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Classification des particules </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE, Théories de jauge et chromodynamique quantique" href="/encyclopedie/chromodynamique-quantique/2-theories-de-jauge-et-chromodynamique-quantique/"> 2. Théories de jauge et chromodynamique quantique </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE, La liberté asymptotique des quarks et des gluons" href="/encyclopedie/chromodynamique-quantique/3-la-liberte-asymptotique-des-quarks-et-des-gluons/"> 3. La liberté asymptotique des quarks et des gluons </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE, Hadronisation des quarks et des gluons : les jets de particules" href="/encyclopedie/chromodynamique-quantique/4-hadronisation-des-quarks-et-des-gluons-les-jets-de-particules/"> 4. Hadronisation des quarks et des gluons : les jets de particules </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE, Le domaine mystérieux du confinement" href="/encyclopedie/chromodynamique-quantique/5-le-domaine-mysterieux-du-confinement/"> 5. Le domaine mystérieux du confinement </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE, Simulation numérique et calcul sur réseau" href="/encyclopedie/chromodynamique-quantique/6-simulation-numerique-et-calcul-sur-reseau/"> 6. Simulation numérique et calcul sur réseau </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE, La phase déconfinée : le plasma de quarks et gluons" href="/encyclopedie/chromodynamique-quantique/7-la-phase-deconfinee-le-plasma-de-quarks-et-gluons/"> 7. La phase déconfinée : le plasma de quarks et gluons </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE, Axes de recherche en chromodynamique" href="/encyclopedie/chromodynamique-quantique/8-axes-de-recherche-en-chromodynamique/"> 8. Axes de recherche en chromodynamique </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE, Bibliographie" href="/encyclopedie/chromodynamique-quantique/9-bibliographie/"> 9. Bibliographie </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE, Site internet" href="/encyclopedie/chromodynamique-quantique/10-site-internet/"> 10. Site internet </a> </li> </ul> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-universalis" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#free-toc" aria-expanded="false" title="Afficher / masquer le sommaire"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-eye"></i> Sommaire </button> </div> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE</strong> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="content paged type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yC220007_0"><i class="anchor" id="yC220007_0"></i><p>Dès le début des années 1930, les physiciens se sont interrogés sur les raisons de la stabilité des noyaux atomiques formés de protons, de charge électrique positive, et de neutrons, de charge nulle. La force responsable de cette cohésion, plus intense que les forces électriques qui causent une répulsion entre les protons de charges identiques, est appelée interaction forte. Elle<em></em>apparaît comme une force à courte portée, agissant presque de la même façon sur le <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La matière est constituée d'atomes (dont la dimension est de l'ordre de 10 —10 mètre), eux-mêmes formés par un noyau (dont la dimension est de l'ordre de 10 —15 mètre, soit 1 femtomètre [fm]) autour duquel gravitent des électrons . Le proton est une particule de charge électrique positive, numériquement égale à celle de l'électron, mais de masse 1 836 fois plus grande..." title="Article : PROTONS" href="/encyclopedie/protons/">proton</a> que sur le <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le neutron est, avec le proton , une particule constitutive du noyau atomique. Un noyau (Z, A), de numéro atomique Z et de nombre de masse A, est un assemblage constitué de briques élémentaires de deux types différents : Z protons et A—Z neutrons. Ces deux particules jouent donc un rôle fondamental dans tous les processus qui mettent en jeu les noyaux. Le neutron est une particule d..." title="Article : NEUTRONS" href="/encyclopedie/neutrons/">neutron</a> pour assurer la stabilité des noyaux. En 1935, le théoricien japonais Hideki <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie d'YUKAWA HIDEKI (1907-1981). Physicien japonais, né le 23 janvier 1907 à Tōkyō, dans une famille bourgeoise, nourrie de culture classique, notamment chinoise, dans la tradition confucéenne, Yukawa Hideki était le cinquième de sept enfants qui devinrent, pour la plupart, d'éminents universitaires. Son père, Ogawa Takuji, géologue et géographe, fut nommé professeur à l'unive..." title="Article : YUKAWA HIDEKI (1907-1981)" href="/encyclopedie/yukawa/">Yukawa</a> (1907-1981) propose l’existence de médiateurs de l’interaction forte. Ce sont les mésons π, particules qu’on découvre effectivement en 1947 parmi les rayons cosmiques ayant impressionné des émulsions photographiques. Conformément aux prédictions de Yukawa, cette particule existe sous trois états de charge (π<sup>+</sup>, π<sup>0</sup>, π<sup>–</sup>), a une masse intermédiaire entre l’électron et le proton et est copieusement produite dans les collisions entre noyaux. La première théorie des interactions fortes tente de les expliquer par des échanges de mésons π entre protons et neutrons. Cependant, la théorie est peu prédictive et échoue à rendre compte des nombreux résultats expérimentaux récoltés près des premiers accélérateurs de particules dans les années 1950-1960. Elle est remplacée au cours des années 1970 par la chromodynamique quantique (CDQ, en anglais QCD pour <em>quantum </em><em>chromodynamics</em>), une théorie quantique des champs qui décrit avec succès de nombreux aspects du monde subatomique, et en particulier rend mieux compte des interactions nucléaires fortes par les propriétés de champs élémentaires fondamentaux qui n’ont jamais été observés directement, les <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Les quarks sont des particules élémentaires. Ils ont été imaginés en 1963 pour expliquer la multiplicité croissante des particules élémentaires et la régularité apparente du nouveau tableau des éléments découverts grâce aux expériences utilisant les grands accélérateurs et sont maintenant considérés comme des constituants ultimes de la matière, au sens qu’aucune sous-stru..." title="Article : QUARKS" href="/encyclopedie/quarks/">quarks</a> et les <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Particule élémentaire dont l'échange entre deux autres particules caractérise l'interaction nucléaire forte. De masse nulle, neutre électriquement, cette particule de moment angulaire intrinsèque (ou spin) égal à h /2π, où h est la constante de Planck, est l'équivalent du photon dans la théorie de la chromodynamique quantique . Il porte une charge dite « de couleur » qui ..." title="Article : GLUONS" href="/encyclopedie/gluons/">gluons</a>, qui restent confinés en particulier dans les protons et les neutrons des noyaux atomiques.</p><div class="clearfix"></div></div><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yC220007_1"><i class="anchor" id="yC220007_1"></i><h2>Classification des particules </h2><p>Dans les expériences de collision entre protons réalisées auprès des accélérateurs de particules des années 1950-1960, les physiciens sont décontenancés par la multiplication des types de particules sensibles aux interactions fortes qui sont produites alors ; on leur donne le nom d’hadrons (du grec <em>hadros</em>, « fort »). Ces hadrons sont de deux types bien distincts : </p><p>– les <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Famille de particules sensibles à l'interaction forte et de moment angulaire intrinsèque (spin) multiple impair de h /4π ( h = constante de Planck). On a longtemps considéré les baryons comme des particules élémentaires mais on comprend maintenant qu'ils sont des assemblages de quarks , d'antiquarks et de gluons . Leur contenu en quarks et en gluons est analysé en termes de sup..." title="Article : BARYONS" href="/encyclopedie/baryons/">baryons</a> (du grec <em>barus</em><em>,</em> « lourd »), de masse supérieure à celle du proton se désintégrant finalement en un proton ou un neutron accompagné de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le photon est une particule de masse nulle qui décrit les excitations élémentaires du champ électromagnétique quantifié. En théorie quantique, le champ présente, en effet, un double caractère : ondulatoire et corpusculaire. L'aspect ondulatoire se manifeste par la possibilité d'observer des interférences avec des ondes électromagnétiques. L'aspect corpusculaire est révél..." title="Article : PHOTONS" href="/encyclopedie/photons/">photons</a> ou de mésons. Ils apparaissent comme des fermions (du nom du physicien italien Enrico Fermi), c’est-à-dire des particules de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="On appelle « spin » le moment angulaire ou cinétique intrinsèque des particules quantiques ou quantons. Ce terme anglais évoque le mouvement de rotation propre que peuvent posséder les objets physiques, telles les planètes ou les balles de tennis, qui tournent sur eux-mêmes tout en décrivant leurs trajectoires. Il est caractérisé par une grandeur physique adéquate, appelée l..." title="Article : SPIN ou MOMENT CINÉTIQUE ou ANGULAIRE INTRINSÈQUE" href="/encyclopedie/spin/">spin</a> (moment angulaire intrinsèque de la particule) demi-entier (en unité <em>h</em>/2π, <em>h</em> étant la constante de Planck) ;</p><p>– les mésons (du grec <em>mesos</em>, « moyen »), plus légers, qui sont au contraire des bosons (du nom du physicien Satyendranath Bose), c’est-à-dire des particules de spin nul ou entier. Les mésons appelés π, K, ρ, ω sont les plus légers, mais chaque expérience en fait découvrir de nouveaux.</p><p>Les théoriciens ont été amenés à grouper en multiplets les particules dont les comportements par rapport aux interactions fortes sont quasiment identiques. Le proton p<em></em>et le neutron n<em></em>deviennent les deux membres d’un doublet : le nucléon, avec ses deux états de charge (p, n). Les trois états de charge du méson π deviennent les membres d’un triplet (π<sup>+</sup>, π<sup>0</sup>, π<sup>–</sup>).<sup></sup>Si l’interaction électromagnétique distingue chacune des particules du multiplet puisqu’elles ont des charges électriques différentes, on observe que la transformation qui remplace un membre d’un multiplet par un autre laisse invariantes la plupart de leurs caractéristiques vis-à-vis de l’interaction forte. Cette dernière respecte donc une symétrie, qu’on appelle symétrie d’isospin. La structure mathématique – au sens de la théorie des groupes – de cette symétrie est proche de celle de la symétrie de rotation dans l’espace, mais il s’agit<a href="javascript:" title="Lire la suite" class="read-more ms-1">[...]</a></p></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" 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title="Carte mentale : CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE" href="/carte-mentale/chromodynamique-quantique/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> Élargissez votre recherche dans Universalis </p></a></div></section> <section class="mb-5 article-classification" data-print-label="la classification" data-print-target=".article-classification"> <i class="anchor" id="yC220007_ROOT_LINES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Classification</p> <nav aria-label="Classification 1"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Physique" href="/classification/physique/"> Physique </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Histoire de la physique"> <a title="Classification : Histoire de la physique" href="/classification/physique/histoire-de-la-physique/"> Histoire de la physique </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 2"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li 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href="/media/les-particules-elementaires-ta220257/"> <img id="TA220257" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/6/d/csm_ta220257_dbc08ee22f.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Les particules élémentaires - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="Ce tableau rassemble les caractéristiques des particules élémentaires, les fermions (quarks et leptons) et les bosons." data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="1348" height="2000" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Les particules élémentaires </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="DE220261" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Intérieur d’un proton" href="/media/interieur-dun-proton-de220261/"> <img id="DE220261" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/5/csm_de220261_d788badfd1.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Intérieur d’un proton - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="Un proton est une particule composite comprenant trois quarks (u, u, d) liés par des échanges de gluons, des particules électriquement neutres qui fonctionnent comme une sorte de colle. Cette configuration n'est pas statique. Au cours des échanges de gluons, ces derniers se matérialisent sous forme…" data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="2000" height="1650" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Intérieur d’un proton </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="DE220258" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Couplages élémentaires de la chromodynamique quantique" href="/media/couplages-elementaires-de-la-chromodynamique-quantique-de220258/"> <img id="DE220258" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/2/a/csm_de220258_cd8f5b3d19.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Couplages élémentaires de la chromodynamique quantique - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="Cette figure illustre les trois couplages élémentaires de la chromodynamique. La partie inférieure indique le flot des couleurs dans ces couplages. La lettre g désigne l'intensité du couplage." data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="1024" height="721" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Couplages élémentaires de la chromodynamique quantique </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" rel="related" href="/medias/chromodynamique-quantique/"> Afficher les 6 médias de l'article <span class="rg">CHROMODYNAMIQUE QUANTIQUE</span> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yC220007_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/particules-elementaires/#c84395"> <span class="rg">PARTICULES ÉLÉMENTAIRES</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Maurice JACOB</span> et <span rel="author">Bernard PIRE</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">8 175 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">12 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : PARTICULES &Eacute;L&Eacute;MENTAIRES" href="/encyclopedie/particules-elementaires/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Détection de particules élémentaires, G. Charpak - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/7/1/csm_in020007_8096391002.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...C'est le cas de la <em>théorie </em><em>électrofaible</em> qui regroupe l'électrodynamique quantique et l'interaction faible. C'est aussi le cas de la <em>chromodynamique quantique</em> qui décrit l'interaction forte au niveau des quarks et des gluons. Ces théories sont plus complexes et généralisent l'électrodynamique... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/axions/#c84395"> <span class="rg">AXIONS</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Bernard PIRE</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 118 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : AXIONS" href="/encyclopedie/axions/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Détection de l’axion : « la lumière qui traverse le mur » - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/4/7/csm_de220196_908b0c43b7.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...catalogue des objets élémentaires n’est pas la conséquence d’une observation, mais au contraire, de l’analyse des propriétés mathématiques d’une théorie, la chromodynamique quantique (QCD, pour Quantum ChromoDynamics), construite au début des années 1970 pour rendre compte des manifestations de l’interaction... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/bosons-elementaires/#c84395"> <span class="rg">BOSONS ÉLÉMENTAIRES</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Bernard PIRE</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 872 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...les particules produites se regroupaient en trois jets, signe de la présence d'un gluon accompagnant la paire quark-antiquark primitivement produite. La <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Dès le début des années 1930, les physiciens se sont interrogés sur les raisons de la stabilité des noyaux atomiques formés de protons, de charge électrique positive, et de neutrons, de charge nulle. La force responsable de cette cohésion, plus intense que les forces électriques qui causent une répulsion entre les protons de charges identiques, est appelée interaction forte. 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