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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cholera" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cholera"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Cholera</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cholera-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Political controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_and_honours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_and_honours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Legacy and honours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy_and_honours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">John Snow</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%88_(%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A8)" title="جون سنو (طبيب) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جون سنو (طبيب)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%88_(%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A8)" title="جان اسنو (طبیب) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جان اسنو (طبیب)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%83" title="Джон Сноу – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джон Сноу" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow_(Mediziner)" title="John Snow (Mediziner) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="John Snow (Mediziner)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%A3%CE%BD%CF%8C%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Τζον Σνόου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζον Σνόου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%88_(%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9)" title="جان اسنو (پزشک) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جان اسنو (پزشک)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B4_%EC%8A%A4%EB%85%B8_(%EC%9D%98%EC%82%AC)" title="존 스노 (의사) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="존 스노 (의사)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D5%8D%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%B8%D6%82_(%D5%A2%D5%AA%D5%AB%D5%B7%D5%AF)" title="Ջոն Սնոու (բժիշկ) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջոն Սնոու (բժիշկ)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B" title="जॉन स्नो – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जॉन स्नो" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow_(medico)" title="John Snow (medico) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="John Snow (medico)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%90%D7%95_(%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%90)" title="ג'ון סנואו (רופא) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'ון סנואו (רופא)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3_(%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98)" title="ჯონ სნოუ (ექიმი) – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯონ სნოუ (ექიმი)" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%88_(%D8%AF%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85%D9%89_%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7)" title="جون سنو (دكتور من المملكه المتحده لبريطانيا العظمى و ايرلاندا) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جون سنو (دكتور من المملكه المتحده لبريطانيا العظمى و ايرلاندا)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B9%E3%83%8E%E3%82%A6_(%E5%8C%BB%E5%B8%AB)" title="ジョン・スノウ (医師) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジョン・スノウ (医師)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%83,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_(%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87)" title="Сноу, Джон (врач) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сноу, Джон (врач)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8A" title="ජෝන් ස්නෝව් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජෝන් ස්නෝව්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99_%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%8C" title="จอห์น สโนว์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จอห์น สโนว์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="John Snow" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%83" title="Джон Сноу – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джон Сноу" 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id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">English epidemiologist and physician (1813–1858)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the physician. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="John Snow (disambiguation)">John Snow (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">John Snow</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Snow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/John_Snow.jpg/250px-John_Snow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/John_Snow.jpg/330px-John_Snow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/John_Snow.jpg/500px-John_Snow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="2516" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Snow in 1856</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1813-03-15</span>)</span>15 March 1813<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">16 June 1858<span style="display:none">(1858-06-16)</span> (aged 45)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">London, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a> (<a href="/wiki/M._D." class="mw-redirect" title="M. D.">MD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anaesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthesia">Anaesthesia</a><br />Locating source of a <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> outbreak (thus establishing the disease as water-borne)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anaesthesia</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Snow_signature.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/John_Snow_signature.png/150px-John_Snow_signature.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/John_Snow_signature.png/225px-John_Snow_signature.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/John_Snow_signature.png/300px-John_Snow_signature.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="254" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>John Snow</b> (15 March 1813 – 16 June 1858<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) was an English physician and a leader in the development of <a href="/wiki/Anaesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthesia">anaesthesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hygiene#Medical_hygiene" title="Hygiene">medical hygiene</a>. He is considered one of the founders of modern <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory</a>, in part because of his work in tracing the source of a <a href="/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak" title="1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak">cholera outbreak in London's Soho</a>, which he identified as a particular public water pump. Snow's findings inspired fundamental changes in the water and <a href="/wiki/Great_Stink" title="Great Stink">waste systems of London</a>, which led to similar changes in other cities, and a significant improvement in general <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2></div> <p>Snow was born on 15 March 1813 in <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>, England, the first of nine children born to William and Frances Snow in their <a href="/wiki/North_Street_(York)" title="North Street (York)">North Street</a> home, and was baptised at <a href="/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_North_Street,_York" title="All Saints' Church, North Street, York">All Saints' Church, North Street, York</a>. His father was a labourer<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who worked at a local coal yard, by the Ouse, constantly replenished from the Yorkshire coalfield by barges, but later was a farmer in a small village to the north of York.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The neighbourhood was one of the poorest in the city, and was frequently in danger of flooding because of its proximity to the <a href="/wiki/River_Ouse,_Yorkshire" title="River Ouse, Yorkshire">River Ouse</a>. Growing up, Snow experienced unsanitary conditions and contamination in his hometown. Most of the streets were unsanitary and the river was contaminated by runoff water from market squares, cemeteries and sewage.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:All_Saints,_North_Street,_York_(4179098283).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/All_Saints%2C_North_Street%2C_York_%284179098283%29.jpg/250px-All_Saints%2C_North_Street%2C_York_%284179098283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/All_Saints%2C_North_Street%2C_York_%284179098283%29.jpg/330px-All_Saints%2C_North_Street%2C_York_%284179098283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/All_Saints%2C_North_Street%2C_York_%284179098283%29.jpg/500px-All_Saints%2C_North_Street%2C_York_%284179098283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1829" data-file-height="2744" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_North_Street,_York" title="All Saints' Church, North Street, York">All Saints' Church, North Street, York</a>, where Snow was baptised</figcaption></figure> <p>From a young age, Snow demonstrated an aptitude for mathematics. In 1827, when he was 14, he obtained a medical apprenticeship with William Hardcastle in the area of <a href="/wiki/Newcastle-upon-Tyne" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcastle-upon-Tyne">Newcastle-upon-Tyne</a>. In 1832, during his time as a surgeon-apothecary apprentice, he encountered <a href="/wiki/1826%E2%80%931837_cholera_pandemic" title="1826–1837 cholera pandemic">a cholera epidemic</a> for the first time in <a href="/wiki/Killingworth" title="Killingworth">Killingworth</a>, a coal-mining village.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Snow treated many victims of the disease and thus gained experience. Eventually he adjusted to <a href="/wiki/Teetotalism" title="Teetotalism">teetotalism</a> and led a life characterized by abstinence, signing an <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">abstinence pledge</a> in 1835. Snow was also a vegetarian and tried to only drink distilled water that was "pure".<sup id="cite_ref-:03_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1832 and 1835 Snow worked as an assistant to a <a href="/wiki/Colliery" class="mw-redirect" title="Colliery">colliery</a> surgeon, first in <a href="/wiki/Burnopfield" title="Burnopfield">Burnopfield</a>, County Durham, and then in <a href="/wiki/Pateley_Bridge" title="Pateley Bridge">Pateley Bridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="West Riding of Yorkshire">West Riding of Yorkshire</a>. In October 1836 he enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/John_Hunter_(surgeon)" title="John Hunter (surgeon)">Hunterian school of medicine</a> on <a href="/wiki/Great_Windmill_Street" title="Great Windmill Street">Great Windmill Street</a>, London.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2></div> <p>In the 1830s, Snow's colleague at the <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_Infirmary" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcastle Infirmary">Newcastle Infirmary</a> was surgeon <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Michael_Greenhow" title="Thomas Michael Greenhow">Thomas Michael Greenhow</a>. The surgeons worked together conducting research on England's <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> epidemics, both continuing to do so for many years.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1837, Snow began working at the <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Hospital" title="Westminster Hospital">Westminster Hospital</a>. Admitted as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Surgeons_of_England" title="Royal College of Surgeons of England">Royal College of Surgeons of England</a> on 2 May 1838, he graduated from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a> in December 1844 and was admitted to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Physicians" title="Royal College of Physicians">Royal College of Physicians</a> in 1850. Snow was a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_Society_of_London" title="Epidemiological Society of London">Epidemiological Society of London</a> which was formed in May 1850 in response to the cholera outbreak of 1849. By 1856, Snow and Greenhow's nephew, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Headlam_Greenhow" title="Edward Headlam Greenhow">Dr. E.H. Greenhow</a> were some of a handful of esteemed medical men of the society who held discussions on this "dreadful scourge, the <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After finishing his medical studies in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>, he earned his MD in 1844. Snow set up his practice at 54 Frith Street in Soho as a surgeon and general practitioner. John Snow contributed to a wide range of medical concerns including <a href="/wiki/Anaesthesiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthesiology">anaesthesiology</a>. He was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Medical_Society" title="Westminster Medical Society">Westminster Medical Society</a>, an organisation dedicated to clinical and scientific demonstrations. Snow gained prestige and recognition all the while being able to experiment and pursue many of his scientific ideas. He was a speaker multiple times at the society's meetings and he also wrote and published articles. He was especially interested in patients with respiratory diseases and tested his hypothesis through animal studies. In 1841, he wrote, <i>On Asphyxiation, and on the Resuscitation of Still-Born Children</i>, which is an article that discusses his discoveries on the physiology of neonatal respiration, oxygen consumption and the effects of body temperature change.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1857, Snow made an early and often overlooked<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contribution to epidemiology in a pamphlet, <i>On the adulteration of bread as a cause of <a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">rickets</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anaesthesia">Anaesthesia</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barker--John_Snow--1847.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Barker--John_Snow--1847.jpg/250px-Barker--John_Snow--1847.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Barker--John_Snow--1847.jpg/330px-Barker--John_Snow--1847.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Barker--John_Snow--1847.jpg/440px-Barker--John_Snow--1847.jpg 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="632" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of John Snow by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jones_Barker" title="Thomas Jones Barker">Thomas Jones Barker</a> (detail), 1847, private collection</figcaption></figure> <p>Snow's interest in <a href="/wiki/Anaesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthesia">anaesthesia</a> and breathing was evident from 1841 and beginning in 1843, he experimented with <a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">ether</a> to see its effects on respiration.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only a year after ether was introduced to Britain, in 1847, he published a short work titled, <i>On the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether,</i> which served as a guide for its use. At the same time, he worked on various papers that reported his clinical experience with anaesthesia, noting reactions, procedures and experiments. Within two years of ether being introduced, Snow was the most accomplished anaesthetist in Britain. London's principal surgeons suddenly wanted his assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As well as ether, John Snow studied <a href="/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">chloroform</a>, which was introduced in 1847 by <a href="/wiki/James_Young_Simpson" title="James Young Simpson">James Young Simpson</a>, a Scottish obstetrician. He realised that chloroform was much more potent and required more attention and precision when administering it. Snow first realised this with Hannah Greener, a 15-year-old patient who died on 28 January 1848 after a surgical procedure that required the cutting of her toenail. She was administered chloroform by covering her face with a cloth dipped in the substance. However, she quickly lost pulse and died. After investigating her death and a couple of deaths that followed, he realized that chloroform had to be administered carefully and published his findings in a letter to <i>The Lancet</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John Snow was one of the first physicians to study and calculate dosages for the use of ether and chloroform as surgical <a href="/wiki/Anaesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthetic">anaesthetics</a>, allowing patients to undergo surgical and <a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">obstetric</a> procedures without the distress and pain they would otherwise experience. He designed the apparatus to safely administer ether to the patients and also designed a mask to administer chloroform.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Snow published an article on ether in 1847 entitled <i>On the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A longer version entitled <i>On Chloroform and Other Anaesthetics and Their Action and Administration</i> was published posthumously in 1858.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although he thoroughly worked with ether as an anaesthetic, he never attempted to patent it; instead, he continued to work and publish written works on his observations and research. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Obstetric_anaesthesia">Obstetric anaesthesia</h3></div> <p>Snow's work and findings were related to both anaesthesia and the practice of childbirth. His experience with obstetric patients was extensive and used different substances including ether, <a href="/wiki/Amylene" class="mw-redirect" title="Amylene">amylene</a> and chloroform to treat his patients. However, chloroform was the easiest drug to administer. He treated 77 obstetric patients with chloroform. He would apply the chloroform at the second stage of labour and controlled the amount without completely putting the patients to sleep. Once the patient was delivering the baby, they would only feel the first half of the contraction and be on the border of unconsciousness, but not fully there. Regarding administration of the anaesthetic, Snow believed that it would be safer if another person that was not the surgeon applied it.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of chloroform as an anaesthetic for childbirth was seen as unethical by many physicians and even the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>. However, on 7 April 1853, <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> asked John Snow to administer chloroform during the delivery of her eighth child, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Leopold,_Duke_of_Albany" title="Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany">Leopold</a>. He then repeated the procedure for the delivery of her daughter <a href="/wiki/Princess_Beatrice_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom">Beatrice</a> in 1857.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to wider acceptance of obstetrical anaesthesia.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cholera">Cholera</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak" title="1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak">1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cholera_in_London_1866.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cholera_in_London_1866.gif/330px-Cholera_in_London_1866.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cholera_in_London_1866.gif/450px-Cholera_in_London_1866.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Cholera_in_London_1866.gif 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption>Map of a later cholera outbreak in London, in 1866</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Choleramaplondon1866.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Choleramaplondon1866.png/300px-Choleramaplondon1866.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Choleramaplondon1866.png 1.5x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="64" /></a><figcaption>Legend for the map above</figcaption></figure> <p>Snow was a skeptic of the then-dominant <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory" title="Miasma theory">miasma theory</a> that stated that diseases such as cholera and <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> were caused by pollution or a noxious form of "bad air". The <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a> had not yet been developed, so Snow did not understand the mechanism by which the disease was transmitted. His observation of the evidence led him to discount the theory of foul air. He first published his theory in an 1849 essay, <i>On the Mode of Communication of Cholera</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by a more detailed treatise in 1855 incorporating the results of his investigation of the role of the water supply in the <a href="/wiki/Soho" title="Soho">Soho</a> epidemic of 1854.<sup id="cite_ref-Snow_1855_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snow_1855-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By talking to local residents (with the help of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Whitehead_(priest)" title="Henry Whitehead (priest)">Henry Whitehead</a>), he identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (now <a href="/wiki/Broadwick_Street" title="Broadwick Street">Broadwick Street</a>). Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a water sample from the <a href="/wiki/Broad_Street_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Broad Street pump">Broad Street pump</a> did not conclusively prove its danger, his studies of the pattern of the disease were convincing enough to persuade the local council to disable the well pump by removing its handle (<a href="/wiki/Hand_pump#Types" title="Hand pump">force rod</a>). This action has been commonly credited as ending the outbreak, but Snow observed that the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There is no doubt that the mortality was much diminished, as I said before, by the flight of the population, which commenced soon after the outbreak; but the attacks had so far diminished before the use of the water was stopped, that it is impossible to decide whether the well still contained the cholera poison in an active state, or whether, from some cause, the water had become free from it.<sup id="cite_ref-Snow_1855_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snow_1855-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 51–52">: 51–52 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg/330px-Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg/500px-Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg/960px-Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="20124" data-file-height="18877" /></a><figcaption>Original map by John Snow showing the <a href="/wiki/Cluster_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluster (epidemiology)">clusters</a> of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854, drawn and lithographed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cheffins" title="Charles Cheffins">Charles Cheffins</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Snow later used a <a href="/wiki/Dot_distribution_map" title="Dot distribution map">dot map</a> to illustrate the cluster of cholera cases around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. He showed that homes supplied by the <a href="/wiki/Southwark_and_Vauxhall_Waterworks_Company" title="Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company">Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company</a>, which was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of the <a href="/wiki/Thames" class="mw-redirect" title="Thames">Thames</a>, had a cholera rate fourteen times that of those supplied by <a href="/wiki/Lambeth_Waterworks_Company" title="Lambeth Waterworks Company">Lambeth Waterworks Company</a>, which obtained water from the upriver, cleaner <a href="/wiki/Seething_Wells" title="Seething Wells">Seething Wells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Snow's study was a major event in the history of public health and geography. It is regarded as the founding event of the science of <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Snow wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly all the deaths had taken place within a short distance of the [Broad Street] pump. There were only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly nearer to another street-pump. In five of these cases the families of the deceased persons informed me that they always sent to the pump in Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that of the pumps which were nearer. In three other cases, the deceased were children who went to school near the pump in Broad Street... </p><p>With regard to the deaths occurring in the locality belonging to the pump, there were 61 instances in which I was informed that the deceased persons used to drink the pump water from Broad Street, either constantly or occasionally... </p><p>The result of the inquiry, then, is, that there has been no particular outbreak or prevalence of cholera in this part of London except among the persons who were in the habit of drinking the water of the above-mentioned pump well. </p><p> I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of St James's parish, on the evening of the 7th inst [7 September], and represented the above circumstances to them. In consequence of what I said, the handle of the pump was removed on the following day.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>John Snow, letter to the editor of the <i>Medical Times and Gazette</i><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Snow_memorial_and_pub.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/John_Snow_memorial_and_pub.jpg/220px-John_Snow_memorial_and_pub.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/John_Snow_memorial_and_pub.jpg/330px-John_Snow_memorial_and_pub.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/John_Snow_memorial_and_pub.jpg/440px-John_Snow_memorial_and_pub.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>John Snow memorial and public house on <a href="/wiki/Broadwick_Street" title="Broadwick Street">Broadwick Street</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soho" title="Soho">Soho</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Researchers later discovered that this public well had been dug only 3 feet (0.9 m) from an old <a href="/wiki/Cesspit" title="Cesspit">cesspit</a>, which had begun to leak faecal bacteria. The cloth nappy of a baby, who had contracted cholera from another source, had been washed into this cesspit. Its opening was originally under a nearby house, which had been rebuilt farther away after a fire. The city had widened the street and the cesspit was lost. It was common at the time to have a cesspit under most homes. Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Shapter" title="Thomas Shapter">Thomas Shapter</a> had conducted similar studies and used a point-based map for the study of cholera in <a href="/wiki/Exeter" title="Exeter">Exeter</a>, seven years before John Snow, although this did not identify the water supply problem that was later held responsible.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_controversy">Political controversy</h4></div> <p>After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the Broad Street pump handle. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterward they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant indirectly accepting the fecal-oral route of disease transmission, which was too unpleasant for most of the public to contemplate.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was not until 1866 that <a href="/wiki/William_Farr" title="William Farr">William Farr</a>, one of Snow's chief opponents, realised the validity of his diagnosis when investigating another outbreak of cholera at <a href="/wiki/Bromley_by_Bow" class="mw-redirect" title="Bromley by Bow">Bromley by Bow</a> and issued immediate orders that unboiled water was not to be drunk.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Farr denied Snow's explanation of how exactly the contaminated water spread cholera, although he did accept that water had a role in the spread of the illness. In fact, some of the statistical data that Farr collected helped promote John Snow's views.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public health officials recognise the political struggles in which reformers have often become entangled.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the annual <a href="/wiki/Pumphandle_Lecture" title="Pumphandle Lecture">Pumphandle Lecture</a> in England, members of the <a href="/wiki/John_Snow_Society" title="John Snow Society">John Snow Society</a> remove and replace a pump handle to symbolise the continuing challenges for advances in public health.<sup id="cite_ref-Lecture_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lecture-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2></div> <p>Snow was known to swim as a hobby for exercise.<sup id="cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mather_2004-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He became a <a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">vegetarian</a> at the age of 17 and was a <a href="/wiki/Teetotaller" class="mw-redirect" title="Teetotaller">teetotaller</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mather_2004-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He embraced a <a href="/wiki/Lacto-ovo_vegetarianism" title="Lacto-ovo vegetarianism">lacto-ovo vegetarian</a> diet by supplementing his vegetables with dairy products and eggs for eight years. Whilst in his thirties he became a <a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">vegan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mather_2004-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His health deteriorated and he suffered a <a href="/wiki/Renal_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal disorder">renal disorder</a> which he attributed to his vegan diet so he took up meat-eating and drinking wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mather_2004-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He continued drinking pure water (via boiling) throughout his adult life. He never married.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1830, Snow became a member of the <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance movement</a>. In 1845, he became a member of York Temperance Society.<sup id="cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mather_2004-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his health declined it was only about 1845 that he consumed a little wine to aid digestion.<sup id="cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mather_2004-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Snow lived at 18 <a href="/wiki/Sackville_Street_(London)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sackville Street (London)">Sackville Street</a>, London, from 1852 to his death in 1858.<sup id="cite_ref-UCLA_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCLA-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Snow suffered a stroke while working in his London office on 10 June 1858. He was 45 years old at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He never recovered, dying six days later on 16 June 1858. He was buried in <a href="/wiki/Brompton_Cemetery" title="Brompton Cemetery">Brompton Cemetery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been speculated that his premature death may have been related to his frequent exposure and experimentation with anesthetic gases, which is now known to have numerous adverse health effects. Snow administered and experimented with ether, chloroform, ethyl nitrate, carbon disulfide, benzene, bromoform, ethyl bromide and dichloroethane during his lifetime.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy_and_honours">Legacy and honours</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnSnowBrompton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/JohnSnowBrompton.jpg/250px-JohnSnowBrompton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/JohnSnowBrompton.jpg/330px-JohnSnowBrompton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/JohnSnowBrompton.jpg/500px-JohnSnowBrompton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Funerary monument, <a href="/wiki/Brompton_Cemetery" title="Brompton Cemetery">Brompton Cemetery</a>, London</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr_John_Snow_(24023399742).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Dr_John_Snow_%2824023399742%29.jpg/250px-Dr_John_Snow_%2824023399742%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Dr_John_Snow_%2824023399742%29.jpg/330px-Dr_John_Snow_%2824023399742%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Dr_John_Snow_%2824023399742%29.jpg/500px-Dr_John_Snow_%2824023399742%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2135" data-file-height="1928" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Blue_plaque" title="Blue plaque">Blue plaque</a> erected by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry" title="Royal Society of Chemistry">Royal Society of Chemistry</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>A plaque commemorates Snow and his 1854 study in the place of the water pump on Broad Street (now Broadwick Street). It shows a water pump with its handle removed. The spot where the pump stood is covered with red granite.</li> <li>A public house nearby was named the "<a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(public_house)" title="John Snow (public house)">John Snow</a>" in his honour.<sup id="cite_ref-ThirdDegree_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThirdDegree-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The John Snow Society is named in his honour, and the society regularly meets at The John Snow pub. An annual Pumphandle Lecture is delivered each September by a leading authority in contemporary public health.</li> <li>His grave in <a href="/wiki/Brompton_Cemetery" title="Brompton Cemetery">Brompton Cemetery</a>, London, is marked by a funerary monument.</li> <li>In York a <a href="/wiki/Blue_plaque" title="Blue plaque">blue plaque</a> on the west end of the Park Inn, a hotel in North Street, commemorates John Snow.</li> <li>Together with fellow pioneer of anaesthesia <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Thomas_Clover" title="Joseph Thomas Clover">Joseph Thomas Clover</a>, Snow is one of the <a href="/wiki/Heraldic_supporter" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraldic supporter">heraldic supporters</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Anaesthetists" title="Royal College of Anaesthetists">Royal College of Anaesthetists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RCOA_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RCOA-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Anaesthetists_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland">Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland</a> awards The John Snow Award, a bursary for undergraduate <a href="/wiki/Medical_students" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical students">medical students</a> undertaking research in the field of anaesthesia.</li> <li>Despite reports that Snow was awarded a prize by the <a href="/wiki/Institut_de_France" title="Institut de France">Institut de France</a> for his 1849 essay on cholera,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a 1950 letter from the Institut indicates that he received only a nomination for it.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1978 a public health research and consulting firm, <a href="/wiki/John_Snow,_Inc" title="John Snow, Inc">John Snow, Inc</a>, was founded.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>In 2001 the <a href="/wiki/John_Snow_College" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow College">John Snow College</a> was founded on the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Durham" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Durham">University of Durham</a>'s Queen's Campus in <a href="/wiki/Stockton-on-Tees" title="Stockton-on-Tees">Stockton-on-Tees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2003 John Snow was voted by readers in the United Kingdom of 'Hospital Doctor' magazine as 'the greatest doctor of all time'.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2009, the John Snow lecture theatre was opened by <a href="/wiki/Anne,_Princess_Royal" title="Anne, Princess Royal">Anne, Princess Royal</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Hygiene_%26_Tropical_Medicine" title="London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine">London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>In 2013 <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a></i> printed a correction of its brief obituary of Snow, originally published in 1858: "The journal accepts that some readers may wrongly have inferred that <i>The Lancet</i> failed to recognise Dr Snow's remarkable achievements in the field of epidemiology and, in particular, his visionary work in deducing the mode of transmission of epidemic cholera."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2016, Katherine Tansley published a fictionalised account based on Snow's activities, in her historical novel <i>The Doctor of Broad Street</i> (Troubadour Books).</li> <li>In 2017 York Civic Trust erected a memorial to John Snow in the form of a pump with its handle removed, a blue plaque and an interpretation board, in North Street Gardens, York, close to his birthplace.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_public_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of public health in the United Kingdom">History of public health in the United Kingdom</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Budd" title="William Budd">William Budd</a>, recognised that cholera was contagious</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ghost_Map" title="The Ghost Map">The Ghost Map</a></i>, book on cholera epidemiology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a>, founder of modern nursing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filippo_Pacini" title="Filippo Pacini">Filippo Pacini</a>, isolated cholera</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bazalgette" title="Joseph Bazalgette">Joseph Bazalgette</a>, sewer engineer for London</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Snow-British-physician">"John Snow"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 8 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Snow&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2018-03-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FJohn-Snow-British-physician&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVinten-JohansenBrodyPanethRachman2003">Vinten-Johansen et al. (2003)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wedding Record of William Snow and Frances Empson, Huntington All Saints, 24 May 1812</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Census 1841</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:03_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRamsay2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ramsay, Michael A. E. (6 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1325279">"John Snow, MD: anaesthetist to the Queen of England and pioneer epidemiologist"</a>. <i>Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)</i>. <b>19</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">24–</span>28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08998280.2006.11928120">10.1080/08998280.2006.11928120</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1325279">1325279</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16424928">16424928</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+%28Baylor+University.+Medical+Center%29&rft.atitle=John+Snow%2C+MD%3A+anaesthetist+to+the+Queen+of+England+and+pioneer+epidemiologist&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.date=2009-01-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1325279%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16424928&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08998280.2006.11928120&rft.aulast=Ramsay&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1325279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBall2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ball, Laura (2009). "Cholera and the Pump on Broad Street: The Life and Legacy of John Snow". <i>The History Teacher</i>. <b>43</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">105–</span>119. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40543358">40543358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+History+Teacher&rft.atitle=Cholera+and+the+Pump+on+Broad+Street%3A+The+Life+and+Legacy+of+John+Snow&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40543358%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, KB. (1973) "John Snow" in <i>Dictionary of Scientific Biography</i>. Vol 12. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons; pp. 502–503.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTominey2020" class="citation news cs1">Tominey, Camilla (28 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pressreader.com/search?query=Greenhow%20Middleton%20&languages=en&groupBy=Language&hideSimilar=0&type=1&state=1">"The Duchess of Cambridge's Ancestor Would Have Led The Fight Against Covid 19"</a>. <i>Daily Telegraph</i>. UK. PressReader. p. 25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2020</span>. <q>Based in Tynemouth, near Newcastle, Dr Greenhow, his nephew Dr EH Greenhow and Dr John Snow were founding members of the Royal Society of Medicine's Epidemiological Society in the 1850s.... Dr Snow was Dr Greenhow's former surgery apprentice and Queen Victoria's personal anaesthetist...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=The+Duchess+of+Cambridge%27s+Ancestor+Would+Have+Led+The+Fight+Against+Covid+19&rft.pages=25&rft.date=2020-05-28&rft.aulast=Tominey&rft.aufirst=Camilla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pressreader.com%2Fsearch%3Fquery%3DGreenhow%2520Middleton%2520%26languages%3Den%26groupBy%3DLanguage%26hideSimilar%3D0%26type%3D1%26state%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith2017" class="citation book cs1">Smith, D. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sgkkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT53"><i>Water-Supply and Public Health Engineering</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351873550" title="Special:BookSources/9781351873550"><bdi>9781351873550</bdi></a>. <q>....Dr T.M. Greenhow, a Newcastle colleague of Dr John Snow, had published: Cholera: its non–contagious nature, and the best means of arresting its progress shortly ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water-Supply+and+Public+Health+Engineering&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781351873550&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsgkkDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreenhow1852" class="citation web cs1">Greenhow, Thomas M. (1852). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aXI5g_HdIfIC&q=snow++john+">"Cholera from the east. A letter addressed to Mayor of Newcastle-upon-Tyne James Hodgson, Esq"</a>. E. Charnley.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cholera+from+the+east.+A+letter+addressed+to+Mayor+of+Newcastle-upon-Tyne+James+Hodgson%2C+Esq.&rft.pub=E.+Charnley&rft.date=1852&rft.aulast=Greenhow&rft.aufirst=Thomas+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaXI5g_HdIfIC%26q%3Dsnow%2B%2Bjohn%2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVinten-JohansenBrodyPanethRachman2003">Vinten-Johansen et al. (2003)</a>, pp. 30 & 198: "The senior surgeon was Thomas Michael Greenhow (1792–1881)" and "Consider also T. M. Greenhow: 'When patients rally from collapse, it is often most difficult to ascertain on what causes...'" respectively.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/LESociety.html">"London Epidemiology Society"</a>. UCLA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=London+Epidemiology+Society&rft.pub=UCLA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.ucla.edu%2Fepi%2Fsnow%2FLESociety.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kxRAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA167">"The Lancet London: A Journal of British and Foreign Medicine ..., Volume 1... Epidemiological Society"</a>. Elsevier. 1856. p. 167. <q>The following members of the Epidemiological Society (10 gentleman) took part in the discussion....Drs. Snow, Greenhow...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Lancet+London%3A+A+Journal+of+British+and+Foreign+Medicine+...%2C+Volume+1...+Epidemiological+Society&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1856&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkxRAAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrerichs" class="citation web cs1">Frerichs, R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/LESociety.html">"London Epidemiological Society"</a>. Department of Epidemiological (UCLA)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2019</span>. <q>...dreadful scourge, the cholera ....Snow as a founding member of .....(Tucker's) stimulating words led to a meeting on March 6, 1850 in Hanover Square, within walking distance of the Broad Street pump in the Soho region of London. It was here that the London Epidemiological Society was born.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=London+Epidemiological+Society&rft.pub=Department+of+Epidemiological+%28UCLA%29&rft.aulast=Frerichs&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.ucla.edu%2Fepi%2Fsnow%2FLESociety.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCaton2000" class="citation journal cs1">Caton, Donald (January 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1945835#81074985">"John Snow's Practice of Obstetric Anesthesia"</a>. <i>Anesthesiology: The Journal of the American Society of Anesthesiologists</i>. <b>92</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">247–</span>252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00000542-200001000-00037">10.1097/00000542-200001000-00037</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10638922">10638922</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8117674">8117674</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anesthesiology%3A+The+Journal+of+the+American+Society+of+Anesthesiologists&rft.atitle=John+Snow%27s+Practice+of+Obstetric+Anesthesia&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E247-%3C%2Fspan%3E252&rft.date=2000-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8117674%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10638922&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00000542-200001000-00037&rft.aulast=Caton&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org%2Farticle.aspx%3Farticleid%3D1945835%2381074985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDunnigan2003" class="citation journal cs1">Dunnigan, M. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fije%2Fdyg160">"Commentary: John Snow and alum-induced rickets from adulterated London bread: an overlooked contribution to metabolic bone disease"</a>. <i>International Journal of Epidemiology</i>. <b>32</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">340–</span>1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fije%2Fdyg160">10.1093/ije/dyg160</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12777415">12777415</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Epidemiology&rft.atitle=Commentary%3A+John+Snow+and+alum-induced+rickets+from+adulterated+London+bread%3A+an+overlooked+contribution+to+metabolic+bone+disease&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E340-%3C%2Fspan%3E1&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fije%2Fdyg160&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12777415&rft.aulast=Dunnigan&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fije%252Fdyg160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSnow1857" class="citation journal cs1">Snow, J. (1857). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2213780">"On the Adulteration of Bread As a Cause of Rickets"</a>. <i>The Lancet</i>. <b>70</b> (1766): <span class="nowrap">4–</span>5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2802%2921130-7">10.1016/S0140-6736(02)21130-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet&rft.atitle=On+the+Adulteration+of+Bread+As+a+Cause+of+Rickets&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1766&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=1857&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2802%2921130-7&rft.aulast=Snow&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2213780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span><br /> Reedited in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSnow2003" class="citation journal cs1">Snow, J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/injepidemiology32_336_337_2003.pdf">"On the adulteration of bread as a cause of rickets"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Journal of Epidemiology</i>. <b>32</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">336–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fije%2Fdyg153">10.1093/ije/dyg153</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12777413">12777413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Epidemiology&rft.atitle=On+the+adulteration+of+bread+as+a+cause+of+rickets&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E336-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fije%2Fdyg153&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12777413&rft.aulast=Snow&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.ucla.edu%2Fepi%2Fsnow%2Finjepidemiology32_336_337_2003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/johnsnow.aspx">John Snow (1813–58)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160106163053/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/johnsnow.aspx">Archived</a> 6 January 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. sciencemuseum.org.uk</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Snow, John (1847) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/oninhalationvapourether.pdf">On the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether</a>. ph.ucla.edu</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Snow, John (1858) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onchloroformothe1858snow">On Chloroform and Other Anaesthetics and Their Action and Administration</a>. London: John Churchill</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/victoria.html">"Anesthesia and Queen Victoria"</a>. <i>John Snow</i>. Department of Epidemiology <a href="/wiki/UCLA_School_of_Public_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA School of Public Health">UCLA School of Public Health</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=John+Snow&rft.atitle=Anesthesia+and+Queen+Victoria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.ucla.edu%2Fepi%2Fsnow%2Fvictoria.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSnow1849" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Snow, John</a> (1849). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/ext/cholera/PDF/0050707.pdf"><i>On the Mode of Communication of Cholera</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: John Churchill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Mode+of+Communication+of+Cholera&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Churchill&rft.date=1849&rft.aulast=Snow&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcollections.nlm.nih.gov%2Fext%2Fcholera%2FPDF%2F0050707.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Snow_1855-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Snow_1855_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Snow_1855_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSnow1855" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Snow, John</a> (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/b28985266#page/n3/mode/2up"><i>On the Mode of Communication of Cholera</i></a> (2nd ed.). London: John Churchill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Mode+of+Communication+of+Cholera&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Churchill&rft.date=1855&rft.aulast=Snow&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fb28985266%23page%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGunn,_S._William_A.Masellis,_Michele2007" class="citation book cs1">Gunn, S. William A.; Masellis, Michele (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t1exE1cfKXIC&pg=PA87"><i>Concepts and Practice of Humanitarian Medicine</i></a>. Springer. pp. 87–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-72264-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-72264-1"><bdi>978-0-387-72264-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concepts+and+Practice+of+Humanitarian+Medicine&rft.pages=87-&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-387-72264-1&rft.au=Gunn%2C+S.+William+A.&rft.au=Masellis%2C+Michele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt1exE1cfKXIC%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/watercompanies.html">"Location of water companies"</a>. <i>www.ph.ucla.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ph.ucla.edu&rft.atitle=Location+of+water+companies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.ucla.edu%2Fepi%2Fsnow%2Fwatercompanies.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://seethingwellswater.org/Proof_from_Seething_Wells.html">"Proof from Seething Wells"</a>. <i>seethingwellswater.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=seethingwellswater.org&rft.atitle=Proof+from+Seething+Wells&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fseethingwellswater.org%2FProof_from_Seething_Wells.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSnow1854" class="citation journal cs1">Snow, John (1854). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044103087938&view=1up&seq=331">"The cholera near Golden-Square, and at Deptford"</a>. <i>The Medical Times and Gazette</i>. 2nd series. <b>9</b>: <span class="nowrap">321–</span>322.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Medical+Times+and+Gazette&rft.atitle=The+cholera+near+Golden-Square%2C+and+at+Deptford&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E321-%3C%2Fspan%3E322&rft.date=1854&rft.aulast=Snow&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dhvd.32044103087938%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D331&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span>; see p. 322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKlein2014" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Gary (2014). <i>Seeing What Others Don't</i>. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1480592803" title="Special:BookSources/978-1480592803"><bdi>978-1480592803</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seeing+What+Others+Don%27t&rft.pages=73&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1480592803&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShapter1849" class="citation book cs1">Shapter, Thomas (1849). <i>The History of the Cholera in Exeter in 1832</i>. London: John Churchill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Cholera+in+Exeter+in+1832&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Churchill&rft.date=1849&rft.aulast=Shapter&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chapelle, Frank (2005) <i>Wellsprings</i>. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 82. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-3614-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-3614-6">0-8135-3614-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCadbury2003" class="citation book cs1">Cadbury, Deborah (2003). <i>Seven Wonders of the Industrial World</i>. London and New York: Fourth Estate. pp. <span class="nowrap">189–</span>192.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seven+Wonders+of+the+Industrial+World&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E189-%3C%2Fspan%3E192&rft.pub=Fourth+Estate&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Cadbury&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEyler1973" class="citation journal cs1">Eyler, John M. (April 1973). "William Farr on the Cholera: The Sanitarian's Disease Theory and the Statistician's Method". <i>Journal of the History of Medicine</i>. <b>28</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">79–</span>100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fxxviii.2.79">10.1093/jhmas/xxviii.2.79</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4572629">4572629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=William+Farr+on+the+Cholera%3A+The+Sanitarian%27s+Disease+Theory+and+the+Statistician%27s+Method&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E79-%3C%2Fspan%3E100&rft.date=1973-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fxxviii.2.79&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4572629&rft.aulast=Eyler&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donaldson, L.J. and Donaldson, R.J. (2005) <i>Essential Public Health</i>. Radcliffe Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-900603-87-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-900603-87-X">1-900603-87-X</a>. p. 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lecture-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lecture_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://johnsnowsociety.org/2017/09/12/2017-dr-richard-horton-life-and-death-in-2100-health-history-and-human-contingency/">"Pumphandle Lecture 2017"</a>. <i>johnsnowsociety.org</i>. The John Snow Society. 12 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=johnsnowsociety.org&rft.atitle=Pumphandle+Lecture+2017&rft.date=2017-09-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjohnsnowsociety.org%2F2017%2F09%2F12%2F2017-dr-richard-horton-life-and-death-in-2100-health-history-and-human-contingency%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mather_2004-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mather_2004_35-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mather, J. D. (2004). <i>200 Years of British Hydrogeology</i>. London: The Geological Society. p. 48. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86239-155-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-86239-155-6">1-86239-155-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Snow, Stephanie J. (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/25979">"Snow, John (1813–1858)"</a> in <i>Oxford Dictionary of Biography</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UCLA-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UCLA_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/phototour1.html"><i>JOHN SNOW'S HOMES</i>.</a> UCLA Department of Epidemiology, 2014. Retrieved 6 June 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2006" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Steven (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ghostmapstoryofl00john/page/206"><i>The Ghost Map</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Riverhead_Books" title="Riverhead Books">Riverhead Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ghostmapstoryofl00john/page/206">206</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59448-925-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-59448-925-4"><bdi>1-59448-925-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ghost+Map&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Riverhead+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-59448-925-4&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fghostmapstoryofl00john%2Fpage%2F206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060823091118/http://www.brompton.org/Residents.htm">"List of notable occupants"</a>. <i>Brompton Cemetery</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brompton.org/Residents.htm">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a>)</span> on 23 August 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brompton+Cemetery&rft.atitle=List+of+notable+occupants&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brompton.org%2FResidents.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/death.html">"John Snow's final rest - information on his death"</a>. <i>www.ph.ucla.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ph.ucla.edu&rft.atitle=John+Snow%27s+final+rest+-+information+on+his+death&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.ucla.edu%2Fepi%2Fsnow%2Fdeath.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ThirdDegree-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ThirdDegree_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPunt2014" class="citation episode cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steve_Punt" title="Steve Punt">Punt, Steve</a> (12 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b042zcqm">"Birmingham"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_3rd_Degree_(radio_series)" title="The 3rd Degree (radio series)"><i>The 3rd Degree</i></a>. Season 3. Episode 6. Event occurs at 7:05. <a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio_4" title="BBC Radio 4">BBC Radio 4</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+3rd+Degree&rft.series=Season+3.+Episode+6&rft.date=2014-05-12&rft.aulast=Punt&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fb042zcqm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RCOA-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RCOA_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140912122601/http://www.rcoa.ac.uk/about-the-college/armorial-bearings">"The College Crest"</a>. The Royal College of Anaesthetists. 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rcoa.ac.uk/about-the-college/armorial-bearings">the original</a> on 12 September 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+College+Crest&rft.pub=The+Royal+College+of+Anaesthetists&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rcoa.ac.uk%2Fabout-the-college%2Farmorial-bearings&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFS._William_GunnM._Masellis2008" class="citation book cs1">S. William Gunn; M. Masellis (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conceptspractice00gunn_0"><i>Concepts and practice of humanitarian medicine</i></a></span>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conceptspractice00gunn_0/page/87">87</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-72263-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-72263-4"><bdi>978-0-387-72263-4</bdi></a>. <q>institut de france and john snow.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concepts+and+practice+of+humanitarian+medicine&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-387-72263-4&rft.au=S.+William+Gunn&rft.au=M.+Masellis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconceptspractice00gunn_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NSHXLkgFBBQC&pg=PA290">Google Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCouvrierEdwards1959" class="citation journal cs1">Couvrier R, Edwards G (July 1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1034490">"John Snow and the Institute of France"</a>. <i>Med Hist</i>. <b>3</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">249–</span>251. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025727300024662">10.1017/s0025727300024662</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1034490">1034490</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Med+Hist&rft.atitle=John+Snow+and+the+Institute+of+France&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E249-%3C%2Fspan%3E251&rft.date=1959-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1034490%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0025727300024662&rft.aulast=Couvrier&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Edwards%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1034490&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/colleges-and-student-experience/colleges/john-snow/">John Snow College</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cmaj.ca/content/cmaj/178/13/1691.full.pdf">Remembering Dr. John Snow on the sesquicentennial of his death</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHempel2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hempel, S. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2813%2960830-2">"John Snow"</a>. <i>The Lancet</i>. <b>381</b> (9874): <span class="nowrap">1269–</span>1270. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2813%2960830-2">10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60830-2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23589914">23589914</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5591843">5591843</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet&rft.atitle=John+Snow&rft.volume=381&rft.issue=9874&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1269-%3C%2Fspan%3E1270&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5591843%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23589914&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2813%2960830-2&rft.aulast=Hempel&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS0140-6736%252813%252960830-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yorkcivictrust.co.uk/home/john-snow-memorial/">"John Snow Memorial, North Street Gardens – York Civic Trust"</a>. <i>yorkcivictrust.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=yorkcivictrust.co.uk&rft.atitle=John+Snow+Memorial%2C+North+Street+Gardens+%E2%80%93+York+Civic+Trust&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyorkcivictrust.co.uk%2Fhome%2Fjohn-snow-memorial%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <ul><li>Hempel, Sandra (2006). <i>The Medical Detective: John Snow, Cholera, and the Mystery of the Broad Street Pump.</i> Granta Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1862078424" title="Special:BookSources/1862078424">1862078424</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Berlin_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Steven Berlin Johnson">Johnson, Steven</a> (2006). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ghost_Map" title="The Ghost Map">The Ghost Map</a>: The Story of London's Most Terrifying Epidemic – and How it Changed Science, Cities and the Modern World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Riverhead_Books" title="Riverhead Books">Riverhead Books</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59448-925-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-59448-925-4">1-59448-925-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_K%C3%B6rner" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Körner">Körner, T. W.</a> (1996). <i>The Pleasures of Counting</i>, chapter 1. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56823-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-56823-4">0-521-56823-4</a></li> <li>Morris, Robert D. (2007). <i>The Blue Death</i>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-073089-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-073089-7">0-06-073089-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Shapin" title="Steven Shapin">Shapin, Steven</a> (6 November 2006) [Electronic version]. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/11/06/sick-city">[1]</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i>. Retrieved 10 November 2006</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Tufte" title="Edward Tufte">Tufte, Edward</a> (1997). <i>Visual Explanations</i>, chapter 2. <a href="/wiki/Graphics_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphics Press">Graphics Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9613921-2-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-9613921-2-6">0-9613921-2-6</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVinten-JohansenBrodyPanethRachman2003" class="citation book cs1">Vinten-Johansen, Peter; Brody, Howard; Paneth, Nigel; Rachman, Stephen; Rip, Michael (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_93j18W7cvwC&q=John++snow++St++Thomas%27s++hospital"><i>Cholera, Chloroform, and the Science of Medicine: A Life of John Snow</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199747887" title="Special:BookSources/9780199747887"><bdi>9780199747887</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cholera%2C+Chloroform%2C+and+the+Science+of+Medicine%3A+A+Life+of+John+Snow&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780199747887&rft.aulast=Vinten-Johansen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Brody%2C+Howard&rft.au=Paneth%2C+Nigel&rft.au=Rachman%2C+Stephen&rft.au=Rip%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_93j18W7cvwC%26q%3DJohn%2B%2Bsnow%2B%2BSt%2B%2BThomas%2527s%2B%2Bhospital&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Snow" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:John_Snow_(physician)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:John Snow (physician)">John Snow (physician)</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/120px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1885–1900 <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography's</a></i> article about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Snow,_John" class="extiw" title="s:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Snow, John">Snow, John</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/ext/cholera/PDF/0050707.pdf/">"On the Mode of Communication of Cholera" by John Snow, M.D. (1st ed., 1849)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/b28985266#page/n5/mode/2up">"On the Mode of Communication of Cholera" by John Snow, M.D. ("2nd edition, much enlarged", includes cholera map opposite p. 45)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.snowthemovie.com/">Short narrative film about John Snow</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow.html">UCLA site devoted to the life of John Snow</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/mapmyth/mapmyth.html">Myth and reality regarding the Broad Street pump</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnsnowsociety.org/">John Snow Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/choleragoldensquare.html">Source for Snow's letter to the Editor of the Medical Times and Gazette</a></li> <li>Interactive versions of the John Snow's Map of Board Street Cholera Outbreak <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091022114348/https://www.umapper.com/maps/view/id/43438">umapper</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arcgis.com/home/webmap/viewer.html?webmap=8b3a7c57dbe64a77a9aae26291fc4acc">arcgis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130201020638/http://www.r-bloggers.com/john-snow%E2%80%99s-famous-cholera-analysis-data-in-modern-gis-formats/">John Snow’s cholera analysis data in modern GIS formats</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edx.org/course/predictionx-john-snow-cholera-epidemic-harvardx-soc1-jsx">PredictionX: John Snow and the Cholera Epidemic of 1854 (a Harvard/edX MOOC)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://johnsnow.matrix.msu.edu">The John Snow Archive and Research Companion</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Template:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Template talk:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_infectious_diseases155" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">infectious diseases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cholera" title="History of cholera">Cholera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_HIV/AIDS" title="History of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_leprosy" title="History of leprosy">Leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_malaria" title="History of malaria">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plague" title="History of plague">Plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_polio" title="History of polio">Polio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_smallpox" title="History of smallpox">Smallpox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_syphilis" title="History of syphilis">Syphilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_tuberculosis" title="History of tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_typhoid_fever" title="History of typhoid fever">Typhoid fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_yellow_fever" title="History of yellow fever">Yellow fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice Hilleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignaz Semmelweis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Jacob_Kligler" title="Israel Jacob Kligler">Israel Jacob Kligler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">Major epidemics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> (1346–1353)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS pandemic</a> (1981–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2019–present<abbr title="Peaked 2020–2023">*</abbr>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_disease-causing_pathogens" title="Discovery of disease-causing pathogens">Discovery of disease-causing pathogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox_eradication" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox eradication">Smallpox eradication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_viruses" title="Social history of viruses">Social history of viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cholera86" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cholera" title="Template:Cholera"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cholera" title="Template talk:Cholera"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cholera" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cholera"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cholera86" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">Cholera</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bacteria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">Vibrio cholerae</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Tor" title="El Tor">El Tor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_rehydration_therapy" title="Oral rehydration therapy">Oral rehydration therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholera_vaccine" title="Cholera vaccine">Vaccine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antibiotics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetracycline" title="Tetracycline">Tetracycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotrimoxazole" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotrimoxazole">Cotrimoxazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erythromycin" title="Erythromycin">Erythromycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">Doxycycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloramphenicol" title="Chloramphenicol">Chloramphenicol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furazolidone" title="Furazolidone">Furazolidone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virstatin" title="Virstatin">Virstatin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fluoroquinolones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norfloxacin" title="Norfloxacin">Norfloxacin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outbreaks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pandemics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1817%E2%80%931824_cholera_pandemic" title="1817–1824 cholera pandemic">1817–24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1826%E2%80%931837_cholera_pandemic" title="1826–1837 cholera pandemic">1826–37</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1846%E2%80%931860_cholera_pandemic" title="1846–1860 cholera pandemic">1846–60</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863%E2%80%931875_cholera_pandemic" title="1863–1875 cholera pandemic">1863–75</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1881%E2%80%931896_cholera_pandemic" title="1881–1896 cholera pandemic">1881–96</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1899%E2%80%931923_cholera_pandemic" title="1899–1923 cholera pandemic">1899–1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_cholera_pandemic" title="Seventh cholera pandemic">1961–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1800s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Wellington_(1811_Quebec_ship)" title="Lord Wellington (1811 Quebec ship)">1832 (Lord Wellington)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1817%E2%80%931824_cholera_pandemic" title="1817–1824 cholera pandemic">1817–1824 cholera pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1826%E2%80%931837_cholera_pandemic" title="1826–1837 cholera pandemic">1826–1837 cholera pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_Sligo_cholera_outbreak" title="1832 Sligo cholera outbreak"> 1832 (Sligo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholera_epidemic_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="Cholera epidemic in Lexington, Kentucky">1833 (Lexington USA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_cholera_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Third cholera pandemic">1846-1860 cholera pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_cholera_epidemic_(1849%E2%80%931850)" title="Tennessee cholera epidemic (1849–1850)">1849–50 (Tennessee)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1853_Copenhagen_cholera_outbreak" title="1853 Copenhagen cholera outbreak">1853 (Copenhagen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1853_Stockholm_cholera_outbreak" title="1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak">1853 (Stockholm)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak" title="1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak">1854 (Broad Street)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863%E2%80%931875_cholera_pandemic" title="1863–1875 cholera pandemic">1863–1875 cholera pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1881%E2%80%931896_cholera_pandemic" title="1881–1896 cholera pandemic">1881–1896 cholera pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1900s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1899%E2%80%931923_cholera_pandemic" title="1899–1923 cholera pandemic">1899–1923 cholera pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1913_Romanian_Army_cholera_outbreak" title="1913 Romanian Army cholera outbreak">1913 (Romanian Army)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerol%C3%ADneas_Argentinas_Flight_386" title="Aerolíneas Argentinas Flight 386">1992 (Aerolíneas Argentinas)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_cholera_pandemic" title="Seventh cholera pandemic">1961 to 2025 cholera pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Iraq_cholera_outbreak" title="2007 Iraq cholera outbreak">2007 (Iraq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Zimbabwean_cholera_outbreak" title="2008 Zimbabwean cholera outbreak">2008 (Zimbabwe)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Papua_New_Guinea_cholera_outbreak" title="2009 Papua New Guinea cholera outbreak">2009 (Papua New Guinea)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010s_Haiti_cholera_outbreak" title="2010s Haiti cholera outbreak">2010s (Haiti)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Sierra_Leonean_cholera_outbreak" title="2012 Sierra Leonean cholera outbreak">2012 (Sierra Leone)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014%E2%80%932015_African_cholera_outbreak" title="2014–2015 African cholera outbreak">2014–15 (Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016%E2%80%932022_Yemen_cholera_outbreak" title="2016–2022 Yemen cholera outbreak">2016–22 (Yemen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018%E2%80%932019_Zimbabwe_cholera_outbreak" title="2018–2019 Zimbabwe cholera outbreak">2018–2019 (Zimbabwe)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_cholera_outbreak_in_Bengaluru" title="2020 cholera outbreak in Bengaluru">2020 (Bengaluru)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_cholera_outbreak_in_Lebanon" title="2022 cholera outbreak in Lebanon">2022 (Lebanon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022%E2%80%932024_Southern_Africa_cholera_outbreak" title="2022–2024 Southern Africa cholera outbreak">2022–24 (Southern Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_cholera_outbreak_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 cholera outbreak in South Africa">2023 (South Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Zimbabwe_cholera_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Zimbabwe cholera outbreak">2023 (Zimbabwe)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_Zambian_cholera_outbreak" title="2023–2024 Zambian cholera outbreak">2023–24 (Zambia)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_cholera" title="History of cholera">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_1885_cholera_epidemic_myth" title="Chicago 1885 cholera epidemic myth">Chicago cholera myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholera_belt" title="Cholera belt">Cholera belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholera_Hospital" title="Cholera Hospital">Cholera Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholera_pit" title="Cholera pit">Cholera pit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholera_riots" title="Cholera riots">Cholera riots</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Goyrand" title="Gaspard Goyrand">Gaspard Goyrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldemar_Haffkine" title="Waldemar Haffkine">Waldemar Haffkine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Johnson_(physician)" title="George Johnson (physician)">George Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filippo_Pacini" title="Filippo Pacini">Filippo Pacini</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Whitehead_(priest)" title="Henry Whitehead (priest)">Henry Whitehead</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broad_Street_Pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Broad Street Pump">Broad Street Pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefn_Golau" title="Cefn Golau">Cefn Golau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholera_Monument_Grounds_and_Clay_Wood" title="Cholera Monument Grounds and Clay Wood">Cholera Monument Grounds and Clay Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duffy%27s_Cut" title="Duffy's Cut">Duffy's Cut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural depictions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mastro-don_Gesualdo" title="Mastro-don Gesualdo">Mastro-don Gesualdo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memories_and_Vagaries" title="Memories and Vagaries">Memories and Vagaries</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Death_in_Venice" title="Death in Venice">Death in Venice</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_Venice_(film)" title="Death in Venice (film)">film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_Venice_(opera)" title="Death in Venice (opera)">opera</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Painted_Veil_(novel)" title="The Painted Veil (novel)">The Painted Veil</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Painted_Veil_(1934_film)" title="The Painted Veil (1934 film)">1934 film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Painted_Veil_(2006_film)" title="The Painted Veil (2006 film)">2006 film</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Seventh_Sin" title="The Seventh Sin">The Seventh Sin</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Love_in_the_Time_of_Cholera" title="Love in the Time of Cholera">Love in the Time of Cholera</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Love_in_the_Time_of_Cholera_(film)" title="Love in the Time of Cholera (film)">film</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Horseman_on_the_Roof" title="The Horseman on the Roof">The Horseman on the Roof</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Contagious_(film)" title="Contagious (film)">Contagious</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ghost_Map" title="The Ghost Map">The Ghost Map</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health650" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health650" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_healthy_environment" title="Right to a healthy environment">Right to a healthy environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_checking" title="Drug checking">Drug checking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_and_syringe_programmes" title="Needle and syringe programmes">Needle and syringe programmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagent_testing" title="Reagent testing">Reagent testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br />epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br />disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br />safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br />sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br />education<br />and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>Russia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rospotrebnadzor" class="mw-redirect" title="Rospotrebnadzor">Rospotrebnadzor</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_public_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of public health in the United Kingdom">History of public health in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_public_health_in_the_United_States" title="History of public health in the United States">History of public health in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_public_health_in_Australia" title="History of public health in Australia">History of public health in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Public health">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Nursing" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Nursing">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Visualization_of_technical_information112" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Visualization" title="Template:Visualization"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Visualization" title="Template talk:Visualization"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Visualization" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Visualization"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Visualization_of_technical_information112" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a> of technical information</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_imaging" title="Chemical imaging">Chemical imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Data visualization">Data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Educational visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_visualization" title="Flow visualization">Flow visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Information visualization">Information visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_diagram" title="Mathematical diagram">Mathematical visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_graphics" title="Molecular graphics">Molecular graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Product visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_visualization" title="Scientific visualization">Scientific visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_visualization" title="Social visualization">Social visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_visualization" title="Software visualization">Software visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_interface_design" title="User interface design">User interface design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_culture" title="Visual culture">Visual culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume visualization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Image <br />types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chart" title="Chart">Chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagram" title="Diagram">Diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Engineering drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_of_a_function" title="Graph of a function">Graph of a function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">Map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plot_(graphics)" title="Plot (graphics)">Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankey_diagram" title="Sankey diagram">Sankey diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schematic" title="Schematic">Schematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_formula" title="Skeletal formula">Skeletal formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Statistical graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table_(information)" title="Table (information)">Table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_illustration" title="Technical illustration">Technical illustration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Ren%C3%A9_de_Fourcroy" title="Charles-René de Fourcroy">Charles-René de Fourcroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Monge" title="Gaspard Monge">Gaspard Monge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dupin" title="Charles Dupin">Charles Dupin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet" title="Adolphe Quetelet">Adolphe Quetelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Michel_Guerry" title="André-Michel Guerry">André-Michel Guerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Playfair" title="William Playfair">William Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">August Kekulé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Joseph_Minard" title="Charles Joseph Minard">Charles Joseph Minard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Amasa_Walker" title="Francis Amasa Walker">Francis Amasa Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Venn" title="John Venn">John Venn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Byrne_(mathematician)" title="Oliver Byrne (mathematician)">Oliver Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Henry_Phineas_Riall_Sankey" title="Matthew Henry Phineas Riall Sankey">Matthew Sankey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Booth_(social_reformer)" title="Charles Booth (social reformer)">Charles Booth</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Pohlke" title="Karl Wilhelm Pohlke">Karl Wilhelm Pohlke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Loua" title="Toussaint Loua">Toussaint Loua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Walter_Maunder" title="Edward Walter Maunder">Edward Walter Maunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gantt" title="Henry Gantt">Henry Gantt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lyon_Bowley" title="Arthur Lyon Bowley">Arthur Lyon Bowley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_G._Funkhouser" title="Howard G. Funkhouser">Howard G. Funkhouser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Peddle" title="John B. Peddle">John B. Peddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejnar_Hertzsprung" title="Ejnar Hertzsprung">Ejnar Hertzsprung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Norris_Russell" title="Henry Norris Russell">Henry Norris Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_O._Lorenz" title="Max O. Lorenz">Max O. Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Kahn" title="Fritz Kahn">Fritz Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Beck" title="Harry Beck">Harry Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Raisz" title="Erwin Raisz">Erwin Raisz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mid 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Bertin" title="Jacques Bertin">Jacques Bertin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Modley" title="Rudolf Modley">Rudolf Modley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Robinson" title="Arthur H. Robinson">Arthur H. Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Eleanor_Spear" title="Mary Eleanor Spear">Mary Eleanor Spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Anderson" title="Edgar Anderson">Edgar Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_T._Fisher" title="Howard T. Fisher">Howard T. Fisher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borden_Dent" title="Borden Dent">Borden Dent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Holmes" title="Nigel Holmes">Nigel Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Cleveland" title="William S. Cleveland">William S. Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_G._Robertson" title="George G. Robertson">George G. Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_H._McCormick" title="Bruce H. McCormick">Bruce H. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Plaisant" title="Catherine Plaisant">Catherine Plaisant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Card" title="Stuart Card">Stuart Card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Hanrahan" title="Pat Hanrahan">Pat Hanrahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Tufte" title="Edward Tufte">Edward Tufte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Shneiderman" title="Ben Shneiderman">Ben Shneiderman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Friendly" title="Michael Friendly">Michael Friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Wainer" title="Howard Wainer">Howard Wainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_A._Pickover" title="Clifford A. Pickover">Clifford A. Pickover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_J._Rosenblum" title="Lawrence J. Rosenblum">Lawrence J. Rosenblum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._DeFanti" title="Thomas A. DeFanti">Thomas A. DeFanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Furnas" title="George Furnas">George Furnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheelagh_Carpendale" title="Sheelagh Carpendale">Sheelagh Carpendale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Brewer" title="Cynthia Brewer">Cynthia Brewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jock_D._Mackinlay" title="Jock D. Mackinlay">Jock D. Mackinlay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_MacEachren" title="Alan MacEachren">Alan MacEachren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Goodsell" title="David Goodsell">David Goodsell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwan-Liu_Ma" title="Kwan-Liu Ma">Kwan-Liu Ma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Maltz" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Maltz">Michael Maltz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leland_Wilkinson" title="Leland Wilkinson">Leland Wilkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Inselberg" title="Alfred Inselberg">Alfred Inselberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early 21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Fry" title="Ben Fry">Ben Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Heer" title="Jeffrey Heer">Jeffrey Heer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Hullman" title="Jessica Hullman">Jessica Hullman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Kindlmann" title="Gordon Kindlmann">Gordon Kindlmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Koblin" title="Aaron Koblin">Aaron Koblin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_R._Johnson" title="Christopher R. Johnson">Christopher R. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Lima" title="Manuel Lima">Manuel Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McCandless" title="David McCandless">David McCandless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Martino" title="Mauro Martino">Mauro Martino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maeda" title="John Maeda">John Maeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miriah_Meyer" title="Miriah Meyer">Miriah Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Munzner" title="Tamara Munzner">Tamara Munzner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ade_Olufeko" class="mw-redirect" title="Ade Olufeko">Ade Olufeko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanspeter_Pfister" title="Hanspeter Pfister">Hanspeter Pfister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Rosling" title="Hans Rosling">Hans Rosling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudio_Silva_(computer_scientist)" title="Claudio Silva (computer scientist)">Claudio Silva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Stefaner" title="Moritz Stefaner">Moritz Stefaner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernanda_Vi%C3%A9gas" title="Fernanda Viégas">Fernanda Viégas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_M._Wattenberg" title="Martin M. Wattenberg">Martin Wattenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bang_Wong" title="Bang Wong">Bang Wong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadley_Wickham" title="Hadley Wickham">Hadley Wickham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related <br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartjunk" title="Chartjunk">Chartjunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_coding_in_data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Color coding in data visualization">Color coding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Computer graphics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">in computer science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPK_coloring" title="CPK coloring">CPK coloring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_drawing" title="Graph drawing">Graph drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_design" title="Graphic design">Graphic design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_organizer" title="Graphic organizer">Graphic organizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Imaging science">Imaging science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_art" title="Information art">Information art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infographic" title="Infographic">Information graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misleading_graph" title="Misleading graph">Misleading graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_drawing" title="Patent drawing">Patent drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Scientific modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_analytics" title="Visual analytics">Visual analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_cartography" title="Volume cartography">Volume cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume rendering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q356407#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2236" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q356407#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2236" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q356407#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/54386380">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/201488/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJrm6TPmXPbmfMrMYqwHmd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/119250306">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n87102751">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb14544765w">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb14544765w">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00743336">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Snow, John <1813-1858>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/UFIV113919">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36017274">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=nlk20000087440&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p13496473X">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90836602">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007268118505171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA02525468?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1187482">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/119250306">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/069571562">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Snow&oldid=1279583962">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Snow&oldid=1279583962</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" 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