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<main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Population bottleneck</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"><a class="minerva__tab-text" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Population_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a></li> <li class="minerva__tab "><a class="minerva__tab-text" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Talk:Population_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a></li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"><a role="button" 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lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> A population bottleneck or genetic bottleneck is a sharp reduction in the size of a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Population?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Population">population</a> due to environmental events such as famines, earthquakes, floods, fires, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Disease?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Disease">disease</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Drought?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Drought">droughts</a>; or human activities such as genocide, speciocide, widespread violence or intentional culling. Such events can reduce the variation in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gene_pool?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gene pool">gene pool</a> of a population; thereafter, a smaller population, with a smaller <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_diversity?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a>, remains to pass on genes to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Future_generations?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Future generations">future generations</a> of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Offspring?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Offspring">offspring</a>. Genetic diversity remains lower, increasing only when gene flow from another population occurs or very slowly increasing with time as random <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mutation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mutation">mutations</a> occur.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-1">[1]</a>[<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source</a>] This results in a reduction in the robustness of the population and in its ability to adapt to and survive <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Natural_selection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Natural selection">selecting</a> environmental changes, such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a> or a shift in available resources.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Alternatively, if survivors of the bottleneck are the individuals with the greatest genetic <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fitness_(biology)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a>, the frequency of the fitter genes within the gene pool is increased, while the pool itself is reduced. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Population_bottleneck.svg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Population_bottleneck.svg/220px-Population_bottleneck.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Population_bottleneck.svg/330px-Population_bottleneck.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Population_bottleneck.svg/440px-Population_bottleneck.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="373"></a> <figcaption> Population bottleneck followed by recovery or extinction </figcaption> </figure> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_drift?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a> caused by a population bottleneck can change the proportional random distribution of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Allele?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Allele">alleles</a> and even lead to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fixation_(population_genetics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fixation (population genetics)">loss of alleles</a>. The chances of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Inbreeding?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Inbreeding">inbreeding</a> and genetic homogeneity can increase, possibly leading to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Inbreeding_depression?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding depression</a>. Smaller population size can also cause deleterious mutations to accumulate.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Population bottlenecks play an important role in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Conservation_biology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a> (see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Minimum_viable_population?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Minimum viable population">minimum viable population</a> size) and in the context of agriculture (biological and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pest_control?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pest control">pest control</a>).<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"> <input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"> <div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Minimum_viable_population_size">1 Minimum viable population size</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Founder_effects">2 Founder effects</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Examples">3 Examples</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Humans">3.1 Humans</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Toba_catastrophe_theory">3.1.1 Toba catastrophe theory</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Other_animals">3.2 Other animals</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Selective_breeding">3.3 Selective breeding</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Plants">3.4 Plants</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#See_also">4 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#References">5 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#External_links">6 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"> <h2 id="Minimum_viable_population_size">Minimum viable population size</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Population_bottleneck&action=edit&section=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Minimum viable population size" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Main article: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Minimum_viable_population?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a> </div> In <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Conservation_biology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a>, minimum viable population (MVP) size helps to determine the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Effective_population_size?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a> when a population is at risk for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Extinction?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Extinction">extinction</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The effects of a population bottleneck often depend on the number of individuals remaining after the bottleneck and how that compares to the minimum viable population size. </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"> <h2 id="Founder_effects">Founder effects</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Population_bottleneck&action=edit&section=2&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Founder effects" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Main article: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Founder_effect?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Founder effect">Founder effect</a> </div> A slightly different form of bottleneck can occur if a small group becomes reproductively (e.g., geographically) separated from the main population, such as through a founder event, e.g., if a few members of a species successfully colonize a new isolated island, or from small captive breeding programs such as animals at a zoo. Alternatively, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Invasive_species?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> can undergo population bottlenecks through founder events when introduced into their invaded range.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-7">[7]</a> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"> <h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Population_bottleneck&action=edit&section=3&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Examples" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Humans">Humans</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Population_bottleneck&action=edit&section=4&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Humans" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> See also: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Founder_effect?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Among_human_populations" title="Founder effect">Founder effect § Among human populations</a> </div> According to a 1999 model, a severe population bottleneck, or more specifically a full-fledged <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Speciation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Speciation">speciation</a>, occurred among a group of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Australopithecine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Australopithecine">Australopithecina</a> as they transitioned into the species known as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Homo_erectus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a> two million years ago. It is believed that additional bottlenecks must have occurred since Homo erectus started walking the Earth, but current archaeological, paleontological, and genetic data are inadequate to give much reliable information about such conjectured bottlenecks.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-hawks-8">[8]</a> Nonetheless, a 2023 genetic analysis discerned such a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Human_ancestor?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Human ancestor">human ancestor</a> population bottleneck of a possible 100,000 to 1000 individuals "around 930,000 and 813,000 years ago [which] lasted for about 117,000 years and brought human ancestors close to extinction."<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-NYT-20230831-9">[9]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-SCI-20230831-10">[10]</a> A 2005 study from Rutgers University theorized that the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-1492</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">native populations</a> of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Americas?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Americas">Americas</a> are the descendants of only 70 individuals who crossed the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Settlement_of_the_Americas?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Settlement of the Americas">land bridge</a> between Asia and North America.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The Neolithic Y-chromosome bottleneck refers to a period around 5000 BC where the diversity in the male y-chromosome dropped precipitously, to a level equivalent to reproduction occurring with a ratio between men and women of 1:17.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Discovered in 2015<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-13">[13]</a> the research suggests that the reason for the bottleneck was not a reduction in the number of males, but a drastic decrease in the percentage of males with reproductive success. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Toba_catastrophe_theory">Toba catastrophe theory</h4> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Population_bottleneck&action=edit&section=5&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Toba catastrophe theory" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> Main article: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Toba_catastrophe_theory" title="Youngest Toba eruption">Toba catastrophe theory</a> </div> The controversial Toba catastrophe theory, presented in the late 1990s to early 2000s, suggested that a bottleneck of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Human?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Human">human</a> population occurred approximately 75,000 years ago, proposing that the human population was reduced to perhaps 10,000–30,000 individuals<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Ancestors_Tale-14">[14]</a> when the Toba <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Supervolcano?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Supervolcano">supervolcano</a> in Indonesia erupted and triggered a major environmental change. Parallel bottlenecks were proposed to exist among <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chimpanzee?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gorilla?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rhesus_macaque?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus macaques</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Orangutan?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tiger?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tiger">tigers</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The hypothesis was based on geological evidence of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Abrupt climate change">sudden climate change</a> and on <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Coalescent_theory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Coalescent theory">coalescence</a> evidence of some genes (including <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup">Y-chromosome DNA</a> and some <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nuclear_gene?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nuclear gene">nuclear genes</a>)<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-16">[16]</a> and the relatively low level of genetic variation in humans.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Ancestors_Tale-14">[14]</a> However, subsequent research, especially in the 2010s, appeared to refute both the climate argument and the genetic argument. Recent research shows the extent of climate change was much smaller than believed by proponents of the theory.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-17">[17]</a> In 2000, a Molecular Biology and Evolution paper suggested a transplanting model or a 'long bottleneck' to account for the limited genetic variation, rather than a catastrophic environmental change.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-hawks-8">[8]</a> This would be consistent with suggestions that in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> numbers could have dropped at times as low as 2,000, for perhaps as long as 100,000 years, before numbers began to expand again in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Upper Paleolithic">Late Stone Age</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Population_bottleneck&action=edit&section=6&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Other animals" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em"> <tbody> <tr> <th>Year</th> <th>American bison (est)</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Before 1492</td> <td align="right">60,000,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1890</td> <td align="right">750</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2000</td> <td align="right">360,000</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/European_bison?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="European bison">European bison</a>, also called wisent (Bison bonasus), faced extinction in the early 20th century. The animals living today are all descended from 12 individuals and they have extremely low genetic variation, which may be beginning to affect the reproductive ability of bulls.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The population of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/American_bison?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="American bison">American bison</a> (Bison bison) fell due to overhunting, nearly leading to extinction around the year 1890, though it has since begun to recover (see table). <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Northern_Elephant_Seal,_San_Simeon2.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Northern_Elephant_Seal%2C_San_Simeon2.jpg/250px-Northern_Elephant_Seal%2C_San_Simeon2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 167px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Northern_Elephant_Seal%2C_San_Simeon2.jpg/250px-Northern_Elephant_Seal%2C_San_Simeon2.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="167" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Northern_Elephant_Seal%2C_San_Simeon2.jpg/375px-Northern_Elephant_Seal%2C_San_Simeon2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Northern_Elephant_Seal%2C_San_Simeon2.jpg/500px-Northern_Elephant_Seal%2C_San_Simeon2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Overhunting pushed the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Northern_elephant_seal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Northern elephant seal">northern elephant seal</a> to the brink of extinction by the late 19th century. Although they have made a comeback, the genetic variation within the population remains very low. </figcaption> </figure> A classic example of a population bottleneck is that of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Northern_elephant_seal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Northern elephant seal">northern elephant seal</a>, whose population fell to about 30 in the 1890s. Although it now numbers in the hundreds of thousands, the potential for bottlenecks within colonies remains. Dominant bulls are able to mate with the largest number of females—sometimes as many as 100. With so much of a colony's offspring descended from just one dominant male, genetic diversity is limited, making the species more vulnerable to diseases and genetic mutations. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Golden_hamster?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Golden hamster">golden hamster</a> is a similarly bottlenecked species, with the vast majority of domesticated hamsters descended from a single litter found in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syrian_desert?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian desert">Syrian desert</a> around 1930, and very few wild golden hamsters remain. An extreme example of a population bottleneck is the New Zealand <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Black_robin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Black robin">black robin</a>, of which every specimen today is a descendant of a single female, called Old Blue. The Black Robin population is still recovering from its low point of only five individuals in 1980. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genome?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genome">genome</a> of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Giant_panda?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Giant panda">giant panda</a> shows evidence of a severe bottleneck about 43,000 years ago.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-20">[20]</a> There is also evidence of at least one primate species, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Golden_snub-nosed_monkey?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Golden snub-nosed monkey">golden snub-nosed monkey</a>, that also suffered from a bottleneck around this time. An unknown environmental event is suspected to have caused the bottlenecks observed in both of these species. The bottlenecks likely caused the low <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_diversity?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> observed in both species. Other facts can sometimes be inferred from an observed population bottleneck. Among the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Galápagos Islands">Galápagos Islands</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_tortoise?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Galápagos tortoise">giant tortoises</a>—themselves a prime example of a bottleneck—the comparatively large population on the slopes of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alcedo_Volcano?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alcedo Volcano">Alcedo volcano</a> is significantly less diverse than four other tortoise populations on the same island. DNA analyses date the bottleneck to around 88,000 years before present (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Before_Present?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Before Present">YBP</a>).<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-21">[21]</a> About 100,000 YBP the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Volcano?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Volcano">volcano</a> erupted violently, deeply burying much of the tortoise habitat in pumice and ash. Another example can be seen in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Greater_prairie_chicken?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater prairie chicken">greater prairie chickens</a>, which were prevalent in North America until the 20th century. In <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Illinois?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> alone, the number of greater prairie chickens plummeted from over 100 million in 1900 to about 46 in 1998.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:1-22">[22]</a> These declines in population were the result of hunting and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Habitat_destruction?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a>, but the random consequences have also caused a great loss in species diversity. DNA analysis comparing the birds from 1990 and mid-century shows a steep genetic decline in recent decades. Management of the greater prairie chickens now includes <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_rescue?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genetic rescue">genetic rescue</a> efforts including the translocation prairie chickens between <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lek_mating?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lek mating">leks</a> to increase each populations genetic diversity.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:1-22">[22]</a> Population bottlenecking poses a major threat to the stability of species populations as well. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Papilio_homerus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Papilio homerus">Papilio homerus</a> is the largest butterfly in the Americas and is endangered according to the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">IUCN</a>. The disappearance of a central population poses a major threat of population bottleneck. The remaining two populations are now geographically isolated and the populations face an unstable future with limited remaining opportunity for gene flow.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Genetic bottlenecks exist in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cheetah?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cheetah">cheetahs</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Selective_breeding">Selective breeding</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Population_bottleneck&action=edit&section=7&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Selective breeding" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Bottlenecks also exist among pure-bred animals (e.g., <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dog?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dog">dogs</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cat?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cat">cats</a>: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pug?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pug">pugs</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Persian_(cat)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian (cat)">Persian</a>) because breeders limit their <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gene_pool?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gene pool">gene pools</a> by a few (show-winning) individuals for their looks and behaviors. The extensive use of desirable individual animals at the exclusion of others can result in a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Popular_sire_effect?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Popular sire effect">popular sire effect</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Selective_breeding?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a> for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dog_breeding?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dog breeding">dog breeds</a> caused constricting breed-specific bottlenecks.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a> These bottlenecks have led to dogs having an average of 2–3% more <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_load?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genetic load">genetic loading</a> than <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gray_wolf?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray wolf">gray wolves</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The strict breeding programs and population bottlenecks have led to the prevalence of diseases such as heart disease, blindness, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cancer?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cancer">cancers</a>, hip dysplasia, and cataracts.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Selective_breeding?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a> to produce high-yielding crops has caused genetic bottlenecks in these crops and has led to genetic homogeneity.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-28">[28]</a> This reduced genetic diversity in many crops could lead to broader susceptibility to new diseases or pests, which threatens global food security.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Plants">Plants</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Population_bottleneck&action=edit&section=8&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Plants" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Research showed that there is incredibly low, nearly undetectable amounts of genetic diversity in the genome of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wollemia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wollemia">Wollemi pine</a> (Wollemia nobilis).<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The IUCN found a population count of 80 mature individuals and about 300 seedlings and juveniles in 2011, and previously, the Wollemi pine had fewer than 50 individuals in the wild.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The low population size and low genetic diversity indicates that the Wollemi pine went through a severe population bottleneck. A population bottleneck was created in the 1970s through the conservation efforts of the endangered <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mauna_Kea_silversword?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mauna Kea silversword">Mauna Kea silversword</a> (Argyroxiphium sandwicense ssp. sandwicense).<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The small natural population of silversword was augmented through the 1970s with outplanted individuals. All of the outplanted silversword plants were found to be first or subsequent generation offspring of just two maternal founders. The low amount of polymorphic loci in the outplanted individuals led to the population bottleneck, causing the loss of the marker allele at eight of the loci. </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"> <h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Population_bottleneck&action=edit&section=9&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <ul> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Baby_boom?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Baby boom">Baby boom</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Population_boom?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Population boom">Population boom</a></li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"> <h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Population_bottleneck&action=edit&section=10&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style> <div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-1">^</a> William R. Catton, Jr. "Bottleneck: Humanity's Impending Impasse" Xlibris Corporation, 2009. 290 pp. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4415-2241-2?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4415-2241-2">978-1-4415-2241-2</a>[<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>][<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source</a>]</li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLande1988" class="citation journal cs1">Lande, R. 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Molecular Biology and Evolution. 17 (1): 2–22. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1093%252Foxfordjournals.molbev.a026233">10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026233</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/PMID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10666702">10666702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Population+bottlenecks+and+Pleistocene+human+evolution&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-22&rft.date=2000-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a026233&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10666702&rft.aulast=Hawks&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Hunley%2C+K&rft.au=Lee%2C+SH&rft.au=Wolpoff%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Foxfordjournals.molbev.a026233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+bottleneck" class="Z3988"> <ul> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20140205024640/http://www.ns.umich.edu/Releases/2000/Jan00/r011000b.html">"New study suggests big bang theory of human evolution"</a>. University of Michigan, Department of Anthropology (Press release). January 10, 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://ns.umich.edu/Releases/2000/Jan00/r011000b.html">the original</a> on February 5, 2014. Retrieved March 4, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+study+suggests+big+bang+theory+of+human+evolution&rft.date=2000-01-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fns.umich.edu%2FReleases%2F2000%2FJan00%2Fr011000b.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+bottleneck" class="Z3988"></li> </ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20040515084856/http://essp.csumb.edu/eseal/kristi_west/history.html">Northern Elephant Seal History</a></li> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNei_M2005" class="citation journal cs1">Nei M (May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view%3Dlong%26pmid%3D15914771">"Bottlenecks, genetic polymorphism and speciation"</a>. Genetics. 170 (1): 1–4. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1093%252Fgenetics%252F170.1.1">10.1093/genetics/170.1.1</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/PMC_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1449701">1449701</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/PMID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15914771">15914771</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.atitle=Bottlenecks%2C+genetic+polymorphism+and+speciation&rft.volume=170&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2005-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1449701%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15914771&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F170.1.1&rft.au=Nei+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.genetics.org%2Fcgi%2Fpmidlookup%3Fview%3Dlong%26pmid%3D15914771&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulation+bottleneck" class="Z3988"></li> </ul> <div class="navbox-styles"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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