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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early contact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Roman invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_Roman_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_Roman_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Establishment of Roman rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_Roman_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupation_of_and_retreat_from_southern_Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupation_of_and_retreat_from_southern_Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Occupation of and retreat from southern Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupation_of_and_retreat_from_southern_Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Third century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_century_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_century_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Fourth century government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_century_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_century_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_century_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Fourth century history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_century_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_Roman_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_Roman_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>End of Roman rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_Roman_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-Roman_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-Roman_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Sub-Roman Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sub-Roman_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Demographics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demographics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Town_and_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Town_and_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Town and country</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Town_and_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pagan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pagan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Pagan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pagan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Environmental changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_survey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_survey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>General survey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_survey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_Age_background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Age_background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Iron Age background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_Age_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_sources_and_inscriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_sources_and_inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Historical sources and inscriptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_sources_and_inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.5</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provincial_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provincial_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.6</span> <span>Provincial government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provincial_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provincial_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provincial_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.7</span> <span>Provincial development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provincial_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Roman_military_in_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Roman_military_in_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.8</span> <span>The Roman military in Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Roman_military_in_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.9</span> <span>Urban life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rural_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rural_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.10</span> <span>Rural life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rural_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.11</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.12</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman Britain</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">58 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_(provinsie)" title="Britannia (provinsie) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Britannia (provinsie)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بريطانيا الرومانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بريطانيا الرومانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8" title="রোমান ব্রিটেন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রোমান ব্রিটেন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_(s%C3%A9ng)" title="Britannia (séng) – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Britannia (séng)" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Рымская Брытанія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рымская Брытанія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Британия (римска провинция) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Британия (римска провинция)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provi%C3%B1s_Britannia" title="Proviñs Britannia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Proviñs Britannia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit%C3%A0nnia" title="Britànnia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Britànnia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit%C3%A1nie_(provincie)" title="Británie (provincie) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Británie (provincie)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Britannia" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_Britannien" title="Romersk Britannien – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romersk Britannien" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannien_in_r%C3%B6mischer_Zeit" title="Britannien in römischer Zeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Britannien in römischer Zeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_(Rooma_provints)" title="Britannia (Rooma provints) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Britannia (Rooma provints)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ρωμαϊκή Βρετανία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωμαϊκή Βρετανία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britania_(provincia_romana)" title="Britania (provincia romana) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Britania (provincia romana)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Britannia" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britania" title="Britania – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Britania" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_(%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85)" title="بریتانیا (استان روم) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بریتانیا (استان روم)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretagne_(province_romaine)" title="Bretagne (province romaine) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bretagne (province romaine)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanje" title="Brittanje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Brittanje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britania" title="Britania – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Britania" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B8%8C%EB%A6%AC%ED%83%80%EB%8B%88%EC%95%84" title="브리타니아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="브리타니아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%B2%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Հռոմեական Բրիտանիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հռոմեական Բրիտանիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanija_(rimska_provincija)" title="Britanija (rimska provincija) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Britanija (rimska provincija)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britania_Raya_Romawi" title="Britania Raya Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Britania Raya Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mverska_Bretland" title="Rómverska Bretland – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rómverska Bretland" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_(provincia_romana)" title="Britannia (provincia romana) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Britannia (provincia romana)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94" title="פרובינקיה בריטניה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרובינקיה בריטניה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_(provincia_Romana)" title="Britannia (provincia Romana) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Britannia (provincia Romana)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit%C4%81nija_(Romas_imp%C4%93rijas_province)" title="Britānija (Romas impērijas province) – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Britānija (Romas impērijas province)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanija_(Romos_provincija)" title="Britanija (Romos provincija) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Britanija (Romos provincija)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_(provincia)" title="Britannia (provincia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Britannia (provincia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="रोमन ब्रिटानिया – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रोमन ब्रिटानिया" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain_Rom" title="Britain Rom – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Britain Rom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_(Romeinse_provincie)" title="Britannia (Romeinse provincie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Britannia (Romeinse provincie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%96%E3%83%AA%E3%82%BF%E3%83%B3%E3%83%8B%E3%82%A2" title="ブリタンニア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ブリタンニア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_Britannia" title="Romersk Britannia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Romersk Britannia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_Britannia" title="Romersk Britannia – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Romersk Britannia" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit%C3%A0nia_romana" title="Britània romana – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Britània romana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="رومي برتانیا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="رومي برتانیا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brytania" title="Brytania – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Brytania" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit%C3%A2nia_(prov%C3%ADncia_romana)" title="Britânia (província romana) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Britânia (província romana)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglia_roman%C4%83" title="Anglia romană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Anglia romană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Британия (римская провинция) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Британия (римская провинция)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Roman Britain" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit%C3%A1nia_(provincia)" title="Británia (provincia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Británia (provincia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_Britanija" title="Rimska Britanija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimska Britanija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Британија (провинција) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Британија (провинција)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanija_(rimska_provincija)" title="Britanija (rimska provincija) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Britanija (rimska provincija)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_(provinssi)" title="Britannia (provinssi) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Britannia (provinssi)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Britannia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="บริเตนสมัยโรมัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บริเตนสมัยโรมัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Britanyas%C4%B1" title="Roma Britanyası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Roma Britanyası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F_(%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Британія (провінція) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Британія (провінція)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81" title="رومی برطانیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رومی برطانیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anh_thu%E1%BB%99c_La_M%C3%A3" title="Anh thuộc La Mã – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Anh thuộc La Mã" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E5%88%97%E9%A2%A0%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%EF%BC%88%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E8%A1%8C%E7%9C%81%EF%BC%89" title="不列颠尼亚（罗马行省） – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="不列颠尼亚（罗马行省）" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E5%88%97%E9%A1%9B%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E_(%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E8%A1%8C%E7%9C%81)" title="不列顛尼亞 (羅馬行省) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="不列顛尼亞 (羅馬行省)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q185103#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_occupation_of_Britain&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman occupation of Britain">Roman occupation of Britain</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Britain under Roman rule (43 AD – c. 410 AD)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1048730501">.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv td,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output 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.ib-former-subdiv-flagarms td{border:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms table{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms tbody tr:first-child td{width:50%;vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}</style><table class="infobox ib-former-subdiv vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org">Province of Britain<div class="ib-former-subdiv-native nickname"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Provincia Britannia</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader category"><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader category">43 AD–<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 410</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_-_Britannia_(125_AD).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Roman_Empire_-_Britannia_%28125_AD%29.svg/220px-Roman_Empire_-_Britannia_%28125_AD%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Roman_Empire_-_Britannia_%28125_AD%29.svg/330px-Roman_Empire_-_Britannia_%28125_AD%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Roman_Empire_-_Britannia_%28125_AD%29.svg/440px-Roman_Empire_-_Britannia_%28125_AD%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2186" data-file-height="1817" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of Britain">Province of Britain</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in 125 AD</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Camulodunum" title="Camulodunum">Camulodunum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Annexed by <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">43 AD</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Severan</a> Division </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 197</span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Early fourth century Division </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 312</span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">End of Roman rule</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 410</span></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">British Iron Age</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="white-space:nowrap;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li> <b>∟</b><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></li> <li> <b>∟</b><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></li> <li> <b>∟</b><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periods</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">English history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left; padding-bottom:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"> </div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="text-align:left; padding-bottom:0;"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Prehistoric Britain</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 43 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Britain</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 43–410</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">410–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 7th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 449–1066</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">Norman/Angevin</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1066–1216</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">Plantagenet</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1216–1485</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1485–1603 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;"><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1558–1603</i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1603–1714 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;"><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era" title="Jacobean era">Jacobean</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1603–1625</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;"><a href="/wiki/Caroline_era" title="Caroline era">Caroline</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1625–1649</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;">(<a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(England)" title="Interregnum (England)">Interregnum</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1649–1660</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">Restoration</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1660–1714</i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1714–1837 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; padding-left: 2em;"><a href="/wiki/Regency_era" title="Regency era">Regency era</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><i>1811–1820</i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1837–1901</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1901–1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1914–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar Britain</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1919–1939</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">Second World War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1939–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Post-war_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" title="Post-war Britain (1945–1979)">Post-war Britain (political)</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1945–1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_post-war_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" title="Social history of post-war Britain (1945–1979)">Post-war Britain (social)</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1945–1979</td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>See also</b></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Political history (1979–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Social history (1979–present)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Periods_in_English_history" title="Template:Periods in English history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Periods_in_English_history" title="Template talk:Periods in English history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Periods_in_English_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Periods in English history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Roman Britain</b> was the territory that became the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <i>Britannia</i> after the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a>, consisting of a large part of the island of <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's invasions of Britain">invaded Britain</a> in 55 and 54 BC as part of his <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Caesar, the <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celts" title="Insular Celts">Britons</a> had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> during the <a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">British Iron Age</a> and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only <a href="/wiki/Celtic_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic tribe">Celtic tribe</a> to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He received tribute, installed the friendly king <a href="/wiki/Mandubracius" title="Mandubracius">Mandubracius</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Trinovantes" title="Trinovantes">Trinovantes</a>, and returned to <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>. Planned invasions under <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> assembled 200,000 men at the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">Channel</a> on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">musculi</a></i></span>) according to <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three years later, <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king <a href="/wiki/Verica" title="Verica">Verica</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Atrebates" title="Atrebates">Atrebates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans defeated the <a href="/wiki/Catuvellauni" title="Catuvellauni">Catuvellauni</a>, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the <a href="/wiki/Fosse_Way" title="Fosse Way">Fosse Way</a>. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of <a href="/wiki/Boudica#Boudica's_uprising" title="Boudica">Boudica's uprising</a>, but the Romans expanded steadily northwards. </p><p>The conquest of Britain continued under command of <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Gnaeus Julius Agricola</a> (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as <a href="/wiki/Caledonia" title="Caledonia">Caledonia</a>. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the <a href="/wiki/Caledonians" title="Caledonians">Caledonians</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Calgacus" title="Calgacus">Calgacus</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mons_Graupius" title="Battle of Mons Graupius">Battle of Mons Graupius</a>. Battle casualties were estimated by <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2 million</span>, these are very high figures.<sup id="cite_ref-Mattingly_2006_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattingly_2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the 2nd-century emperors <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a>, <a href="#Occupation_and_retreat_from_southern_Scotland">two walls</a> were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Scottish Highlands</a> were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the <a href="/wiki/Severan_Reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Severan Reforms">Severan Reforms</a> divided Britain into two provinces: <a href="/wiki/Britannia_Superior" title="Britannia Superior">Britannia Superior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Britannia_Inferior" title="Britannia Inferior">Britannia Inferior</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early fourth century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a <a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">vicarius</a>, who administered the <span class="nowrap">Diocese of the Britains</span>, and who was himself under the overall authority of the praetorian prefecture of the Gallic region, based at <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>. A fifth province, <a href="/wiki/Valentia_(Roman_Britain)" title="Valentia (Roman Britain)">Valentia</a>, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a> invasions and often came under the control of imperial <a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">usurpers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">imperial pretenders</a>. The <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">final Roman withdrawal from Britain</a> occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a> after that. </p><p>Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive <a href="/wiki/Romano-British_culture" title="Romano-British culture">Romano-British culture</a> emerged as the Romans introduced improved <a href="/wiki/Roman_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning#Classical_and_Medieval_Europe" title="History of urban planning">urban planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">industrial production</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">architecture</a>. The Roman goddess <a href="/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia">Britannia</a> became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, <a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Roman historians</a> generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> investigations and occasional <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphic</a> evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_contact">Early contact</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early contact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" title="Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain">Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain</a></div> <p>Britain was known to the <a href="/wiki/Classical_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical world">Classical world</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthaginians</a> traded for <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornish</a> <a href="/wiki/Tin_mining_in_Britain" title="Tin mining in Britain">tin</a> in the 4th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsh_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsh-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greeks referred to the <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Cassiterides" title="Cassiterides">Cassiterides</a></i></span></i>, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Carthaginian sailor <a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a> is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer <a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a> in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.<sup id="cite_ref-Plutarch_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plutarch-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first direct Roman contact was when <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a> but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgic</a> tribes on returning to the continent.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, <a href="/wiki/Mandubracius" title="Mandubracius">Mandubracius</a>, was installed, and his rival, <a href="/wiki/Cassivellaunus" title="Cassivellaunus">Cassivellaunus</a>, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">clients</a> and brought Britain into Rome's <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a>. <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-Branigan_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Branigan-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Res_Gestae_Divi_Augusti" title="Res Gestae Divi Augusti">Res Gestae</a></i></span></i> refers to two British kings he received as refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When some of <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>'s ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germany</a> in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the <a href="/wiki/Catuvellauni" title="Catuvellauni">Catuvellauni</a>, ruled by the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Tasciovanus" title="Tasciovanus">Tasciovanus</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Atrebates" title="Atrebates">Atrebates</a>, ruled by the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Commius" title="Commius">Commius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, <a href="/wiki/Verica" title="Verica">Verica</a> of the Atrebates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_invasion">Roman invasion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Roman invasion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a></div> <p>The invasion force in 43 AD was led by <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Plautius" title="Aulus Plautius">Aulus Plautius</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is unclear how many <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legions</a> were sent. The <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Legio_II_Augusta" title="Legio II Augusta">Legio II Augusta</a></i></span></i>, commanded by future emperor <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, was the only one directly attested to have taken part.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Legio_IX_Hispana" title="Legio IX Hispana">Legio IX Hispana</a></i></span></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Legio_XIV_Gemina" title="Legio XIV Gemina">XIV Gemina</a></i></span></i> (later styled <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Martia Victrix</i></span></i>) and the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Legio_XX_Valeria_Victrix" title="Legio XX Valeria Victrix">XX</a></i></span></i> (later styled <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Valeria Victrix</i></span></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are known to have served during the <a href="/wiki/Boudican_revolt" title="Boudican revolt">Boudican revolt</a> of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">IX Hispana</i></span></i> may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at <a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a> (<a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freedman</a> persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the <a href="/wiki/Oceanus" title="Oceanus">Ocean</a> and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at <a href="/wiki/Richborough" title="Richborough">Richborough</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>; at least part of the force may have landed near <a href="/wiki/Fishbourne,_West_Sussex" title="Fishbourne, West Sussex">Fishbourne, West Sussex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British.coinage.Roman.invasion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/British.coinage.Roman.invasion.jpg/220px-British.coinage.Roman.invasion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/British.coinage.Roman.invasion.jpg/330px-British.coinage.Roman.invasion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/British.coinage.Roman.invasion.jpg/440px-British.coinage.Roman.invasion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3084" data-file-height="2954" /></a><figcaption>Conquests under Aulus Plautius, focused on the commercially valuable southeast of Britain</figcaption></figure> <p>The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Medway" title="Battle of the Medway">river Medway</a>, the second on the <a href="/wiki/River_Thames" title="River Thames">river Thames</a>. One of their leaders, <a href="/wiki/Togodumnus" title="Togodumnus">Togodumnus</a>, was killed, but his brother <a href="/wiki/Caratacus" title="Caratacus">Caratacus</a> survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, <a href="/wiki/Camulodunum" title="Camulodunum">Camulodunum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>). Vespasian subdued the southwest,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Claudius_Cogidubnus" title="Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus">Cogidubnus</a> was set up as a friendly king of several territories,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control. </p><p>British archaeologist Richard Hingley said that the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a>, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>'s expeditions and culminating with the construction of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>, was a drawn-out process rather than an inevitable or swift victory.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_of_Roman_rule">Establishment of Roman rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Establishment of Roman rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Romano-British_culture" title="Romano-British culture">Romano-British culture</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-right"><div class="title"><div>Roman invasion of Britain</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman.Britain.campaigns.43.to.60.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Roman campaigns 43–60"><img alt="Roman campaigns 43–60" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Roman.Britain.campaigns.43.to.60.jpg/180px-Roman.Britain.campaigns.43.to.60.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Roman.Britain.campaigns.43.to.60.jpg/270px-Roman.Britain.campaigns.43.to.60.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Roman.Britain.campaigns.43.to.60.jpg/360px-Roman.Britain.campaigns.43.to.60.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3030" data-file-height="2906" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Roman campaigns 43–60</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Agricola.Campaigns.80.84.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Agricola's campaigns"><img alt="Agricola's campaigns" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Agricola.Campaigns.80.84.jpg/153px-Agricola.Campaigns.80.84.jpg" decoding="async" width="153" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Agricola.Campaigns.80.84.jpg/230px-Agricola.Campaigns.80.84.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Agricola.Campaigns.80.84.jpg/306px-Agricola.Campaigns.80.84.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1788" data-file-height="2102" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Agricola's campaigns</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Silures" title="Silures">Silures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ordovices" title="Ordovices">Ordovices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deceangli" title="Deceangli">Deceangli</a> remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the <a href="/wiki/Brigantes" title="Brigantes">Brigantes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Iceni" title="Iceni">Iceni</a>. The Silures were led by <a href="/wiki/Caratacus" title="Caratacus">Caratacus</a>, and he carried out an effective <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla</a> campaign against Governor <a href="/wiki/Publius_Ostorius_Scapula" title="Publius Ostorius Scapula">Publius Ostorius Scapula</a>. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and <a href="/wiki/Caratacus%27_last_battle" title="Caratacus' last battle">defeated him</a>. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, <a href="/wiki/Cartimandua" title="Cartimandua">Cartimandua</a>, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a <a href="/wiki/Caratacus#Captive_in_Rome" title="Caratacus">dignified speech</a> he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband <a href="/wiki/Venutius" title="Venutius">Venutius</a> replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>'s accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as <a href="/wiki/Lindum_Colonia" title="Lindum Colonia">Lindum</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Suetonius_Paulinus" title="Gaius Suetonius Paulinus">Gaius Suetonius Paulinus</a>, the conqueror of <a href="/wiki/Mauretania" title="Mauretania">Mauretania</a> (modern day <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (<a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>) to settle accounts with <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a> once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the <a href="/wiki/Menai_Strait" title="Menai Strait">Menai Strait</a> and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves. </p><p>While Paulinus was <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Anglesey" title="Roman conquest of Anglesey">campaigning in Mona</a>, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Boudica" title="Boudica">Boudica</a>. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the <a href="/wiki/Trinovantes" title="Trinovantes">Trinovantes</a>, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (<a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Camulodunum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Camulodunum">routed</a> the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> (then called <a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a>), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was <a href="/wiki/Verulamium" title="Verulamium">Verulamium</a> (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Watling_Street" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Watling Street">Battle of Watling Street</a>. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/220px--Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="132" data-durationhint="87" data-mwtitle="Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="800" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1200" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8"" data-width="1280" data-height="768" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="400" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="600" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6a/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm/Templeborough_Roman_Fort_visualised_3D_flythrough_-_Rotherham.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="600" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Templeborough" title="Templeborough">Templeborough Roman fort</a> in South Yorkshire. The reconstruction was created for Rotherham Museums and Galleries.</figcaption></figure> <p>There was further turmoil in 69, the "<a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a>". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Petillius_Cerialis" title="Quintus Petillius Cerialis">Quintus Petillius Cerialis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Sextus Julius Frontinus</a>, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a>, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold mines</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi_Gold_Mines" title="Dolaucothi Gold Mines">Dolaucothi</a>. </p><p>In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Gnaeus Julius Agricola</a>, father-in-law to the historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, conquered the <a href="/wiki/Ordovices" title="Ordovices">Ordovices</a> in 78. With the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">XX Valeria Victrix</i></span></i> legion, Agricola defeated the <a href="/wiki/Caledonians" title="Caledonians">Caledonians</a> in 84 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mons_Graupius" title="Battle of Mons Graupius">Battle of Mons Graupius</a>, in north-east Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome and awarded the ornaments of a triumph, before returning to continue as governor. By 87 the decision was taken to abandon most of the land north of the <a href="/wiki/Cheviot_Hills" title="Cheviot Hills">Cheviot Hills</a> allowing for troops to be moved to other frontiers which were under pressure. Tacitus reports Agricola as feeling bitter about this turn of events.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-right"><div class="title"><div>Roman military organisation in the north</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman.Scotland.north.84.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="In 84 AD"><img alt="In 84 AD" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Roman.Scotland.north.84.jpg/180px-Roman.Scotland.north.84.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Roman.Scotland.north.84.jpg/270px-Roman.Scotland.north.84.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Roman.Scotland.north.84.jpg/360px-Roman.Scotland.north.84.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2207" data-file-height="1893" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">In 84 AD</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman.Scotland.north.155.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="In 155 AD"><img alt="In 155 AD" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Roman.Scotland.north.155.jpg/180px-Roman.Scotland.north.155.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Roman.Scotland.north.155.jpg/270px-Roman.Scotland.north.155.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Roman.Scotland.north.155.jpg/360px-Roman.Scotland.north.155.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2223" data-file-height="1865" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">In 155 AD</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupation_of_and_retreat_from_southern_Scotland">Occupation of and retreat from southern Scotland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Occupation of and retreat from southern Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Occupation_and_retreat_from_southern_Scotland"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">Scotland during the Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a></div> <p>There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some <a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">Roman forts</a> south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the <a href="/wiki/Stanegate" title="Stanegate">Stanegate</a>. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Lowlands" title="Scottish Lowlands">Scottish Lowlands</a> in the years before 100, indicating growing <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanisation</a>. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at <a href="/wiki/Vindolanda" title="Vindolanda">Vindolanda</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</a>, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied. </p><p>Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged <a href="/wiki/Armour" title="Armour">armour</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Trimontium_(Newstead)" title="Trimontium (Newstead)">Trimontium</a></i> (at modern <a href="/wiki/Newstead,_Scottish_Borders" title="Newstead, Scottish Borders">Newstead</a>, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribune</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cyrene_(mythology)" title="Cyrene (mythology)">Cyrene</a>. <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">Trajan's Dacian Wars</a> may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the <a href="/wiki/Stanegate" title="Stanegate">Stanegate</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Solway_Firth" title="Solway Firth">Solway</a>–<a href="/wiki/River_Tyne" title="River Tyne">Tyne</a> isthmus around this time. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hadrians_Wall_from_Housesteads1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hadrians_Wall_from_Housesteads1.jpg/230px-Hadrians_Wall_from_Housesteads1.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hadrians_Wall_from_Housesteads1.jpg/345px-Hadrians_Wall_from_Housesteads1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hadrians_Wall_from_Housesteads1.jpg/460px-Hadrians_Wall_from_Housesteads1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> viewed looking east from <a href="/wiki/Housesteads_Roman_Fort" title="Housesteads Roman Fort">Housesteads Roman Fort</a> (Vercovicium)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prima_Europe_tabula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Prima_Europe_tabula.jpg/330px-Prima_Europe_tabula.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Prima_Europe_tabula.jpg/495px-Prima_Europe_tabula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Prima_Europe_tabula.jpg/660px-Prima_Europe_tabula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4293" /></a><figcaption><i>Prima Europe tabula</i>. A 1486 <a href="/wiki/Woodcut" title="Woodcut">woodcut</a> copy of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s 2nd-century map of Roman Britain</figcaption></figure> <p>A new crisis occurred at the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>'s reign (117): a rising in the north which was suppressed by <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Pompeius_Falco" title="Quintus Pompeius Falco">Quintus Pompeius Falco</a>. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Platorius_Nepos" title="Aulus Platorius Nepos">Aulus Platorius Nepos</a> as governor to undertake this work who brought the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Legio_VI_Victrix" title="Legio VI Victrix">Legio VI Victrix</a></i></span></i> legion with him from <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a></i></span></i>. This replaced the famous <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Legio_IX_Hispana" title="Legio IX Hispana">Legio IX Hispana</a></i></span></i>, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context. </p><p>In the reign of <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a> was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Lollius_Urbicus" title="Quintus Lollius Urbicus">Quintus Lollius Urbicus</a>. </p><p>The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the <a href="/wiki/Brigantes" title="Brigantes">Brigantes</a> revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Verus" title="Gnaeus Julius Verus">Gnaeus Julius Verus</a>. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the <a href="/wiki/Votadini" title="Votadini">Votadini</a> or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180. </p><p>During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily <a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">problems in the Danubian provinces</a>. Increasing numbers of <a href="/wiki/Hoard" title="Hoard">hoards</a> of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>. </p><p>In 175, a large force of <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatian</a> cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> described as the most serious war of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ulpius_Marcellus" title="Ulpius Marcellus">Ulpius Marcellus</a> was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named <a href="/wiki/Caerellius_Priscus" title="Caerellius Priscus">Priscus</a> as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of <a href="/wiki/Tigidius_Perennis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigidius Perennis">Tigidius Perennis</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">Praetorian prefect</a> who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly <a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equites</a> to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny. </p><p>The future emperor <a href="/wiki/Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a> (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a> as emperor in 192. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_century">Third century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Third century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clodius_Albinus" title="Clodius Albinus">Clodius Albinus</a>. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a> in return for Albinus's support against <a href="/wiki/Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a> in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war. </p><p>Albinus crossed to <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at <a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a>. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Scots</a>. </p><p>The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, <a href="/wiki/Virius_Lupus" title="Virius Lupus">Virius Lupus</a>, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the <a href="/wiki/Maeatae" title="Maeatae">Maeatae</a>. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Alfenus_Senecio" title="Lucius Alfenus Senecio">Lucius Alfenus Senecio</a>'s report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Publius_Septimius_Geta" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Septimius Geta">Geta</a> with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman.Britain.Severan.Campaigns.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Roman.Britain.Severan.Campaigns.jpg/220px-Roman.Britain.Severan.Campaigns.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Roman.Britain.Severan.Campaigns.jpg/330px-Roman.Britain.Severan.Campaigns.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Roman.Britain.Severan.Campaigns.jpg/440px-Roman.Britain.Severan.Campaigns.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="1931" /></a><figcaption>Northern campaigns, 208–211</figcaption></figure> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Roman_invasion_of_Caledonia_208%E2%80%93210" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210">invasion of Caledonia</a> led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the <a href="/wiki/River_Tay" title="River Tay">River Tay</a>, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Britannicus</i></span></i> but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a <a href="/wiki/Punitive_expedition" title="Punitive expedition">punitive expedition</a>, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne. </p><p>As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Superior" title="Britannia Superior">Britannia Superior</a></i></span></i> and <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Inferior" title="Britannia Inferior">Britannia Inferior</a></i></span></i>. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore" title="Saxon Shore">Saxon Shore Forts</a>. </p><p>During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a> had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a> was established when <a href="/wiki/Postumus" title="Postumus">Postumus</a> rebelled against <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a>. Britannia was part of this until 274 when <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> reunited the empire. </p><p>Around the year 280, a half-<a href="/wiki/Romano-Britons" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-Britons">British</a> officer named <a href="/wiki/Bonosus_(usurper)" title="Bonosus (usurper)">Bonosus</a> was in command of the Roman's <a href="/wiki/Classis_Germanica" title="Classis Germanica">Rhenish fleet</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germans</a> managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he <a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">proclaimed himself emperor</a> at <a href="/wiki/Colonia_Agrippina" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonia Agrippina">Colonia Agrippina</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>) but was crushed by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius_Probus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aurelius Probus">Marcus Aurelius Probus</a>. Soon afterwards, an unnamed <a href="/wiki/Governors_of_Roman_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Governors of Roman Britain">governor</a> of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a> across the Channel. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Carausian_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Carausian Revolt">Carausian Revolt</a> led to a short-lived <a href="/wiki/Britannic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Britannic Empire">Britannic Empire</a> from 286 to 296. <a href="/wiki/Carausius" title="Carausius">Carausius</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Menapii" title="Menapii">Menapian</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">naval</a> commander of the <a href="/wiki/Classis_Britannica" title="Classis Britannica">Britannic fleet</a>; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor <a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a> on charges of having abetted <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxon_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon people">Saxon</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_piracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman piracy">pirates</a> and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">junior emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius Chlorus</a> launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of <a href="/wiki/Gesoriacum" class="mw-redirect" title="Gesoriacum">Gesoriacum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boulogne-sur-Mer" title="Boulogne-sur-Mer">Boulogne-sur-Mer</a>) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, <a href="/wiki/Allectus" title="Allectus">Allectus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Asclepiodotus" title="Julius Asclepiodotus">Julius Asclepiodotus</a> landed an invasion fleet near <a href="/wiki/Southampton" title="Southampton">Southampton</a> and defeated Allectus in a land battle.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fourth_century_government">Fourth century government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fourth century government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Britannia_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Britannia I">Britannia I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Britannia_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Britannia II">Britannia II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flavia_Caesariensis" title="Flavia Caesariensis">Flavia Caesariensis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maxima_Caesariensis" title="Maxima Caesariensis">Maxima Caesariensis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Valentia_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentia (Roman province)">Valentia (Roman province)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Britain_410.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Roman_Britain_410.jpg/200px-Roman_Britain_410.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Roman_Britain_410.jpg/300px-Roman_Britain_410.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Roman_Britain_410.jpg/400px-Roman_Britain_410.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1241" data-file-height="1755" /></a><figcaption>One possible arrangement of the late Roman provinces, with <a href="/wiki/Valentia_(Roman_Britain)" title="Valentia (Roman Britain)">Valentia</a> between the walls</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Britain_-_AD_400.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Roman_Britain_-_AD_400.png/200px-Roman_Britain_-_AD_400.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Roman_Britain_-_AD_400.png/300px-Roman_Britain_-_AD_400.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Roman_Britain_-_AD_400.png/400px-Roman_Britain_-_AD_400.png 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>Another possible arrangement, with other possible placements of <a href="/wiki/Valentia_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentia (Roman province)">Valentia</a> noted</figcaption></figure> <p>In a reform carried out by 312, the Diocese of Britain was divided into four provinces, <i>Maxima Caesariensis</i>, <i>Flavia Caesariensis</i>, <i>Britannia Prima</i> and <i>Britannia Secunda</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">diocese</a> was governed by a <i><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">vicarius</a></i>, and Britain was part of the Gallic region under the overall authority of a <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">praetorian prefect</a>, based at <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMattingly2006227_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMattingly2006227-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>vicarius</i> was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency. </p><p>Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the <i><a href="/wiki/Dux_Britanniarum" title="Dux Britanniarum">Dux Britanniarum</a></i> by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tasks of the <i>vicarius</i> were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not. </p><p>The early-4th-century <a href="/wiki/Verona_List" class="mw-redirect" title="Verona List">Verona List</a>, the late-4th-century work of <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sextus Rufus">Sextus Rufus</a>, and the early-5th-century <a href="/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatum" title="Notitia Dignitatum">List of Offices</a> and work of <a href="/wiki/Polemius_Silvius" title="Polemius Silvius">Polemius Silvius</a> all list four provinces by some variation of the names <a href="/wiki/Britannia_Prima" title="Britannia Prima">Britannia I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Britannia_Secunda" title="Britannia Secunda">Britannia II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maxima_Caesariensis" title="Maxima Caesariensis">Maxima Caesariensis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flavia_Caesariensis" title="Flavia Caesariensis">Flavia Caesariensis</a>; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a <a href="/wiki/Governors_of_Roman_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Governors of Roman Britain">governor</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Praeses" title="Praeses">praeses</a></i>) of <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian (Roman)">equestrian</a> rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named <a href="/wiki/Valentia_(Roman_Britain)" title="Valentia (Roman Britain)">Valentia</a> and give its governor and Maxima's a <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consular</a> rank.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus</a> mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by <a href="/wiki/Count_Theodosius" title="Count Theodosius">Count Theodosius</a> in 369 after the quelling of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Conspiracy" title="Great Conspiracy">Great Conspiracy</a>. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"?<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and leading others to place Valentia beyond <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>, in the territory abandoned south of the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a>. </p><p>Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">ecclesiastical</a> records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Arles_(314)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Arles (314)">314 Council of Arles</a>. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a <a href="/wiki/Eborius" title="Eborius">Bishop "Eborius"</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a> and two bishops "from <a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a>" (one <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">de civitate Londinensi</i></span></i> and the other <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">de civitate colonia Londinensium</i></span></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The error is variously emended: <a href="/wiki/Bishop_Ussher" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop Ussher">Bishop Ussher</a> proposed <i><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Victricensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonia Victricensis">Colonia</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Selden" title="John Selden">Selden</a> <i>Col.</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Camaloduni" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonia Camaloduni">Colon. Camalodun.</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Spelman" title="Henry Spelman">Spelman</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Cameloduni" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonia Cameloduni">Colonia Cameloduni</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (all various names of <a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>);<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gale" title="Thomas Gale">Gale</a><sup id="cite_ref-giter_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-giter-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bingham" title="Joseph Bingham">Bingham</a><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> offered <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Lindi" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonia Lindi">colonia Lindi</a></i></span></i> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Henry_(minister)" title="Robert Henry (minister)">Henry</a><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Lindum" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonia Lindum">Colonia Lindum</a></i></span></i> (both <a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_England" title="Lincoln, England">Lincoln</a>); and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Stillingfleet" title="Edward Stillingfleet">Bishop Stillingfleet</a><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Thackeray" title="Francis Thackeray">Francis Thackeray</a> read it as a <a href="/wiki/Scribal_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Scribal error">scribal error</a> of <i>Civ. Col. Londin.</i> for an original <i><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Legionis_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonia Legionis II">Civ. Col. Leg. II</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Caerleon" title="Caerleon">Caerleon</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-thacky_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thacky-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province. </p><p>In the 12th century, <a href="/wiki/Gerald_of_Wales" title="Gerald of Wales">Gerald of Wales</a> described the supposedly <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" title="Metropolitan bishop">metropolitan sees</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">early British church</a> established by the legendary <a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_saints" title="List of Welsh saints">SS</a> <a href="/wiki/Saint_Fagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Fagan">Fagan</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Saint_Duvian" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Duvian">Duvian</a>". He placed <a href="/wiki/Britannia_Prima" title="Britannia Prima">Britannia Prima</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and western England with its capital at "<a href="/wiki/Isca_Augusta" title="Isca Augusta">Urbs Legionum</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Caerleon" title="Caerleon">Caerleon</a>); <a href="/wiki/Britannia_Secunda" title="Britannia Secunda">Britannia Secunda</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a> and southern England with its capital at "<a href="/wiki/Dorobernia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorobernia">Dorobernia</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Canterbury" title="Canterbury">Canterbury</a>); <a href="/wiki/Flavia_Caesariensis" title="Flavia Caesariensis">Flavia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a> and central England with its capital at "<a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Lundonia</a>" (<a href="/wiki/City_of_London" title="City of London">London</a>); "<a href="/wiki/Maxima_Caesariensis" title="Maxima Caesariensis">Maximia</a>" in northern England with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a> (<a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>); and <a href="/wiki/Valentia_(Roman_Britain)" title="Valentia (Roman Britain)">Valentia</a> in "<a href="/wiki/Alba" title="Alba">Albania</a> which is now <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>" with its capital at <a href="/wiki/St_Andrews" title="St Andrews">St Andrews</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-letter_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> but St Andrews is beyond even the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a> and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons. </p><p>A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan <i>vicarius</i>; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to <a href="/wiki/Corinium_Dobunnorum" title="Corinium Dobunnorum">Corinium</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dobunni" title="Dobunni">Dobunni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cirencester" title="Cirencester">Cirencester</a>) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial <a href="/wiki/Rector_(politics)" title="Rector (politics)">rector</a>; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at <a href="/wiki/Lindum_Colonia" title="Lindum Colonia">Lindum Colonia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_England" title="Lincoln, England">Lincoln</a>) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around <a href="/wiki/Deva_Victrix" title="Deva Victrix">Deva</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a>); beside <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> around <a href="/wiki/Luguvalium" title="Luguvalium">Luguvalium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carlisle,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlisle, England">Carlisle</a>); and between the walls along <a href="/wiki/Dere_Street" title="Dere Street">Dere Street</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fourth_century_history">Fourth century history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fourth century history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Great_Conspiracy" title="Great Conspiracy">Great Conspiracy</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman.Britain.towns.villas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Roman.Britain.towns.villas.jpg/300px-Roman.Britain.towns.villas.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Roman.Britain.towns.villas.jpg/450px-Roman.Britain.towns.villas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Roman.Britain.towns.villas.jpg/600px-Roman.Britain.towns.villas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3126" data-file-height="3368" /></a><figcaption>4th century Roman towns and villas</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Britain.4th.century.Roman.infrastructure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Britain.4th.century.Roman.infrastructure.jpg/300px-Britain.4th.century.Roman.infrastructure.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Britain.4th.century.Roman.infrastructure.jpg/450px-Britain.4th.century.Roman.infrastructure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Britain.4th.century.Roman.infrastructure.jpg/600px-Britain.4th.century.Roman.infrastructure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3158" data-file-height="3388" /></a><figcaption>4th century: Degree of Romanisation</figcaption></figure> <p>Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a>) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a> beyond <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> in the summer and autumn.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constantius died in <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus. </p><p>In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper <a href="/wiki/Magnentius" title="Magnentius">Magnentius</a>, who succeeded <a href="/wiki/Constans" title="Constans">Constans</a> following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mons_Seleucus" title="Battle of Mons Seleucus">Battle of Mons Seleucus</a> in 353, <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a> dispatched his chief imperial notary <a href="/wiki/Paulus_Catena" title="Paulus Catena">Paulus Catena</a> to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a <a href="/wiki/Witch-hunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch-hunt">witch-hunt</a>, which forced the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vicarius</i></span></i> <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Martinus" title="Flavius Martinus">Flavius Martinus</a> to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vicarius</i></span></i> attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide. </p><p>As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a> in the east and the <a href="/wiki/Scoti" title="Scoti">Scoti</a> (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>, Scoti and <a href="/wiki/Attacotti" title="Attacotti">Attacotti</a>, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the <a href="/wiki/Great_Conspiracy" title="Great Conspiracy">Great Conspiracy</a>, was settled by <a href="/wiki/Count_Theodosius" title="Count Theodosius">Count Theodosius</a> from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (<a href="/wiki/Boulogne-sur-Mer" title="Boulogne-sur-Mer">Boulogne-sur-Mer</a>) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new <a href="/wiki/Dux_Britanniarum" title="Dux Britanniarum">Dux Britanniarum</a> was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration. </p><p>Another imperial usurper, <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a>, raised the standard of revolt at <a href="/wiki/Segontium" title="Segontium">Segontium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Caernarfon" title="Caernarfon">Caernarfon</a>) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scoti" title="Scoti">Scots</a> around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a> led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric I</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_Roman_rule">End of Roman rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: End of Roman rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">End of Roman rule in Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brittain_410.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Brittain_410.jpg/220px-Brittain_410.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Brittain_410.jpg/330px-Brittain_410.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Brittain_410.jpg/440px-Brittain_410.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1111" data-file-height="1497" /></a><figcaption>Roman Britain in 410</figcaption></figure> <p>The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rostovtzeff" title="Michael Rostovtzeff">Michael Rostovtzeff</a>, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "<a href="/wiki/Dark_earth" title="Dark earth">dark earth</a>" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turning over the <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilica</a> at <a href="/wiki/Silchester" title="Silchester">Silchester</a> to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as <a href="/wiki/Chedworth_Roman_Villa" title="Chedworth Roman Villa">Chedworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Casterton" title="Great Casterton">Great Casterton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rutland" title="Rutland">Rutland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hucclecote" title="Hucclecote">Hucclecote</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gloucestershire" title="Gloucestershire">Gloucestershire</a> had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">Saint Patrick</a> indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in <a href="/wiki/Verulamium" title="Verulamium">Verulamium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cirencester" title="Cirencester">Cirencester</a>. Some urban centres, for example <a href="/wiki/Canterbury" title="Canterbury">Canterbury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cirencester" title="Cirencester">Cirencester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wroxeter" title="Wroxeter">Wroxeter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gloucester" title="Gloucester">Gloucester</a>, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates. </p><p>Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-Roman_Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sub-Roman Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg/220px-End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg/330px-End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg/440px-End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2582" data-file-height="3220" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">End of Roman rule in Britain</a>, 383–410</figcaption></figure> <p>Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a> attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing <a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">usurpers</a>, the army chose a soldier, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_Emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)">Constantine III</a>, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxon</a> incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the <a href="/wiki/Britons_(Celtic_people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Britons (Celtic people)">Britons</a>, and in 409 <a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a> records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the <a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a> rebellion of the <a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Breton</a> inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a> since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Bruttium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Moorhead_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moorhead-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing <a href="/wiki/Romano-British" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-British">Romano-British</a> ideals and conventions. Historian <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Laycock" title="Stuart Laycock">Stuart Laycock</a> has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by <a href="/wiki/Vortigern" title="Vortigern">Vortigern</a> to assist in fighting the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scoti" title="Scoti">Scoti</a>, and <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9isi" title="Déisi">Déisi</a>. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxiliaries</a> supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> (hence its name), <a href="/wiki/Britonia" title="Britonia">Galicia</a> and probably <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the <a href="/wiki/Groans_of_the_Britons" title="Groans of the Britons">Groans of the Britons</a>, an unanswered appeal to <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Aetius" title="Flavius Aetius">Aetius</a>, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Deorham" title="Battle of Deorham">Battle of Deorham</a> in 577, after which the significant cities of <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cirencester" title="Cirencester">Cirencester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gloucester" title="Gloucester">Gloucester</a> fell and the Saxons reached the western sea. </p><p>Historians generally reject the <a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_King_Arthur" title="Historicity of King Arthur">historicity of King Arthur</a>, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade">Trade</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age#Trade_between_Iron_Age_Britain_and_the_Roman_world" title="British Iron Age">Trade between Iron Age Britain and the Roman world</a></div> <p>During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> and Eastern <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">Channel</a>, focusing on the narrow <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Dover" title="Strait of Dover">Strait of Dover</a>, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_2007_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_2007-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important British ports were London and <a href="/wiki/Richborough_Castle" title="Richborough Castle">Richborough</a>, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were <a href="/wiki/Boulogne-sur-Mer" title="Boulogne-sur-Mer">Boulogne</a> and the sites of <a href="/wiki/Domburg" title="Domburg">Domburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colijnsplaat" title="Colijnsplaat">Colijnsplaat</a> at the mouth of the river <a href="/wiki/Scheldt" title="Scheldt">Scheldt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_2007_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_2007-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Late Roman period it is likely that the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore" title="Saxon Shore">shore forts</a> played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exports to Britain included: <a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">coin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_pottery" title="Ancient Roman pottery">pottery</a>, particularly red-gloss <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Terra_sigillata" title="Terra sigillata">terra sigillata</a></i></span></i> (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Gaul</a>, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> provinces; olive oil from southern <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Spain</a> in <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">amphorae</a></i></span></i>; wine from Gaul in <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">amphorae</i></span></i> and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">amphorae</i></span></i>; lava <a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">quern-stones</a> from <a href="/wiki/Mayen" title="Mayen">Mayen</a> on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_2007_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_2007-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1991_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1991-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_2004_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_2004-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mattingly_2006_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattingly_2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1991_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1991-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_2004_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_2004-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1984_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1984-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1984_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1984-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1984_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1984-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports.<sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1991_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1991-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mattingly_2006_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattingly_2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1984_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1984-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1989_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1989-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from <span title="circa">c.</span> 165 AD onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_2004_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_2004-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1996_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1996-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_2004_77-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_2004-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1996_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1996-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_1996_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford_1996-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Roman economy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Roman_Britain" title="Mining in Roman Britain">Mining in Roman Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman.Britain.Production.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Roman.Britain.Production.jpg/220px-Roman.Britain.Production.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Roman.Britain.Production.jpg/330px-Roman.Britain.Production.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Roman.Britain.Production.jpg/440px-Roman.Britain.Production.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="2862" /></a><figcaption>Industrial production in Roman Britain</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dolaucothimap4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Dolaucothimap4.jpg/220px-Dolaucothimap4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Dolaucothimap4.jpg/330px-Dolaucothimap4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Dolaucothimap4.jpg/440px-Dolaucothimap4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="815" /></a><figcaption>Development of <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi_Gold_Mines" title="Dolaucothi Gold Mines">Dolaucothi Gold Mines</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Mineral extraction sites such as the <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi_Gold_Mines" title="Dolaucothi Gold Mines">Dolaucothi gold mine</a> were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_mining" title="Hydraulic mining">hydraulic mining</a> methods. They are described by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)"><i>Natural History</i></a> in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)" title="Aqueduct (water supply)">aqueducts</a> was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a>. If veins were present, they were attacked using <a href="/wiki/Fire-setting" title="Fire-setting">fire-setting</a> and the ore removed for <a href="/wiki/Comminution" title="Comminution">comminution</a>. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and <a href="/wiki/Gold_nugget" title="Gold nugget">gold nuggets</a> collected in <a href="/wiki/Riffle#Gold_mining" title="Riffle">riffles</a>. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from <span title="circa">c.</span> 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Weald" title="Weald">Wealden</a> ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the <a href="/wiki/Mendip_Hills" title="Mendip Hills">Mendip Hills</a> and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see <a href="/wiki/Grimes_Graves" class="mw-redirect" title="Grimes Graves">Grimes Graves</a>), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_mining" title="Hydraulic mining">hydraulic mining</a> to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)" title="Aqueduct (water supply)">aqueducts</a>, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, <a href="/wiki/Highland" title="Highland">upland</a> country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350. </p><p>Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At <a href="/wiki/Wroxeter" title="Wroxeter">Wroxeter</a> in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène</a> artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Governors_of_Roman_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Governors of Roman Britain">Governors of Roman Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_client_kingdoms_in_Britain" title="Roman client kingdoms in Britain">Roman client kingdoms in Britain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_auxiliaries_in_Britain" title="Roman auxiliaries in Britain">Roman auxiliaries in Britain</a></div> <p>Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Roman_Britain" title="List of governors of Roman Britain">governors</a> who were members of the Senate and had held the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consulship</a>. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">governor</a>'s role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Civitas" title="Civitas">civitates</a></i></span></i> and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops. </p><p>To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">legatus juridicus</i></span></i>, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a <i><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">procurator</a></i> with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services. </p><p>Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">civitas</i></span></i> (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">colonies</i></span></i> such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and <i>municipalities</i> such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_1998_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones_1998-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The various <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">civitates</i></span></i> sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_1998_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones_1998-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Demographics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> and their families and dependents.<sup id="cite_ref-alcock_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alcock-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century.<sup id="cite_ref-alcock_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alcock-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The capital city of <a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a> is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> and North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Town_and_country">Town and country</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Town and country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_sites_in_Great_Britain" title="Roman sites in Great Britain">Roman sites in Great Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_cities_in_Britain" title="Roman cities in Britain">Roman cities in Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_villas_in_England" title="List of Roman villas in England">List of Roman villas in England</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_place_names_in_Britain" title="List of Roman place names in Britain">List of Roman place names in Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Part_of_Tabula_Peutingeriana_showing_Britannia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Part_of_Tabula_Peutingeriana_showing_Britannia.jpg/290px-Part_of_Tabula_Peutingeriana_showing_Britannia.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Part_of_Tabula_Peutingeriana_showing_Britannia.jpg/435px-Part_of_Tabula_Peutingeriana_showing_Britannia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Part_of_Tabula_Peutingeriana_showing_Britannia.jpg/580px-Part_of_Tabula_Peutingeriana_showing_Britannia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1021" data-file-height="542" /></a><figcaption>Britannia as shown on the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Peutingeriana" title="Tabula Peutingeriana">Tabula Peutingeriana</a></i></span></i> (modern copy from 1897)</figcaption></figure> <p>During their occupation of Britain, the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private use. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Loseby326_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loseby326-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Civitates</i></span></i>, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The much more numerous category of <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Vicus" title="Vicus">vici</a></i></span></i>, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">civitates</i></span></i> are marked <b>C</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcester" title="Alcester">Alcester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Alcester" title="Alcester">Alauna</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchester" title="Alchester">Alchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldborough,_North_Yorkshire" title="Aldborough, North Yorkshire">Aldborough, North Yorkshire</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Isurium_Brigantum" title="Isurium Brigantum">Isurium Brigantum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Aquae_Sulis" title="Aquae Sulis">Aquae Sulis</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brough,_East_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="Brough, East Riding of Yorkshire">Brough</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Petuaria" title="Petuaria">Petuaria</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buxton" title="Buxton">Buxton</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Aquae_Arnemetiae" title="Aquae Arnemetiae">Aquae Arnemetiae</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caerleon" title="Caerleon">Caerleon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Isca_Augusta" title="Isca Augusta">Isca Augusta</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caernarfon" title="Caernarfon">Caernarfon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Segontium" title="Segontium">Segontium</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caerwent" title="Caerwent">Caerwent</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Venta_Silurum" title="Venta Silurum">Venta Silurum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caister_Roman_Site" title="Caister Roman Site">Caister-on-Sea</a> <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canterbury" title="Canterbury">Canterbury</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Durovernum_Cantiacorum" title="Durovernum Cantiacorum">Durovernum Cantiacorum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlisle,_Cumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlisle, Cumbria">Carlisle</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Luguvalium" title="Luguvalium">Luguvalium</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmarthen" title="Carmarthen">Carmarthen</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Moridunum_(Carmarthen)" title="Moridunum (Carmarthen)">Moridunum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chelmsford" title="Chelmsford">Chelmsford</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Chelmsford" title="Chelmsford">Caesaromagus</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Deva_Victrix" title="Deva Victrix">Deva Victrix</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester-le-Street" title="Chester-le-Street">Chester-le-Street</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Concangis" title="Concangis">Concangis</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chichester" title="Chichester">Chichester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Noviomagus_Reginorum" title="Noviomagus Reginorum">Noviomagus Reginorum</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirencester" title="Cirencester">Cirencester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Corinium_Dobunnorum" title="Corinium Dobunnorum">Corinium</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Camulodunum" title="Camulodunum">Camulodunum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corbridge" title="Corbridge">Corbridge</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Coria_(Corbridge)" title="Coria (Corbridge)">Coria</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorchester,_Dorset" title="Dorchester, Dorset">Dorchester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Durnovaria" title="Durnovaria">Durnovaria</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover" title="Dover">Dover</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Dubris" title="Dubris">Portus Dubris</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exeter" title="Exeter">Exeter</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Isca_Dumnoniorum" title="Isca Dumnoniorum">Isca Dumnoniorum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloucester" title="Gloucester">Gloucester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Glevum" title="Glevum">Glevum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Chesterford" title="Great Chesterford">Great Chesterford</a> (the name of this <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vicus</i></span></i> is unknown)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilchester" title="Ilchester">Ilchester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Lindinis" title="Lindinis">Lindinis</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leicester" title="Leicester">Leicester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ratae_Corieltauvorum" title="Ratae Corieltauvorum">Ratae Corieltauvorum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_England" title="Lincoln, England">Lincoln</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Lindum_Colonia" title="Lindum Colonia">Lindum Colonia</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Mamucium" title="Mamucium">Mamucium</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne" title="Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle upon Tyne</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Pons_Aelius" title="Pons Aelius">Pons Aelius</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwich" title="Northwich">Northwich</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Northwich" title="Northwich">Condate</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/St_Albans" title="St Albans">St Albans</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Verulamium" title="Verulamium">Verulamium</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silchester" title="Silchester">Silchester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Calleva_Atrebatum" title="Calleva Atrebatum">Calleva Atrebatum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towcester" title="Towcester">Towcester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Lactodurum" title="Lactodurum">Lactodurum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitchurch,_Shropshire" title="Whitchurch, Shropshire">Whitchurch</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum_(Whitchurch)" title="Mediolanum (Whitchurch)">Mediolanum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Venta_Belgarum" title="Venta Belgarum">Venta Belgarum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wroxeter" title="Wroxeter">Wroxeter</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Viroconium_Cornoviorum" title="Viroconium Cornoviorum">Viroconium Cornoviorum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></i>) <b>C</b></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Romano-Celtic temple</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pagan">Pagan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pagan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Ancient Celtic religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paganreconstruction_(2).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Paganreconstruction_%282%29.gif/220px-Paganreconstruction_%282%29.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Paganreconstruction_%282%29.gif/330px-Paganreconstruction_%282%29.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Paganreconstruction_%282%29.gif 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>Artist's reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Pagans_Hill_Roman_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagans Hill Roman Temple">Pagans Hill Roman Temple</a>, Somerset</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a>, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were outlawed by <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 61 they vainly defended their <a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">sacred groves</a> from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (<a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as <a href="/wiki/Ancasta" title="Ancasta">Ancasta</a>, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like <a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a> Rigonemetos at <a href="/wiki/Nettleham" title="Nettleham">Nettleham</a>. </p><p>The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">springs</a> remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering" title="Votive offering">votive offerings</a> made at the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Baths_(Bath)" title="Roman Baths (Bath)">baths</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath, Somerset</a>, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temple</a> to <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Claudius,_Colchester" title="Temple of Claudius, Colchester">Claudius</a> at <a href="/wiki/Camulodunum" title="Camulodunum">Camulodunum</a> was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of <a href="/wiki/Boudica" title="Boudica">Boudica</a>. By the 3rd century, <a href="/wiki/Pagans_Hill_Roman_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagans Hill Roman Temple">Pagans Hill Roman Temple</a> in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century. </p><p>Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from <a href="/wiki/West_Stow" title="West Stow">West Stow</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Willingham_Fen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Willingham Fen (page does not exist)">Willingham Fen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eastern cults such as <a href="/wiki/Mithraic_mysteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithraic mysteries">Mithraism</a> also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The <a href="/wiki/London_Mithraeum" title="London Mithraeum">London Mithraeum</a> is one example of the popularity of <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">mystery religions</a> among the soldiery. Temples to <a href="/wiki/Mithras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithras">Mithras</a> also exist in military contexts at <a href="/wiki/Vindobala" title="Vindobala">Vindobala</a> on <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Rudchester_Mithraeum" title="Rudchester Mithraeum">Rudchester Mithraeum</a>) and at <a href="/wiki/Segontium" title="Segontium">Segontium</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Roman Wales</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Caernarfon_Mithraeum" title="Caernarfon Mithraeum">Caernarfon Mithraeum</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Roman_Britain" title="Christianity in Roman Britain">Christianity in Roman Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lullingstone_paintings2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Lullingstone_paintings2.jpg/220px-Lullingstone_paintings2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Lullingstone_paintings2.jpg/330px-Lullingstone_paintings2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Lullingstone_paintings2.jpg/440px-Lullingstone_paintings2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Fourth-century <a href="/wiki/Chi_Rho" title="Chi Rho">Chi-Rho</a> fresco from <a href="/wiki/Lullingstone_Roman_Villa" title="Lullingstone Roman Villa">Lullingstone Roman Villa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>, which contains the only known Christian paintings from the Roman era in Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century <a href="/wiki/Sator_Square" title="Sator Square">"word square"</a> has been discovered in <a href="/wiki/Mamucium" title="Mamucium">Mamucium</a>, the Roman settlement of <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It consists of an anagram of <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">PATER NOSTER</a> carved on a piece of <a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">amphora</a>. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Christianity</a> in Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, <span title="circa">c.</span> 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ".<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at <a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_England" title="Lincoln, England">Lincoln</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silchester" title="Silchester">Silchester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baptismal_font" title="Baptismal font">baptismal fonts</a> have been found at <a href="/wiki/Icklingham" title="Icklingham">Icklingham</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore" title="Saxon Shore">Saxon Shore Fort</a> at <a href="/wiki/Richborough" title="Richborough">Richborough</a>. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of <a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a> during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The <a href="/wiki/Water_Newton_Treasure" title="Water Newton Treasure">Water Newton Treasure</a> is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">Roman villas</a> at <a href="/wiki/Lullingstone" title="Lullingstone">Lullingstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hinton_St_Mary" title="Hinton St Mary">Hinton St Mary</a> contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at <a href="/wiki/Poundbury" title="Poundbury">Poundbury</a> with its east–west oriented burials and lack of <a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">grave goods</a> has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period. </p><p>The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Arles_(314)" class="mw-redirect" title="Synod of Arles (314)">Council of Arles</a> in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a> from thirty-five <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">sees</a> from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, <a href="/wiki/Restitutus" title="Restitutus">Restitutus</a> of London, and Adelphius, possibly a <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Lincoln" title="Bishop of Lincoln">bishop of Lincoln</a>. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of <a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_England" title="Lincoln, England">Lincoln</a> and the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">martyrium</i></span></i> of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Alban" title="Saint Alban">Saint Alban</a> on the outskirts of Roman <a href="/wiki/Verulamium" title="Verulamium">Verulamium</a> are exceptional.<sup id="cite_ref-Loseby326_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loseby326-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints <a href="/wiki/Julius_and_Aaron" title="Julius and Aaron">Julius and Aaron</a> of <a href="/wiki/Isca_Augusta" title="Isca Augusta">Isca Augusta</a>. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a <a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">heresy</a> by the church authorities — <a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a> — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: <a href="/wiki/Pelagius" title="Pelagius">Pelagius</a> lived <span title="circa">c.</span> 354 to <span title="circa">c.</span> 420/440. </p><p>A letter found on a lead tablet in <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath, Somerset</a>, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in <a href="/wiki/Wroxeter" title="Wroxeter">Wroxeter</a> by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_changes">Environmental changes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Environmental changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (<i><a href="/wiki/Urtica_pilulifera" title="Urtica pilulifera">Urtica pilulifera</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the edible <a href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">snail</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Helix_pomatia" title="Helix pomatia">Helix pomatia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The <a href="/wiki/European_rabbit" title="European rabbit">European rabbit</a> (<i>Oryctolagus cuniculus</i>) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman invasion of 1066</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Box (<i><a href="/wiki/Buxus_sempervirens" title="Buxus sempervirens">Buxus sempervirens</a></i>) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Roads_in_Britannia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Roman_Roads_in_Britannia.svg/220px-Roman_Roads_in_Britannia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Roman_Roads_in_Britannia.svg/330px-Roman_Roads_in_Britannia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Roman_Roads_in_Britannia.svg/440px-Roman_Roads_in_Britannia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>Roman roads around 150 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads_in_Britannia" title="Roman roads in Britannia">extensive network of roads</a> which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a> systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> (<a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a>), <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mamucium" title="Mamucium">Mamucium</a>) and <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a>), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left. </p><p>Unlike many other areas of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, the current majority language is not a <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance language</a>, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was <a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Common Brittonic</a>, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably <a href="/wiki/Cumbric_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumbric Language">Cumbric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic languages</a>). The current majority language, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe from the 5th century onwards. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom" title="Portal:United Kingdom">United Kingdom portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">History of the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Prehistoric Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Wales in the Roman era</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Verona_List" class="mw-redirect" title="Verona List">Verona List</a> actually includes a note that the Diocese of the Britains had <i>six</i> provinces, but then lists four. <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sextus Rufus">Sextus Rufus</a> listed six provinces, including the highly dubious "province of Orcades" (<a href="/wiki/Orkney_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Orkney Islands">Orkney Islands</a>). Some scholars<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2015)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> argue that the initial reforms established three provinces: Britannia I, Britannia II, and Britannia Caesariensis, which was subsequently divided into Flavia and Maxima.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Nomina Episcoporum, cum Clericis Suis, Quinam, et ex Quibus Provinciis, ad Arelatensem Synodum Convenerint" ["The Names of the Bishops with Their Clerics who Came Together at the Synod of Arles and from which Province They Came"] from the <i>Consilia</i><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Thackery&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francis Thackery (page does not exist)">Thackery</a><sup id="cite_ref-thacky_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thacky-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although Ussher refers the reader to his earlier discussion of the <a href="/wiki/28_Cities_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="28 Cities of Britain">28 Cities of Britain</a>, which notes that "Cair Colun" may refer to either Colchester in Essex or to a settlement in <a href="/wiki/Merionethshire" title="Merionethshire">Merionethshire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> also references a <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Provincia Lindisi</i></span></i> or <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">prouinciae Lindissi</i></span></i>, which was a later Saxon territory at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_mission" title="Gregorian mission">Gregorian mission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHornblowerSpawforth1998">Hornblower & Spawforth (1998)</a>, pp. 129–131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParkerPalmer1992">Parker & Palmer (1992)</a>, pp. 20–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJulius_Caesar" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i> [<i>Commentaries on the Gallic War</i>] (in Latin), <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 4#20"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_War/Book_4#20">IV 20–38 </a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentarii+de+Bello+Gallico&rft.pages=IV+20%E2%80%9338&rft.au=Julius+Caesar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>, abridged by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassius_Dio" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Romana" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Romana">Historia Romana</a></i> (in Latin), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/39*.html#25">39.51–53</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Romana&rft.pages=39.51-53&rft.au=Cassius+Dio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>; cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Agricola_(book)" title="Agricola (book)">Agricola</a></i> (in Latin), 13</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricola&rft.pages=13&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulius_Caesar" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Julius Caesar, <i>Commentarii de bello Gallico</i> (in Latin), <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 5#1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_War/Book_5#1">V 1–23 </a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentarii+de+bello+Gallico&rft.pages=V+1%E2%80%9323&rft.au=Julius+Caesar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>, abridged by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDio" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dio, Cassius, <i>Historia Romana</i> (in Latin), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/40*.html#25">40.1–4</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Romana&rft.pages=40.1-4&rft.aulast=Dio&rft.aufirst=Cassius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0002%3Abook%3D5%3Achapter%3D12%3Asection%3D1">"C. Julius Caesar, De bello Gallico, COMMENTARIUS QUINTUS, chapter 12, section 1"</a>. <i>The Perseus Project</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Perseus+Project&rft.atitle=C.+Julius+Caesar%2C+De+bello+Gallico%2C+COMMENTARIUS+QUINTUS%2C+chapter+12%2C+section+1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.02.0002%253Abook%253D5%253Achapter%253D12%253Asection%253D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowmanChamplinLintott1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Bowman_(classicist)" title="Alan Bowman (classicist)">Bowman, Alan K.</a>; Champlin, Edward; Lintott, Andrew (1996). <i>Cambridge Ancient History</i>. Vol. 10. Cambridge University Press. p. 228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5212-6430-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5212-6430-3"><bdi>978-0-5212-6430-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pages=228&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-5212-6430-3&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Alan+K.&rft.au=Champlin%2C+Edward&rft.au=Lintott%2C+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuetonius" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars#Claudius" title="The Twelve Caesars">Claudius</a></i>, 17</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Claudius&rft.pages=17&rft.au=Suetonius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>; cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDio" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dio, Cassius, <i>Historia Romana</i> (in Latin), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/40*.html#25">40.19,1</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Romana&rft.pages=40.19%2C1&rft.aulast=Dio&rft.aufirst=Cassius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas2016" class="citation book cs1">Nicholas, Crane (2016). <i>The Making Of The British Landscape: From the Ice Age to the Present</i>. Orion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2978-5735-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2978-5735-8"><bdi>978-0-2978-5735-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+Of+The+British+Landscape%3A+From+the+Ice+Age+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Orion&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-2978-5735-8&rft.aulast=Nicholas&rft.aufirst=Crane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mattingly_2006-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mattingly_2006_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mattingly_2006_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mattingly_2006_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2006">Mattingly (2006)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerodian" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2"><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a>, <bdi lang="grc">Τῆς μετὰ Μάρκον βασιλείας ἱστορία</bdi> [<i>History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus</i>] (in Ancient Greek), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_03_book3.htm#C8">III, 8, 2</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=grc%3A%CE%A4%E1%BF%86%CF%82+%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%E1%BD%B0+%CE%9C%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD+%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82+%E1%BC%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1&rft.pages=III%2C+8%2C+2&rft.au=Herodian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>. The precise dating is uncertain; the province does not appear to have been divided until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHornblowerSpawforth1998">Hornblower & Spawforth (1998)</a>, pp. 46, 323</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/questions_01.shtml">"An Overview of Roman Britain"</a>. BBC. Retrieved 26 August 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Welsh-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Welsh_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_Welsh1963" class="citation book cs1">Patrick Welsh, George (1963). <i>Britannia: the Roman Conquest and Occupation of Britain</i>. pp. 27–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britannia%3A+the+Roman+Conquest+and+Occupation+of+Britain&rft.pages=27-31&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Patrick+Welsh&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerodotus" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+3.115.1">3.115</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histories&rft.pages=3.115&rft.au=Herodotus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plutarch-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Plutarch_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <i>Life of Caesar</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#23.2">23.2</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+Caesar&rft.pages=23.2&rft.au=Plutarch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaesar" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Caesar, Julius, <i><span></span></i>Commentarii de Bello Gallico<i><span></span></i> (in Latin), <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 4#20"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_War/Book_4#20">IV 20–36 </a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentarii+de+Bello+Gallico&rft.pages=IV+20%E2%80%9336&rft.aulast=Caesar&rft.aufirst=Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaesar" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Caesar, Julius, <i><span></span></i>Commentarii de Bello Gallico<i><span></span></i> (in Latin), <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 5#8"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_War/Book_5#8">V 8–23 </a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentarii+de+Bello+Gallico&rft.pages=V+8%E2%80%9323&rft.aulast=Caesar&rft.aufirst=Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDio" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dio, Cassius, <i>Historia Romana</i> [<i>Roman History</i>] (in Latin), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/49*.html#38">49.38</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#22">53.22</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#25">53.25</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Romana&rft.pages=49.38%2C+53.22%2C+53.25&rft.aulast=Dio&rft.aufirst=Cassius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrabo" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4E*.html">4.5</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geographica&rft.pages=4.5&rft.au=Strabo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Branigan-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Branigan_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranigan1985" class="citation book cs1">Branigan, Keith (1985). <i>Peoples of Roman Britain: The Catuvellauni</i>. Sutton Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8629-9255-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8629-9255-2"><bdi>978-0-8629-9255-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peoples+of+Roman+Britain%3A+The+Catuvellauni&rft.pub=Sutton+Publishing&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-8629-9255-2&rft.aulast=Branigan&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAugustus" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Res_Gestae_Divi_Augusti" title="Res Gestae Divi Augusti">Res Gestae Divi Augusti</a></i> [<i>The Deeds of the Divine Augustus</i>] (in Latin), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/6*.html#32">32</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Res+Gestae+Divi+Augusti&rft.pages=32&rft.au=Augustus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)" title="Annals (Tacitus)">Annals</a></i>, <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#24"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_2#24">2.24 </a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annals&rft.pages=2.24&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreighton2000">Creighton (2000)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuetonius" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars#Caligula" title="The Twelve Caesars">Caligula</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#44">44–46</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caligula&rft.pages=44-46&rft.au=Suetonius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDio" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dio, Cassius, <i>Historia Romana</i> (in Latin), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html#25">59.25</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Romana&rft.pages=59.25&rft.aulast=Dio&rft.aufirst=Cassius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDio" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dio, Cassius, <i>Historia Romana</i> (in Latin), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#19">60.19–22</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Romana&rft.pages=60.19-22&rft.aulast=Dio&rft.aufirst=Cassius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2">Tacitus, <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Tacitus)" title="Histories (Tacitus)">Histories</a></i>, <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 3#44"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Histories_(Tacitus)/Book_3#44">3.44 </a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histories&rft.pages=3.44&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2">Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#32"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_14#32">14.32 </a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annals&rft.pages=14.32&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2">Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#34"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_14#34">14.34 </a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annals&rft.pages=14.34&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Webster-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Webster_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebster1998" class="citation book cs1">Webster, Graham (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v0f4SEf7rosC&pg=PA66"><i>The Roman Imperial Army of the first and second centuries AD</i></a> (New ed of 3rd revised ed.). University of Oklahoma Press. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3000-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3000-2"><bdi>978-0-8061-3000-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Imperial+Army+of+the+first+and+second+centuries+AD&rft.pages=66&rft.edition=New+ed+of+3rd+revised&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3000-2&rft.aulast=Webster&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv0f4SEf7rosC%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManley2002">Manley (2002)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuetonius" class="citation cs2">Suetonius, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars#Vespasian" title="The Twelve Caesars">Vespasian</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#4">4</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vespasian&rft.pages=4&rft.au=Suetonius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2">Tacitus, <i><a href="/wiki/Agricola_(book)" title="Agricola (book)">Agricola</a></i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Agricola#14" class="extiw" title="s:Agricola">14</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricola&rft.pages=%3As%3AAgricola%2314%7C14&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHingley2022" class="citation book cs1">Hingley, Richard (2022). <i>Conquering the ocean: the Roman invasion of Britain</i>. Ancient warfare and civilization. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 17–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-093741-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-093741-6"><bdi>978-0-19-093741-6</bdi></a>. <q>The conquest of this exotic island, however, was a challenge that even Caesar, despite his political and military brilliance, had been unable to achieve.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquering+the+ocean%3A+the+Roman+invasion+of+Britain&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Ancient+warfare+and+civilization&rft.pages=17-42&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-19-093741-6&rft.aulast=Hingley&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2">Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+12.31">12:31–38</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annals&rft.pages=12%3A31-38&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2">Tacitus, <i>Agricola</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Agricola#14" class="extiw" title="s:Agricola">14.17</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+14.29">14.29–39</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricola&rft.pages=%3As%3AAgricola%2314%7C14.17%2C+14.29-39&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassius_Dio" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cassius Dio, <i>Historia Romana</i> (in Latin), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html#1">62.1–12</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Romana&rft.pages=62.1-12&rft.au=Cassius+Dio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuetonius" class="citation cs2">Suetonius, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars#Nero" title="The Twelve Caesars">Nero</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#18">18</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nero&rft.pages=18&rft.au=Suetonius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tacitus, <i>Agricola</i> (in Latin), <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Agricola#16" class="extiw" title="s:Agricola">16–17</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricola&rft.pages=%3As%3AAgricola%2316%7C16-17&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2">Tacitus, <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Tacitus)" title="Histories (Tacitus)">Histories</a></i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Histories_(Tacitus)/Book_1#60" class="extiw" title="s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1">1.60</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Histories_(Tacitus)/Book_3#45" class="extiw" title="s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 3">3.45</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histories&rft.pages=%3As%3AThe+Histories+%28Tacitus%29%2FBook+1%2360%7C1.60%2C+%3As%3AThe+Histories+%28Tacitus%29%2FBook+3%2345%7C3.45&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tacitus, <i>Agricola</i> (in Latin), <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Agricola#18" class="extiw" title="s:Agricola">18.38</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricola&rft.pages=%3As%3AAgricola%2318%7C18.38&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Todd, Malcolm (2004). "Julius Agricola, Gnaeus [known as Agricola]". <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F48290">10.1093/ref:odnb/48290</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Julius+Agricola%2C+Gnaeus+%5Bknown+as+Agricola%5D&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F48290&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous" class="citation cs2">Anonymous, <i><a href="/wiki/Panegyrici_Latini" title="Panegyrici Latini">Panegyrici Latini</a></i>, VIII.10</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Panegyrici+Latini&rft.pages=VIII.10&rft.au=Anonymous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAurelius_Victor" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a>. <i>Liber de Caesaribus</i> [<i>Book of Caesars</i>] (in Latin). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/victor.caes.html#39">39</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liber+de+Caesaribus&rft.pages=39&rft.au=Aurelius+Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEutropius" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a>. <i>Breviarium historiae Romanae</i> [<i>Abridgement of Roman History</i>] (in Latin). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031222152525/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans9.html#21">21–22</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breviarium+historiae+Romanae&rft.pages=21-22%3Csup%3ETemplate%3AUsurped%2Fdoc%7Cusurped%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.au=Eutropius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrosius" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a>, <i>Historiae Adversus Paganos</i> [<i>Seven Books of History Against the Pagans</i>] (in Latin), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/latin/orosius7A.html#25">7.25</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historiae+Adversus+Paganos&rft.pages=7.25&rft.au=Orosius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMattingly2006227-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMattingly2006227_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2006">Mattingly 2006</a>, p. 227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStillwellMacDonaldMcAllister" class="citation web cs1">Stillwell, Richard; MacDonald, William L.; McAllister, Marian Holland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:entry=londinium">"The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites"</a>. <i>perseus.tufts.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=The+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Classical+Sites&rft.aulast=Stillwell&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=MacDonald%2C+William+L.&rft.au=McAllister%2C+Marian+Holland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006%3Aentry%3Dlondinium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collins, Rob. Hadrian's Wall and the End of Empire, Routledge, 2012 ISBN 9780415884112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>. <i>Rerum gestarum Libri XXXI</i> [<i>31 Books of Deeds</i>]. <abbr title="Before">a.</abbr> 391 AD. <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span> Translated by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Duke_Yonge" title="Charles Duke Yonge">Charles Yonge</a>. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Roman_History/Book_XXVIII#III" class="extiw" title="s:Roman History/Book XXVIII"><i>Roman History</i>, Vol. XXVIII, Ch. III</a>. Bohn (London), 1862. Hosted at <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page" class="extiw" title="s:Main Page">Wikisource</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://adviceandresearch.blogspot.com/2019/12/vespasiana-province-of-roman-britannia.html">"A R O S: VESPASIANA: A PROVINCE OF ROMAN BRITANNIA?"</a>. 9 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+R+O+S%3A+VESPASIANA%3A+A+PROVINCE+OF+ROMAN+BRITANNIA%3F&rft.date=2019-12-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fadviceandresearch.blogspot.com%2F2019%2F12%2Fvespasiana-province-of-roman-britannia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Labb%C3%A9,_Philippe" class="mw-redirect" title="Labbé, Philippe">Labbé, Philippe</a> & <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Cossart" title="Gabriel Cossart">Gabriel Cossart</a> (eds.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://download.digitale-sammlungen.de/BOOKS/pdf_download.pl?id=bsb10321964"><i>Sacrosancta Concilia ad Regiam Editionem Exacta: quae Nunc Quarta Parte Prodit Actior</i> [<i>The Sancrosanct Councils Exacted for the Royal Edition: which the Editors Now Produce in Four Parts</i>], Vol. I: "Ab Initiis Æræ Christianæ ad Annum CCCXXIV" ["From the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Year 324"], col. 1429.</a> The Typographical Society for Ecclesiastical Books (Paris), 1671.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thacky-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thacky_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thacky_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thackery, Francis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtgDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA272"><i>Researches into the Ecclesiastical and Political State of Ancient Britain under the Roman Emperors: with Observations upon the Principal Events and Characters Connected with the Christian Religion, during the First Five Centuries</i>, pp. 272 ff.</a> T. Cadell (London), 1843.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Usserius, Jacobus [<a href="/wiki/James_Ussher" title="James Ussher">James Ussher</a>]. <i>Britannicarum Ecclesiarum Antiquitates, Quibus Inserta Est Pestiferæ adversus Dei Gratiam a Pelagio Britanno in Ecclesiam Inductæ Hæreseos Historia</i> [<i>Antiquities of the Britannic Churches, into Which Is Inserted a History of the Pestilent Heretics Introduced against the Grace of God by Pelagius the Briton into the Church</i>], Vol. I., Ch. VIII, (Dublin), 1639. Reprinted as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/wholeworkswithli05usshuoft#page/236/mode/2up"><i>The Whole Works of the Most Rev. James Ussher, D. D. Lord Archbishop of Armagh, and Primate of All Ireland</i>, Vol. V, Ch. VIII, p. 236</a>. Hodges, Smith, & Co. (Dublin), 1864. <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eutychius Ægyptius [<a href="/wiki/Eutychius_the_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutychius the Egyptian">Eutychius the Egyptian</a>]. Edited, translated, & with commentary by Ioannes Seldenus [<a href="/wiki/John_Selden" title="John Selden">John Selden</a>]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u4xaAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA118"><i>Ecclesiæ suæ Origines</i> [<i>Origins of His Church</i>], p. 118.</a> R. & T. Whitaker for Richard Bishop (London), 1642. <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henricus Spelman [<a href="/wiki/Henry_Spelman" title="Henry Spelman">Henry Spelman</a>] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SGlNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA639"><i>Concilia, Decreta, Leges, Constitutiones, in Re Ecclesiarum Orbis Britannici. </i>Viz.<i> Pambritannica, Pananglica, Scotica, Hibernica, Cambrica, Mannica, Provincialia, Dioecesana. Ab initio Christianæ ibidem Religionis, ad nostram usque ætatem</i> [<i>Councils, Decrees, Laws, Constitutions, Regarding the Churches of the Britannic Sphere. To wit, Great Britain, England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Man, Provincial, Diocesan. From the start of the Christian Religion there to our very age</i>], Vol. I, Index, p. 639.</a> Richard Badger (London), 1639. <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Usserius, Vol. I, Ch. V, reprinted as Ussher, Vol. V, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/wholeworkswithli05usshuoft#page/82/mode/2up">p. 82.</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-giter-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-giter_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gale, Thomæ [<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gale" title="Thomas Gale">Thomas Gale</a>]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/antoniniiterbri00galegoog#page/n124/mode/2up"><i>Antonini Iter Britanniarum</i> [<i>Antoninus's Route of the Britains</i>], "Iter V. A Londinio Lugvvallium Ad Vallum" [Route 5: From Londinium to Luguvalium at the Wall], p. 96.</a> Published posthumously & edited by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Gale_(antiquary)" title="Roger Gale (antiquary)">R. Gale</a>. M. Atkins (London), 1709. <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bingham,_Joseph" class="mw-redirect" title="Bingham, Joseph">Bingham, Joseph</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_4rL7herLUK8C#page/n453/mode/2up">Origines Ecclesiasticæ: The Antiquities of the Christian Church. With Two Sermons and Two Letters on the Nature and Necessity of Absolution. Reprinted from the Original Edition, MDCCVIII–MDCCXXII With an Enlarged Analytical Index.</a></i> Vol. I, Book IX, Ch. VI, §20: "Of the British church in England and Wales", p. 396. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1856.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyofgreat01henr#page/142/mode/2up"><i>The History of Great Britain, from the First Invasion of It by the Romans under Julius Cæsar. Written on a New Plan</i>, 2nd ed., Vol. I, Ch. 2, s2, p. 143.</a> 1st ed. published by T. Cadell (London), 1771. Reprinted by P. Byrne & J. Jones (Dublin), 1789.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stillingfleet,_Edward" class="mw-redirect" title="Stillingfleet, Edward">Stillingfleet, Edward</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aRw1AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA77"><i>Origines Britannicæ: or, the Antiquities of the British Churches with a Preface, concerning Some Pretended Antiquities Relating to Britain, in Vindication of the Bishop of St. Asaph</i>, New Ed., pp. 77 ff.</a> Wm. Straker (London), 1840.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-letter-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-letter_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giraldus Cambriensis [Gerald of Wales]. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ycymmrodor30cymmuoft#page/130/mode/2up">"<i>De Inuectionibus</i> [On Invectives], Vol. II, Ch. I, in <i>Y Cymmrodor: The Magazine of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion</i>, Vol. XXX, pp. 130–1"</a>. 1877.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=De+Inuectionibus+%5BOn+Invectives%5D%2C+Vol.+II%2C+Ch.+I%2C+in+Y+Cymmrodor%3A+The+Magazine+of+the+Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion%2C+Vol.+XXX%2C+pp.+130%E2%80%931.&rft.date=1877&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fycymmrodor30cymmuoft%23page%2F130%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span> George Simpson & Co. (Devizes), 1920. <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span>; <a href="/wiki/Gerald_of_Wales" title="Gerald of Wales">Gerald of Wales</a>. Translated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=W.S._Davies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W.S. Davies (page does not exist)">W.S. Davies</a> as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ycymmrodor30cymmuoft#page/16/mode/2up"><i>The Book of Invectives of Giraldus Cambrensis</i> in <i>Y Cymmrodor: The Magazine of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion</i>, Vol. XXX, p. 16.</a> George Simpson & Co. (Devizes), 1920.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Beda_Venerabilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Beda Venerabilis">Beda Venerabilis</a> [The Venerable Bede]. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/la:Historia_Ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum_-_Liber_Secundus#16" class="extiw" title="s:la:Historia Ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum - Liber Secundus"><i>Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i> [The Ecclesiastical History of the English People], Vol. II, Ch. XVI</a>. 731. Hosted at <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/la:Main_Page" class="extiw" title="s:la:Main Page">Latin Wikisource</a>. <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span>; Bede. Translated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lionel_Cecil_Jane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lionel Cecil Jane (page does not exist)">Lionel Cecil Jane</a> as <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_History_of_the_English_People/Book_2#16" class="extiw" title="s:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 2"><i>The Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation</i>, Vol. 2, Ch. 16</a>. J.M. Dent & Co. (London), 1903. Hosted at <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page" class="extiw" title="s:Main Page">Wikisource</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnes, <i>Constantine and Eusebius</i>, 27, 298; Elliott, <i>Christianity of Constantine</i>, 39; Odahl, 77–78, 309; Pohlsander, <i>Emperor Constantine</i>, 15–16.; Mattingly, 233–234; <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2012">Southern (2012)</a>, pp. 170, 341.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2013" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Ian (2013). <i>Imperial Brothers: Valentinian, Valens and the Disaster at Adrianople</i>. Pen & Sword Military. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8488-4417-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8488-4417-9"><bdi>978-1-8488-4417-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Brothers%3A+Valentinian%2C+Valens+and+the+Disaster+at+Adrianople&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Military&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-8488-4417-9&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae 27.8.6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archaeological evidence of late 4th-century urban collapse is analysed by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleary2000" class="citation book cs1">Cleary, Simon Esmonde (2000). <i>The Ending of Roman Britain</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ending+of+Roman+Britain&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Cleary&rft.aufirst=Simon+Esmonde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>; the "de-romanisation" of Britain is the subject of several accounts by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Reece" title="Richard Reece">Richard Reece</a>, including "Town and country: the end of Roman Britain", <i>World Archaeology</i> <b>12</b> (1980:77–92) and "The end of the city in Roman Britain", in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRich1992" class="citation book cs1">Rich, J., ed. (1992). <i>The City in Antiquity</i>. pp. 136–144.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+City+in+Antiquity&rft.pages=136-144&rft.date=1992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>; <a href="#CITEREFLoseby2000">Loseby (2000)</a>, p. 326f makes a strong case for discontinuity of urban life.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fulford-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulford1985" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fulford" title="Michael Fulford">Fulford, Michael</a> (1985). "Excavations...". <i>Antiquaries</i>. <b>65</b>: 39–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003581500024690">10.1017/S0003581500024690</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164170447">164170447</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquaries&rft.atitle=Excavations...&rft.volume=65&rft.pages=39-81&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003581500024690&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164170447%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Fulford&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>, noted in <a href="#CITEREFLoseby2000">Loseby (2000)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moorhead-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moorhead_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoorheadStuttard2012">Moorhead & Stuttard (2012)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanswhoshapedb0000moor/page/238">238</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaycock2008">Laycock (2008)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigham2018" class="citation book cs1">Higham, Nicholas J. (2018). <i>King Arthur: The Making of the Legend</i>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3002-1092-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3002-1092-7"><bdi>978-0-3002-1092-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King+Arthur%3A+The+Making+of+the+Legend&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-3002-1092-7&rft.aulast=Higham&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morris_2010-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris_2010_71-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorris2010">Morris (2010)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fulford_2007-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_2007_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_2007_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_2007_72-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulford2007">Fulford (2007)</a>, pp. 54–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cunliffe-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe2002" class="citation book cs1">Cunliffe, Barry (2002). <i>Facing the Ocean: the Atlantic and its Peoples 8000 BC – 1500 AD</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-5354-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-5354-7"><bdi>978-0-1928-5354-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Facing+the+Ocean%3A+the+Atlantic+and+its+Peoples+8000+BC+%E2%80%93+1500+AD&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-1928-5354-7&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPearson2002">Pearson (2002)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTyers1996a">Tyers (1996a)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFTyers1996b">Tyers (1996b)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFPeacockWilliams1986">Peacock & Williams (1986)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFMonfortFunari1998">Monfort & Funari (1998)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fulford_1991-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1991_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1991_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1991_76-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulford1991">Fulford (1991)</a>, pp. 35–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fulford_2004-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_2004_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_2004_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_2004_77-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_2004_77-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulford2004">Fulford (2004)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fulford_1984-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1984_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1984_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1984_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1984_78-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulford1984">Fulford (1984)</a>, pp. 129–142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fulford_1989-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1989_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulford1989">Fulford (1989)</a>, pp. 175–201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fulford_1996-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1996_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1996_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_1996_80-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulford1996" class="citation cs2">Fulford, Michael (1996), "Economic hotspots and provincial backwaters: modelling the late Roman economy", in King, Cathy E.; Wigg, David G. 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Cornell University Press. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8530-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8530-5"><bdi>978-0-8014-8530-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+Roman+Britain&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8530-5&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhBNr765THaIC%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-alcock-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-alcock_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-alcock_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlcock2011">Alcock (2011)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t7KeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT260">260</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurant2011" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will (7 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JztghD__8ksC&pg=PT468"><i>Caesar and Christ: The Story of Civilization</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 468. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-4760-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-4760-0"><bdi>978-1-4516-4760-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar+and+Christ%3A+The+Story+of+Civilization&rft.pages=468&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2011-06-07&rft.isbn=978-1-4516-4760-0&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJztghD__8ksC%26pg%3DPT468&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLancashire2002" class="citation book cs1">Lancashire, Anne (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QajvxgbH59QC&pg=PA19"><i>London Civic Theatre: City Drama and Pageantry from Roman Times to 1558</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-3278-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-3278-2"><bdi>978-0-5216-3278-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=London+Civic+Theatre%3A+City+Drama+and+Pageantry+from+Roman+Times+to+1558&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-5216-3278-2&rft.aulast=Lancashire&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQajvxgbH59QC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhosh2015" class="citation news cs1">Ghosh, Pallab (23 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-34809804">"DNA study finds London was ethnically diverse from start"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=DNA+study+finds+London+was+ethnically+diverse+from+start&rft.date=2015-11-23&rft.aulast=Ghosh&rft.aufirst=Pallab&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-34809804&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShotter2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Shotter" title="David Shotter">Shotter, David</a> (2012). <i>Roman Britain</i>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hw98CvXwRoUC&pg=PT37">37</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Britain&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Shotter&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurence2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ray_Laurence" title="Ray Laurence">Laurence, Ray</a> (2012). <i>Roman Archaeology for Historians</i>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dlq6pZaTS_UC&pg=PA121">121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Archaeology+for+Historians&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Laurence&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/classics/warwickclassicsnetwork/romancoventry/resources/diversity/evidence/">"The Evidence for Diversity in Roman Britain"</a>. Department of Classics and Ancient History. University of Warwick. n.d. p. <i>Scientific Evidence for Black Romans in Britain?</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Evidence+for+Diversity+in+Roman+Britain&rft.pages=%27%27Scientific+Evidence+for+Black+Romans+in+Britain%3F%27%27&rft.pub=University+of+Warwick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarwick.ac.uk%2Ffac%2Farts%2Fclassics%2Fwarwickclassicsnetwork%2Fromancoventry%2Fresources%2Fdiversity%2Fevidence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2016" class="citation web cs1">Green, Caitlin R. (26 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.caitlingreen.org/2016/05/a-note-on-evidence-for-african-migrants.html">"A note on the evidence for African migrants in Britain from the Bronze Age to the medieval period"</a>. <i>Dr. Caitlin R. Green</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dr.+Caitlin+R.+Green&rft.atitle=A+note+on+the+evidence+for+African+migrants+in+Britain+from+the+Bronze+Age+to+the+medieval+period&rft.date=2016-05-26&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Caitlin+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.caitlingreen.org%2F2016%2F05%2Fa-note-on-evidence-for-african-migrants.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Loseby326-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Loseby326_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loseby326_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoseby2000">Loseby (2000)</a>, p. 326f</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillet1992">Millet (1992)</a>, p. 102f, lists 22 "public towns"; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGildas" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae" title="De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae">De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae</a></i> [<i>On the ruin and conquest of Britain</i>] (in Latin), <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Ruin_of_Britain#3" class="extiw" title="s:The Ruin of Britain">3.2</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Excidio+et+Conquestu+Britanniae&rft.pages=%3As%3AThe+Ruin+of+Britain%233%7C3.2&rft.au=Gildas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span> lists 28; discussion is mooted whether Gildas possessed a written or conventional list (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigham1991" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/N._J._Higham" title="N. J. Higham">Higham, Nicholas</a> (1991). "Old light on the Dark Age landscape: the description of Britain in the <i>de Excidio Britanniae</i> of Gildas". <i>Journal of Historical Geography</i> (in Latin). <b>17</b> (4): 363–372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0305-7488%2891%2990022-N">10.1016/0305-7488(91)90022-N</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Historical+Geography&rft.atitle=Old+light+on+the+Dark+Age+landscape%3A+the+description+of+Britain+in+the+de+Excidio+Britanniae+of+Gildas&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=363-372&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0305-7488%2891%2990022-N&rft.aulast=Higham&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurnhamWacher1990">Burnham & Wacher (1990)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Noviomagus Reginorum</i></span></i>: meaning "new field" or "new clearing" of the Regni (<a href="#CITEREFWacher1995">Wacher (1995)</a>, p. 262).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaesar" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar, Julius</a>. <i>Commentarii de Bello Gallico</i>. <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 6#13"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_War/Book_6#13">6.13 </a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentarii+de+Bello+Gallico&rft.pages=6.13&rft.aulast=Caesar&rft.aufirst=Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuetonius" class="citation cs2">Suetonius, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars#Claudius" title="The Twelve Caesars">Claudius</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#25.5">25.5</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Claudius&rft.pages=25.5&rft.au=Suetonius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation cs2">Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+14.30">14.30</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annals&rft.pages=14.30&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2016" class="citation book cs1">Esposito, Alessandra (2016). "A Context for Roman Priestly Regalia: Depositional Practices and Spatial Distribution of Assemblages from Roman Britain". In Mandichs, M. J.; Derrick, T. J.; Sanchez Gonzalez, S.; Savani, G.; Zampieri, E. (eds.). <i>Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal: Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference</i>. <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_Roman_Archaeology_Conference" title="Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference">Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference</a>. pp. 92–110. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.16995%2FTRAC2015_92_110">10.16995/TRAC2015_92_110</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Context+for+Roman+Priestly+Regalia%3A+Depositional+Practices+and+Spatial+Distribution+of+Assemblages+from+Roman+Britain&rft.btitle=Theoretical+Roman+Archaeology+Journal%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Twenty-Fifth+Annual+Theoretical+Roman+Archaeology+Conference&rft.pages=92-110&rft.pub=Theoretical+Roman+Archaeology+Conference&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.16995%2FTRAC2015_92_110&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=Alessandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span><span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/lullingstone-roman-villa/history-and-research/history/4-from-paganism-to-christianity">"From Paganism to Christianity"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lullingstone_Roman_Villa" title="Lullingstone Roman Villa">Lullingstone Roman Villa</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_Heritage" title="English Heritage">English Heritage</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+Paganism+to+Christianity&rft.pub=Lullingstone+Roman+Villa%2C+English+Heritage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.english-heritage.org.uk%2Fdaysout%2Fproperties%2Flullingstone-roman-villa%2Fhistory-and-research%2Fhistory%2F4-from-paganism-to-christianity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorsley1987" class="citation book cs1">Horsley, G. H. R. (1987). <i>New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity: a Review of the Greek Inscriptions and Papyri Published in 1979</i>. <a href="/wiki/William_B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Company" title="William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company">William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company</a>. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8583-7599-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8583-7599-4"><bdi>978-0-8583-7599-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Documents+Illustrating+Early+Christianity%3A+a+Review+of+the+Greek+Inscriptions+and+Papyri+Published+in+1979&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-8583-7599-4&rft.aulast=Horsley&rft.aufirst=G.+H.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShotter2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Shotter" title="David Shotter">Shotter, David</a> (2004) [1993]. <i>Romans and Britons in North-West England</i>. Lancaster: Centre for North-West Regional Studies. pp. 129–130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-8622-0152-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-8622-0152-8"><bdi>1-8622-0152-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Romans+and+Britons+in+North-West+England&rft.place=Lancaster&rft.pages=129-130&rft.pub=Centre+for+North-West+Regional+Studies&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-8622-0152-8&rft.aulast=Shotter&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTertullian" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume III/Apologetic/An Answer to the Jews"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Fathers/Volume_III/Apologetic/An_Answer_to_the_Jews"><i>De Adversus Judaeos</i> </a></span> [<i>An Answer to the Jews</i>], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-19.htm#P2141_725966">7.4</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Adversus+Judaeos&rft.pages=7.4&rft.au=Tertullian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1981" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Charles (1981). <i>Christianity in Roman Britain to 500 AD</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4151-6634-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4151-6634-8"><bdi>978-0-4151-6634-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+Roman+Britain+to+500+AD&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-4151-6634-8&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomlin1994" class="citation journal cs1">Tomlin, R. S. O. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/downloads/1994/100pdf/100093.pdf">"Vinisius to Nigra: Evidence from Oxford of Christianity in Roman Britain"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik</i>. <b>100</b>: 93–108<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Papyrologie+und+Epigraphik&rft.atitle=Vinisius+to+Nigra%3A+Evidence+from+Oxford+of+Christianity+in+Roman+Britain&rft.volume=100&rft.pages=93-108&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Tomlin&rft.aufirst=R.+S.+O.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-koeln.de%2Fphil-fak%2Fifa%2Fzpe%2Fdownloads%2F1994%2F100pdf%2F100093.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKavalali2003" class="citation book cs1">Kavalali, Gulsel M. (2003). <i>Urtica: therapeutic and nutritional aspects of stinging nettles</i>. CRC Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4153-0833-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4153-0833-5"><bdi>978-0-4153-0833-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urtica%3A+therapeutic+and+nutritional+aspects+of+stinging+nettles&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-4153-0833-5&rft.aulast=Kavalali&rft.aufirst=Gulsel+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNearing1949" class="citation journal cs1">Nearing, Homer Jr. (1949). "Local Caesar Traditions in Britain". <i><a href="/wiki/Speculum_(journal)" title="Speculum (journal)">Speculum</a></i>. <b>24</b> (2). Medieval Academy of America: 218–227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2848562">10.2307/2848562</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2848562">2848562</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162955707">162955707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=Local+Caesar+Traditions+in+Britain&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=218-227&rft.date=1949&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162955707%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2848562%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2848562&rft.aulast=Nearing&rft.aufirst=Homer+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNew1995" class="citation book cs1">New, Tim R. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin0000newt/page/136"><i>Introduction to invertebrate conservation biology</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin0000newt/page/136">136</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1985-4051-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1985-4051-9"><bdi>978-0-1985-4051-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+invertebrate+conservation+biology&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-1985-4051-9&rft.aulast=New&rft.aufirst=Tim+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoin0000newt%2Fpage%2F136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba86/news.shtml">"Unearthing the ancestral rabbit"</a>, <i>British Archaeology</i>, no. 86, 2006</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Unearthing+the+ancestral+rabbit&rft.issue=86&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britarch.ac.uk%2Fba%2Fba86%2Fnews.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLodwick2017" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Lodwick" title="Lisa Lodwick">Lodwick, Lisa A.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/68336">"Evergreen Plants in Roman Britain and Beyond: Movement, Meaning and Materiality"</a>. <i>Britannia</i>. <b>48</b>: 135–173. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0068113X17000101">10.1017/S0068113X17000101</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0068-113X">0068-113X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59323545">59323545</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Britannia&rft.atitle=Evergreen+Plants+in+Roman+Britain+and+Beyond%3A+Movement%2C+Meaning+and+Materiality&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=135-173&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59323545%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0068-113X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0068113X17000101&rft.aulast=Lodwick&rft.aufirst=Lisa+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcentaur.reading.ac.uk%2F68336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlcock2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joan_P_Alcock" class="mw-redirect" title="Joan P Alcock">Alcock, Joan P.</a> (2011). <i>A Brief History of Roman Britain Conquest and Civilization</i>. Hachette. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8452-9728-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8452-9728-2"><bdi>978-1-8452-9728-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Roman+Britain+Conquest+and+Civilization&rft.pub=Hachette&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-8452-9728-2&rft.aulast=Alcock&rft.aufirst=Joan+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllason-Jones2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lindsay_Allason-Jones" title="Lindsay Allason-Jones">Allason-Jones, Lyndsay</a> (2002). <i>The Jet Industry and Allied Trades in Roman Britain</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jet+Industry+and+Allied+Trades+in+Roman+Britain&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Allason-Jones&rft.aufirst=Lyndsay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFWilsonPrice2002">Wilson & Price (2002)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllenFulford1996" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, J. R. L.; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Fulford" title="Michael Fulford">Fulford, M.G.</a> (1996). "The distribution of South-East Dorset Black Burnished Category I Pottery in South-West Britain". <i>Britannia</i>. <b>27</b>. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 223–281. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F527045">10.2307/527045</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/527045">527045</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162584757">162584757</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Britannia&rft.atitle=The+distribution+of+South-East+Dorset+Black+Burnished+Category+I+Pottery+in+South-West+Britain&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=223-281&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162584757%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F527045%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F527045&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=J.+R.+L.&rft.au=Fulford%2C+M.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllenFulfordTodd2007" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, J. R. L.; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Fulford" title="Michael Fulford">Fulford, M.G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/J._A._Todd" title="J. A. Todd">Todd, J. A.</a> (2007). "Burnt Kimmeridgian shale at Early Roman Silchester, south-east England, and the Roman Poole-Purbeck complex-agglomerated geomaterials industry". <i>Oxford Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 167–191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0092.2007.00279.x">10.1111/j.1468-0092.2007.00279.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Burnt+Kimmeridgian+shale+at+Early+Roman+Silchester%2C+south-east+England%2C+and+the+Roman+Poole-Purbeck+complex-agglomerated+geomaterials+industry&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=167-191&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0092.2007.00279.x&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=J.+R.+L.&rft.au=Fulford%2C+M.G.&rft.au=Todd%2C+J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirley2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Birley" title="Anthony Birley">Birley, Anthony R.</a> (2005). <i>The Roman Government of Britain</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Government+of+Britain&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Birley&rft.aufirst=Anthony+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaggKing1984" class="citation book cs1">Blagg, T. F. C.; King, Anthony, eds. (1984). <i>Military and Civilian in Roman Britain: Cultural Relationships in a Frontier Province</i>. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8605-4296-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8605-4296-4"><bdi>978-0-8605-4296-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+and+Civilian+in+Roman+Britain%3A+Cultural+Relationships+in+a+Frontier+Province&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=British+Archaeological+Reports&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8605-4296-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowman2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Bowman_(classicist)" title="Alan Bowman (classicist)">Bowman, Alan K.</a> (2004). <i>Life and Letters on the Roman Frontier: Vindolanda and its People</i> (2nd revised ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2246-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2246-5"><bdi>978-0-7141-2246-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+Letters+on+the+Roman+Frontier%3A+Vindolanda+and+its+People&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd+revised&rft.pub=British+Museum+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7141-2246-5&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Alan+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurgers2001" class="citation book cs1">Burgers, Alfonso (2001). <i>The Water Supplies and Related Structures of Roman Britain</i>. British Archaeological Reports. Oxford: Archaeopress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8417-1189-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8417-1189-8"><bdi>978-1-8417-1189-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Water+Supplies+and+Related+Structures+of+Roman+Britain&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=British+Archaeological+Reports&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-8417-1189-8&rft.aulast=Burgers&rft.aufirst=Alfonso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnhamWacher1990" class="citation book cs1">Burnham, Barry C.; Wacher, J. S. (1990). <i>The 'Small Towns' of Roman Britain</i>. Batsford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-6175-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-6175-6"><bdi>978-0-7134-6175-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%27Small+Towns%27+of+Roman+Britain&rft.pub=Batsford&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-7134-6175-6&rft.aulast=Burnham&rft.aufirst=Barry+C.&rft.au=Wacher%2C+J.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleereCrossley1995" class="citation book cs1">Cleere, Henry; Crossley, D. (1995). Hodgkinson, Jeremy (ed.). <i>The Iron Industry of the Weald</i> (2nd ed.). Merton Priory Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8989-3704-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8989-3704-3"><bdi>978-1-8989-3704-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iron+Industry+of+the+Weald&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Merton+Priory+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-8989-3704-3&rft.aulast=Cleere&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft.au=Crossley%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollingwoodWright1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood, R. G.</a>; Wright, R. P. (1990). <a href="/wiki/Sheppard_Frere" title="Sheppard Frere">Frere, Sheppard</a>; Tomlin, R.S.O. (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_Inscriptions_of_Britain" title="Roman Inscriptions of Britain">Roman Inscriptions of Britain</a>. Vol. II: </i>Instrumentum Domesticum<i>. Fasc. I. The Military diplomata; metal ingots; tesserae; dies; labels; and lead sealings</i> (in Latin). Stroud.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Inscriptions+of+Britain.+Vol.+II%3A+Instrumentum+Domesticum.+Fasc.+I.+The+Military+diplomata%3B+metal+ingots%3B+tesserae%3B+dies%3B+labels%3B+and+lead+sealings&rft.pub=Stroud&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Collingwood&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rft.au=Wright%2C+R.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollingwoodWrightTomlin1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood, R. G.</a>; Wright, R. P.; Tomlin, R.S.O. (1995) [1965]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060619102332/http://www.roman-britain.org/epigraphy/rib_index.htm"><i>Vol. I: Inscriptions on Stone</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inscriptions_of_Britain" title="Roman Inscriptions of Britain">Roman Inscriptions of Britain</a> (Revised ed.). Stroud. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00F45BDAM">B00F45BDAM</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-britain.org/epigraphy/rib_index.htm">the original</a> on 19 June 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vol.+I%3A+Inscriptions+on+Stone&rft.series=Roman+Inscriptions+of+Britain&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Stroud&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB00F45BDAM%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Collingwood&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rft.au=Wright%2C+R.+P.&rft.au=Tomlin%2C+R.S.O.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-britain.org%2Fepigraphy%2Frib_index.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreighton2000" class="citation book cs1">Creighton, John (2000). <i>Coins and power in Late Iron Age Britain</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1394-3172-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1394-3172-9"><bdi>978-1-1394-3172-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coins+and+power+in+Late+Iron+Age+Britain&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-1394-3172-9&rft.aulast=Creighton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Cunliffe, Barry W.</a> (2005). <i>Iron Age Communities in Britain</i> (4th ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-8725-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-8725-X"><bdi>0-7100-8725-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4559394M">4559394M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iron+Age+Communities+in+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL4559394M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-7100-8725-X&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_la_Bédoyère2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Guy_de_la_B%C3%A9doy%C3%A8re" title="Guy de la Bédoyère">de la Bédoyère, Guy</a> (2006). <i>Roman Britain: a New History</i>. London: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5140-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5140-5"><bdi>978-0-5000-5140-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Britain%3A+a+New+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-5000-5140-5&rft.aulast=de+la+B%C3%A9doy%C3%A8re&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdu_Plat_TaylorCleere1978" class="citation book cs1">du Plat Taylor, Joan; Cleere, Henry, eds. (1978). <i>Roman Shipping and Trade: Britain and the Rhine Provinces</i>. London: Council for British Archaeology. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9003-1262-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9003-1262-5"><bdi>978-0-9003-1262-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Shipping+and+Trade%3A+Britain+and+the+Rhine+Provinces&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Council+for+British+Archaeology&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-9003-1262-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsmonde-Cleary1989" class="citation book cs1">Esmonde-Cleary, Simon (1989). <i>The Ending of Roman Britain</i>. London: Batsford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-3898-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-3898-4"><bdi>978-0-4152-3898-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ending+of+Roman+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Batsford&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-4152-3898-4&rft.aulast=Esmonde-Cleary&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Fleming" title="Robin Fleming">Fleming, Robin</a> (2021). <i>The Material Fall of Roman Britain, 300-525 CE</i>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-9736-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-9736-2"><bdi>978-0-8122-9736-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Material+Fall+of+Roman+Britain%2C+300-525+CE&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-9736-2&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrere1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sheppard_Frere" title="Sheppard Frere">Frere, Sheppard</a> (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/britanniahistory0000frer"><i>Britannia: A History of Roman Britain</i></a></span> (3rd, extensively revised ed.). London and New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge and Kegan Paul</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7102-1215-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7102-1215-1"><bdi>0-7102-1215-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britannia%3A+A+History+of+Roman+Britain&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.edition=3rd%2C+extensively+revised&rft.pub=Routledge+and+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-7102-1215-1&rft.aulast=Frere&rft.aufirst=Sheppard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbritanniahistory0000frer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrereTomlin1991–1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sheppard_Frere" title="Sheppard Frere">Frere, Sheppard</a>; Tomlin, R. S. O., eds. (1991–1995). <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_Inscriptions_of_Britain" title="Roman Inscriptions of Britain">Roman Inscriptions of Britain</a>. Vol. II. Fascs. 2–8</i>. Stroud.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Inscriptions+of+Britain.+Vol.+II.+Fascs.+2%E2%80%938&rft.pub=Stroud&rft.date=1991%2F1995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulford1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fulford" title="Michael Fulford">Fulford, Michael</a> (1977). <i>Pottery and Britain's Foreign Trade in the Later Roman Period</i>. pp. 35–84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pottery+and+Britain%27s+Foreign+Trade+in+the+Later+Roman+Period&rft.pages=35-84&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Fulford&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFPeacock1977">Peacock (1977)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulford1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fulford" title="Michael Fulford">Fulford, Michael</a> (1984). <i>Demonstrating Britannia's Economic Dependence in the First and Second Centuries</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Demonstrating+Britannia%27s+Economic+Dependence+in+the+First+and+Second+Centuries&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Fulford&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFBlaggKing1984">Blagg & King (1984)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulford1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fulford" title="Michael Fulford">Fulford, Michael</a> (1989). <i>The Economy of Roman Britain</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economy+of+Roman+Britain&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Fulford&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFTodd1989">Todd (1989)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulford1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fulford" title="Michael Fulford">Fulford, Michael</a> (1991). <i>Britain and the Roman Empire: The Evidence for Regional and Long Distance Trade</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+and+the+Roman+Empire%3A+The+Evidence+for+Regional+and+Long+Distance+Trade&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Fulford&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFJones1991">Jones (1991)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulford2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fulford" title="Michael Fulford">Fulford, Michael</a> (2004). <i>Economic Structures</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Structures&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Fulford&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFTodd2004">Todd (2004)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulford2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fulford" title="Michael Fulford">Fulford, Michael</a> (2007). <i>Coasting Britannia: Roman Trade and Traffic Around the Shores of Britain</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coasting+Britannia%3A+Roman+Trade+and+Traffic+Around+the+Shores+of+Britain&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Fulford&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span> in <a href="#CITEREFGosdenHamerowde_JerseyLock2007">Gosden et al. (2007)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoing1992" class="citation journal cs1">Going, C. J. (1992). "Economic 'Long Waves' in the Roman Period? A Reconnaissance of the Romano-British Ceramic Evidence". <i>Oxford Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 93–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0092.1992.tb00259.x">10.1111/j.1468-0092.1992.tb00259.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Economic+%27Long+Waves%27+in+the+Roman+Period%3F+A+Reconnaissance+of+the+Romano-British+Ceramic+Evidence&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=93-117&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0092.1992.tb00259.x&rft.aulast=Going&rft.aufirst=C.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGosdenHamerowde_JerseyLock2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chris_Gosden" title="Chris Gosden">Gosden, Chris</a>; Hamerow, Helena; de Jersey, Philip; <a href="/wiki/Gary_Lock" title="Gary Lock">Lock, Gary</a>, eds. (2007). <i>Communities and Connections: Essays in Honour of Barry Cunliffe</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-3034-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-3034-1"><bdi>978-0-1992-3034-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communities+and+Connections%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+Barry+Cunliffe&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-3034-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenig1995" class="citation book cs1">Henig, Martin (1995). <i>The Art of Roman Britain</i>. London: Batsford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-5430-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-5430-7"><bdi>978-0-7134-5430-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Roman+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Batsford&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7134-5430-7&rft.aulast=Henig&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiggins2014" class="citation book cs1">Higgins, Charlotte (2014). <i>Under Another Sky</i>. London: Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0995-5209-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0995-5209-3"><bdi>978-0-0995-5209-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Under+Another+Sky&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-0995-5209-3&rft.aulast=Higgins&rft.aufirst=Charlotte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornblowerSpawforth1998" class="citation book cs1">Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse"><i>The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1986-0165-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1986-0165-4"><bdi>978-0-1986-0165-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Classical+Civilization&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-1986-0165-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIreland2008" class="citation book cs1">Ireland, Stanley (2008) [1986]. <i>Roman Britain: a Sourcebook</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4154-7178-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4154-7178-7"><bdi>978-0-4154-7178-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Britain%3A+a+Sourcebook&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-4154-7178-7&rft.aulast=Ireland&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesMattingly2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barri_Jones" title="Barri Jones">Jones, Barri</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Mattingly_(archaeologist)" title="David Mattingly (archaeologist)">Mattingly, David</a> (2002) [1990]. <i>An Atlas of Roman Britain</i> (New ed.). Oxford: Oxbow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8421-7067-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8421-7067-0"><bdi>978-1-8421-7067-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Atlas+of+Roman+Britain&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Oxbow&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-8421-7067-0&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Barri&rft.au=Mattingly%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1991" class="citation book cs1">Jones, R. F. J., ed. (1991). <i>Roman Britain: Recent Trends</i>. Sheffield: J. R. Collis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9060-9039-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9060-9039-8"><bdi>978-0-9060-9039-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Britain%3A+Recent+Trends&rft.place=Sheffield&rft.pub=J.+R.+Collis&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-9060-9039-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKakoschke2011" class="citation book cs1">Kakoschke, Andreas (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G6U9YAAACAAJ"><i>Die Personennamen im römischen Britannien</i></a> [<i>Personal names in Roman Britain</i>]. Hildesheim: Olms-Weidmann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-4871-4628-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-4871-4628-7"><bdi>978-3-4871-4628-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Personennamen+im+r%C3%B6mischen+Britannien&rft.place=Hildesheim&rft.pub=Olms-Weidmann&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-4871-4628-7&rft.aulast=Kakoschke&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG6U9YAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaycock2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Laycock" title="Stuart Laycock">Laycock, Stuart</a> (2008). <i>Britannia: the Failed State</i>. The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4614-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-4614-1"><bdi>978-0-7524-4614-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britannia%3A+the+Failed+State&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-4614-1&rft.aulast=Laycock&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoseby2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Loseby, Simon T. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.raco.cat/index.php/MemoriasRABL/article/viewFile/23771/23605">"Power and Towns in Late Roman Britain and Early Anglo-Saxon England"</a>. In Ripoll, Gisela; Gurt, Josep M. (eds.). <i>Sedes regiae (ann. 400–800)</i>. Series maior (Real Academia de Buenas Letras de Barcelona), 6, núm. 25 (in English, Spanish, and Latin). Barcelona: Reial Acadèmia de Bones Lletres. pp. 319–370. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788492202829" title="Special:BookSources/9788492202829"><bdi>9788492202829</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45624503">45624503</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Power+and+Towns+in+Late+Roman+Britain+and+Early+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.btitle=Sedes+regiae+%28ann.+400%E2%80%93800%29&rft.place=Barcelona&rft.series=Series+maior+%28Real+Academia+de+Buenas+Letras+de+Barcelona%29%2C+6%2C+n%C3%BAm.+25&rft.pages=319-370&rft.pub=Reial+Acad%C3%A8mia+de+Bones+Lletres&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45624503&rft.isbn=9788492202829&rft.aulast=Loseby&rft.aufirst=Simon+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.raco.cat%2Findex.php%2FMemoriasRABL%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F23771%2F23605&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManley2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Manley_(archaeologist)" title="John Manley (archaeologist)">Manley, John</a> (2002). <i>AD 43: The Roman Invasion of Britain: A Reassessment</i>. The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-1959-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-1959-6"><bdi>978-0-7524-1959-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=AD+43%3A+The+Roman+Invasion+of+Britain%3A+A+Reassessment&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-1959-6&rft.aulast=Manley&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargary1973" class="citation book cs1">Margary, Ivan D. (1973) [1967]. <i>Roman Roads in Britain</i> (3rd ed.). London: J. Baker. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2129-7001-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2129-7001-8"><bdi>978-0-2129-7001-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/491650913">491650913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Roads+in+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=J.+Baker&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F491650913&rft.isbn=978-0-2129-7001-8&rft.aulast=Margary&rft.aufirst=Ivan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason2009" class="citation book cs1">Mason, David J. P. (2009). <i>Roman Britain and the Roman Navy</i> (Paperback 1st ed.). The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2541-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2541-2"><bdi>978-0-7524-2541-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7982333M">7982333M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Britain+and+the+Roman+Navy&rft.edition=Paperback+1st&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7982333M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-2541-2&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=David+J.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattingly2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Mattingly_(archaeologist)" title="David Mattingly (archaeologist)">Mattingly, David</a> (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperialpossessi0000matt"><i>An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire</i></a></span>. London: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1401-4822-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1401-4822-0"><bdi>978-0-1401-4822-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Imperial+Possession%3A+Britain+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-1401-4822-0&rft.aulast=Mattingly&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimperialpossessi0000matt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxfieldDobson2006" class="citation book cs1">Maxfield, V. A.; Dobson, B. (2006) [1969]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20141007130305/http://www.lactor.kcl.ac.uk/blogs/publication-list/lactor-4-inscriptions-of-roman-britain-2"><i>Inscriptions of Roman Britain</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/LACTOR" title="LACTOR">LACTOR</a> 4 (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9036-2532-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9036-2532-6"><bdi>978-0-9036-2532-6</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lactor.kcl.ac.uk/blogs/publication-list/lactor-4-inscriptions-of-roman-britain-2">the original</a> on 7 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inscriptions+of+Roman+Britain&rft.series=LACTOR+4&rft.edition=4th&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-9036-2532-6&rft.aulast=Maxfield&rft.aufirst=V.+A.&rft.au=Dobson%2C+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lactor.kcl.ac.uk%2Fblogs%2Fpublication-list%2Flactor-4-inscriptions-of-roman-britain-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillet1992" class="citation book cs1">Millet, Martin (1992) [1990]. <i>The Romanization of Britain: an essay in archaeological interpretation</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5214-2864-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5214-2864-4"><bdi>978-0-5214-2864-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romanization+of+Britain%3A+an+essay+in+archaeological+interpretation&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-5214-2864-4&rft.aulast=Millet&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonfortFunari1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Monfort, César Carreras; Funari, P. P. A. (1998). <i>Britannia y el Mediterráneo: Estudios Sobre el Abastecimiento de Aceite Bético y africano en Britannia</i> [<i>Britain and the Mediterranean: Studies on the Betic and African oil supply in </i>Britannia<i><span></span></i>] (in Spanish). Barcelona: Publicacions Universitat de Barcelona. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-4475-1950-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-4475-1950-7"><bdi>978-8-4475-1950-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britannia+y+el+Mediterr%C3%A1neo%3A+Estudios+Sobre+el+Abastecimiento+de+Aceite+B%C3%A9tico+y+africano+en+Britannia&rft.place=Barcelona&rft.pub=Publicacions+Universitat+de+Barcelona&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-8-4475-1950-7&rft.aulast=Monfort&rft.aufirst=C%C3%A9sar+Carreras&rft.au=Funari%2C+P.+P.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorheadStuttard2012" class="citation book cs1">Moorhead, Sam; <a href="/wiki/David_Stuttard" title="David Stuttard">Stuttard, David</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanswhoshapedb0000moor"><i>The Romans who Shaped Britain</i></a>. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5002-5189-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5002-5189-8"><bdi>978-0-5002-5189-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romans+who+Shaped+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-5002-5189-8&rft.aulast=Moorhead&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft.au=Stuttard%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromanswhoshapedb0000moor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2010" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Francis (2010). <i>North Sea and Channel Connectivity during the Late Iron Age and Roman Period (175/150 BC – 409 AD)</i>. British Archaeological Reports International Series. Oxford: Archaeopress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=North+Sea+and+Channel+Connectivity+during+the+Late+Iron+Age+and+Roman+Period+%28175%2F150+BC+%E2%80%93+409+AD%29&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=British+Archaeological+Reports+International+Series&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkerPalmer1992" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Alan; Palmer, Veronica (1992). <i>The Chronology of British History</i>. Century. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7126-5616-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7126-5616-2"><bdi>0-7126-5616-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chronology+of+British+History&rft.pub=Century&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7126-5616-2&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Palmer%2C+Veronica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacock1977" class="citation book cs1">Peacock, D. P. S., ed. (1977). <i>Pottery and Early Commerce. Characterization and Trade in Roman and Later Ceramics</i>. London: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1254-7850-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1254-7850-2"><bdi>978-0-1254-7850-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pottery+and+Early+Commerce.+Characterization+and+Trade+in+Roman+and+Later+Ceramics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-1254-7850-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacockWilliams1986" class="citation book cs1">Peacock, D. P. S.; Williams, D. F. (1986). <i>Amphorae in the Roman Economy</i>. London: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5820-6555-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5820-6555-0"><bdi>978-0-5820-6555-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amphorae+in+the+Roman+Economy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-5820-6555-0&rft.aulast=Peacock&rft.aufirst=D.+P.+S.&rft.au=Williams%2C+D.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearson2002" class="citation book cs1">Pearson, Andrew (2002). <i>The Roman Shore Forts: Coastal Defences of Southern Britain</i>. The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-1949-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-1949-7"><bdi>978-0-7524-1949-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Shore+Forts%3A+Coastal+Defences+of+Southern+Britain&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-1949-7&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPercival1976" class="citation book cs1">Percival, John (1976). <i>The Roman Villa: A Historical Introduction</i>. Batsford Studies in Archaeology. London: Batsford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-3238-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-3238-1"><bdi>978-0-7134-3238-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Villa%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.place=London&rft.series=Batsford+Studies+in+Archaeology&rft.pub=Batsford&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-7134-3238-1&rft.aulast=Percival&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRathboneRathbone2012" class="citation book cs1">Rathbone, Yvette; Rathbone, D. W. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20141007130304/http://www.lactor.kcl.ac.uk/blogs/publication-list/lactor-11-literary-sources-for-roman-britain"><i>Literary Sources for Roman Britain</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/LACTOR" title="LACTOR">LACTOR</a> 11 (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9036-2535-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9036-2535-7"><bdi>978-0-9036-2535-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lactor.kcl.ac.uk/blogs/publication-list/lactor-11-literary-sources-for-roman-britain">the original</a> on 7 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literary+Sources+for+Roman+Britain&rft.series=LACTOR+11&rft.edition=4th&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-9036-2535-7&rft.aulast=Rathbone&rft.aufirst=Yvette&rft.au=Rathbone%2C+D.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lactor.kcl.ac.uk%2Fblogs%2Fpublication-list%2Flactor-11-literary-sources-for-roman-britain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReece2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Reece" title="Richard Reece">Reece, Richard</a> (2002). <i>The Coinage of Roman Britain</i>. Stroud: The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2523-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2523-8"><bdi>978-0-7524-2523-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coinage+of+Roman+Britain&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-2523-8&rft.aulast=Reece&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRivetSmith1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._L._F._Rivet" title="A. L. F. Rivet">Rivet, A. L. F.</a>; Smith, C. (1979). <i>The Place-names of Roman Britain</i>. London: Batsford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-2077-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-2077-7"><bdi>978-0-7134-2077-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Place-names+of+Roman+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Batsford&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-7134-2077-7&rft.aulast=Rivet&rft.aufirst=A.+L.+F.&rft.au=Smith%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalway1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Salway" title="Peter Salway">Salway, Peter</a> (1993). <i>A History of Roman Britain</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-0138-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-0138-8"><bdi>978-0-1928-0138-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Roman+Britain&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-1928-0138-8&rft.aulast=Salway&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouthern2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pat_Southern" title="Pat Southern">Southern, Patricia</a> (2012). <i>Roman Britain: A New History 55 BC – 450 AD</i>. Stroud: Amberley Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4456-0146-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4456-0146-5"><bdi>978-1-4456-0146-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Britain%3A+A+New+History+55+BC+%E2%80%93+450+AD&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=Amberley+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4456-0146-5&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodd1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Todd" title="Malcolm Todd">Todd, Malcolm</a>, ed. (1989). <i>Research on Roman Britain 1960–89</i>. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9077-6413-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9077-6413-7"><bdi>978-0-9077-6413-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Research+on+Roman+Britain+1960%E2%80%9389&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Society+for+the+Promotion+of+Roman+Studies&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-9077-6413-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodd2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Todd" title="Malcolm Todd">Todd, Malcolm</a>, ed. (2004). <i>A Companion to Roman Britain</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6312-1823-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6312-1823-4"><bdi>978-0-6312-1823-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Roman+Britain&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-6312-1823-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyers1996a" class="citation book cs1">Tyers, Paul (1996a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1JFlQgAACAAJ"><i>Roman Pottery in Britain</i></a>. London: Batsford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-7412-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-7412-1"><bdi>978-0-7134-7412-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Pottery+in+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Batsford&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7134-7412-1&rft.aulast=Tyers&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1JFlQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyers1996b" class="citation journal cs1">Tyers, Paul (1996b). "Roman amphoras in Britain". <i>Internet Archaeology</i>. <b>1</b>. Council for British Archaeology. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11141%2Fia.1.6">10.11141/ia.1.6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Roman+amphoras+in+Britain&rft.volume=1&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11141%2Fia.1.6&rft.aulast=Tyers&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWacher1995" class="citation book cs1">Wacher, John (1995). <i>The Towns of Roman Britain</i> (2nd revised ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-7319-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7134-7319-3"><bdi>978-0-7134-7319-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Towns+of+Roman+Britain&rft.edition=2nd+revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7134-7319-3&rft.aulast=Wacher&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilsonPrice2002" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Peter R.; Price, Jennifer, eds. (2002). <i>Aspects of Industry in Roman Yorkshire and the North</i>. Oxford: Oxbow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8421-7078-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8421-7078-6"><bdi>978-1-8421-7078-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8924936M">8924936M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+Industry+in+Roman+Yorkshire+and+the+North&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxbow&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL8924936M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-1-8421-7078-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung1977" class="citation book cs1">Young, Christopher J. (1977). <i>The Roman Pottery Industry of the Oxford Region</i>. British Archaeological Reports. Oxford: Archaeopress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8605-4001-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8605-4001-4"><bdi>978-0-8605-4001-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Pottery+Industry+of+the+Oxford+Region&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=British+Archaeological+Reports&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-8605-4001-4&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_survey">General survey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: General survey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFAlcock2011">Alcock (2011)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFde_la_Bédoyère2006">de la Bédoyère (2006)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFEsmonde-Cleary1989">Esmonde-Cleary (1989)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFFrere1987">Frere (1987)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly2002">Jones & Mattingly (2002)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFLaycock2008">Laycock (2008)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2006">Mattingly (2006)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMillet1992">Millet (1992)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMoorheadStuttard2012">Moorhead & Stuttard (2012)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFSouthern2012">Southern (2012)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFSalway1993">Salway (1993)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFTodd2004">Todd (2004)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFHiggins2014">Higgins (2014)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFFleming2021">Fleming (2021)</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_Age_background">Iron Age background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Iron Age background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFCreighton2000">Creighton (2000)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFCunliffe2005">Cunliffe (2005)</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_sources_and_inscriptions">Historical sources and inscriptions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Historical sources and inscriptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFMaxfieldDobson2006">Maxfield & Dobson (2006)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFBirley2005">Birley (2005)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFCollingwoodWright1990">Collingwood & Wright (1990)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFCollingwoodWrightTomlin1995">Collingwood, Wright & Tomlin (1995)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFFrereTomlin1991–1995">Frere & Tomlin (1991–1995)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFIreland2008">Ireland (2008)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFKakoschke2011">Kakoschke (2011)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFRivetSmith1979">Rivet & Smith (1979)</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_2">Trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFMonfortFunari1998">Monfort & Funari (1998)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFdu_Plat_TaylorCleere1978">du Plat Taylor & Cleere (1978)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFFulford1977">Fulford (1977)</a>, pp. 35–84.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFFulford1984">Fulford (1984)</a>, pp. 129–142.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFFulford1991">Fulford (1991)</a>, pp. 35–47.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFFulford2007">Fulford (2007)</a>, pp. 54–74.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMorris2010">Morris (2010)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFPeacockWilliams1986">Peacock & Williams (1986)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFTyers1996a">Tyers (1996a)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFTyers1996b">Tyers (1996b)</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy_2">Economy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFAllason-Jones2002">Allason-Jones (2002)</a>, pp. 125–132.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFAllenFulford1996">Allen & Fulford (1996)</a>, pp. 223–281.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFAllenFulfordTodd2007">Allen, Fulford & Todd (2007)</a>, pp. 167–191.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFCleereCrossley1995">Cleere & Crossley (1995)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFFulford1989">Fulford (1989)</a>, pp. 175–201.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFFulford2004">Fulford (2004)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFGoing1992">Going (1992)</a>, pp. 93–117</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly2002">Jones & Mattingly (2002)</a>, pp. 179–232.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2006">Mattingly (2006)</a>, pp. 491–528.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFReece2002">Reece (2002)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFTyers1996a">Tyers (1996a)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFYoung1977">Young (1977)</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provincial_government">Provincial government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Provincial government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFBirley2005">Birley (2005)</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provincial_development">Provincial development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Provincial development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFBurgers2001">Burgers (2001)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly2002">Jones & Mattingly (2002)</a>, pp. 141–178.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMargary1973">Margary (1973)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2006">Mattingly (2006)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMillet1992">Millet (1992)</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Roman_military_in_Britain">The Roman military in Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: The Roman military in Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFRathboneRathbone2012">Rathbone & Rathbone (2012)</a>.</li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaesar" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar, Julius</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_War" class="extiw" title="s:Commentaries on the Gallic War">Commentaries on the Gallic War</a> 58–54 BC</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentaries+on+the+Gallic+War+58%E2%80%9354+BC&rft.aulast=Caesar&rft.aufirst=Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="#CITEREFBowman2004">Bowman (2004)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly2002">Jones & Mattingly (2002)</a>, pp. 64–140.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFManley2002">Manley (2002)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMason2009">Mason (2009)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2006">Mattingly (2006)</a>, pp. 85–252.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFPearson2002">Pearson (2002)</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_life">Urban life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Urban life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2006">Mattingly (2006)</a>, pp. 253–350.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMillet1992">Millet (1992)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFWacher1995">Wacher (1995)</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rural_life">Rural life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Rural life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly2002">Jones & Mattingly (2002)</a>, pp. 233–263.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2006">Mattingly (2006)</a>, pp. 351–427.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMillet1992">Millet (1992)</a>.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFPercival1976">Percival (1976)</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_2">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green" title="Miranda Aldhouse-Green">Aldhouse-Green, Miranda J.</a> (2018). <i>Sacred Britannia: the gods and rituals of Roman Britain</i>. London: Thames & Hudson.</li> <li>Henig, Martin (1984). <i>Religion in Roman Britain</i>. London: B. T. Batsford.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly2002">Jones & Mattingly (2002)</a>, pp. 264–305.</li> <li>Watts, Dorothy (1998). <i>Religion in late Roman Britain: forces of change</i>. London: Routledge.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFHenig1995">Henig (1995)</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Britain&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Provinces_of_Britain" title="Template talk:Provinces of Britain"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Provinces_of_Britain" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Provinces of Britain"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Provinces_of_Roman_Britain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Government">Provinces</a> of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Britain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">AD 43</a> – <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lugdunum#Aftermath" title="Battle of Lugdunum"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 197</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Britannia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Britannia</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camulodunum" title="Camulodunum">Camulodunum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a> (<a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lugdunum#Aftermath" title="Battle of Lugdunum"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 197</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Carausian_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Carausian Revolt"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 296</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Superior" title="Britannia Superior">Britannia Superior</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a> (<a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Inferior" title="Britannia Inferior">Britannia Inferior</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a> (<a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carausian_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Carausian Revolt"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 296</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Roman_withdrawal_from_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman withdrawal from Britain"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 410</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Prima" title="Britannia Prima">Britannia I</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corinium_Dobunnorum" title="Corinium Dobunnorum">Corinium Dobunnorum</a>? (<a href="/wiki/Cirencester" title="Cirencester">Cirencester</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Secunda" title="Britannia Secunda">Britannia II</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a>? (<a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Caesariensis" title="Flavia Caesariensis">Flavia Caesariensis</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lindum_Colonia" title="Lindum Colonia">Lindum Colonia</a>? (<a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_England" title="Lincoln, England">Lincoln</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Maxima_Caesariensis" title="Maxima Caesariensis">Maxima Caesariensis</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a>? (<a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Conspiracy" title="Great Conspiracy"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 369</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Roman_withdrawal_from_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman withdrawal from Britain"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 410</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Valentia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Valentia_(Roman_Britain)" title="Valentia (Roman Britain)">Valentia</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luguvalium" title="Luguvalium">Luguvalium</a>? (<a href="/wiki/Carlisle" title="Carlisle">Carlisle</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_Victrix" title="Deva Victrix">Deva Victrix</a>? (<a href="/wiki/Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitancum" title="Habitancum">Habitancum</a>? (<a href="/wiki/Risingham" class="mw-redirect" title="Risingham">Risingham</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Apocryphal provinces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Vespasiana" title="Vespasiana">Vespasiana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orkney" title="Orkney">Orcades</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Placenames in brackets are present-day names<br />Question marks denote uncertain associations</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_towns_of_Roman_Britain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Major_towns_of_Roman_Britain" title="Template:Major towns of Roman Britain"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Major_towns_of_Roman_Britain" title="Template talk:Major towns of Roman Britain"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Major_towns_of_Roman_Britain" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Major towns of Roman Britain"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_towns_of_Roman_Britain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Town_and_country">Major towns of Roman Britain</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Placenames in brackets are either present-day names or counties where the towns formerly existed.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Capitals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Superior" title="Britannia Superior">Britannia Superior</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Inferior" title="Britannia Inferior">Britannia Inferior</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camulodunum" title="Camulodunum">Camulodunum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surviving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chelmsford#Early_history" title="Chelmsford">Caesaromagus</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Chelmsford" title="Chelmsford">Chelmsford</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinium_Dobunnorum" title="Corinium Dobunnorum">Corinium Dobunnorum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Cirencester" title="Cirencester">Cirencester</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_Victrix" title="Deva Victrix">Deva Victrix</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Chester" title="Chester">Chester</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durnovaria" title="Durnovaria">Durnovaria</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Dorchester,_Dorset" title="Dorchester, Dorset">Dorchester</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durovernum_Cantiacorum" title="Durovernum Cantiacorum">Durovernum Cantiacorum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Canterbury" title="Canterbury">Canterbury</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glevum" title="Glevum">Glevum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Gloucester" title="Gloucester">Gloucester</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isca_Augusta" title="Isca Augusta">Isca Augusta</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Caerleon" title="Caerleon">Caerleon</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isca_Dumnoniorum" title="Isca Dumnoniorum">Isca Dumnoniorum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Exeter" title="Exeter">Exeter</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isurium_Brigantum" title="Isurium Brigantum">Isurium Brigantum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Aldborough,_North_Yorkshire" title="Aldborough, North Yorkshire">Aldborough</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactodurum" title="Lactodurum">Lactodurum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Towcester" title="Towcester">Towcester</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindum_Colonia" title="Lindum Colonia">Lindum Colonia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_England" title="Lincoln, England">Lincoln</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luguvalium" title="Luguvalium">Luguvalium</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Carlisle" title="Carlisle">Carlisle</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moridunum_(Carmarthen)" title="Moridunum (Carmarthen)">Moridunum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Carmarthen" title="Carmarthen">Carmarthen</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noviomagus_Reginorum" title="Noviomagus Reginorum">Noviomagus Reginorum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Chichester" title="Chichester">Chichester</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petuaria" title="Petuaria">Petuaria</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Brough,_East_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="Brough, East Riding of Yorkshire">Brough</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratae_Corieltauvorum" title="Ratae Corieltauvorum">Ratae Corieltauvorum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Leicester" title="Leicester">Leicester</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venta_Belgarum" title="Venta Belgarum">Venta Belgarum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venta_Silurum" title="Venta Silurum">Venta Silurum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Caerwent" title="Caerwent">Caerwent</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verulamium" title="Verulamium">Verulamium</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/St_Albans" title="St Albans">St Albans</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viroconium_Cornoviorum" title="Viroconium Cornoviorum">Viroconium Cornoviorum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Wroxeter" title="Wroxeter">Wroxeter</a>)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extinct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchester" title="Alchester">Alchester</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Wendlebury" title="Wendlebury">Wendlebury</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannaventa" title="Bannaventa">Bannaventa</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Northamptonshire" title="Northamptonshire">Northamptonshire</a>)</i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calleva_Atrebatum" title="Calleva Atrebatum">Calleva Atrebatum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Hampshire" title="Hampshire">Hampshire</a>)</i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cunetio" title="Cunetio">Cunetio</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Wiltshire" title="Wiltshire">Wiltshire</a>)</i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venta_Icenorum" title="Venta Icenorum">Venta Icenorum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Norfolk" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a>)</i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_place_names_in_Britain" title="List of Roman place names in Britain">List of Roman place names in Britain</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Provinces_of_the_early_Roman_Empire_(117_AD)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_provinces_AD_117" title="Template:Roman provinces AD 117"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_provinces_AD_117" title="Template talk:Roman provinces AD 117"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_provinces_AD_117" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman provinces AD 117"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Provinces_of_the_early_Roman_Empire_(117_AD)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Roman_province#The_Roman_provinces_in_117" title="Roman province">Provinces of the early Roman Empire <small>(117 AD)</small></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaia_(Roman_province)" title="Achaia (Roman province)">Achaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Aegyptus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa proconsularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Cottiae" title="Alpes Cottiae">Alpes Cottiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Maritimae" title="Alpes Maritimae">Alpes Maritimae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Graiae_et_Poeninae" title="Alpes Graiae et Poeninae">Alpes Graiae et Poeninae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria_(Roman_province)" title="Assyria (Roman province)">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bithynia_and_Pontus" title="Bithynia and Pontus">Bithynia and Pontus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Britannia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(Roman_province)" title="Cappadocia (Roman province)">Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(Roman_province)" title="Cilicia (Roman province)">Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsica_and_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Corsica and Sardinia">Corsica and Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crete_and_Cyrenaica" title="Crete and Cyrenaica">Crete and Cyrenaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Cyprus" title="Roman Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatia_(Roman_province)" title="Dalmatia (Roman province)">Dalmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_(Roman_province)" title="Epirus (Roman province)">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia_(Roman_province)" title="Galatia (Roman province)">Galatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Aquitania" title="Gallia Aquitania">Gallia Aquitania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Lugdunensis" title="Gallia Lugdunensis">Gallia Lugdunensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_Superior" title="Germania Superior">Germania Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Baetica" title="Hispania Baetica">Hispania Baetica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">Hispania Lusitania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis" title="Hispania Tarraconensis">Hispania Tarraconensis</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italia</a></i> <sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Iudaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycia_et_Pamphylia" title="Lycia et Pamphylia">Lycia et Pamphylia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis" title="Mauretania Caesariensis">Mauretania Caesariensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Tingitana" title="Mauretania Tingitana">Mauretania Tingitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia Inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Inferior" title="Pannonia Inferior">Pannonia Inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Superior" title="Pannonia Superior">Pannonia Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetia" title="Raetia">Raetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracia_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thracia (Roman province)">Thracia</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:RomanEmpire_117.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, at the death of Trajan (117 AD)"><img alt="The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, at the death of Trajan (117 AD)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/150px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/225px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/300px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="376" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><sup>†</sup> Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>'s reforms.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Late_Roman_and_early_Byzantine_provinces_(4th–7th_centuries_AD)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Late_Roman_and_Byzantine_provinces" title="Template:Late Roman and Byzantine provinces"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Late_Roman_and_Byzantine_provinces" title="Template talk:Late Roman and Byzantine provinces"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Late_Roman_and_Byzantine_provinces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Late Roman and Byzantine provinces"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Late_Roman_and_early_Byzantine_provinces_(4th–7th_centuries_AD)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Late_Roman_provinces" title="List of Late Roman provinces">Late Roman and early Byzantine provinces</a> (4th–7th centuries AD)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">As found in the <i><a href="/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatum" title="Notitia Dignitatum">Notitia Dignitatum</a></i>. Provincial administration reformed and <a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">dioceses</a> established by <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 293. Permanent <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">praetorian prefectures</a> established after the death of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Ravenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Africa</a> established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the <a href="/wiki/Theme_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Theme system">theme system</a> in c. 640–660, although in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a> and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century.</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Western_Roman_Empire_(395–476)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> (395–476)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Gaul" title="Praetorian prefecture of Gaul">Praetorian prefecture<br />of Gaul</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Gaul" title="Diocese of Gaul">Diocese of Gaul</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Poeninae_et_Graiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpes Poeninae et Graiae">Alpes Poeninae et Graiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgica_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgica Prima">Belgica I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgica_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgica Secunda">Belgica II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_Superior" title="Germania Superior">Germania I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunensis_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugdunensis I">Lugdunensis I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunensis_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugdunensis II">Lugdunensis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunensis_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugdunensis III">Lugdunensis III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunensis_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugdunensis IV">Lugdunensis IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxima_Sequanorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxima Sequanorum">Maxima Sequanorum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Septem_Provinciae" title="Septem Provinciae">Diocese of Vienne</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Maritimae" title="Alpes Maritimae">Alpes Maritimae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Aquitania" title="Gallia Aquitania">Aquitanica I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Aquitania" title="Gallia Aquitania">Aquitanica II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narbonensis_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Narbonensis I">Narbonensis I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narbonensis_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Narbonensis II">Narbonensis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novempopulania" title="Novempopulania">Novempopulania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viennensis" title="Viennensis">Viennensis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Spain">Diocese of Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Baetica" title="Hispania Baetica">Baetica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Balearica" title="Hispania Balearica">Balearica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Carthaginensis" title="Hispania Carthaginensis">Carthaginensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">Lusitania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Tingitana" title="Mauretania Tingitana">Mauretania Tingitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis" title="Hispania Tarraconensis">Tarraconensis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_Britains" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of the Britains">Diocese of the Britains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Prima" title="Britannia Prima">Britannia I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Secunda" title="Britannia Secunda">Britannia II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Caesariensis" title="Flavia Caesariensis">Flavia Caesariensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxima_Caesariensis" title="Maxima Caesariensis">Maxima Caesariensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentia_(Roman_Britain)" title="Valentia (Roman Britain)">Valentia (?)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Italy" title="Praetorian prefecture of Italy">Praetorian prefecture<br />of Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Italia_suburbicaria" title="Italia suburbicaria">Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" title="Province of Apulia and Calabria">Apulia et Calabria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campania_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Campania (Roman province)">Campania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucania_et_Bruttium" title="Lucania et Bruttium">Lucania et Bruttium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picenum" title="Picenum">Picenum Suburbicarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnium" title="Samnium">Samnium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicilia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tuscia_et_Umbria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tuscia et Umbria (page does not exist)">Tuscia et Umbria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Valeria_Suburbicaria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Valeria Suburbicaria (page does not exist)">Valeria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy#Diocletian_re-organization" title="Roman Italy">Diocese of Annonarian Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Cottiae" title="Alpes Cottiae">Alpes Cottiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liguria_(Roman_province)" title="Liguria (Roman province)">Liguria</a> et <a href="/wiki/Aemilia_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aemilia (Roman province)">Aemilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetia_Prima" title="Raetia Prima">Raetia I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Raetia Secunda">Raetia II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetia_et_Histria" title="Venetia et Histria">Venetia et Histria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Africa" title="Diocese of Africa">Diocese of Africa</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzacena" title="Byzacena">Byzacena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis" title="Mauretania Caesariensis">Mauretania Caesariensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Sitifensis" title="Mauretania Sitifensis">Mauretania Sitifensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numidia_(Roman_province)" title="Numidia (Roman province)">Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripolitania_(Roman_province)" title="Tripolitania (Roman province)">Tripolitania (Roman province)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Eastern_Roman_Empire_(395–c._640)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (395–c. 640)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Illyricum" title="Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum">Praetorian prefecture<br />of Illyricum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Pannonia" title="Diocese of Pannonia">Diocese of Pannonia</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatia_(Roman_province)" title="Dalmatia (Roman province)">Dalmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum mediterraneum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum ripense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Prima" title="Pannonia Prima">Pannonia I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Secunda" title="Pannonia Secunda">Pannonia II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Savia" title="Pannonia Savia">Savia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valeria_ripensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Valeria ripensis">Valeria ripensis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Dacia" title="Diocese of Dacia">Diocese of Dacia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacia_Mediterranea" title="Dacia Mediterranea">Dacia Mediterranea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacia_Ripensis" title="Dacia Ripensis">Dacia Ripensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dardania_(Roman_province)" title="Dardania (Roman province)">Dardania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesia_Prima" title="Moesia Prima">Moesia I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praevalitana" title="Praevalitana">Praevalitana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Macedonia" title="Diocese of Macedonia">Diocese of Macedonia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaea (Roman province)">Achaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Crete" title="Byzantine Crete">Creta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_Nova" class="mw-redirect" title="Epirus Nova">Epirus Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_Vetus" class="mw-redirect" title="Epirus Vetus">Epirus Vetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonia Prima">Macedonia Prima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonia Secunda">Macedonia II Salutaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalia">Thessalia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_the_East" title="Praetorian prefecture of the East">Praetorian prefecture<br />of the East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Thrace" title="Diocese of Thrace">Diocese of Thrace</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europa_(Roman_province)" title="Europa (Roman province)">Europa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haemimontus" title="Haemimontus">Haemimontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia Secunda</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodope_(province)" title="Rhodope (province)">Rhodope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythia_Minor" title="Scythia Minor">Scythia</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Asia" title="Diocese of Asia">Diocese of Asia</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellespontus_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespontus (province)">Hellespontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islands_(Roman_province)" title="Islands (Roman province)">Islands</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycaonia" title="Lycaonia">Lycaonia (370)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisidia" title="Pisidia">Pisidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygia_Pacatiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrygia Pacatiana">Phrygia Pacatiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygia_Salutaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrygia Salutaris">Phrygia Salutaris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Pontus" title="Diocese of Pontus">Diocese of Pontus</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Armenia Prima</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Armenia Secunda</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia Maior</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophene" title="Sophene">Armenian Satrapies</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Armenia III (536)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Armenia IV (536)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Cappadocia Prima">Cappadocia I</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Cappadocia Secunda">Cappadocia II</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Galatia Prima">Galatia I</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Galatia Secunda">Galatia II Salutaris</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helenopontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Helenopontus">Helenopontus</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorias" title="Honorias">Honorias</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontus_Polemoniacus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontus Polemoniacus">Pontus Polemoniacus</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East" title="Diocese of the East">Diocese of the East</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilicia_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilicia Prima">Cilicia I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilicia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilicia Secunda">Cilicia II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Cyprus" title="Roman Cyprus">Cyprus</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphratensis" title="Euphratensis">Euphratensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isauria" title="Isauria">Isauria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osroene_(Roman_province)" title="Osroene (Roman province)">Osroene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Salutaris" title="Palaestina Salutaris">Palaestina III Salutaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenice_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenice Prima">Phoenice I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenice_II_Libanensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenice II Libanensis">Phoenice II Libanensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_Prima" title="Syria Prima">Syria I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_II_Salutaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria II Salutaris">Syria II Salutaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorias_(province)" title="Theodorias (province)">Theodorias (528)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Egypt" title="Diocese of Egypt">Diocese of Egypt</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegyptus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegyptus I">Aegyptus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegyptus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegyptus II">Aegyptus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadia_Aegypti" title="Arcadia Aegypti">Arcadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustamnica_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustamnica I">Augustamnica I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustamnica_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustamnica II">Augustamnica II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_Superior" class="mw-redirect" title="Libya Superior">Libya Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_Inferior" class="mw-redirect" title="Libya Inferior">Libya Inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebais_Superior" class="mw-redirect" title="Thebais Superior">Thebais Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebais_Inferior" class="mw-redirect" title="Thebais Inferior">Thebais Inferior</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taurica" class="mw-redirect" title="Taurica">Taurica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestura_exercitus" title="Quaestura exercitus">Quaestura exercitus (536)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spania" title="Spania">Spania (552)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div> <ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Later the <a href="/wiki/Septem_Provinciae" title="Septem Provinciae">Septem Provinciae</a></li> <li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Re-established after <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">reconquest</a> by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Africa" title="Praetorian prefecture of Africa">Prefecture of Africa</a></li> <li><sup><small>3</small></sup> Later the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Illyricum" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Illyricum">Diocese of Illyricum</a></li> <li><sup><small>4</small></sup> Placed under the <a href="/wiki/Quaestura_exercitus" title="Quaestura exercitus">Quaestura exercitus</a> in 536</li> <li><sup><small>5</small></sup> Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>'s administrative reorganization in 534–536</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Roman_and_Byzantine_Empire_in_modern_territories" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_history_by_territory" title="Template:Roman history by territory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_history_by_territory" title="Template talk:Roman history by territory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_history_by_territory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman history by territory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Roman_and_Byzantine_Empire_in_modern_territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in modern territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albania#Greeks_and_Romans" title="History of Albania">Albania (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Albania_under_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Albania under the Byzantine Empire">Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis" title="Mauretania Caesariensis">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andorra#Iberian_and_Roman_Andorra" title="Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Armenia (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_influence_in_Caucasian_Albania" title="Roman influence in Caucasian Albania">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria#Roman_era" title="History of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans#Roman_period" title="History of the Balkans">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina#Roman_period" title="Early history of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Bulgaria">Bulgaria (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_(theme)" title="Bulgaria (theme)">High Medieval)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Britain (England)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Crimea">Crimea (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Cherson_(theme)" title="Cherson (theme)">Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Croatia#Roman_provinces_of_Pannonia_and_Dalmatia" title="History of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Cyprus" title="Roman Cyprus">Cyprus (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Cyprus_in_the_Middle_Ages#Byzantine_period" title="Cyprus in the Middle Ages">Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt (Classical ~ Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">France</a> (<a href="/wiki/Corsica_and_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Corsica and Sardinia">Corsica (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Corsica#Eastern_Imperial_suzerainty" title="Medieval Corsica">Early Medieval)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Greece">Greece (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Medieval)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Crete_and_Cyrenaica" title="Crete and Cyrenaica">Crete (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Crete" title="Byzantine Crete">Medieval)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey#Prehistory" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hungary_before_the_Hungarian_Conquest#Roman_era" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hungary before the Hungarian Conquest">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq#History" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">(Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(theme)" title="Mesopotamia (theme)">Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iudaea_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Iudaea Province">Israel (Classical ~ Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italy (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Medieval)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Sicily">Sicily (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Sicily_(theme)" title="Sicily (theme)">Medieval)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corsica_and_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Corsica and Sardinia">Sardinia (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sardinia" title="Byzantine Sardinia">Early Medieval)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey#Early_history" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a> <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Lugdunensis" title="Gallia Lugdunensis">(Classical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan#Classical_period" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">(Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Late Antique/Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo#Roman_period" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_heritage_in_Kosovo" title="Roman heritage in Kosovo">(Classical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Roman_rule" title="Phoenicia under Roman rule">Lebanon (Classical ~ Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Libya" title="Roman Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein#Antiquity" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Luxembourg#Early_history" title="History of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malta#Roman_rule" title="History of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesian_Limes#Expansion_beyond" title="Moesian Limes">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Monaco#Roman_rule" title="History of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praevalitana" title="Praevalitana">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Roman,_and_sub-Roman_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in the Netherlands">The Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity#Roman_era" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Palestine" title="Roman Palestine">Palestine (Classical ~ Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal#Romanization" title="History of Portugal">Portugal</a> <a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">(Classical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino#The_Foundation_Myth" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Romans_in_Arabia" title="History of the Romans in Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> <a href="/wiki/Limes_Arabicus" title="Limes Arabicus">(Classical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovakia#Iron_Age_and_the_Roman_era" title="History of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovenia#Ancient_Romans" title="History of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Spain (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Spain">Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria (Classical ~ Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City#Early_history" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a> <a href="/wiki/Ager_Vaticanus" title="Ager Vaticanus">(Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Rome" title="Duchy of Rome">Early Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesian_Limes#Expansion_beyond" title="Moesian Limes">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman-era_Tunisia" title="History of Roman-era Tunisia">Tunisia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Anatolia">Turkey (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Medieval)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Thrace">Thrace (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Thrace">Medieval)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Classical_antiquity_by_region" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Classical_antiquity" title="Template:Classical antiquity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Classical_antiquity" title="Template talk:Classical antiquity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Classical_antiquity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Classical antiquity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Classical_antiquity_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> by region</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gallia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Britannia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia" title="History of Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Anatolia" title="Classical Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_ancient_Levant" title="History of the ancient Levant">Levant (Greater Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Aegyptus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Igbo-Ukwu" title="Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu">Igbo-Ukwu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_British_Isles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks vcard mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_British_Isles" title="Template:History of the British Isles"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_British_Isles" title="Template talk:History of the British Isles"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_British_Isles" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the British Isles"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_British_Isles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">History of the British Isles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">Overview</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Wight" title="History of the Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isles_of_Scilly#History" title="Isles of Scilly">Isles of Scilly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scotland" title="History of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shetland" title="History of Shetland">Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Orkney" title="History of Orkney">Orkney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Hebrides#History" title="Inner Hebrides">Inner Hebrides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Outer_Hebrides" title="History of the Outer Hebrides">Outer Hebrides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">Wales</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglesey#History" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Ireland" title="History of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> (Mann)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands#History" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg/75px-Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg/113px-Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg/150px-Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Prehistoric" title="History of the British Isles">Prehistoric period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Prehistoric Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England#Prehistory" title="History of England">Prehistoric England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Scotland" title="Prehistoric Scotland">Prehistoric Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Shetland" title="Prehistoric Shetland">Prehistoric Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Orkney" title="Prehistoric Orkney">Prehistoric Orkney</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistoric Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Ireland" title="Prehistoric Ireland">Prehistoric Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Prehistory" title="History of the Isle of Man">Prehistoric Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Classical_period" title="History of the British Isles">Classical period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">Roman Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Roman Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory_of_Ireland" title="Protohistory of Ireland">Protohistoric Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Roman_relations" title="Hiberno-Roman relations">Roman Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">End of Roman rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Medieval_period" title="History of the British Isles">Medieval period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">Medieval England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Early medieval England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">High medieval England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">Late medieval England</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Medieval Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Early medieval Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">High medieval Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Late medieval Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">Medieval Wales</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Early Middle Ages">Early medieval Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">High medieval Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Late medieval Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Ireland in the Middle Ages">Medieval Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">Early medieval Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">High medieval Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536)" title="History of Ireland (1169–1536)">Late medieval Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Middle_Ages" title="History of the Isle of Man">Medieval Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Early_Modern_period" title="History of the British Isles">Early modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain" title="Early modern Britain">Early modern Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Early modern England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Scotland in the early modern period">Early modern Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period_in_Wales" title="Early modern period in Wales">Early modern Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1536%E2%80%931691)" title="History of Ireland (1536–1691)">Early modern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Early_Modern_period" title="History of the Isle of Man">Early modern Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#19th_century" title="History of the British Isles">Late modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> (since 1707) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom#Second_World_War_1939–1945" title="History of the United Kingdom">Second World War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">World Wars (Wales)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1945%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)">Post-war period (political history)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1945%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)">Post-war period (social history)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Late modern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Modern_period" title="History of the Isle of Man">Late modern Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_monarchs_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of monarchs in the British Isles">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Celts_and_modern_Celts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Celts" title="Template:Celts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Celts" title="Template talk:Celts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Celts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Celts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Celts_and_modern_Celts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">modern Celts</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_studies" title="Celtic studies">Celtic studies</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Celtic tribes</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Peoples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Peoples</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Ancient Celtic ethnic groups</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Celts" title="Names of the Celts">Names</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caledonians" title="Caledonians">Caledonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaeci" title="Gallaeci">Gallaeci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatians_(people)" title="Galatians (people)">Galatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helvetii" title="Helvetii">Helvetii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepontii" title="Lepontii">Lepontii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcae" title="Volcae">Volcae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Modern Celtic ethnic groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_people" title="Manx people">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Celtic diaspora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_diaspora" title="Cornish diaspora">Cornish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">Irish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_diaspora" title="Scottish diaspora">Scottish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh diaspora">Welsh diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related ethnic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Celtic" title="Anglo-Celtic">Anglo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_Americans" title="Breton Americans">Breton Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_Americans" title="Cornish Americans">Cornish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic_round_dogs.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/100px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/150px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/200px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1400" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_studies" title="Celtic studies">Studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dálriata</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Kingdom of Alba">Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brigantia_(ancient_region)" title="Brigantia (ancient region)">Brigantia (ancient region)</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dumnonia" title="Dumnonia">Dumnonia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">Hen Ogledd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Iron Age Gaul</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britonia" title="Britonia">Britonia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a> / <a href="/wiki/Domnon%C3%A9e" title="Domnonée">Domnonée</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts_in_Transylvania" title="Celts in Transylvania">Transylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_paganism" title="Proto-Celtic paganism">Proto-Celtic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_deities" title="Celtic deities">Celtic deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Animism" title="Celtic Animism">Celtic Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Rite" title="Celtic Rite">Celtic Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_stone_idols" title="Celtic stone idols">Celtic stone idolss</a>* <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Monasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Romano-Celtic temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Celtic_pagan_practices" title="Template:Celtic pagan practices">Practices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mythology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bard" title="Bard">Bard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brehon" title="Brehon">Brehon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_calendar" title="Celtic calendar">Celtic calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_festivals" title="List of Celtic festivals">Celtic festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_women" title="Ancient Celtic women">Celtic women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celticisation" title="Celticisation">Celticisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Name" title="Chief of the Name">Chief of the Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derbfine" title="Derbfine">Derbfine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan_chief" title="Scottish clan chief">Clan chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelicisation" title="Gaelicisation">Gaelicisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_astrology" title="Early Irish astrology">Gaelic astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1inne" title="Fáinne">Fáinne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fili" class="mw-redirect" title="Fili">Fili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanistry" title="Tanistry">Tanistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seancha%C3%AD" title="Seanchaí">Seanchaí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sept" title="Sept">Sept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BAath" title="Túath">Túath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vates" title="Vates">Vates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic warfare">Warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gaelic_warfare" title="Gaelic warfare">Gaelic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_coinage" title="Celtic coinage">Coinage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modern_Celts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Modern Celts</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Celticism" title="Pan-Celticism">Pan-Celticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Congress" title="Celtic Congress">Celtic Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_union" title="Celtic union">Celtic union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_music" title="Celtic music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_rock" title="Celtic rock">Rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Celtic_Christianity" title="Neo-Celtic Christianity">Neo-Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Wicca" title="Celtic Wicca">Celtic Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Neo-Druidism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nations" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a> definition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> (<span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">Breizh</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> (<span title="Cornish-language text"><i lang="kw">Kernow</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> (<span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">Éire</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> (<span title="Manx-language text"><i lang="gv">Mannin</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> (<span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">Alba</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> (<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Cymru</i></span>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other claimants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_Wladfa" title="Y Wladfa">Y Wladfa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_literature" title="Celtic literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Arthurian Legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_bardic_poetry" title="Irish bardic poetry">Bardic Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_literature" title="Breton literature">Breton literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_literature" title="Cornish literature">Cornish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_literature" title="Manx literature">Manx literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh-language literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">Welsh literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_literature" title="Early Irish literature">Early Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_annals" title="Irish annals">Irish annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_literature" title="Gaelic literature">Gaelic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Scottish Gaelic literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Brittany" title="Culture of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Cornwall" title="Culture of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Ireland" title="Culture of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Culture of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_shrine" title="Bell shrine">Bell shrines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_brooch" title="Celtic brooch">Brooches</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dragonesque_brooch" title="Dragonesque brooch">Dragonesque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnyx" title="Carnyx">Carnyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_cross" title="Celtic cross">Celtic cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_knot" title="Celtic knot">Knotwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_cross" title="High cross">High crosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlace_(art)" title="Interlace (art)">Interlace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_leaf-crown" title="Celtic leaf-crown">Leaf-crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_maze" title="Celtic maze">Mazes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictish_stone" title="Pictish stone">Pictish stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torc" title="Torc">Torcs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triskelion" title="Triskelion">Triple spiral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clothing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Dress" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Dress">Celtic Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_clothing" title="Irish clothing">Gaelic clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_dress" title="Highland dress">Highland dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartan" title="Tartan">Tartan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Highland culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_music" title="Celtic music">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_music" title="Ancient Celtic music">Ancient Celtic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Brittany" title="Music of Brittany">Breton Folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_folk_music" title="Gaelic folk music">Gaelic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_traditional_music" title="Irish traditional music">Irish folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_folk_music" title="Scottish folk music">Scottish folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_folk_music" title="Welsh folk music">Welsh folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean-n%C3%B3s_singing" title="Sean-nós singing">Sean-nós singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnyx" title="Carnyx">Carnyx</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="National_music_scenes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National music scenes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Brittany" title="Music of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Cornwall" title="Music of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_music_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk music of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Music of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Scotland" title="Music of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_festivals" title="List of Celtic festivals">Festivals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_calendar" title="Celtic calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhain" title="Samhain">Samhain</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calan_Gaeaf" title="Calan Gaeaf">Calan Gaeaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imbolc" title="Imbolc">Imbolc</a>/<a href="/wiki/G%C5%B5yl_Fair_y_Canhwyllau" title="Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau">Gŵyl Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beltane" title="Beltane">Beltane</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calan_Mai" title="Calan Mai">Calan Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lughnasadh" title="Lughnasadh">Lughnasadh</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gathering_Day" title="Gathering Day">Calan Awst</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festival_Interceltique_de_Lorient" title="Festival Interceltique de Lorient">Festival Interceltique de Lorient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Celtic_Festival" title="Pan Celtic Festival">Pan Celtic Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebridean_Celtic_Festival" title="Hebridean Celtic Festival">Hebridean Celtic Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Connections" title="Celtic Connections">Celtic Connections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Media_Festival" title="Celtic Media Festival">Celtic Media Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bando_(sport)" title="Bando (sport)">Bando</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bataireacht" class="mw-redirect" title="Bataireacht">Bataireacht</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camogie" title="Camogie">Camogie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cammag" title="Cammag">Cammag</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cnapan" title="Cnapan">Cnapan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_hurling" title="Cornish hurling">Cornish hurling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_wrestling" title="Cornish wrestling">Cornish wrestling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">Curling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_football" title="Gaelic football">Gaelic football</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ladies%27_Gaelic_football" title="Ladies' Gaelic football">Ladies'</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_handball" title="Gaelic handball">Gaelic handball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouren" title="Gouren">Gouren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rounders" title="Rounders">Rounders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_games" title="Highland games">Highland games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurling" title="Hurling">Hurling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_road_bowling" title="Irish road bowling">Road bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinty" title="Shinty">Shinty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_handball" title="Welsh handball">Welsh handball</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Politics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nationalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_nationalism" title="Breton nationalism">Breton nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Breton_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Breton nationalism">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reunification_of_Brittany" title="Reunification of Brittany">reunification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_nationalism" title="Cornish nationalism">Cornish nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_status_of_Cornwall" title="Constitutional status of Cornwall">status</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Irish nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manx nationalism">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_status_of_Orkney,_Shetland_and_the_Western_Isles" title="Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles">Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_nationalism" title="Scottish nationalism">Scottish nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_national_identity" title="Scottish national identity">national identity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Welsh nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_national_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh national identity">national identity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Autonomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_devolution" title="Cornish devolution">Cornish devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_devolution" title="Scottish devolution">Scottish devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Welsh devolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton independence">Breton independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_independence" title="Scottish independence">Scottish independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_independence" title="Welsh independence">Welsh independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Ireland" title="United Ireland">United Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Irish republicanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Celticism" title="Pan-Celticism">Pan-Celticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Congress" title="Celtic Congress">Celtic Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_society" title="Celtic society">Celtic society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_unity" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic unity">Celtic unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columba_Project" title="Columba Project">Columba Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shelta" title="Shelta">Shelta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bungi_dialect" title="Bungi dialect">Bungi Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beurla_Reagaird" title="Beurla Reagaird">Beurla Reagaird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languages" title="Continental Celtic languages">Ancient Celtic languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">Extinct</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Proto-Brittonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Proto-Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_language" title="Galatian language">Galatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecian_language" title="Gallaecian language">Gallaecian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepontic_language" title="Lepontic language">Lepontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noric_language" title="Noric language">Noric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispano-Celtic_languages" title="Hispano-Celtic languages">Hispano-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaulish" title="Cisalpine Gaulish">Cisalpine Gaulish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arran_Gaelic" title="Arran Gaelic">Arran Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deeside_Gaelic" title="Deeside Gaelic">Deeside Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galwegian_Gaelic" title="Galwegian Gaelic">Galwegian Gaelic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Law_and_Warfare" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_warfare" title="Ancient Celtic warfare">Warfare</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_law" title="Early Irish law">Early Irish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Cyfraith Hywel</a> (Medieval Welsh law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scots_law" title="History of Scots law">Early Scots law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_warfare" title="Ancient Celtic warfare">Warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_warfare" title="Gaelic warfare">Gaelic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cateran" title="Cateran">Ceathairne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kern_(soldier)" title="Kern (soldier)">Ceithearn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fianna" title="Fianna">Fianna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaesatae" title="Gaesatae">Gaesatae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallowglass" title="Gallowglass">Gallóglaigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobelar" title="Hobelar">Hobelar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redshank_(soldier)" title="Redshank (soldier)">Redshanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimarcisia" title="Trimarcisia">Trimarcisia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_deities" title="List of Celtic deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_English_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="Lists of English words of Celtic origin">Celtic words in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="List of Spanish words of Celtic origin">– in Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Galician_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="List of Galician words of Celtic origin">– in Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_words_of_Gaulish_origin" title="List of French words of Gaulish origin">Gaulish words in French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Galicia" title="List of Celtic place names in Galicia">Celtic place names in Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Italy" title="List of Celtic place names in Italy">– in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Portugal" title="List of Celtic place names in Portugal">– in Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Celts" title="Portal:Celts">Celts portal</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg/16px-Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg/24px-Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg/32px-Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185103#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185103#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185103#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Británie (provincie)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge839531&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810655095805606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007538415705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/981513">Pleiades</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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1,\n [\"CITEREFCleereCrossley1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollingwoodWright1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollingwoodWrightTomlin1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCreighton2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunliffe2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunliffe2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDio\"] = 5,\n [\"CITEREFDurant2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsmonde-Cleary1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEunapius\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEutropius\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFleming2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrere1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrereTomlin1991–1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulford1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulford1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulford1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulford1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulford1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulford1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulford1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulford2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulford2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhosh2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGildas\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoing1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGosdenHamerowde_JerseyLock2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenig1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerodian\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerodotus\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiggins2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHigham1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHigham2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHingley2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHornblowerSpawforth1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorsley1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIreland2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesMattingly2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJulian\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJulius_Caesar\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKakoschke2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKavalali2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLancashire2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurence2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaycock2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLibanius\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLodwick2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoseby2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManley2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargary1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMason2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattingly2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxfieldDobson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillet1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonfortFunari1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoorheadStuttard2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNearing1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNew1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholas2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrosius\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParkerPalmer1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatrick_Welsh1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeacock1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeacockWilliams1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPercival1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlutarch\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRathboneRathbone2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReece2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRich1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRivetSmith1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalway1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShotter2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShotter2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStillwellMacDonaldMcAllister\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrabo\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuetonius\"] = 5,\n [\"CITEREFTacitus\"] = 12,\n [\"CITEREFTertullian\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTodd1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTodd2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomlin1994\"] = 1,\n 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