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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Verb-Sentence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Verb-Sentence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The Verb-Sentence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Verb-Sentence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verb_Theme" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_Theme"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Verb Theme</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_Theme-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjunct" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjunct"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Conjunct</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjunct-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disjunct" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disjunct"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Disjunct</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disjunct-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space,_Time_and_Aspect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space,_Time_and_Aspect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Space, Time and Aspect</span> </div> 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id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kaska language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Каска теле – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Каска теле" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaska" title="Kaska – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Kaska" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaska_(Sprache)" title="Kaska (Sprache) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kaska (Sprache)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%9A%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B1_(%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%AC%CF%82)" title="Γλώσσα Κάσκα (Καναδάς) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλώσσα Κάσκα (Καναδάς)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_kaska" title="Idioma kaska – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma kaska" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaska" title="Kaska – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Kaska" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_kaska" title="Lingua kaska – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua kaska" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaska_spriak" title="Kaska spriak – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Kaska spriak" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaska" title="Kaska – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kaska" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaska" title="Kaska – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kaska" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_kaska" title="Lenga kaska – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga kaska" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_kaska" title="Língua kaska – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua kaska" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA)" title="Каска (язык) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Каска (язык)" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Northern Athabaskan language of the Kaska Dena people</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Kaskian_language" title="Kaskian language">Kaskian language</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #99ddff;">Kaska</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #99ddff;"><span title="Kaska-language text"><i lang="kkz">Dene Zágéʼ</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Canada</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">1,435 <a href="/wiki/Kaska_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaska people">Kaska</a> (2016 census)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">240 (2016 census)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Yeniseian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Dené–Yeniseian languages">Dené–Yeniseian</a>? <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Na-Den%C3%A9_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Na-Dené languages">Na-Dené</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Athabaskan_languages" title="Northern Athabaskan languages">Northern Athabaskan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Central Cordillera<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Kaska</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #99ddff;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/kkz" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:kkz">kkz</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/kask1239">kask1239</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">ELP</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2296">Danezāgé' (Kaska)</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Lang_Status_40-SE.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lang_Status_40-SE.svg/320px-Lang_Status_40-SE.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lang_Status_40-SE.svg/480px-Lang_Status_40-SE.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lang_Status_40-SE.svg/640px-Lang_Status_40-SE.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="153" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span style="font-size:85%;">Kaska is classified as Severely Endangered by the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlas_of_the_World%27s_Languages_in_Danger" title="Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger">Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="background:#fff6d9"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above"><a href="/wiki/Dene" title="Dene">Dene</a><br /><small>"person"</small></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">People</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kaska" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaska">Kaska Dena</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><b>Kaska Dena Zágéʼ</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Country</th><td class="infobox-data">Kaska Dena Kayeh, <a href="/wiki/Denendeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Denendeh">Denendeh</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Kaska language</b> is an endangered <a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, Kaska was an oral aboriginal language used by the <a href="/wiki/Kaska_Dena" title="Kaska Dena">Kaska Dena</a> people.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kaska Dene region consists of a small area in the Southwestern part of the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a>, the Southeastern part of <a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a> Territory, and the Northern part of <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The communities that are in the Kaska Dene region are Fort Ware in N.W.T.; Ross River and Watson Lake in Y.T.; Dease Lake, Good Hope Lake, Lower Post, Fireside, and Muncho Lake in B.C.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kaska is made up of eight dialects,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all of which have similar pronunciations and expressional terms.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The town of Watson Lake was established around the period of the second World War when the <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Highway" title="Alaska Highway">Alaska Highway</a> was built in 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major consequence of colonization was Kaska language loss.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another major cause of Kaska language loss in Canada was due to the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Residential_School_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Residential School System">Canadian Residential School System</a>. The effect that these schools had on the Kaska language have caused a language gap between two generations, resulting in few young speakers. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Endangerment">Endangerment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Endangerment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With around 200 speakers as of 2011, the Ethnologue lists Kaska as Status 7 (shifting). It is mostly Kaska Dena Elders who are the fluent speakers<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite four communities (<a href="/wiki/Good_Hope_Lake" title="Good Hope Lake">Good Hope Lake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lower_Post" title="Lower Post">Lower Post</a>, <a href="/wiki/Watson_Lake,_Yukon" title="Watson Lake, Yukon">Watson Lake</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ross_River,_Yukon" title="Ross River, Yukon">Ross River</a>) where the language is taught in schools.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kaska Dena children are not learning to be fluent because many families do not use the Kaska language at home.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kaska Dena people recognize the importance in revitalizing the Kaska language and have worked towards building Kaska language written and oral materials as well as programs such as culture camps and training programs.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post-al.</a><br />/<a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Central_consonant" title="Central consonant">central</a></small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant</a></small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a></small> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th><small>tenuis</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate">tθ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate">tɬ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>aspirated</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pʰ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tθʰ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɬʰ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʃʰ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰ</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>ejective</small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_affricate" title="Dental ejective affricate">tθʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ejective stop">tʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar ejective affricate">tsʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar lateral ejective affricate">tɬʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Palato-alveolar ejective affricate">tʃʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small>voiceless</small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>voiced</small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral fricative">ɮ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kaska makes use of the vowels /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/, which, through various combinations of inflection (high, falling, and rising tone), lengthening and nasalization, produce about 60 vowel sounds in total. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>, <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a></span>, <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ĩ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>, <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a></span>, <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ũ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Near-close_vowel" title="Near-close vowel">Near-close</a> </th> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a></span>) </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2">(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span>, <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a></span>, <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">õ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span>), <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ɛ̃</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a></span>, <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ʌ̃</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æː</a></span>, (<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">æ̃ː</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a></span>, <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ãː</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Allophones of sounds <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i,<span class="wrap"> </span>e,<span class="wrap"> </span>o,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɛ̃/</span> can also be heard as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɛ~ə,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊ,<span class="wrap"> </span>æ̃ː]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kaska is a polysynthetic language, commonly featuring sentence words. It is head-final, availing nine prefix positions to a given stem verb morpheme. Kaska does not mark for control or grammatical gender. (Sexual gender is often implied in narratives through contextual association with the prevalent gender roles of Kaska society, particularly with regard to warfare.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Verb-Sentence">The Verb-Sentence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The Verb-Sentence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verb-sentences, or single-word sentences consisting of a stem verb modified by inflectional, derivational and/or other types of affixes, commonly appear in Kaska. In these cases, a word-final verb morpheme may be accompanied by up to nine prefixes grouped into three categories: the disjunct, the conjunct and the verb theme. O'Donnell's Kaska verb structure diagram is shown below. </p> <table class="wikitable" border="1"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Disjunct Prefixes </th> <th colspan="4">Conjunct Prefixes </th> <th colspan="3">Verb Theme </th></tr> <tr> <td>Oblique Object</td> <td>Postposition</td> <td>Distributive Plural </td> <td>Subject Agreement II</td> <td>Direct Object</td> <td>Mood/Aspect</td> <td>Subject Agreement I </td> <td>Thematic Prefix</td> <td>Classifier</td> <td><b>Verb Stem</b> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verb_Theme">Verb Theme</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Verb Theme"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>verb theme</b> carries the stem verb morpheme, which is immediately preceded by one of four <i>classifiers</i> (-h-, -Ø-, -l-, -d-). </p><p>The <i>-Ø-</i> classifier primarily marks intransitive and stative verbs. </p><p>The classifier <i>-h-</i>, referred to as <i>ł</i> classification in Athabaskan literature, marks transitivity and/or causativity and deletes when preceded by the first-person singular subject marking <i>s-</i>. Though it is found in some intransitive clauses, as in <i>se<b>h</b>tsū́ts</i> ("clothlike object is located"), these generally bear the <i>-Ø-</i> classifier.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>etsén segan 'the meat is dried'</li> <li>etsén se<b>h</b>gan 's/he dried the meat'</li></ul> <p>The <i>-d-</i> classifier serves a more complex function, accompanying self-benefactives, reflexives, reciprocals, iteratives (marked by the prefix <i>ne-</i>) and passives. </p><p>The <i>-l-</i> classifier combines the functions of the <i>-d-</i> and <i>-h-</i> (<i>ł</i>) classifiers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conjunct">Conjunct</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Conjunct"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>conjunct</b>, which appears between the disjunct prefix group and the verb theme, carries inflectional information including subject, direct object and mood/aspect markings. In <i>subject</i> markings, Kaska syntactically differentiates between "subject I" and "subject II" morphemes (the latter represented in the gray boxes in the table below to the left). </p> <table border="1" class="wikitable floatleft"> <caption>Subject Markers in Kaska </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st person </th> <td>s-</td> <td style="background: silver">dze- </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd person </th> <td>n- </td> <td>ah- </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person </th> <td style="background: silver">Ø- </td> <td style="background: silver">ge- </td></tr></tbody></table> <table border="1" class="wikitable floatright"> <caption>Direct Object Markers in Kaska </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st person </th> <td>se-</td> <td>gu- </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd person </th> <td>ne- </td> <td>neh- </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person </th> <td>Ø-/ye- </td> <td>ge- </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Subject I markers occur conjunct-finally, while subject II markers occur conjunct-initially. </p><p>The <i>direct object</i> markings are given in the table at right. The marking for third-person singular direct object depends on the subject of the sentence: if the subject is in first- or second-person, then it is <i>Ø-</i>, but becomes <i>ye-</i> when the subject is in third-person. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Disjunct">Disjunct</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Disjunct"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>disjunct</b> typically carries adverbial and derivational prefixes, including the negative marker <i>dū-</i> and the <b>distributive plural</b> morpheme <i>né-</i>, which pluralizes otherwise dual subjects and, in some cases, singular objects. The presence (or absence) of this feature bears most of the numerical marking that is not already indicated contextually or through the subject and object affixes themselves. The prefix <i>ɬe-</i> marks for dual subject in at least one verb phrase: "to sit." Postpositional morphemes, such as <i>ts'i'-</i> ("to") and <i>yé-</i> ("about"), also appear in the disjunct, along with the oblique object markings listed in the table below. </p> <table border="1" class="wikitable"> <caption>Oblique Object Markers in Kaska </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st person </th> <td>es-</td> <td>gu- </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd person </th> <td>ne- </td> <td>neh- </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person </th> <td>me- </td> <td>ge- </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space,_Time_and_Aspect"><span id="Space.2C_Time_and_Aspect"></span>Space, Time and Aspect</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Space, Time and Aspect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Kaska, time is expressed primarily through aspect marking, called <i>modes</i> when described in Athabaskan languages. These prefixes convey imperfective, perfective and optative aspect. Overt expressions for quantified units of time exist, such as <i>tādet'ē dzenḗs</i> ("three days"), but rarely appear in Kaska dialog. </p><p>The <i>imperfective</i> (prefix <i>Ø-</i>) expresses incomplete action, is used in instrumental marking, descriptions of static situations and to express irrealis mood. In Kaska narratives, imperfective verb forms commonly accompany a humorous tone. </p><p>The <i>perfective</i> mode (prefix <i>n-</i>) functions largely in complement to the imperfective, expressing complete action, is used in descriptions of kinetic events and establishing realis mood. Kaska narratives tend to express a more serious tone through perfective verb forms. </p><p>The <i>optative</i> mode (prefix <i>u-</i> in conjunction with suffix <i>-í</i>) expresses unrealized or desired activity. </p><p>Directional prefixes, stems and suffixes also index spatial relations in Kaska narratives. These include <b>allatives</b>, <b>ablatives</b>, <b>areals</b> and <b>punctuals</b>, with some examples listed below. </p> <ul><li>kúh- 'distant location (known to both speaker and addressee)'</li> <li>de- 'distant location (known exclusively to speaker)'</li> <li>ah- 'distant location (determined by non-focal character)'</li> <li>júh-, jah- 'nearby location'</li> <li>degé- 'up ahead' (also used to mean 'in the future')</li> <li>nā́né- 'across'</li> <li>-áné 'to the side' (often used in conjunction with <i>ah-</i> prefix)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When a sentence contains two independent nominals, it takes on Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) structure. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div><i>eskie ayudeni ganehtan</i></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eskie</p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ayudeni</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ga-Ø-ne-h-tan</p><p style="margin: 0px;">at-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SBJ</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="mood/aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MA</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr>-look</p></div><p style="display: none;">eskie ayudeni ga-Ø-ne-h-tan</p><p style="display: none;">boy girl at-3SG.SBJ-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="mood/aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MA</abbr>-CL-look</p><p style="clear: left;">The boy saw/looked at the girl</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>When only one independent nominal is present, the subject and object are differentiated by the prefixes in the verb, shown using the same sample sentence. </p> <ul><li>eskie ganehtan ("She saw/looked at the boy")</li></ul> <ol><li>eskie <b>me</b>ganehtan</li> <li>boy <b>3sg.Obj</b>...</li> <li>"The boy saw/looked at her"</li></ol> <p>Subordinate clauses are marked with an <i>-i</i> or <i>-í</i> suffix and appear before the independent clause, as in the following example: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div><i>etsedz<b>i</b> gugā́nehtān</i></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">etsedz-<b>i</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.eat-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subordinate clause" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBCLAUSE</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gugā́nehtān</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.was watching us</p></div><p style="display: none;">etsedz-<b>i</b> gugā́nehtān</p><p style="display: none;">3SG.eat-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subordinate clause" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SUBCLAUSE</abbr></b> {3SG.was watching us}</p><p style="clear: left;">While he was eating he was watching us.</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The available literature on Kaska makes no mention of applicatives, relatives or complements, and case marking appears restricted to nominative (subject), accusative (object) and the various forms of locative case marking conveyed through directional morphemes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahltan_language" title="Tahltan language">Tahltan language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=110522&PRID=10&PTYPE=109445&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2017&THEME=122&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=">"Aboriginal Ancestry Responses (73), Single and Multiple Aboriginal Responses (4), Residence on or off reserve (3), Residence inside or outside Inuit Nunangat (7), Age (8A) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2016 Census - 25% Sample Data"</a>. <i>www12.statcan.gc.ca</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-05-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www12.statcan.gc.ca&rft.atitle=Aboriginal+Language+Spoken+at+Home+%2890%29%2C+Single+and+Multiple+Responses+of+Language+Spoken+at+Home+%283%29%2C+Aboriginal+Identity+%289%29%2C+Registered+or+Treaty+Indian+Status+%283%29+and+Age+%2812%29+for+the+Population+in+Private+Households+of+Canada%2C+Provinces+and+Territories%2C+Census+Metropolitan+Areas+and+Census+Agglomerations%2C+2016+Census+-+25%25+Sample+Data&rft.date=2018-03-28&rft.aulast=Canada&rft.aufirst=Government+of+Canada%2C+Statistics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww12.statcan.gc.ca%2Fcensus-recensement%2F2016%2Fdp-pd%2Fdt-td%2FRp-eng.cfm%3FLANG%3DE%26APATH%3D3%26DETAIL%3D0%26DIM%3D0%26FL%3DA%26FREE%3D0%26GC%3D0%26GID%3D0%26GK%3D0%26GRP%3D1%26PID%3D110514%26PRID%3D10%26PTYPE%3D109445%26S%3D0%26SHOWALL%3D0%26SUB%3D0%26Temporal%3D2017%26THEME%3D122%26VID%3D0%26VNAMEE%3D%26VNAMEF%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKaska+language" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Moore, J. P. (2003). "Lessons on the Land: The Role of Kaska Elders in a University Language Course". <i>Canadian Journal of Native Education</i>. 27. No. 1: 127–139. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/230305886">230305886</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Native+Education&rft.atitle=Lessons+on+the+Land%3A+The+Role+of+Kaska+Elders+in+a+University+Language+Course&rft.volume=27.+No.+1&rft.pages=127-139&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKaska+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarnell2014" class="citation thesis cs1">Farnell, Gillian (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://open.library.ubc.ca/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/24/items/1.0167385"><i>The Kaska Dene: A study of Colonialism, Trauma and Healing in Dene Kēyeh</i></a> (MA thesis). The University of British Columbia. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14288%2F1.0167385">10.14288/1.0167385</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Kaska+Dene%3A+A+study+of+Colonialism%2C+Trauma+and+Healing+in+Dene+K%C4%93yeh&rft.degree=MA&rft.inst=The+University+of+British+Columbia&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14288%2F1.0167385&rft.aulast=Farnell&rft.aufirst=Gillian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopen.library.ubc.ca%2FcIRcle%2Fcollections%2Fubctheses%2F24%2Fitems%2F1.0167385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKaska+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeek2010" class="citation book cs1">Meek, Barbra A. (2010). <i>We Are Our Language: An Ethnography of Language Revitalization in a Northern Athabaskan Community</i>. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press. pp. 1–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816514533" title="Special:BookSources/9780816514533"><bdi>9780816514533</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Are+Our+Language%3A+An+Ethnography+of+Language+Revitalization+in+a+Northern+Athabaskan+Community&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pages=1-40&rft.pub=The+University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780816514533&rft.aulast=Meek&rft.aufirst=Barbra+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKaska+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeek2001" class="citation thesis cs1">Meek, Barbra Allyn (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/290390"><i>Kaska language socialization, acquisition and shift</i></a> (PhD dissertation). <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10150%2F290390">10150/290390</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Kaska+language+socialization%2C+acquisition+and+shift&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10150%2F290390&rft.aulast=Meek&rft.aufirst=Barbra+Allyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.arizona.edu%2Fhandle%2F10150%2F290390&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKaska+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/17/language/kkz/">Kaska language</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (17th ed., 2013) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeekMessing2007" class="citation journal cs1">Meek, A. B.; Messing, J. (2007). "Framing Indigenous Languages a Secondary to Matrix Languages". <i>2</i>. <b>38</b> (2): 99–118. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25166611">25166611</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=2&rft.atitle=Framing+Indigenous+Languages+a+Secondary+to+Matrix+Languages&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=99-118&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25166611%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Meek&rft.aufirst=A.+B.&rft.au=Messing%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKaska+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moore-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Moore_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2003" class="citation thesis cs1">Moore, Patrick James (2003). <i>Point of view in Kaska historical narratives</i> (Thesis). Indiana University. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/305335008">305335008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Point+of+view+in+Kaska+historical+narratives&rft.inst=Indiana+University&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Patrick+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKaska+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Donnell2004" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">O'Donnell, Meghan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305105334/http://coyotepapers.sbs.arizona.edu/CPXIII/odonnell.pdf">"Inflectional Affixes & Clitics in Kaska (Northern Athabaskan)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Coyote Papers</i>. XIII: Papers Dedicated to the Indigenous Languages of the Americas. University of Arizona: 41–74. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10150%2F126635">10150/126635</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coyotepapers.sbs.arizona.edu/CPXIII/odonnell.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-03-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-02-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Coyote+Papers&rft.atitle=Inflectional+Affixes+%26+Clitics+in+Kaska+%28Northern+Athabaskan%29&rft.volume=XIII%3A+Papers+Dedicated+to+the+Indigenous+Languages+of+the+Americas&rft.pages=41-74&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10150%2F126635&rft.aulast=O%27Donnell&rft.aufirst=Meghan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcoyotepapers.sbs.arizona.edu%2FCPXIII%2Fodonnell.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKaska+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaska_Tribal_Council1997" class="citation book cs1">Kaska Tribal Council (1997). <i>Guzāgi k'ū́gé': our language book : nouns : Kaska, Mountain Slavey and Sekani</i>. Watson Lake, Yukon: Kaska Tribal Council. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9682022-0-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9682022-0-9"><bdi>0-9682022-0-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guz%C4%81gi+k%27%C5%AB%CC%81g%C3%A9%27%3A+our+language+book+%3A+nouns+%3A+Kaska%2C+Mountain+Slavey+and+Sekani&rft.place=Watson+Lake%2C+Yukon&rft.pub=Kaska+Tribal+Council&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-9682022-0-9&rft.au=Kaska+Tribal+Council&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKaska+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041216060539/http://www.yukoncollege.yk.ca/ynlc/YNLCinfo/Kaska.html">Yukon Native Language Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kaska.arts.ubc.ca/">Kaska Language Website, University of British Columbia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kaskadenacouncil.com">Kaska Dena Council</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.firstvoices.com/en/Liard-Kaska/welcome">Kaska Welcome Page - First Voices</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131031075558/http://www.ynlc.ca/languages/ks/ks.html">Yukon Native Language Centre</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Athabaskan_languages" title="Template:Athabaskan languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Athabaskan_languages" title="Template talk:Athabaskan languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Athabaskan_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Athabaskan languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Athabaskan_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Athabaskan_languages" title="Northern Athabaskan languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Alaskan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahtna_language" title="Ahtna language">Ahtna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dena%CA%BCina_language" title="Denaʼina language">Denaʼina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central Alaska–Yukon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deg_Xinag_language" title="Deg Xinag language">Deg Hitʼan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwich%CA%BCin_language" title="Gwichʼin language">Gwichʼin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A4n_language" title="Hän language">Hän</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Holikachuk_language" title="Holikachuk language">Holikachuk</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koyukon_language" title="Koyukon language">Koyukon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Tanana_language" title="Lower Tanana language">Lower Tanana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutchone_language" title="Tutchone language">Northern Tutchone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutchone_language" title="Tutchone language">Southern Tutchone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanacross_language" title="Tanacross language">Tanacross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Kuskokwim_language" title="Upper Kuskokwim language">Upper Kuskokwim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Tanana_language" title="Upper Tanana language">Upper Tanana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northwestern Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chipewyan_language" title="Chipewyan language">Dene Suline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogrib_language" title="Dogrib language">Dogrib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dane-zaa_language" title="Dane-zaa language">Dunneza</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekani_language" title="Sekani language">Sekani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavey_language" title="Slavey language">Slavey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagish_language" title="Tagish language">Tagish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahltan_language" title="Tahltan language">Tahltan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central British Columbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babine-Witsuwit%CA%BCen_language" title="Babine-Witsuwitʼen language">Babine–Witsuwitʼen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsilhqot%CA%BCin_language" title="Tsilhqotʼin language">Chilcotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_language" title="Carrier language">Dakelh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Carrier_language" title="Southern Carrier language">Southern Carrier</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other North Athabaskan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kwalhioqua%E2%80%93Clatskanie_language" title="Kwalhioqua–Clatskanie language">Kwalhioqua–Clatskanie</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nicola_language" title="Nicola language">Nicola</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tsetsaut_language" title="Tsetsaut language">Tsetsaut</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_language" title="Tsuutʼina language">Tsuutʼina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Coast_Athabaskan_languages" title="Pacific Coast Athabaskan languages">Pacific Coast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">California Athabaskan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cahto_language" title="Cahto language">Kato</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hupa_language" title="Hupa language">Hupa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mattole_language" title="Mattole language">Mattole</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wailaki_language" title="Wailaki language">Wailaki</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oregon Athabaskan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tolowa_language" title="Tolowa language">Tolowa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tututni_language" title="Tututni language">Lower Rogue River</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Galice_language" title="Galice language">Upper Rogue River</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Upper_Umpqua_language" title="Upper Umpqua language">Upper Umpqua</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Athabaskan_languages" title="Southern Athabaskan languages">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Apachean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mescalero-Chiricahua_language" title="Mescalero-Chiricahua language">Chiricahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mescalero-Chiricahua_language" title="Mescalero-Chiricahua language">Mescalero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Apache_language" title="Western Apache language">Western Apache</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Apachean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_language" title="Jicarilla language">Jicarilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipan_language" title="Lipan language">Lipan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plains Apachean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Plains_Apache_language" title="Plains Apache language">Plains Apache</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Athabaskan" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Athabaskan">Proto-Athabaskan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Canada" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Canada" title="Template:Languages of Canada"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Canada" title="Template talk:Languages of Canada"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Canada" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Canada"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Canada" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Canada" title="Languages of Canada">Languages of Canada</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Canada" title="French language in Canada">French</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Innu language">Innu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malecite-Passamaquoddy_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Malecite-Passamaquoddy language">Malecite-Passamaquoddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaq_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaq language">Miꞌkmaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_language" title="Munsee language">Munsee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskapi_language" title="Naskapi language">Naskapi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_dialect" title="Ottawa dialect">Ottawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babine-Witsuwit%CA%BCen_language" title="Babine-Witsuwitʼen language">Babine-Witsuwitʼen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_language" title="Carrier language">Carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsilhqot%CA%BCin_language" title="Tsilhqotʼin language">Chilcotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipewyan_language" title="Chipewyan language">Chipewyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogrib_language" title="Dogrib language">Dogrib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwich%CA%BCin_language" title="Gwichʼin language">Gwichʼin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A4n_language" title="Hän language">Hän</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicola_language" title="Nicola language">Nicola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekani_language" title="Sekani language">Sekani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavey_language" title="Slavey language">Slavey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagish_language" title="Tagish language">Tagish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahltan_language" title="Tahltan language">Tahltan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_language" title="Tsuutʼina language">Tsuutʼina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutchone_language" title="Tutchone language">Tutchone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inuit_languages" title="Inuit languages">Inuit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuinnaqtun" title="Inuinnaqtun">Inuinnaqtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut" title="Inuktitut">Inuktitut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inupiat_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Inupiat language">Inupiaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuvialuktun" title="Inuvialuktun">Inuvialuktun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cayuga_language" title="Cayuga language">Cayuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_language" title="Mohawk language">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_language" title="Oneida language">Oneida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onondaga_language" title="Onondaga language">Onondaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_language" title="Seneca language">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_language" title="Tuscarora language">Tuscarora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_language" title="Wyandot language">Wyandot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bella_Coola_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bella Coola language">Bella Coola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comox_language" title="Comox language">Comox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halkomelem" title="Halkomelem">Halkomelem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lillooet_language" title="Lillooet language">Lillooet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okanagan_language" title="Okanagan language">Okanagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saanich_dialect" title="Saanich dialect">Saanich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C3%ADsh%C3%A1lh_language" title="Shíshálh language">shíshálh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuswap_language" title="Shuswap language">Shuswap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squamish_language" title="Squamish language">Squamish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thompson_language" title="Thompson language">Thompson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ditidaht_language" title="Ditidaht language">Ditidaht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haisla_language" title="Haisla language">Haisla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heiltsuk-Oowekyala_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Heiltsuk-Oowekyala language">Heiltsuk-Oowekyala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwak%CA%BCwala" title="Kwakʼwala">Kwakʼwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_language" title="Nuu-chah-nulth language">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoney_language" title="Stoney language">Stoney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_language" title="Sioux language">Sioux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assiniboine_language" title="Assiniboine language">Assiniboine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beothuk_language" title="Beothuk language">Beothuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlingit_language" title="Tlingit language">Tlingit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Tsimshian_dialect" title="Coast Tsimshian dialect">Coast Tsimshian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pidgins, creoles and mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algonquian%E2%80%93Basque_pidgin" title="Algonquian–Basque pidgin">Algonquian–Basque pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_Slavey" class="mw-redirect" title="Broken Slavey">Broken Slavey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bungi_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Bungi Creole">Bungee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinook_Jargon" title="Chinook Jargon">Chinook Jargon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labrador_Inuit_Pidgin_French" title="Labrador Inuit Pidgin French">Labrador Inuit Pidgin French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin language">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese language">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog (Filipino)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Gaelic" title="Canadian Gaelic">Canadian Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doukhobor_Russian" title="Doukhobor Russian">Doukhobor Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language_in_Newfoundland" title="Irish language in Newfoundland">Newfoundland Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania German">Pennsylvania German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Ukrainian" title="Canadian Ukrainian">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Sign_Language" title="Quebec Sign Language">Quebec Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_Sign_Language" title="Inuit Sign Language">Inuk Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Indian Sign Language</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Sign_Language" title="Maritime Sign Language">Maritime Sign Language</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Canada#Canadian_style_guides" title="Bibliography of Canada">Canadian style guides</a> - <a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_English_dictionaries" title="List of Canadian English dictionaries">Canadian dictionaries </a>‎</b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_British_Columbia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_British_Columbia" title="Template:Languages of British Columbia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_British_Columbia" title="Template talk:Languages of British Columbia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_British_Columbia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of British Columbia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_British_Columbia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of British Columbia">Languages of British Columbia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Oral Indigenous<br />languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Cree_language" title="Plains Cree language">Plains Cree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Yeniseian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Dené–Yeniseian languages">Dené–Yeniseian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_language" title="Carrier language">Carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dane-zaa_language" title="Dane-zaa language">Dane-zaa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babine-Witsuwit%CA%BCen_language" title="Babine-Witsuwitʼen language">Babine-Witsuwitʼen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahltan_language" title="Tahltan language">Tahltan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlingit_language" title="Tlingit language">Tlingit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekani_language" title="Sekani language">Sekani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilcotin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilcotin language">Chilcotin</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nicola_language" title="Nicola language">Nicola</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tsetsaut_language" title="Tsetsaut language">Tsetsaut</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comox_language" title="Comox language">Comox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halkomelem" title="Halkomelem">Halkomelem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thompson_language" title="Thompson language">Thompson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scw%27exmx" class="mw-redirect" title="Scw'exmx">Scw'exmx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okanagan_language" title="Okanagan language">Okanagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinixt_dialect" title="Sinixt dialect">Sinixt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Straits_Salish_language" title="North Straits Salish language">North Straits Salish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saanich_dialect" title="Saanich dialect">Saanich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samish_dialect" title="Samish dialect">Samish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lummi_dialect" title="Lummi dialect">Lummi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuxalk_language" title="Nuxalk language">Nuxalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuswap_language" title="Shuswap language">Shuswap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sechelt_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sechelt language">Sechelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squamish_language" title="Squamish language">Squamish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lillooet_language" title="Lillooet language">Lillooet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gitxsan_language" title="Gitxsan language">Gitxsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisga%27a_language" title="Nisga'a language">Nisga'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Tsimshian_dialect" title="Southern Tsimshian dialect">Southern Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Tsimshian_dialect" title="Coast Tsimshian dialect">Coast Tsimshian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ditidaht_language" title="Ditidaht language">Ditidaht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heiltsuk-Oowekyala_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Heiltsuk-Oowekyala language">Heiltsuk-Oowekyala</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heiltsuk_dialect" title="Heiltsuk dialect">Heiltsuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oowekyala" title="Oowekyala">Oowekyala</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwak%CA%BCwala" title="Kwakʼwala">Kwakʼwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liq%CA%BCwala" class="mw-redirect" title="Liqʼwala">Liqʼwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_language" title="Nuu-chah-nulth language">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haisla_language" title="Haisla language">Haisla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other/isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language (ASL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language_family" title="French Sign Language family">Francosign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Sign Talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau_Sign_Language" title="Plateau Sign Language">Plateau Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a> and mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinook_Jargon" title="Chinook Jargon">Chinook Jargon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigrant languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doukhobor_Russian" title="Doukhobor Russian">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Ukrainian" title="Canadian Ukrainian">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&oldid=1242396317">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kaska_language&oldid=1242396317</a>"</div></div> <div 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