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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theories and causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories_and_causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories and causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories_and_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cyclical_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyclical_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Cyclical theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyclical_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Mass psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Democratic_decay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democratic_decay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Democratic decay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Democratic_decay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Increasing_coercion_and_dictatorship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increasing_coercion_and_dictatorship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Increasing coercion and dictatorship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increasing_coercion_and_dictatorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Messianic_leadership_style" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Messianic_leadership_style"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Messianic leadership style</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Messianic_leadership_style-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neglect,_corruption_and_incompetence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neglect,_corruption_and_incompetence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Neglect, corruption and incompetence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neglect,_corruption_and_incompetence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_takeover" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_takeover"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Military takeover</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_takeover-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absence_of_legitimacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absence_of_legitimacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Absence of legitimacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absence_of_legitimacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Newly_independent_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newly_independent_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Newly independent states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newly_independent_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_states_subvert_or_invade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_states_subvert_or_invade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Other states subvert or invade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_states_subvert_or_invade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_collapse_or_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_collapse_or_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Economic collapse or decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_collapse_or_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_and_regional_tensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_and_regional_tensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>Ethnic and regional tensions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_and_regional_tensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.13</span> <span>Foreign war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_of_succession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_of_succession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.14</span> <span>Wars of succession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_of_succession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dependence_on_outside_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dependence_on_outside_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.15</span> <span>Dependence on outside support</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dependence_on_outside_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regeneration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regeneration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Regeneration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regeneration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_consequences_of_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_consequences_of_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Possible consequences of collapse</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Possible_consequences_of_collapse-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Possible consequences of collapse subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Possible_consequences_of_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Failed_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failed_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Failed state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failed_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Annexation_by_another_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Annexation_by_another_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Annexation by another state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Annexation_by_another_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fragmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fragmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Fragmentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fragmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genocide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genocide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Genocide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genocide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_cleansing,_Refugee_crisis_or_Diaspora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_cleansing,_Refugee_crisis_or_Diaspora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Ethnic cleansing, Refugee crisis or Diaspora</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_cleansing,_Refugee_crisis_or_Diaspora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconstruction_and_regime_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconstruction_and_regime_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Reconstruction and regime change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconstruction_and_regime_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Justice,_guilt_and_denialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justice,_guilt_and_denialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Justice, guilt and denialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justice,_guilt_and_denialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_longer_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_longer_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>In the longer term</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_longer_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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.mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the quantum mechanics phenomenon, see <a href="/wiki/Wave_function_collapse" title="Wave function collapse">Wave function collapse</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Collapse_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Collapse (disambiguation)">Collapse (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Synthesis plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/40px-Ambox_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/60px-Ambox_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/80px-Ambox_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article or section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Synthesis_of_published_material" title="Wikipedia:No original research">synthesis of material</a> which does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifiably mention</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Content_removal#Irrelevant_information" title="Wikipedia:Content removal">relate</a> to the main topic.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:State_collapse##" title="Talk:State collapse">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>State collapse</b> is a sudden dissolution of a <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often used to describe extreme situations in which state institutions dissolve rapidly.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When a new regime moves in, often led by the military, <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a> typically fails to rally around the central government, and societal actors fend for themselves at the local level.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neighboring states interfere politically, sometimes harboring dissidents within their borders, and the informal economy becomes dominant, operating beyond the control of the state and further undermining potential reconstruction.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_and_examples">Definitions and examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions and examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the definitions of "<a href="/wiki/Failed_state" title="Failed state">failed state</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Fragile_state" title="Fragile state">fragile state</a>" have been contested for being "too broad and too vague",<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> foreign policy experts such as Charles T. Call have advocated focusing on extreme cases of "collapsed states" instead, defined as "countries whose state apparatus ceases to exist for a period of several months".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Call, between 1995 and 2005, the main examples of collapsed states included <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, which had a sustained collapse from 1990 to 2004; the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1991; <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> in 1992; and possibly <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> from 1992 to 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent scholarship has focused on identifying measurable dimensions of state capacity, building on the institutionalist approach associated with <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Daniel Lambach, Eva Johais, and Markus Bayer have thus defined state collapse as the inability to make and enforce binding rules; maintain a <a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">monopoly on violence</a>; and collect taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using this framework, Lambach et al. identified 17 collapsed states between 1960 and 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of cases were in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>, involving armed rebellions in countries including <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, Somalia, <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>, plus Congo-Kinshasa, which collapsed following decolonization from Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dissolution of the Soviet Union led to state collapse in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia-Herzegovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia-Herzegovina">Bosnia-Herzegovina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other cases of state collapse included Laos, following an attack backed by the United States which led to partitioning of the country into spheres of influence; Lebanon, which went through a full-scale civil war; and Afghanistan, where insurgents challenged the communist regime and moved against Soviet intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_and_causes">Theories and causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theories and causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2020, Johais, Bayer and Lambach proposed a dynamic model of the causes of state collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their article in <i>Global Change, Peace & Security</i>, they argue that a state collapse happens when 1) opposition groups arm themselves and mobilise against the government; 2) political transitions such as decolonisation or regime change cause existing power structures to be questioned; 3) politics prolong power struggles and undermine existing institutions; 4) repression causes extreme distrust between rulers and the rest of society; 5) factionalism obstructs strengthening of state policies; 6) loss of cohesion within the ruling elite erodes the monopolisation of violence, rule-making, and tax collection; and 7) external interventions contribute to destabilisation.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyclical_theories">Cyclical theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cyclical theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Islamic scholar <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (1332–1406) produced a general theory of state collapse, transforming the study of history into a "new science".<sup id="cite_ref-Saunders1966_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saunders1966-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his eyes, dynasties repeatedly become "sedentary, senile, coercive, pompous, subservient to desire ... liable to divisions in the dynasty." Group feeling (<a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">asabiyyah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">groupthink</a>) disappears as the dynasty grows senile. After three generations a new invading clique, "restless, alert and courageous", will cause the old dynasty to collapse<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in accordance with the principle in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a>, chapter 20, verse four: God "visits the sins of the fathers onto their children, even unto the third and fourth generation of those that hate Him". Ibn Khaldun was fatalistic: "This senility is a chronic disease which cannot be cured because it is something natural".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Mulgan" title="Geoff Mulgan">Geoff Mulgan</a> discusses Ibn Khaldun in detail and agrees on the timescale: "There are obvious parallels between the lifespans of individuals and those of ruling groups."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of the USSR, a Marxist <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">revolutionary wave</a> had formed in which several subordinate regimes in Eastern Europe and Africa collapsed almost simultaneously with the central power.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass_psychology">Mass psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mass psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Japanese philosopher <a href="/wiki/Hajime_Tanabe" title="Hajime Tanabe">Hajime Tanabe</a> points to the quasi-religious role of the state to mediate between mortal individuals and the eternal universe, so that states regularly collapse; like religious figures, they must undergo a process of death and <a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">resurrection</a>. In his view this may account for the perennial popularity of states because they regularly demonstrate their ability to transcend death.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychologists<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> speak of a "<a href="/wiki/Masada" title="Masada">Masada</a> complex" that may drive fanatics to a suicidal, violent last-ditch stand. In a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a> state or an <a href="/wiki/Ideocracy" title="Ideocracy">ideocracy</a>, individuals may develop a <a href="/wiki/Closed_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed mind">closed mind</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_personality" title="Authoritarian personality">authoritarian personality</a>, making them more likely to resist threats to the incumbent regime.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> According to psychologist <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a> it is possible for an entire nation, if they all share the same vices and errors, to become insane—a <i>"folie a millions"</i>. Inhumane treatment by the rulers inevitably leads to collapse; </p><blockquote><p> Despots and ruling cliques can succeed in dominating and exploiting their fellow man ... but their subjects react ... with apathy, impairment of intelligence, initiative and skills ... or they react by the accumulation of such hate and destructiveness as to bring about an end to themselves, their rulers and their system. ... if man lives under conditions contrary to his nature and to human growth and sanity, he cannot help reacting.'<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Democratic_decay">Democratic decay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Democratic decay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mark_Blyth" title="Mark Blyth">Mark Blyth</a> alleges that a democracy can also collapse "if voters don't get what they want and merely affirm the status quo." In these circumstances, voters deprived of real choice may opt for the least democratic option.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a divided, collapsing country lacking civil institutions, or in a closed country attempting reform and openness, the process of democratisation is 'dangerous' and may hasten collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Increasing_coercion_and_dictatorship">Increasing coercion and dictatorship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Increasing coercion and dictatorship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the USSR and Apartheid South Africa, the state became 'evil or tyrannical... destroying the institutions of civil society';<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> between 1970 and 1991, <a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a> changed from 'prophetic rule, to autocracy, to tyranny'.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this context <a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">John Kenneth Galbraith</a> regrets the "very slight" amount of research on the nature of political power.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Power regularly passes to those who "assert the unknown with the greatest conviction... not necessarily related to intelligence."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What we call "power" is, "in practice, the illusion of power."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discussing how the "powerless" <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> brought about the collapse of militarily "powerful" <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>, Galbraith reflects that power, mostly seen as a possession of states and their leaders, would be better viewed as a flow, into and away from "those instruments that enforce it".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Wight" title="Martin Wight">Martin Wight</a> deplored the "demonic concentrations of power" of the defeated countries in the two world wars. A devout Christian, he saw their "triumphant self-destruction" as "Antichrist moments".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Messianic_leadership_style">Messianic leadership style</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Messianic leadership style"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to political scientists, in an <a href="/wiki/Ideocracy" title="Ideocracy">ideocracy</a> there must be a ruthless charismatic leader: "the leader is the movement",<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and all individuals are required to submit to, and worship him.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Followers who lead barren, insecure, frustrated lives obey the leader, not through faith in his vision of a '<a href="/wiki/Promised_land" class="mw-redirect" title="Promised land">Promised land</a>', but because he leads them away from their unwanted selves".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When collapse threatens he may insist on a "fight to the finish". </p><p>Hitler, according to <a href="/wiki/Walter_Langer" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Langer">Walter Langer</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had a <a href="/wiki/Messiah_complex" title="Messiah complex">Messiah complex</a> and saw himself as the "Saviour of Germany" who performed "miracles" with the economy.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was unnaturally fond of his mother, to the extent that Germany became a "mother symbol".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His drive to destroy (the Jews, communism, Europe) was an unconscious attempt to resolve his <a href="/wiki/Oedipus_complex" title="Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a> and the injustices of his childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (October 2023)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:State_collapse#Dubious" title="Talk:State collapse">discuss</a></i>]</sup> He "dismantled the German state ... and replaced it with a war machine".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was swept along by a tide of events.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mussolini" class="mw-redirect" title="Mussolini">Mussolini</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/Denis_Mack_Smith" title="Denis Mack Smith">Denis Mack Smith</a>, "was an actor, playing the part that Italians wanted him to be".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was vindictive, sadistic, impulsive, proud and cruel, full of "demonic wilfulness" and did not know right from wrong. When in 1944 he led a <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a> in northern Italy, he "divided Italy in two and initiated 18 months of terrible civil war."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ken_Livingstone" title="Ken Livingstone">Ken Livingstone</a> has compared <a href="/wiki/Slobodan_Milosevic" class="mw-redirect" title="Slobodan Milosevic">Slobodan Milosevic</a> to Hitler for his racism and expansionist goals.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, who also suffered from a Messiah complex,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was similar: "Hitler was not one of a kind. As long as millions of people passionately long for his return, it is only a matter of time until their wish is fulfilled."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a> "went mad" as early as 1971 according to <a href="/wiki/John_Sweeney_(journalist)" title="John Sweeney (journalist)">John Sweeney</a>, when, "blind to his own Messianism", he attempted to recreate <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korean</a> <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He "played the king" and the role of "chosen one" and "saviour".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neglect,_corruption_and_incompetence"><span id="Neglect.2C_corruption_and_incompetence"></span>Neglect, corruption and incompetence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Neglect, corruption and incompetence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Managerial incapacity, failing to meet popular needs, causes dissatisfaction. If the government avoids necessary choices, practices only defensive politics, and represses the protests with tyranny, the state is likely to implode. This was the case in <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a> when it collapsed in 1980, and in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> in 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Czar_Nicholas_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Czar Nicholas II">Czar Nicholas II</a>, crowned at an early age, 26, was untrained in governance.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grand Duke Vladimir's son Cyril was a rival candidate for the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liberals and revolutionaries challenged his autocracy.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1916 he had become apathetic, dominated by the Czarina and <a href="/wiki/Rasputin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rasputin">Rasputin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a "Christ in the image of the rejected and agonizing monarchy".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Few political scientists credibly predicted the collapse of the Soviet Union or agreed on its causes:<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in hindsight, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leonid_Fituni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leonid Fituni (page does not exist)">Leonid Fituni</a> lists 'poverty, hunger, regional conflicts, ethnic wars, deindustrialisation, foreign debt, elite corruption, disease epidemics, refugee problems, environmental issues' as causes.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_takeover">Military takeover</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Military takeover"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Armed forces may take over a collapsing state by <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27etat" class="mw-redirect" title="Coup d'etat">coup d'etat</a>. Some military regimes are able to reverse a downward spiral, but if they fail to do so, must rely ever more on coercion and control. The regime 'falls into the vacuum it has created'. This occurred in <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> under <a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a> in 1979; and in <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Absence_of_legitimacy">Absence of legitimacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Absence of legitimacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Legitimacy refers to popular belief in, or acceptance of, an authority; thus it includes any leader achieving popularity at any given moment.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the state fails to reward the people with civil rights, participation, accountability and oversight, legitimacy fades and collapse may occur<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, the non-inclusive 2004 constitution, the international coalition's focus on power consolidation at the expense of democracy, and president <a href="/wiki/Ashraf_Ghani" title="Ashraf Ghani">Ashraf Ghani</a>'s narrow circle of support, caused the regime to fall in 2021 as it 'lacked legitimacy in the eyes of the people'.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Collapse_of_Afghanistan_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Collapse_of_Afghanistan-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the USSR the <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27etat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt">1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt</a> was foiled, not by the Gorbachev regime but by <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a> and other reformers: Gorbachev never recovered from this blow to his legitimacy<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newly_independent_states">Newly independent states</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Newly independent states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Such states are especially vulnerable to collapse as the people may not accept or understand the principles of legitimacy or nationhood. In <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, the <a href="/wiki/FRELIMO" title="FRELIMO">FRELIMO</a> government lost legitimacy when the army refused to fight in the civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> State collapse is prevalent in much of post-colonial Africa and has occurred in two waves: in the 1980's, the second decade of independence, in Chad, Uganda and Ghana; and a decade later, in Somalia and <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_states_subvert_or_invade">Other states subvert or invade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other states subvert or invade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Collapse is marked by the loss of control of political space. Neighbour states may intervene directly in a collapsing state; or they may host dissident movements.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collapse of Afghanistan in 2021 was only possible because the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> were sheltered in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Collapse_of_Afghanistan_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Collapse_of_Afghanistan-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Idi Amin was forced out of Uganda by Ugandan exiles combined with the invasion by <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_collapse_or_decline">Economic collapse or decline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Economic collapse or decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">Economic collapse</a></div> <p>In a collapsing state the economy may shrink because a) the <a href="/wiki/Black_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Black economy">Black economy</a> overshadows the formal, more controlled economy, and b) peripheral areas may prefer to use a neighbour state's currency, as in Chad, Ethiopia in the 1980's and <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a> in the 1990's.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of post-WW1 Austria, the loss of pre-war markets in the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian empire">Austro-Hungarian empire</a> encouraged fears of economic decline, thus the idea of <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a> with Germany, and Austria's downfall by German invasion in 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Soviet Union, the dramatic drop of the <a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">price of oil in 1985 and 1986</a><sup id="cite_ref-AEI-Gaidar-Grain_and_Oil_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEI-Gaidar-Grain_and_Oil-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Reagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan">Reagan</a> administration's escalation of the arms race ('they can't sustain military spending the way we can') overstretched the USSR economy:<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the economy of apartheid South Africa was weakened by sanctions, banking and other boycotts, divestment and shareholder activism.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_and_regional_tensions">Ethnic and regional tensions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ethnic and regional tensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Loss of territorial control is a 'vital characteristic' of state collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the components of society are neglected they may oppose the centre of power and fend for themselves. If <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a> results, the state loses its <a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a>, and force becomes privatised under <a href="/wiki/Warlord" title="Warlord">warlords</a>, paramilitary or <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> units.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia</a> collapsed in the 1990s, when its six socialist republics broke apart to become separate countries; though <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a> seceded peacefully, civil wars broke out in <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia">Bosnia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a>, then part of <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, due to nationalist elites manipulating communal tensions.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ethnic discrimination of the apartheid system in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> ended through <a href="/wiki/Negotiation" title="Negotiation">negotiations</a> between the governing <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">National Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a>, and other political organizations, resulting in South Africa's first non-racial <a href="/wiki/South_African_general_election,_1994" class="mw-redirect" title="South African general election, 1994">election</a>, which was won by the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_war">Foreign war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Foreign war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>'Misbegotten wars, when serving as culmination points of more general national decline, can be fatal', says Robert Kaplan. Participation in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> was a decisive factor in the collapse of Ottoman Turkey, the Austro-Hungarian empire<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Russia in 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wars_of_succession">Wars of succession</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Wars of succession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an absolute monarchy, a <a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">disputed succession</a> to the throne can cause the 'utter collapse of royal authority'. The <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> ended the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancastrian</a> dynasty at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">battle of Tewkesbury</a> in 1471; and led to the downfall of <a href="/wiki/Richard_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard III">Richard III</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yorkist" class="mw-redirect" title="Yorkist">Yorkist</a> line at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Bosworth">battle of Bosworth</a> in 1485.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dependence_on_outside_support">Dependence on outside support</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Dependence on outside support"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Angola in the 1980's, aid from the USSR was the 'principal cause of collapse', turning the ruling elite into unpopular 'worshippers of foreign divinities'. Soon afterwards the USSR itself collapsed, in part due to the 'demands of the main sponsor', the USA.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/2010_Haiti_earthquake" title="2010 Haiti earthquake">2010 Haiti earthquake</a> caused a surge in aid which: created a huge parallel government run by NGOs and contractors; destroyed weak institutions; inflated wages, rents, and prices beyond the reach of local businesses; and gave the Haitian government no incentive to undertake necessary reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regeneration">Regeneration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Regeneration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Either the incumbent regime itself, or an extremist <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> group dissatisfied with its performance, may attempt to postpone or avoid collapse by regenerating popular support; 'At the end of a dynasty there often appears some show of power giving the impression that the dynasty's senility has been made to disappear. It lights up brilliantly just before it is extinguished, like a candle which leaps up brilliantly just before it is put out'.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To do so they may have to take 'heroic' measures; 'Throughout history there have always been in the event of defeat two paths of action; the one aims at saving enough of the substance as possible. the other at leaving behind a stirring legend'.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Piekalkiewicz and Penn, they may rethink or adapt the ideology, or replace it by a completely new set of ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in Poland, according to Piekalkiewicz and Penn, communist ideocracy failed in 1980; the recognition of <a href="/wiki/Lech_Walesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Lech Walesa">Lech Walesa</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a> Trade Union led to a military coup and authoritarian military rule. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Sabrina_Ramet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabrina Ramet">Sabrina Ramet</a>, regenerative changes occurred in Yugoslavia in the 1980s when the communist ideology was replaced by a nationalist drive for a <a href="/wiki/Greater_Serbia" title="Greater Serbia">Greater Serbia</a> and by an <a href="/wiki/Anti-bureaucratic_revolution" title="Anti-bureaucratic revolution">anti-bureaucratic revolution</a> in support of <a href="/wiki/Slobodan_Milosevic" class="mw-redirect" title="Slobodan Milosevic">Slobodan Milosevic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Turk">Young Turk</a> coup of 1908,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27etat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt">1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the financial/industrial reforms of <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Witte" title="Sergei Witte">Sergei Witte</a> in Imperial Russia,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were all aimed at regenerating causes which were nearing collapse. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marina_Ottaway" title="Marina Ottaway">Marina Ottaway</a><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discusses the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1918, <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> in 1947, <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">the collapse of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991, the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa">South Africa's white supremacist government</a> in 1993, of <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> the following year, and of <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Possible_consequences_of_collapse">Possible consequences of collapse</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Possible consequences of collapse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>State collapse is 'not necessarily anarchy'.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failed_state">Failed state</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Failed state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Failed_state" title="Failed state">Failed state</a></div> <p>If attempts at restructuring from within or without are unsuccessful, a long-term absence of a viable government results. Services are absent and national borders are unprotected, as in <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A failed state can fragment, be taken over by outside forces, or descend into chaos.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Annexation_by_another_state">Annexation by another state</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Annexation by another state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mongol Empire was able to conquer and unite the various kingdoms and empires spanning China into one state again in 1279, due to a lack of centralised state authority over the previous century of disunity. </p><p>The gradual weakening and collapse of the Byzantine empire starting in the 11th century led to territory being occupied by European and Ottoman powers, accelerating the total failure of the state. </p><p>The collapse in authority and failure of other states such as the Golden Horde led to their territorial occupation by other states, in this case Russia. </p><p>As in the Austrian <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a> of 1938.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fragmentation">Fragmentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Fragmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Balkanization" title="Balkanization">Balkanization</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition of India</a> in 1947 led to the creation of two independent nations, India and Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkey">Ottoman Turkey</a> collapsed at the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, it lost territory, including what became <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a>; the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire gave rise to <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> and the Austrian Republic, while <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> became part of <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>. Nazi Germany in 1945 fragmented into East and West Germany, while <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomerania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> became part of Poland. The USSR breakup led to regional wars in the newly created states of <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genocide">Genocide</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Genocide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The prospect, and chaos, of state collapse provides fearful elites with motive and opportunity to kill en masse (though the planning and implementation of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> may be hampered by reduced resources).<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When defeat appeared inevitable, Hitler ordered the killing of invalids, Gypsies, Russians and Jews in the <a href="/wiki/Final_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Final solution">Final solution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Ottoman Turkey, estimates for the death toll in the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> vary between 300,000 and 1.5 million.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The partition of India displaced between 10 and 12 million Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims, creating overwhelming refugee crises; there was large-scale violence, with estimates of loss of life accompanying or preceding the partition disputed and varying between several hundred thousand and two million.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the former Yugoslavia collapse led to state failure,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> erupted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_cleansing,_Refugee_crisis_or_Diaspora"><span id="Ethnic_cleansing.2C_Refugee_crisis_or_Diaspora"></span>Ethnic cleansing, Refugee crisis or Diaspora</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ethnic cleansing, Refugee crisis or Diaspora"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Refugee_crisis" title="Refugee crisis">Refugee crisis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">Diaspora</a></div> <p>State collapse in most cases incurs humanitarian tragedies, ending in massive outflows of refugees and others. Africa leads the world in refugee crises, especially in Somalia and Rwanda, and elsewhere, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia">Bosnia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier examples include: the <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944-1950)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944-1950)">Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944-1950)</a> from areas now part of Poland or Russia; the <a href="/wiki/Revival_Process" title="Revival Process">Revival Process</a> when the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">People's Republic of Bulgaria</a> collapsed; the <a href="/wiki/White_emigres" class="mw-redirect" title="White emigres">White emigres</a> who left Russia after the Czarist regime fell; and the <a href="/wiki/South_African_diaspora" title="South African diaspora">South African diaspora</a> after the collapse of apartheid. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reconstruction_and_regime_change">Reconstruction and regime change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Reconstruction and regime change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Regime_change" title="Regime change">Regime change</a></div> <p>Collapsed states are now expected to be rebuilt, territorially intact and along democratic lines, with the help of multilateral organizations and bilateral donors.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> State reconstruction involves five basic elements; 1) a central political authority, 2) control of borders, 3) control of national territory, 4) sufficient control and supply of resources to maintain the state, 5) availability of state agents sufficient to execute policy.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anyone attempting this in Somalia would have to; disarm thousands of gunmen, stop the arms trafficking, set up a justice system and rebuild the economy, all against the opposition of warlords, extremists and smugglers.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1946, the Diet ratified a new <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Japan" title="Constitution of Japan">Constitution of Japan</a><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new constitution drafted by Americans allowed access and control over the Japanese military through MacArthur and the Allied occupation on Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The political project drew much of its inspiration from the <a href="/wiki/US_Bill_of_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="US Bill of Rights">U.S. Bill of Rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> social legislation, the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal constitution">liberal constitutions</a> of several European states and even the Soviet Union."<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Justice,_guilt_and_denialism"><span id="Justice.2C_guilt_and_denialism"></span>Justice, guilt and denialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Justice, guilt and denialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></div> <p>Collapse may be followed by formal or informal efforts at justice, such as the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_(South_Africa)" title="Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)">Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Slobodan_Milosevic" class="mw-redirect" title="Slobodan Milosevic">Slobodan Milosevic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> were also tried in court. Germany has faced up to its <a href="/wiki/German_collective_guilt" title="German collective guilt">German collective guilt</a> and 'legacy of 'shame'<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the Hitler years in such media portrayals as <a href="/wiki/Downfall_(2004_film)" title="Downfall (2004 film)"><i>Downfall</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Denial" title="Denial">Denial</a> has been a common reaction in post-collapse nations. In post-apartheid South Africa, white liberals were more likely to feel guilt feelings than conservatives.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have refused to accept responsibility for massacres, as in <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_clean_Wehrmacht" title="Myth of the clean Wehrmacht">Myth of the clean Wehrmacht</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_denial" title="Armenian genocide denial">Armenian genocide denial</a>; a fictitious explanation for the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> in 1918 was found in the <a href="/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Stab-in-the-back myth">Stab-in-the-back myth</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_longer_term">In the longer term</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: In the longer term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The collapse of the Ottomans in 1918 had long-term consequences, 'triggering most of the problems that plague the Middle East today'.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hegemony in the Middle East has been subject to quarrels between British, French,<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Israeli,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> American,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arab nationalist,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saudi and Iranian interests<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ever since. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Haffner" title="Sebastian Haffner">Sebastian Haffner</a> had argued that Hitler, 'whether we like it or not', created many features of the postwar world, including the state of Israel, the end of European empires, the division of Germany, and the joint hegemony of the US and USSR.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a> (<a href="/wiki/Covert_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Covert operations">covert operations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_(international_relations)" title="Anarchy (international relations)">Anarchy (international relations)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Revolution" title="The Anatomy of Revolution">The Anatomy of Revolution</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsology" title="Collapsology">Collapsology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_violence" title="Cycle of violence">Cycle of violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Failed_state" title="Failed state">Failed state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_state" title="Fragile state">Fragile state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_States_Index" title="Fragile States Index">Fragile States Index</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="History of the Central Intelligence Agency">History of the Central Intelligence Agency</a> (<a href="/wiki/Covert_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Covert operations">covert operations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_liquidity_crisis" title="Lebanese liquidity crisis">Lebanese liquidity crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_decline" title="American decline">American decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_politics" title="Power politics">Power politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictions_of_the_collapse_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union">Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_mentality" title="Siege mentality">Siege mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaking_truth_to_power" title="Speaking truth to power">Speaking truth to power</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tragedy_of_Great_Power_Politics" title="The Tragedy of Great Power Politics">The Tragedy of Great Power Politics</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides_Trap" title="Thucydides Trap">Thucydides Trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debellatio" title="Debellatio">Debellatio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(politics)" title="Dissolution (politics)">Dissolution (politics)</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The death toll remains disputed with figures ranging from 200,000 to 2 million."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSingh20092_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSingh20092-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_collapse&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:2-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZartman1995" class="citation book cs1">Zartman, I. William (1995). "Introduction: Posing the Problem of State Collapse". <i>Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority</i>. Boulder and London: L. Rienner Publishers. pp. 1, 8–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55587-518-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-55587-518-1"><bdi>1-55587-518-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Posing+the+Problem+of+State+Collapse&rft.btitle=Collapsed+States%3A+The+Disintegration+and+Restoration+of+Legitimate+Authority&rft.place=Boulder+and+London&rft.pages=1%2C+8-11&rft.pub=L.+Rienner+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-55587-518-1&rft.aulast=Zartman&rft.aufirst=I.+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AState+collapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambachJohaisBayer2015" class="citation journal cs1">Lambach, Daniel; Johais, Eva; Bayer, Markus (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01436597.2015.1038338">"Conceptualising state collapse: An institutionalist approach"</a>. <i>Third World Quarterly</i>. <b>36</b> (7): 1299–1315. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01436597.2015.1038338">10.1080/01436597.2015.1038338</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153598699">153598699</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Third+World+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Conceptualising+state+collapse%3A+An+institutionalist+approach&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1299-1315&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01436597.2015.1038338&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153598699%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lambach&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Johais%2C+Eva&rft.au=Bayer%2C+Markus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F01436597.2015.1038338&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AState+collapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCall2008" class="citation journal cs1">Call, Charles T. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455126">"The Fallacy of the 'Failed State'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Third World Quarterly</i>. <b>29</b> (8): 1491–1507. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01436590802544207">10.1080/01436590802544207</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455126">20455126</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153402082">153402082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Third+World+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Fallacy+of+the+%27Failed+State%27&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1491-1507&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153402082%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20455126%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01436590802544207&rft.aulast=Call&rft.aufirst=Charles+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20455126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AState+collapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohaisBayerLambach2020" class="citation journal cs1">Johais, Eva; Bayer, Markus; Lambach, Daniel (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14781158.2020.1780204?journalCode=cpar20">"How do states collapse? Towards a model of causal mechanisms"</a>. <i>Global Change, Peace & Security</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 179–197. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14781158.2020.1780204">10.1080/14781158.2020.1780204</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221053229">221053229</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Change%2C+Peace+%26+Security&rft.atitle=How+do+states+collapse%3F+Towards+a+model+of+causal+mechanisms&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=179-197&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14781158.2020.1780204&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221053229%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Johais&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft.au=Bayer%2C+Markus&rft.au=Lambach%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F14781158.2020.1780204%3FjournalCode%3Dcpar20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AState+collapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saunders1966-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saunders1966_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/J.J._Saunders" class="mw-redirect" title="J.J. Saunders">J.J. 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