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">church-state separation</a>. The Enlightenment was defined by a focus on science and <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a>, as well as a growing suspicion of <a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">religious rigidity</a>. The Enlightenment's ideals challenged the monarchy and the church, laying the groundwork for the political upheavals of the 18th and 19th centuries. According to <a href="/wiki/French_historians" class="mw-redirect" title="French historians">French historians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> began in 1715, the year <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> died, and ended in 1789, the year of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. According to some contemporary historians, the era begins in the 1620s, with the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>. However, during the first decades of the 18th century and the first decades of the 19th century, several national variations of the movement developed.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enlightenment_.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Enlightenment_.png/220px-Enlightenment_.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Enlightenment_.png/330px-Enlightenment_.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Enlightenment_.png/440px-Enlightenment_.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption>Enlightenment discussions between various thinkers</figcaption></figure><p>The Englishmen <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, the Frenchman <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, and the prominent natural philosophers of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, were significant 17th-century antecedents of the Enlightenment. Its origins are often ascribed to <a href="/wiki/1600s_in_England" title="1600s in England">1680s England</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> published his "<a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a>" (1686) and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> wrote his <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">"Essay Concerning Human Understanding"</a> (1689)—two works that laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment's great advancements in science, mathematics, and philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Age Of Enlightenment was swiftly sweeping across Europe. In the late seventeenth century, scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> and authors such as <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> challenged the established order. Newton's principles of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">motion</a> defined the universe in terms of natural principles that were independent of any spiritual source. Locke advocated the freedom of a people to replace a government that did not defend inherent rights to <a href="/wiki/Life,_liberty,_and_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Life, liberty, and property">life, liberty, and property</a> in the aftermath of England's political instability. People began to mistrust the possibility of a God <a href="/wiki/Theological_determinism" title="Theological determinism">capable of predestining</a> human beings to <a href="/wiki/Hell_in_Christianity" title="Hell in Christianity">everlasting damnation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">empowering a despotic ruler</a> to rule. These ideals would permanently alter Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_Enlightenment_concepts">Major Enlightenment concepts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Major Enlightenment concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Europe had a burst of philosophical and scientific activity in the mid-18th century, challenging established theories and dogmas.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> headed the philosophic movement, arguing for a society founded on <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> rather than religion and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a>, for a new civic order based on <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>, and for science founded on experimentation and observation.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, a political philosopher, proposed the notion of a government's <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">division of powers</a>, which was enthusiastically accepted by the framers of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two separate schools of Enlightenment philosophy existed. Inspired by <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza's theory</a>, the radical enlightenment argued for democracy, <a href="/wiki/Individual_liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual liberty">individual liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>, and the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">religious authority</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second, more moderate kind, championed by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, aimed to strike a balance between reform and old power and religious institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Science eventually began to dominate Enlightenment speech and thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous Enlightenment authors and intellectuals came from scientific backgrounds and equated scientific progress with the downfall of religion and conventional authority in favour of the growth of free speech and ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, Enlightenment science placed a high premium on <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and logical reasoning, and was inextricably linked to the Enlightenment ideal of progression and development.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as was the case with the majority of Enlightenment ideals, the advantages of science were not widely recognized.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Enlightenment has traditionally been credited with laying the groundwork for current Western political and intellectual culture.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It ushered in a period of political modernization in the West, focused on democratic principles and institutions and resulting in the establishment of modern, liberal democracies. The fundamentals of European liberal thought include the individual right, natural equality of all men, <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>, the artificial nature of <a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Political_Order" title="The Origins of Political Order">political order</a> (which resulted in the later distinction between civil society and the state), the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on popular consent, and liberal interpretationism.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Enlightenment-era criticism on religion was a reaction to Europe's previous century of religious turmoil.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enlightenment intellectuals intended to limit organized religion's political dominance, so averting another period of intolerable religious violence.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous unique concepts emerged, including <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deism</a> (belief in God the Creator without reference to the Bible or other authoritative source) and <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter was hotly debated but garnered few supporters. Many, like Voltaire, believed that without believing in a God who punishes wrong, society's moral order would be jeopardised.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early modern period arose from dramatic shifts in many fields of human endeavour. Among the most significant characteristics are the formalisation of science, the acceleration of scientific advancement, and the creation of secularised civic politics, law courts, and the nation-state.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was some skepticism against traditional interpretive concepts associated with the modern era, such as the distinction between <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalists</a>, which represented a philosophical and historical shift away from ethics, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">metaphysical epistemology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a> also emerged as a reaction to <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a> and <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>, challenging the element of Christianity and <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christianised philosophy</a> united with whoever the desired political leader happened to be at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The steady rise of the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> would challenge the power of the Church and begin the journey towards the eventual separation of church and state. The political and economic situation of Modern Europe would have an influence on philosophical thought, mainly on ethics and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> also gained legitimacy during this period. Early modern attempts to grapple with the <a href="/wiki/Infinity_(philosophy)" title="Infinity (philosophy)">philosophy of infinity</a> focused on and discussed three fundamental disagreements about the infinite—differences that had their origins in the academic philosophical tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a> used this distinction to distinguish God's <a href="/wiki/God_and_eternity" title="God and eternity">qualitative infinity</a> from the mathematically abstract concept of <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early modern thinkers differentiated between actual and potential infinity. Academic tradition has traditionally rejected the existence of actual infinities in the created world but has acknowledged potential infinities, following Aristotle's approach to Zeno's paradoxes.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the advent of early modern thought was linked to changes in the period's intellectual and cultural context, such as the advancement of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>, theological contradictions within and between the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant churches</a>, and the growth of the modern nation-state.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significant_thinkers">Significant thinkers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Significant thinkers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png/220px-Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png/330px-Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png/440px-Dispute-of-queen-cristina-vasa-and-rene-descartes.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Reńe Descartes amid philosophical discussion with several philosophers during the early modern philosophical period</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>, as well as philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Antoine Arnauld</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Samuel von Pufendorf</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Francis Hutcheson</a> are all recognised as significant figures in early modern philosophy, for their discourses and theories developed throughout the various philosophical periods. </p><p>The political philosophy of natural law, developed by John Locke, was a common and significant concept in early modern thought. Natural law evolved into individual rights and subjective claims. Adding to Aristotle's already known philosophy, Locke suggested that the government give its citizens what they believe are fundamental and <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">natural rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomas Hobbes, alternatively, asserted that natural law has a finite scope. Unchecked liberty led to a state of war where everybody struggled for life.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hobbes encapsulated this state of violence in one of philosophy's most famous passages: "And the life of man, solitary, bad, nasty, brutish, and brief".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomas Hobbes' worldview concentrated on social and political order and how humans could coexist without danger or risk of civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thomas_Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Thomas Hobbes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hobbes' moral and political theory includes a consideration of <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural rights">natural rights</a>. Hobbes' natural rights notion also included man in a "<a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>". As he saw it, the basic natural (human) right was to use his power, as he will, to preserve his nature, which is to protect his life.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Natural liberty</a> is distinct from universal laws, which <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> referred to as precepts, or rules discovered by reason, which ban a man from doing something that will destroy his life or deprives him of the means to retain it.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Hobbes' view, life comprised just of freedoms and nothing else "Because of that, everyone has the right to anything, even to one another's body. Because of this, though, as long as inherent human rights to every commodity remain in place, there can be no long-term security for anybody."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This would result in the condition called the "<a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">war of all against all</a>," in which humans murder, steal, and enslave each other to remain alive. Hobbes theorised that human existence would be lonely, poor, ugly, brutish, and short in a state of chaos generated by unrestricted rights. As such, people would agree to give up many of their basic rights to build a political and civil society. <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract theory</a> was first articulated using this early argumentation.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Natural or institutional laws are useless without first being established by a <a href="/wiki/Westphalian_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian sovereignty">sovereign authority</a>. Before you can talk about right and unjust, some coercive authority must compel folks to keep their promises. There is no such coercive force before the establishment of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This coercive State would, in Hobbes' view, have the right to confiscate property in return for a guarantee of citizens' safety from one another and from foreign intervention. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract theory</a>, "inalienable rights" are those rights that can't be relinquished by people to the sovereign.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These inherent rights were believed to be law-independent. Only the strongest could use their privileges in the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereby, individuals give up their natural rights to get protection, and thus have the legal rights conferred by the power to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Many historical justifications for <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">illiberal governance</a> include consensual arrangements to relinquish inherent rights to freedom and <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>. De facto inalienability arguments supplied the foundation for the anti-slavery movement to argue against all involuntary enslavement, not only slavery explicitly defined as such. An agreement to unlawfully divide a right would be void of law. Similarly, the argument was used by the democratic movement to reject explicit or implicit social covenants of subjection (e.g., pactum subjectionis) that subjugate a people, for example, in <a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a>:</p><blockquote><p>There is, at least, one right that cannot be ceded or abandoned: the right to personality...They charged the great logician [Hobbes] with a contradiction in terms. If a man could give up his personality he would cease being a moral being. … There is no <i>pactum subjectionis</i>, no act of submission by which man can give up the state of free agent and enslave himself. For by such an act of renunciation he would give up that very character which constitutes his nature and essence: he would lose his humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence">Influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until the twenty-first century, standard accounts of early modern philosophy and traditional survey courses in Anglo-Saxon universities—presented histories dominated by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early modern theory has significantly impacted many modern developments, one of which is political philosophy. American political philosopher <a href="/wiki/A._John_Simmons" title="A. John Simmons">A. John Simmons</a> examined two interrelated transitions in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>. The first is a metaphysical contrast between <a href="/wiki/Political_naturalism" title="Political naturalism">political naturalism</a>, which holds that human beings are political by birth, and political anti-naturalism, which holds that humankind's natural state is apolitical.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second is the historical shift from "complex, bureaucratic systems with intertwined religious and contractual relationships" to political cultures that "take the form of independent, territorial states".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Observing how these transformations occur is important as the ideas advanced by early modern political theorists played an important role in the creation of political institutions that exist today.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The evolution of early modern philosophy has been recognized as inextricably linked to developments in the period's intellectual and cultural environment through important developments in science, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant churches</a>, and the rise of the new modern nation state.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_modern_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Late modern philosophy">Late modern philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_modernity" class="mw-redirect" title="Phases of modernity">Phases of modernity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 21em;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeffrey Tlumak, <i>Classical Modern Philosophy: A Contemporary Introduction</i>, Routledge, 2006, p. xi: "[<i>Classical Modern Philosophy</i>] is a guide through the systems of the seven brilliant seventeenth- and eighteenth-century European philosophers most regularly taught in college Modern Philosophy courses".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schacht-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schacht_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schacht_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Schacht" title="Richard Schacht">Richard Schacht</a>, <i>Classical Modern Philosophers: Descartes to Kant</i>, Routledge, 2013, p. 1: "Seven men have come to stand out from all of their counterparts in what has come to be known as the 'modern' period in the history of philosophy (i.e., the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries): Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume and Kant".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Berman" title="Marshall Berman">Marshall Berman</a>. 1982. <i><a href="/wiki/All_That_Is_Solid_Melts_into_Air" title="All That Is Solid Melts into Air">All That Is Solid Melts into Air</a>: The Experience of Modernity</i>. New York: Simon and Schuster. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-24602-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-24602-X">0-671-24602-X</a>. London: Verso. pp. 16–17. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86091-785-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-86091-785-1">0-86091-785-1</a>. Paperback reprint New York: Viking Penguin, 1988. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-010962-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-010962-5">0-14-010962-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Leiter" title="Brian Leiter">Brian Leiter</a> (ed.), <i>The Future for Philosophy</i>, Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 44 n. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Smith, Kurt (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2018/entries/descartes-works/">"Descartes' Life and Works"</a>. 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(2013-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244013517243">"Philosophical Paradigms, Grounded Theory, and Perspectives on Emergence"</a>. <i>SAGE Open</i>. <b>3</b> (4): 2158244013517243. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244013517243">10.1177/2158244013517243</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2158-2440">2158-2440</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SAGE+Open&rft.atitle=Philosophical+Paradigms%2C+Grounded+Theory%2C+and+Perspectives+on+Emergence&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=2158244013517243&rft.date=2013-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2158244013517243&rft.issn=2158-2440&rft.aulast=Levers&rft.aufirst=Merry-Jo+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F2158244013517243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBica2020" class="citation journal cs1">Bica, Daian (2020-12-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pdcnet.org/pdc/bvdb.nsf/purchase?openform&fp=jems&id=jems_2020_0009_0001_0133_0141">"Thinking with Mechanisms: Mechanical Philosophy and Early Modern Science"</a>. <i>Journal of Early Modern Studies</i>. <b>9</b>: 133–141. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fjems2020916">10.5840/jems2020916</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235002069">235002069</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Early+Modern+Studies&rft.atitle=Thinking+with+Mechanisms%3A+Mechanical+Philosophy+and+Early+Modern+Science&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=133-141&rft.date=2020-12-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fjems2020916&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A235002069%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bica&rft.aufirst=Daian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdcnet.org%2Fpdc%2Fbvdb.nsf%2Fpurchase%3Fopenform%26fp%3Djems%26id%3Djems_2020_0009_0001_0133_0141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarberRutherford2018" class="citation book cs1">Garber, Daniel; Rutherford, Donald, eds. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198829294.001.0001/oso-9780198829294"><i>Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy, Volume VIII</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198829294.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780198829294.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-186788-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-186788-0"><bdi>978-0-19-186788-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Studies+in+Early+Modern+Philosophy%2C+Volume+VIII&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198829294.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-186788-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxford.universitypressscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198829294.001.0001%2Foso-9780198829294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2016" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, Kun (December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fphilosophies1030228">"The Interaction and Convergence of the Philosophy and Science of Information"</a>. <i>Philosophies</i>. <b>1</b> (3): 228–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fphilosophies1030228">10.3390/philosophies1030228</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophies&rft.atitle=The+Interaction+and+Convergence+of+the+Philosophy+and+Science+of+Information&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=228-244&rft.date=2016-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fphilosophies1030228&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Kun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fphilosophies1030228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarberRutherford2012" class="citation book cs1">Garber, Daniel; Rutherford, Donald, eds. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=John+Locke&rft.date=2001-09-02&rft.aulast=Uzgalis&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2020%2Fentries%2Flocke%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmaltz2002" class="citation book cs1">Schmaltz, Tad M. 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(2005). <i>Oxford studies in early modern philosophy</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Huggett, N. (2018). Zeno's Paradoxes. In <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Stanford University.</li> <li>Joy, L., Copenhaver, B., & Schmitt, C. (1993). Renaissance Philosophy. <i>The Philosophical Quarterly</i>, <i>43</i>(173), 537.</li> <li>KATEB, G. (1989). Hobbes and the Irrationality of Politics. <i>Political Theory</i>, <i>17</i>(3), 355–391. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0090591789017003001">10.1177/0090591789017003001</a></li> <li>Lærke, M., Smith, J., & Schliesser, E. (2013). <i>Philosophy and its history</i>. London: Oxford University.</li> <li>May, L., & Kavka, G. (1989). 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title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" 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