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id="toc-Caltech_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caltech_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Caltech years </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Caltech_years-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Caltech years subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Caltech_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal_and_political_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_and_political_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Personal and political life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_and_political_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feynman_diagram_van" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feynman_diagram_van"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Feynman diagram van </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feynman_diagram_van-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Physics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Machine_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Machine_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Machine technology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Machine_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pedagogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pedagogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Pedagogy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pedagogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case_before_the_Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_before_the_Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Case before the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_before_the_Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surely_You're_Joking,_Mr._Feynman!" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surely_You're_Joking,_Mr._Feynman!"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surely_You're_Joking,_Mr._Feynman!-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenger_disaster" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenger_disaster"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Challenger disaster </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenger_disaster-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recognition_and_awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition_and_awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Recognition and awards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition_and_awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popular_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popular_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Popular legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popular_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selected_scientific_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_scientific_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Selected scientific works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_scientific_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Textbooks_and_lecture_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textbooks_and_lecture_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Textbooks and lecture notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textbooks_and_lecture_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popular_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popular_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Popular works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popular_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Audio_and_video_recordings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Audio_and_video_recordings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Audio and video recordings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Audio_and_video_recordings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Films_and_plays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Films_and_plays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Films and plays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Films_and_plays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Richard Feynman</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 110 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-110" aria-hidden="true" > 110 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%AA%E1%89%BB%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%B5_%E1%8D%8B%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%88%9B%E1%8A%95" title="ሪቻርድ ፋይንማን – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሪቻርድ ፋይንማን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ريتشارد فاينمان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ريتشارد فاينمان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%AB%D5%B9%D5%A8%D6%80%D5%BF_%D5%96%D5%A7%D5%B5%D5%B6%D5%B4%D5%A8%D5%B6" title="Ռիչըրտ Ֆէյնմըն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ռիչըրտ Ֆէյնմըն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8" title="ৰিচাৰ্ড ফাইনমেন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ৰিচাৰ্ড ফাইনমেন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ri%C3%A7ard_Feynman" title="Riçard Feynman – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Riçard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D9%86" title="ریچارد فاینمن – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ریچارد فاینمن" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="রিচার্ড ফাইনম্যান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রিচার্ড ফাইনম্যান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BF%D1%81_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Рычард Філіпс Фейнман – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рычард Філіпс Фейнман" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8" title="रिचर्ड फेयनमन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="रिचर्ड फेयनमन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ричард Файнман – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ричард Файнман" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%AF%CF%84%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%84_%CE%A6%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%80%CF%82_%CE%A6%CE%AC%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD" title="Ρίτσαρντ Φίλιπς Φάινμαν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρίτσαρντ Φίλιπς Φάινμαν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D9%86" title="ریچارد فاینمن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ریچارد فاینمن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A6%AC%EC%B2%98%EB%93%9C_%ED%8C%8C%EC%9D%B8%EB%A7%8C" title="리처드 파인만 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="리처드 파인만" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%AB%D5%B9%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4_%D5%96%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%B6%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Ռիչարդ Ֆեյնման – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռիչարդ Ֆեյնման" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8" title="रिचर्ड फिलिप्स फाइनमेन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रिचर्ड फिलिप्स फाइनमेन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A6%27%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%9E%D7%9F" title="ריצ'רד פיינמן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ריצ'רד פיינמן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ರಿಚರ್ಡ್ ಫೇನ್ಮನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರಿಚರ್ಡ್ ಫೇನ್ಮನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="რიჩარდ ფეინმანი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რიჩარდ ფეინმანი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ричард Фейнман – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ричард Фейнман" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricardus_Feynman" title="Ricardus Feynman – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ricardus Feynman" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ri%C4%8Dards_Fainmens" title="Ričards Fainmens – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ričards Fainmens" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ричард Фајнман – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ричард Фајнман" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8D%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB" title="റിച്ചാർഡ് ഫെയ്ൻമാൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റിച്ചാർഡ് ഫെയ്ൻമാൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8" title="रिचर्ड फाइनमन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रिचर्ड फाइनमन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="რიჩარდ ფეინმანი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რიჩარდ ფეინმანი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ريتشارد فاينمان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ريتشارد فاينمان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D9%86" title="ریچارد فاینمن – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ریچارد فاینمن" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%81_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ричард Филлипс Фейнман – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ричард Филлипс Фейнман" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BB%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%96%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ရစ်ချတ်ဖိန်းမန်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရစ်ချတ်ဖိန်းမန်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="रिचार्ड फेञम्यान – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="रिचार्ड फेञम्यान" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AA%E3%83%81%E3%83%A3%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%BBP%E3%83%BB%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3" title="リチャード・P・ファインマン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="リチャード・P・ファインマン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DA%86%D8%B1%DA%88_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86" title="رچرڈ فائنمین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="رچرڈ فائنمین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%8A%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%89_%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D9%86" title="ريچارډ فاينمن – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ريچارډ فاينمن" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%96%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Річард Фейнман – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Річард Фейнман" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD,_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Фейнман, Ричард – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фейнман, Ричард" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8" title="रिचार्ड फैनमन – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="रिचार्ड फैनमन" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Phillips_Feynman" title="Richard Phillips Feynman – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Richard Phillips Feynman" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%8C%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ڕیچارد فاینمان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕیچارد فاینمان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ричард Фајнман – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ричард Фајнман" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="ரிச்சர்டு பெயின்மான் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ரிச்சர்டு பெயின்மான்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Ричард Файнмен – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ричард Файнмен" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="రిచర్డ్ ఫేన్‌మాన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రిచర్డ్ ఫేన్‌మాన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94_%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99" title="ริชาร์ด ไฟน์แมน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ริชาร์ด ไฟน์แมน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ричард Фейнман – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ричард Фейнман" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%96%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BF%D1%81_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Річард Філіпс Фейнман – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Річард Філіпс Фейнман" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DA%86%D8%B1%DA%88_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%BE_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86" title="رچرڈ فلپ فائنمین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رچرڈ فلپ فائنمین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E5%AF%9F%E8%B2%BB%E6%9B%BC" title="理察費曼 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="理察費曼" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%9F%A5%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%B4%B9%E6%9B%BC" title="理查德·费曼 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="理查德·费曼" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%9F" title="ריטשארד פיינמאן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ריטשארד פיינמאן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Richard Feynman" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E5%AF%9F%E8%B2%BB%E6%9B%BC" title="理察費曼 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="理察費曼" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%9F%A5%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%B2%BB%E6%9B%BC" title="理查德·費曼 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="理查德·費曼" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q39246#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American theoretical physicist (1918–1988)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Feynman" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Feynman_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Feynman (disambiguation)">Feynman (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Richard Feynman</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_Feynman_Nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Feynman, smiling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/42/Richard_Feynman_Nobel.jpg/220px-Richard_Feynman_Nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/42/Richard_Feynman_Nobel.jpg/330px-Richard_Feynman_Nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/42/Richard_Feynman_Nobel.jpg/440px-Richard_Feynman_Nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="1008" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Feynman <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1965</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Richard Phillips Feynman</div> (1918-05-11)May 11, 1918 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace">New York City, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">February 15, 1988(1988-02-15) (aged 69) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Los Angeles, California, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Mountain_View_Cemetery,_Altadena" title="Mountain View Cemetery, Altadena">Mountain View Cemetery and Mausoleum</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">SB</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> (<a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_wave_equation" title="Acoustic wave equation">Acoustic wave equation</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Bethe%E2%80%93Feynman_formula" title="Bethe–Feynman formula">Bethe–Feynman formula</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Feynman_checkerboard" title="Feynman checkerboard">Feynman checkerboard</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagram" title="Feynman diagram">Feynman diagrams</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Feynman_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Feynman gauge">Feynman gauge</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Feynman%E2%80%93Kac_formula" title="Feynman–Kac formula">Feynman–Kac formula</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Feynman_parametrization" title="Feynman parametrization">Feynman parametrization</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Feynman_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Feynman point">Feynman point</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Feynman_propagator" class="mw-redirect" title="Feynman propagator">Feynman propagator</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Feynman_slash_notation" title="Feynman slash notation">Feynman slash notation</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Feynman_sprinkler" title="Feynman sprinkler">Feynman sprinkler</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Hellmann%E2%80%93Feynman_theorem" title="Hellmann–Feynman theorem">Hellmann–Feynman theorem</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Jefimenko%27s_equations#Heaviside–Feynman_formula" title="Jefimenko's equations">Heaviside-Feynman formula</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/V%E2%88%92A_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="V−A theory">V−A theory</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Brownian_ratchet" title="Brownian ratchet">Brownian ratchet</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Feynman%E2%80%93Stueckelberg_interpretation" class="mw-redirect" title="Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation">Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/One-electron_universe" title="One-electron universe">One-electron universe</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Parton_(particle_physics)" title="Parton (particle physics)">Parton</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Path_integral_formulation" title="Path integral formulation">Path integral formulation</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Bongo_drum" title="Bongo drum">Playing the bongos</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cellular_automata" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum cellular automata">Quantum cellular automata</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dissipation" title="Quantum dissipation">Quantum dissipation</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">Quantum electrodynamics</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_hydrodynamics" title="Quantum hydrodynamics">Quantum hydrodynamics</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_logic_gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum logic gates">Quantum logic gates</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_turbulence" title="Quantum turbulence">Quantum turbulence</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Resummation" title="Resummation">Resummation</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Rogers_Commission_Report" title="Rogers Commission Report">Rogers Commission</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Shaft_passer" title="Shaft passer">Shaft passer</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Sticky_bead_argument" title="Sticky bead argument">Sticky bead argument</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_molecular_motor" title="Synthetic molecular motor">Synthetic molecular motor</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics" title="The Feynman Lectures on Physics">The Feynman Lectures on Physics</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Universal_quantum_simulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal quantum simulator">Universal quantum simulator</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Superfluid_helium-4" title="Superfluid helium-4">Vortex ring model</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Wheeler%E2%80%93Feynman_absorber_theory" title="Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory">Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Variational_perturbation_theory" title="Variational perturbation theory">Variational perturbation theory</a></li></ul></div> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Arline Greenbaum</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1942; died 1945)</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Mary Louise Bell</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1952; <abbr title="divorced">div.</abbr> 1958)</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Gweneth Howarth</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1960)</div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Feynman" title="Joan Feynman">Joan Feynman</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hirshberg" title="Charles Hirshberg">Charles Hirshberg</a> (nephew)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Award" title="Albert Einstein Award">Albert Einstein Award</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence_Award" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award">E. O. Lawrence Award</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Member_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Member of the Royal Society">Foreign Member of the Royal Society</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oersted_Medal" title="Oersted Medal">Oersted Medal</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> (1979)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/101498/files/Thesis-1942-Feynman.pdf">The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics</a> (1942)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Bardeen" title="James M. Bardeen">James M. Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurie_Brown_(physicist)" title="Laurie Brown (physicist)">Laurie Mark Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cohen_(physicist)" title="Michael Cohen (physicist)">Michael Cohen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Curtright" title="Thomas Curtright">Thomas Curtright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Hibbs" title="Albert Hibbs">Albert Hibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Rossi_Lomanitz" title="Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz">Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Zweig" title="George Zweig">George Zweig</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Barro" title="Robert Barro">Robert Barro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_D._Osheroff" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas D. Osheroff">Douglas D. Osheroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Steinhardt" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul J. Steinhardt">Paul J. Steinhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Wolfram" title="Stephen Wolfram">Stephen Wolfram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_Feynman_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Richard_Feynman_signature.svg/150px-Richard_Feynman_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Richard_Feynman_signature.svg/225px-Richard_Feynman_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Richard_Feynman_signature.svg/300px-Richard_Feynman_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="206" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> Richard Phillips Feynman (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈfaɪnmən/</a>; May 11, 1918 – February 15, 1988) was an American <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical physicist">theoretical physicist</a>. He is best known for his work in the <a href="/wiki/Path_integral_formulation" title="Path integral formulation">path integral formulation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, the theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a>, the physics of the <a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">superfluidity</a> of supercooled <a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">liquid helium</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, for which he proposed the <a href="/wiki/Parton_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Parton model">parton model</a>. For his contributions to the development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1965 jointly with <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Shin'ichirō Tomonaga</a>. Feynman developed a widely used pictorial representation scheme for the mathematical expressions describing the behavior of <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>, which later became known as <a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagram" title="Feynman diagram">Feynman diagrams</a>. During his lifetime, Feynman became one of the best-known scientists in the world. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal <a href="/wiki/Physics_World" title="Physics World">Physics World</a>, he was ranked the seventh-greatest physicist of all time.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> He assisted in the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">development of the atomic bomb</a> during World War II and became known to the wider public in the 1980s as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Rogers_Commission_Report" title="Rogers Commission Report">Rogers Commission</a>, the panel that investigated the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle Challenger disaster</a>. Along with his work in theoretical physics, Feynman has been credited with having pioneered the field of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">quantum computing</a> and introducing the concept of <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>. He held the <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard C. Tolman</a> <a href="/wiki/Financial_endowment#Endowed_professorships" title="Financial endowment">professorship</a> in <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical physics</a> at the California Institute of Technology. Feynman was a keen popularizer of physics through both books and lectures, including a 1959 talk on top-down nanotechnology called <a href="/wiki/There%27s_Plenty_of_Room_at_the_Bottom" title="There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom">There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom</a> and the three-volume publication of his undergraduate lectures, <a href="/wiki/The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics" title="The Feynman Lectures on Physics">The Feynman Lectures on Physics</a>. Feynman also became known through his autobiographical books <a href="/wiki/Surely_You%27re_Joking,_Mr._Feynman!" title="Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!">Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!</a> and <a href="/wiki/What_Do_You_Care_What_Other_People_Think%3F" title="What Do You Care What Other People Think?">What Do You Care What Other People Think?</a>, and books written about him such as <a href="/wiki/Tuva_or_Bust!" title="Tuva or Bust!">Tuva or Bust!</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Leighton" title="Ralph Leighton">Ralph Leighton</a> and the biography Genius: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman by <a href="/wiki/James_Gleick" title="James Gleick">James Gleick</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life">edit</a>]</div> Feynman was born on May 11, 1918, in New York City,<a href="#cite_note-nobelbio-2">[2]</a> to Lucille (<a href="/wiki/Birth_name#Maiden_and_married_names" title="Birth name">née</a> Phillips; 1895–1981), a <a href="/wiki/Homemaking" title="Homemaking">homemaker</a>, and Melville Arthur Feynman (1890–1946), a sales manager.<a href="#cite_note-turnbull-3">[3]</a> Feynman's father was born into a Jewish family in <a href="/wiki/Minsk" title="Minsk">Minsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakes2007231-4">[4]</a> and immigrated with his parents to the United States at the age of five. Feynman's mother was born in the United States into a Jewish family. Lucille's father had emigrated from Poland, and her mother also came from a family of Polish immigrants. She trained as a primary school teacher but married Melville in 1917, before taking up a profession.<a href="#cite_note-nobelbio-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-turnbull-3">[3]</a> Feynman was a <a href="/wiki/Late_talker" title="Late talker">late talker</a> and did not speak until after his third birthday. As an adult, he spoke with a <a href="/wiki/New_York_accent" title="New York accent">New York accent</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChown198534-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClose201158-6">[6]</a> strong enough to be perceived as an affectation or exaggeration,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESykes199454-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedman2004231-8">[8]</a> so much so that his friends <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> once commented that Feynman spoke like a "bum".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESykes199454-7">[7]</a> The young Feynman was heavily influenced by his father, who encouraged him to ask questions to challenge orthodox thinking, and who was always ready to teach Feynman something new. From his mother, he gained the sense of humor that he had throughout his life. As a child, he had a talent for engineering,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman198518-9">[9]</a> maintained an experimental laboratory in his home, and delighted in repairing radios. This radio repairing was probably the first job Feynman had, and during this time he showed early signs of an aptitude for his later career in theoretical physics, when he would analyze the issues theoretically and arrive at the solutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman198520-10">[10]</a> When he was in grade school, he created a home burglar alarm system while his parents were out for the day running errands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenderson20118-11">[11]</a> When Richard was five, his mother gave birth to a younger brother, Henry Phillips, who died at age four weeks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick199225–26-12">[12]</a> Four years later, Richard's sister <a href="/wiki/Joan_Feynman" title="Joan Feynman">Joan</a> was born and the family moved to <a href="/wiki/Far_Rockaway,_Queens" title="Far Rockaway, Queens">Far Rockaway, Queens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-turnbull-3">[3]</a> Though separated by nine years, Joan and Richard were close, and they both shared a curiosity about the world.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes2020-09-10-13">[13]</a> Though their mother thought women lacked the capacity to understand such things, Richard encouraged Joan's interest in astronomy, and Joan eventually became an astrophysicist.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> Feynman's parents were both from Jewish families,<a href="#cite_note-turnbull-3">[3]</a> and his family went to the <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a> every Friday.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> However, by his youth, Feynman described himself as an "avowed <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1988a25-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrian200149-17">[17]</a> Many years later, in a letter to <a href="/wiki/Tina_Levitan" title="Tina Levitan">Tina Levitan</a>, declining a request for information for her book on Jewish Nobel Prize winners, he stated, "To select, for approbation the peculiar elements that come from some supposedly Jewish heredity is to open the door to all kinds of nonsense on racial theory", adding, "at thirteen I was not only converted to other religious views, but I also stopped believing that the Jewish people are in any way 'the <a href="/wiki/Chosen_people" title="Chosen people">chosen people</a>'".<a href="#cite_note-Harrison-18">[18]</a> Later in life, during a visit to the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America" title="Jewish Theological Seminary of America">Jewish Theological Seminary</a>, Feynman encountered the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> for the first time. He saw that it contained the original text in a little square on each page, and surrounding it were commentaries written over time by different people. In this way the Talmud had evolved, and everything that was discussed was carefully recorded. Despite being impressed, Feynman was disappointed with the lack of interest for nature and the outside world expressed by the rabbis, who cared about only those questions which arise from the Talmud.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985284–287-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> Feynman attended <a href="/wiki/Far_Rockaway_High_School" title="Far Rockaway High School">Far Rockaway High School</a>, which was also attended by fellow Nobel laureates <a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Samuel_Blumberg" title="Baruch Samuel Blumberg">Baruch Samuel Blumberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Upon starting high school, Feynman was quickly promoted to a higher math class. An IQ test administered in high school estimated his <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">IQ</a> at 125—high but "merely respectable", according to biographer <a href="/wiki/James_Gleick" title="James Gleick">James Gleick</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick199230-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarroll19969-22">[22]</a> His sister Joan, who scored one point higher, later jokingly claimed to an interviewer that she was smarter. Years later he declined to join <a href="/wiki/Mensa_International" title="Mensa International">Mensa International</a>, saying that his IQ was too low.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin199719–20-23">[23]</a> When Feynman was 15, he taught himself <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">advanced algebra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infinite_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinite series">infinite series</a>, <a href="/wiki/Analytic_geometry" title="Analytic geometry">analytic geometry</a>, and both <a href="/wiki/Differential_calculus" title="Differential calculus">differential</a> and <a href="/wiki/Integral_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Integral calculus">integral calculus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber1994374-24">[24]</a> Before entering college, he was experimenting with mathematical topics such as the <a href="/wiki/Half-derivative" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-derivative">half-derivative</a> using his own notation.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> He created special symbols for <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sine">sine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosine">cosine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tangent_(trigonometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangent (trigonometry)">tangent</a> functions so they did not look like three variables multiplied together, and for the <a href="/wiki/Derivative" title="Derivative">derivative</a>, to remove the temptation of canceling out the <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}">'s in <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d/dx}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d/dx}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/75a0e680edceb47b7d233535262fcacd931585f8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.924ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d/dx}">.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman198524-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick199215-27">[27]</a> A member of the <a href="/wiki/Arista_%E2%80%93_National_Honor_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Arista – National Honor Society">Arista Honor Society</a>, in his last year in high school he won the <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a> Math Championship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra199441-28">[28]</a> His habit of direct characterization sometimes rattled more conventional thinkers; for example, one of his questions, when learning <a href="/wiki/Feline_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Feline anatomy">feline anatomy</a>, was "Do you have a map of the cat?" (referring to an anatomical chart).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman198572-29">[29]</a> Feynman applied to <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> but was not accepted because of its <a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">quota for the number of Jews admitted</a>.<a href="#cite_note-turnbull-3">[3]</a> Instead, he attended the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, where he joined the <a href="/wiki/Pi_Lambda_Phi" title="Pi Lambda Phi">Pi Lambda Phi</a> fraternity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin199745–46-30">[30]</a> Although he originally majored in mathematics, he later switched to electrical engineering, as he considered mathematics to be too abstract. Noticing that he "had gone too far", he then switched to physics, which he claimed was "somewhere in between".<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> As an undergraduate, he published two papers in the <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra199441-28">[28]</a> One of these, which was co-written with <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Vallarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Manuel Vallarta">Manuel Vallarta</a>, was entitled "The Scattering of Cosmic Rays by the Stars of a Galaxy".<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Vallarta let his student in on a secret of mentor-protégé publishing: the senior scientist's name comes first. Feynman had his revenge a few years later, when <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a> concluded an entire book on cosmic rays with the phrase: "such an effect is not to be expected according to Vallarta and Feynman". When they next met, Feynman asked gleefully whether Vallarta had seen Heisenberg's book. Vallarta knew why Feynman was grinning. "Yes," he replied. "You're the last word in cosmic rays."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick199282-33">[33]</a></blockquote> The other was his senior thesis, on "Forces in Molecules",<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> based on a topic assigned by <a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a>, who was sufficiently impressed by the paper to have it published. Its main result is known as the <a href="/wiki/Hellmann%E2%80%93Feynman_theorem" title="Hellmann–Feynman theorem">Hellmann–Feynman theorem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra199471–78-35">[35]</a> In 1939, Feynman received a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin199756-36">[36]</a> and was named a <a href="/wiki/Putnam_Fellow" class="mw-redirect" title="Putnam Fellow">Putnam Fellow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MMA-37">[37]</a> He attained a perfect score on the graduate school entrance exams to <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> in physics—an unprecedented feat—and an outstanding score in mathematics, but did poorly on the history and English portions. The head of the physics department there, <a href="/wiki/Henry_D._Smyth" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry D. Smyth">Henry D. Smyth</a>, had another concern, writing to <a href="/wiki/Philip_M._Morse" title="Philip M. Morse">Philip M. Morse</a> to ask: "Is Feynman Jewish? We have no definite rule against Jews but have to keep their proportion in our department reasonably small because of the difficulty of placing them."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick199284-38">[38]</a> Morse conceded that Feynman was indeed Jewish, but reassured Smyth that Feynman's "physiognomy and manner, however, show no trace of this characteristic".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick199284-38">[38]</a> Attendees at Feynman's first seminar, which was on the classical version of the <a href="/wiki/Wheeler%E2%80%93Feynman_absorber_theory" title="Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory">Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory</a>, included <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>. Pauli made the prescient comment that the theory would be extremely difficult to quantize, and Einstein said that one might try to apply this method to gravity in <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman198577–80-39">[39]</a> which <a href="/wiki/Sir_Fred_Hoyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Fred Hoyle">Sir Fred Hoyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jayant_Narlikar" title="Jayant Narlikar">Jayant Narlikar</a> did much later as the <a href="/wiki/Hoyle%E2%80%93Narlikar_theory_of_gravity" title="Hoyle–Narlikar theory of gravity">Hoyle–Narlikar theory of gravity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Feynman received a PhD from Princeton in 1942; his thesis advisor was <a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992129–130-42">[42]</a> In his doctoral thesis entitled "The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics",<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Feynman applied the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_stationary_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of stationary action">principle of stationary action</a> to problems of quantum mechanics, inspired by a desire to quantize the Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory of electrodynamics, and laid the groundwork for the path integral formulation and Feynman diagrams.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra199492–101-44">[44]</a> A key insight was that <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a> behaved like <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> moving backwards in time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra199492–101-44">[44]</a> James Gleick wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">This was Richard Feynman nearing the crest of his powers. At twenty-three ... there may now have been no physicist on earth who could match his exuberant command over the native materials of theoretical science. It was not just a facility at mathematics (though it had become clear ... that the mathematical machinery emerging in the Wheeler–Feynman collaboration was beyond Wheeler's own ability). Feynman seemed to possess a frightening ease with the substance behind the equations, like Einstein at the same age, like the Soviet physicist <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a>—but few others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992129–130-42">[42]</a> </blockquote> One of the conditions of Feynman's scholarship to Princeton was that he could not be married; nevertheless, he continued to see his high school sweetheart, Arline Greenbaum, and was determined to marry her once he had been awarded his PhD despite the knowledge that she was seriously ill with <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>. This was an incurable disease at the time, and she was not expected to live more than two years. On June 29, 1942, they took the <a href="/wiki/Staten_Island_Ferry" title="Staten Island Ferry">ferry</a> to <a href="/wiki/Staten_Island" title="Staten Island">Staten Island</a>, where they were married in the city office. The ceremony was attended by neither family nor friends and was witnessed by a pair of strangers. Feynman could kiss Arline only on the cheek. After the ceremony he took her to <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Heart_and_Lung_Center" title="Deborah Heart and Lung Center">Deborah Hospital</a>, where he visited her on weekends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin199766–67-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992150–151-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Manhattan Project">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Feynman-richard_p.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Feynman smiling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Feynman-richard_p.jpg/170px-Feynman-richard_p.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Feynman-richard_p.jpg/255px-Feynman-richard_p.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Feynman-richard_p.jpg/340px-Feynman-richard_p.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1565" data-file-height="2135" /></a><figcaption>Feynman's Los Alamos ID badge</figcaption></figure> In 1941, with <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> occurring in Europe but the United States not yet at war, Feynman spent the summer working on ballistics problems at the <a href="/wiki/Frankford_Arsenal" title="Frankford Arsenal">Frankford Arsenal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin199763–64-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman198599–103-48">[48]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> brought the United States into the war, Feynman was recruited by <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert R. Wilson</a>, who was working on means to produce <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a> for use in an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>, as part of what would become the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin199764–65-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985107–108-50">[50]</a> At the time, Feynman had not earned a graduate degree.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Wilson's team at Princeton was working on a device called an isotron, intended to electromagnetically separate <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> from <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a>. This was done in a quite different manner from that used by the <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutron</a> that was under development by a team under Wilson's former mentor, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_O._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest O. Lawrence">Ernest O. Lawrence</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory">Radiation Laboratory</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California</a>. On paper, the isotron was many times more efficient than the calutron, but Feynman and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Olum" title="Paul Olum">Paul Olum</a> struggled to determine whether it was practical. Ultimately, on Lawrence's recommendation, the isotron project was abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992141–145-52">[52]</a> At this juncture, in early 1943, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> was establishing the <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a>, a secret laboratory on a <a href="/wiki/Mesa" title="Mesa">mesa</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> where atomic bombs would be designed and built. An offer was made to the Princeton team to be redeployed there. "Like a bunch of professional soldiers," Wilson later recalled, "we signed up, en masse, to go to Los Alamos."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall199359-53">[53]</a> Like many other young physicists, Feynman soon fell under the spell of the charismatic Oppenheimer, who telephoned Feynman long distance from Chicago to inform him that he had found a Presbyterian <a href="/wiki/Sanatorium" title="Sanatorium">sanatorium</a> in <a href="/wiki/Albuquerque,_New_Mexico" title="Albuquerque, New Mexico">Albuquerque, New Mexico</a> for Arline. They were among the first to depart for New Mexico, leaving on a train on March 28, 1943. The railroad supplied Arline with a wheelchair, and Feynman paid extra for a private room for her. There they spent their wedding anniversary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992158–160-54">[54]</a> At Los Alamos, Feynman was assigned to Hans Bethe's Theoretical (T) Division,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992165–169-55">[55]</a> and impressed Bethe enough to be made a group leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993157–159-56">[56]</a> He and Bethe developed the <a href="/wiki/Bethe%E2%80%93Feynman_formula" title="Bethe–Feynman formula">Bethe–Feynman formula</a> for calculating the yield of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">fission bomb</a>, which built upon previous work by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Robert Serber</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993183-57">[57]</a> As a junior physicist, he was not central to the project. He administered the computation group of <a href="/wiki/Human_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Human computer">human computers</a> in the theoretical division. With <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Frankel" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley Frankel">Stanley Frankel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Metropolis" title="Nicholas Metropolis">Nicholas Metropolis</a>, he assisted in establishing a system for using <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a> for computation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasheJohnsonPalmerPugh198614-58">[58]</a> He invented a new method of computing <a href="/wiki/Logarithm#Calculation" title="Logarithm">logarithms</a> that he later used on the <a href="/wiki/Connection_Machine" title="Connection Machine">Connection Machine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillis198978-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985125–129-60">[60]</a> An avid drummer, Feynman figured out how to get the machine to click in musical rhythms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992181-61">[61]</a> Other work at Los Alamos included calculating <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> equations for the Los Alamos "Water Boiler", a small <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>, to measure how close an assembly of fissile material was to criticality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalison1998403–407-62">[62]</a> On completing this work, Feynman was sent to the <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Clinton Engineer Works</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>, where the Manhattan Project had its <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a> facilities. He aided the engineers there in devising safety procedures for material storage so that <a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident" title="Criticality accident">criticality accidents</a> could be avoided, especially when <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a> came into contact with water, which acted as a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a>. He insisted on giving the rank and file a lecture on nuclear physics so that they would realize the dangers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalison1998407–409-63">[63]</a> He explained that while any amount of unenriched uranium could be safely stored, the enriched uranium had to be carefully handled. He developed a series of safety recommendations for the various grades of enrichments.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> He was told that if the people at Oak Ridge gave him any difficulty with his proposals, he was to inform them that Los Alamos "could not be responsible for their safety otherwise".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985122-65">[65]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Los_Alamos_colloquium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A crowd seated in folding chairs" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Los_Alamos_colloquium.jpg/220px-Los_Alamos_colloquium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Los_Alamos_colloquium.jpg/330px-Los_Alamos_colloquium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Los_Alamos_colloquium.jpg/440px-Los_Alamos_colloquium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2331" /></a><figcaption>At the 1946 colloquium on the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design#Teller's_"Super"" title="History of the Teller–Ulam design">"Super"</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a>. Feynman is in the second row, fourth from left, next to Oppenheimer.</figcaption></figure> Returning to Los Alamos, Feynman was put in charge of the group responsible for the theoretical work and calculations on the proposed <a href="/wiki/Uranium_hydride_bomb" title="Uranium hydride bomb">uranium hydride bomb</a>, which ultimately proved to be infeasible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993157–159-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalison1998414–422-66">[66]</a> He was sought out by physicist <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> for one-on-one discussions. He later discovered the reason: most of the other physicists were too much in awe of Bohr to argue with him. Feynman had no such inhibitions, vigorously pointing out anything he considered to be flawed in Bohr's thinking. He said he felt as much respect for Bohr as anyone else, but once anyone got him talking about physics, he would become so focused he forgot about social niceties. Perhaps because of this, Bohr never warmed to Feynman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992257-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin199795–96-68">[68]</a> At Los Alamos, which was isolated for security, Feynman amused himself by investigating the combination locks on the cabinets and desks of physicists. He often found that they left the lock combinations on the factory settings, wrote the combinations down, or used easily guessable combinations like dates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992188–189-69">[69]</a> He found one cabinet's combination by trying numbers he thought a physicist might use (it proved to be 27–18–28 after the base of <a href="/wiki/Natural_logarithm" title="Natural logarithm">natural logarithms</a>, <a href="/wiki/E_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="E (number)">e</a> = 2.71828 ...), and found that the three filing cabinets where a colleague kept research notes all had the same combination. He left notes in the cabinets as a prank, spooking his colleague, <a href="/wiki/Frederic_de_Hoffmann" title="Frederic de Hoffmann">Frederic de Hoffmann</a>, into thinking a spy had gained access to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985147–149-70">[70]</a> Feynman's $380 (equivalent to $7,000 in 2023) monthly salary was about half the amount needed for his modest living expenses and Arline's medical bills, and they were forced to dip into her $3,300 (equivalent to $58,000 in 2023) in savings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin199799-71">[71]</a> On weekends he borrowed a car from his friend <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a> to drive to Albuquerque to see Arline.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992184-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin199796-73">[73]</a> Asked who at Los Alamos was most likely to be a spy, Fuchs mentioned Feynman's <a href="/wiki/Safe-cracking" title="Safe-cracking">safe-cracking</a> and frequent trips to Albuquerque;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992184-72">[72]</a> Fuchs himself later confessed to spying for the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992296–297-74">[74]</a> The <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> would compile a bulky file on Feynman,<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> particularly in view of Feynman's <a href="/wiki/Q_clearance" title="Q clearance">Q clearance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The scientists standing in a semi-circle, wearing suits" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jpg/220px-Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jpg/330px-Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jpg/440px-Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2418" /></a><figcaption>Feynman (center) with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> (immediately right of Feynman) at a Los Alamos Laboratory social function during the Manhattan Project</figcaption></figure> Informed that Arline was dying, Feynman drove to Albuquerque and sat with her for hours until she died on June 16, 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992200–202-77">[77]</a> He then immersed himself in work on the project and was present at the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_nuclear_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity nuclear test">Trinity nuclear test</a>. Feynman claimed to be the only person to see the explosion without the very dark glasses or welder's lenses provided, reasoning that it was safe to look through a truck windshield, as it would screen out the harmful <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> radiation. The immense brightness of the explosion made him duck to the truck's floor, where he saw a temporary "purple splotch" <a href="/wiki/Afterimage" title="Afterimage">afterimage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985134-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cornell">Cornell</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cornell">edit</a>]</div> Feynman nominally held an appointment at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a> as an assistant professor of physics, but was on unpaid leave during his involvement in the Manhattan Project.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin1997101-79">[79]</a> In 1945, he received a letter from Dean Mark Ingraham of the College of Letters and Science requesting his return to the university to teach in the coming academic year. His appointment was not extended when he did not commit to returning. In a talk given there several years later, Feynman quipped, "It's great to be back at the only university that ever had the good sense to fire me."<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> As early as October 30, 1943, Bethe had written to the chairman of the physics department of his university, <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell</a>, to recommend that Feynman be hired. On February 28, 1944, this was endorsed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994161–164,_178–179-81">[81]</a> also from Cornell,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall199347–52-82">[82]</a> and one of the most senior scientists at Los Alamos.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993316-83">[83]</a> This led to an offer being made in August 1944, which Feynman accepted. Oppenheimer had also hoped to recruit Feynman to the University of California, but the head of the physics department, <a href="/wiki/Raymond_T._Birge" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond T. Birge">Raymond T. Birge</a>, was reluctant. He made Feynman an offer in May 1945, but Feynman turned it down. Cornell matched its salary offer of $3,900 (equivalent to $66,000 in 2023) per annum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994161–164,_178–179-81">[81]</a> Feynman became one of the first of the Los Alamos Laboratory's group leaders to depart, leaving for <a href="/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a>, in October 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992205-84">[84]</a> Because Feynman was no longer working at the Los Alamos Laboratory, he was no longer exempt from <a href="/wiki/The_draft" class="mw-redirect" title="The draft">the draft</a>. At his induction physical, Army psychiatrists diagnosed Feynman as suffering from a mental illness and the Army gave him a <a href="/wiki/Selective_Service_System#Classifications" title="Selective Service System">4-F exemption</a> on mental grounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992225-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985162–163-86">[86]</a> His father died suddenly on October 8, 1946, and Feynman suffered from depression.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994171–174-87">[87]</a> On October 17, 1946, he wrote a letter to Arline, expressing his deep love and heartbreak. The letter was sealed and only opened after his death. "Please excuse my not mailing this," the letter concluded, "but I don't know your new address."<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Unable to focus on research problems, Feynman began tackling physics problems, not for utility, but for self-satisfaction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994171–174-87">[87]</a> One of these involved analyzing the physics of a twirling, <a href="/wiki/Nutation" title="Nutation">nutating</a> disk as it is moving through the air, inspired by an incident in the cafeteria at Cornell when someone tossed a dinner plate in the air.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992227–229-89">[89]</a> He read the work of Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Rowan_Hamilton" title="William Rowan Hamilton">William Rowan Hamilton</a> on <a href="/wiki/Quaternions" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternions">quaternions</a>, and tried unsuccessfully to use them to formulate a <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">relativistic</a> theory of electrons. His work during this period, which used equations of rotation to express various spinning speeds, ultimately proved important to his Nobel Prize–winning work, yet because he felt burned out and had turned his attention to less immediately practical problems, he was surprised by the offers of professorships from other renowned universities, including the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study" title="Institute for Advanced Study">Institute for Advanced Study</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994171–174-87">[87]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Feynman_EP_Annihilation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A diagram displaying two particles colliding and releasing gamma radiation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Feynman_EP_Annihilation.svg/220px-Feynman_EP_Annihilation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Feynman_EP_Annihilation.svg/330px-Feynman_EP_Annihilation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Feynman_EP_Annihilation.svg/440px-Feynman_EP_Annihilation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption>Feynman diagram of electron/positron annihilation</figcaption></figure> Feynman was not the only frustrated theoretical physicist in the early post-war years. <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">Quantum electrodynamics</a> suffered from <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinite</a> integrals in <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_theory" title="Perturbation theory">perturbation theory</a>. These were clear mathematical flaws in the theory, which Feynman and Wheeler had tried, unsuccessfully, to work around.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994213–214-90">[90]</a> "Theoreticians", noted <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a>, "were in disgrace".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992232-91">[91]</a> In June 1947, leading American physicists met at the <a href="/wiki/Shelter_Island_Conference" title="Shelter Island Conference">Shelter Island Conference</a>. For Feynman, it was his "first big conference with big men ... I had never gone to one like this one in peacetime."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994217-92">[92]</a> The problems plaguing quantum electrodynamics were discussed, but the theoreticians were completely overshadowed by the achievements of the experimentalists, who reported the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Lamb_shift" title="Lamb shift">Lamb shift</a>, the measurement of the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">magnetic moment</a> of the electron, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Marshak" title="Robert Marshak">Robert Marshak</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pi-meson" class="mw-redirect" title="Pi-meson">two-meson</a> hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994218–219-93">[93]</a> Bethe took the lead from the work of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Kramers" title="Hans Kramers">Hans Kramers</a>, and derived a <a href="/wiki/Renormalization" title="Renormalization">renormalized</a> non-relativistic quantum equation for the Lamb shift. The next step was to create a relativistic version. Feynman thought that he could do this, but when he went back to Bethe with his solution, it did not converge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994223–228-94">[94]</a> Feynman carefully worked through the problem again, applying the path integral formulation that he had used in his thesis. Like Bethe, he made the integral finite by applying a cut-off term. The result corresponded to Bethe's version.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994229–234-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Feynman presented his work to his peers at the <a href="/wiki/Pocono_Conference" title="Pocono Conference">Pocono Conference</a> in 1948. It did not go well. <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a> gave a long presentation of his work in quantum electrodynamics, and Feynman then offered his version, entitled "Alternative Formulation of Quantum Electrodynamics". The unfamiliar <a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagrams" class="mw-redirect" title="Feynman diagrams">Feynman diagrams</a>, used for the first time, puzzled the audience. Feynman failed to get his point across, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> and Niels Bohr all raised objections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994246–248-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992256–258-98">[98]</a> To <a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a>, one thing at least was clear: <a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Shin'ichirō Tomonaga</a>, Schwinger and Feynman understood what they were talking about even if no one else did, but had not published anything. He was convinced that Feynman's formulation was easier to understand, and ultimately managed to convince Oppenheimer that this was the case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992267–269-99">[99]</a> Dyson published a paper in 1949, which added new rules to Feynman's that told how to implement renormalization.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Feynman was prompted to publish his ideas in the Physical Review in a series of papers over three years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992271–272-101">[101]</a> His 1948 papers on "A Relativistic Cut-Off for Classical Electrodynamics" attempted to explain what he had been unable to get across at Pocono.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994251–252-102">[102]</a> His 1949 paper on "The Theory of Positrons" addressed the <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dirac_equation" title="Dirac equation">Dirac equation</a>, and introduced what is now called the <a href="/wiki/Feynman_propagator" class="mw-redirect" title="Feynman propagator">Feynman propagator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994271–272-103">[103]</a> Finally, in papers on the "Mathematical Formulation of the Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic Interaction" in 1950 and "An Operator Calculus Having Applications in Quantum Electrodynamics" in 1951, he developed the mathematical basis of his ideas, derived familiar formulae and advanced new ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994301–302-104">[104]</a> While papers by others initially cited Schwinger, papers citing Feynman and employing Feynman diagrams appeared in 1950, and soon became prevalent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992275–276-105">[105]</a> Students learned and used the powerful new tool that Feynman had created. Computer programs were later written to evaluate Feynman diagrams, enabling physicists to use quantum field theory to make <a href="/wiki/Precision_tests_of_QED" title="Precision tests of QED">high-precision predictions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marc_Kac" class="mw-redirect" title="Marc Kac">Marc Kac</a> adapted Feynman's technique of summing over possible histories of a particle to the study of <a href="/wiki/Parabolic_partial_differential_equation" title="Parabolic partial differential equation">parabolic partial differential equations</a>, yielding what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Feynman%E2%80%93Kac_formula" title="Feynman–Kac formula">Feynman–Kac formula</a>, the use of which extends beyond physics to many applications of <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Stochastic processes">stochastic processes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> To Schwinger, however, the Feynman diagram was "pedagogy, not physics".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992276-108">[108]</a> By 1949, Feynman was becoming restless at Cornell. He never settled into a particular house or apartment, living in guest houses or student residences, or with married friends "until these arrangements became sexually volatile".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992277-109">[109]</a> He liked to date undergraduates, hire prostitutes, and sleep with the wives of friends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992287-110">[110]</a> He was not fond of Ithaca's cold winter weather, and pined for a warmer climate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985232–233-111">[111]</a> Above all, he was always in the shadow of Hans Bethe at Cornell.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992277-109">[109]</a> Despite all of this, Feynman looked back favorably on the <a href="/wiki/Telluride_House" title="Telluride House">Telluride House</a>, where he resided for a large period of his Cornell career. In an interview, he described the House as "a group of boys that have been specially selected because of their scholarship, because of their cleverness or whatever it is, to be given free board and lodging and so on, because of their brains". He enjoyed the house's convenience and said that "it's there that I did the fundamental work" for which he won the Nobel Prize.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985191-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1949,_Brazil">1949, Brazil</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1949, Brazil">edit</a>]</div> Feynman spent several weeks in <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> in July 1949.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994333-114">[114]</a> That year, the Soviet Union <a href="/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project" title="Soviet atomic bomb project">detonated</a> its <a href="/wiki/RDS-1" title="RDS-1">first atomic bomb</a>, generating concerns about espionage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992278-115">[115]</a> Fuchs was arrested as a Soviet spy in 1950 and the FBI questioned Bethe about Feynman's loyalty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992296-116">[116]</a> Physicist <a href="/wiki/David_Bohm" title="David Bohm">David Bohm</a> was arrested on December 4, 1950<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeat199798-117">[117]</a> and emigrated to <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> in October 1951.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeat1997120-118">[118]</a> Because of the fears of a nuclear war, a girlfriend told Feynman that he should also consider moving to South America.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992278-115">[115]</a> He had a sabbatical coming for 1951–1952,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994331-119">[119]</a> and elected to spend it in Brazil, where he gave courses at the <a href="/wiki/Centro_Brasileiro_de_Pesquisas_F%C3%ADsicas" title="Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas">Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_Feynman_undated.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Feynman seated on the floor with drums around him" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Richard_Feynman_undated.png/220px-Richard_Feynman_undated.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Richard_Feynman_undated.png/330px-Richard_Feynman_undated.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Richard_Feynman_undated.png/440px-Richard_Feynman_undated.png 2x" data-file-width="1990" data-file-height="1599" /></a><figcaption>Feynman with drums</figcaption></figure> In Brazil, Feynman was impressed with <a href="/wiki/Samba" title="Samba">samba</a> music, and learned to play the frigideira,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992283–286-120">[120]</a> a metal percussion instrument based on a frying pan.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> He was an enthusiastic amateur player of bongo and conga drums and often played them in the pit orchestra in musicals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985322–327-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> He spent time in Rio with his friend Bohm, but Bohm could not convince Feynman to investigate Bohm's ideas on physics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeat1997125–127-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Caltech_years">Caltech years</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Caltech years">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_and_political_life">Personal and political life</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Personal and political life">edit</a>]</div> Feynman did not return to Cornell. Bacher, who had been instrumental in bringing Feynman to Cornell, had lured him to the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Part of the deal was that he could spend his first year on sabbatical in Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985233–236-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992277-109">[109]</a> He had become smitten by Mary Louise Bell from <a href="/wiki/Neodesha,_Kansas" title="Neodesha, Kansas">Neodesha, Kansas</a>. They had met in a cafeteria in Cornell, where she had studied the history of Mexican art and textiles. She later followed him to Caltech, where he gave a lecture. While he was in Brazil, she taught classes on the history of furniture and interiors at <a href="/wiki/Michigan_State_University" title="Michigan State University">Michigan State University</a>. He proposed to her by mail from Rio de Janeiro, and they married in <a href="/wiki/Boise,_Idaho" title="Boise, Idaho">Boise, Idaho</a>, on June 28, 1952, shortly after he returned. They frequently quarreled and she was frightened by what she decided was "a violent temper".<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Their politics were different; although he registered and voted as a <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a>, she was more conservative, and her opinion on the 1954 <a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a> ("Where there's smoke there's fire") offended him. They separated on May 20, 1956. An interlocutory decree of divorce was entered on June 19, 1956, on the grounds of "extreme cruelty". The divorce became final on May 5, 1958.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992291–294-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Who_smeared_Richard_Feynman?-128">[128]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> He begins working calculus problems in his head as soon as he awakens. He did calculus while driving in his car, while sitting in the living room, and while lying in bed at night. <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Mary Louise Bell, divorce complaint, <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrauss2011168-129">[129]</a></cite></div></blockquote> In the wake of the 1957 <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a>, the U.S. government's interest in science rose for a time. Feynman was considered for a seat on the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">President's Science Advisory Committee</a>, but was not appointed. At this time, the FBI interviewed a woman close to Feynman, possibly his ex-wife Bell, who sent a written statement to <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a> on August 8, 1958:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I do not know—but I believe that Richard Feynman is either a Communist or very strongly pro-Communist—and as such is a very definite security risk. This man is, in my opinion, an extremely complex and dangerous person, a very dangerous person to have in a position of public trust ... In matters of intrigue Richard Feynman is, I believe immensely clever—indeed a genius—and he is, I further believe, completely ruthless, unhampered by morals, ethics, or religion—and will stop at absolutely nothing to achieve his ends.<a href="#cite_note-Who_smeared_Richard_Feynman?-128">[128]</a></blockquote> The U.S. government nevertheless sent Feynman to <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> for the September 1958 <a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace" title="Atoms for Peace">Atoms for Peace</a> Conference. On the beach at <a href="/wiki/Lake_Geneva" title="Lake Geneva">Lake Geneva</a>, he met Gweneth Howarth, who was from <a href="/wiki/Ripponden" title="Ripponden">Ripponden</a>, West Yorkshire, and working in Switzerland as an <a href="/wiki/Au_pair" title="Au pair">au pair</a>. Feynman's love life had been turbulent since his divorce; his previous girlfriend had walked off with his <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Award" title="Albert Einstein Award">Albert Einstein Award</a> medal and, on the advice of an earlier girlfriend, had feigned pregnancy and extorted him into paying for an abortion, then used the money to buy furniture. When Feynman found that Howarth was being paid only $25 a month, he offered her $20 (equivalent to $202 in 2022) a week to be his live-in maid. Feynman knew that this sort of behavior was illegal under the <a href="/wiki/Mann_Act" title="Mann Act">Mann Act</a>, so he had a friend, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Sands" title="Matthew Sands">Matthew Sands</a>, act as her sponsor. Howarth pointed out that she already had two boyfriends, but decided to take Feynman up on his offer, and arrived in <a href="/wiki/Altadena,_California" title="Altadena, California">Altadena, California</a>, in June 1959. She made a point of dating other men, but Feynman proposed in early 1960. They were married on September 24, 1960, at the <a href="/wiki/The_Langham_Huntington,_Pasadena" title="The Langham Huntington, Pasadena">Huntington Hotel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pasadena,_California" title="Pasadena, California">Pasadena</a>. They had a son, Carl, in 1962, and adopted a daughter, Michelle, in 1968.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992339–347-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin1997151–153-131">[131]</a> Besides their home in Altadena, they had a beach house in <a href="/wiki/Baja_California" title="Baja California">Baja California</a>, purchased with the money from Feynman's Nobel Prize.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Feynman tried <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">marijuana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">ketamine</a> at <a href="/wiki/John_C._Lilly" title="John C. Lilly">John Lilly</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Isolation_tank" title="Isolation tank">sensory deprivation tanks</a>, as a way of studying <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992405–406-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985330–337-134">[134]</a> He gave up <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> when he began to show vague, early signs of <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a>, as he did not want to consume anything that could damage his brain. Despite his curiosity about <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a>, he was reluctant to experiment with <a href="/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985204–205-135">[135]</a> Feynman had <a href="/wiki/Synesthesia" title="Synesthesia">synesthesia</a>, and said that mathematical symbols had different colors for him: "When I see equations, I see the letters in colors. I don't know why. I see vague pictures of Bessel functions with light-tan j's, slightly violet-bluish n's, and dark brown x's flying around."<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> There had been protests over his alleged <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">sexism</a> in 1968, and again in 1972. Although there is no evidence he supported discrimination against women in science, protestors "objected to his use of sexist stories about 'lady drivers' and clueless women in his lectures."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992409–412-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-1999Tech-138">[138]</a> Feynman recalled protesters entering a hall and picketing a lecture he was about to make in San Francisco, calling him a "sexist pig". Seeing the protesters, as Feynman later recalled the incident, he addressed institutional sexism by saying that "women do indeed suffer prejudice and discrimination in physics, and your presence here today serves to remind us of these difficulties and the need to remedy them".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1988a74-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feynman_diagram_van">Feynman diagram van</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Feynman diagram van">edit</a>]</div> In 1975, in <a href="/wiki/Long_Beach,_CA" class="mw-redirect" title="Long Beach, CA">Long Beach, CA</a>, Feynman bought a <a href="/wiki/Dodge_Tradesman" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodge Tradesman">Dodge Tradesman</a> Maxivan with a bronze-khaki exterior and yellow-green interior, with custom <a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagram" title="Feynman diagram">Feynman diagram</a> exterior murals.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> After Feynman's death, Gweneth sold the van for $1 to one of Feynman's friends, film producer Ralph Leighton, who later put it into storage, where it began to rust. In 2012, video game designer <a href="/wiki/Seamus_Blackley" title="Seamus Blackley">Seamus Blackley</a>, a father of the <a href="/wiki/Xbox" title="Xbox">Xbox</a>, bought the van.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Freakonomics-142">[142]</a> Qantum was the license plate ID.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Physics">edit</a>]</div> At Caltech, Feynman investigated the physics of the <a href="/wiki/Superfluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfluid">superfluidity</a> of supercooled <a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">liquid helium</a>, where helium seems to display a complete lack of <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> when flowing. Feynman provided a quantum-mechanical explanation for the Soviet physicist <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a>'s theory of superfluidity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992299–303-144">[144]</a> Applying the Schrödinger equation to the question showed that the superfluid was displaying quantum mechanical behavior observable on a macroscopic scale. This helped with the problem of <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductivity</a>, but the solution eluded Feynman.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> It was solved with the <a href="/wiki/BCS_theory" title="BCS theory">BCS theory</a> of superconductivity, proposed by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Neil_Cooper" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Neil Cooper">Leon Neil Cooper</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">John Robert Schrieffer</a> in 1957.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992299–303-144">[144]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RichardFeynman-PaineMansionWoods1984_copyrightTamikoThiel_bw.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Feynman standing among trees" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/RichardFeynman-PaineMansionWoods1984_copyrightTamikoThiel_bw.jpg/220px-RichardFeynman-PaineMansionWoods1984_copyrightTamikoThiel_bw.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/RichardFeynman-PaineMansionWoods1984_copyrightTamikoThiel_bw.jpg/330px-RichardFeynman-PaineMansionWoods1984_copyrightTamikoThiel_bw.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/RichardFeynman-PaineMansionWoods1984_copyrightTamikoThiel_bw.jpg/440px-RichardFeynman-PaineMansionWoods1984_copyrightTamikoThiel_bw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption>Feynman at the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Treat_Paine_Estate" title="Robert Treat Paine Estate">Robert Treat Paine Estate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Waltham,_Massachusetts" title="Waltham, Massachusetts">Waltham, Massachusetts</a>, in 1984</figcaption></figure> Feynman, inspired by a desire to quantize the Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory of electrodynamics, laid the groundwork for the path integral formulation and Feynman diagrams.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra199492–101-44">[44]</a> With <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a>, Feynman developed a model of <a href="/wiki/Weak_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak decay">weak decay</a>, which showed that the current coupling in the process is a combination of vector and axial currents (an example of weak decay is the decay of a neutron into an electron, a proton, and an <a href="/wiki/Antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Antineutrino">antineutrino</a>). Although <a href="/wiki/E._C._George_Sudarshan" title="E. C. George Sudarshan">E. C. George Sudarshan</a> and Robert Marshak developed the theory nearly simultaneously, Feynman's collaboration with Gell-Mann was seen as seminal because the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a> was neatly described by the vector and axial currents. It thus combined the 1933 <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> with an explanation of <a href="/wiki/Parity_violation" class="mw-redirect" title="Parity violation">parity violation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992330–339-146">[146]</a> Feynman attempted an explanation, called the <a href="/wiki/Parton_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Parton model">parton model</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interactions</a> governing nucleon scattering. The parton model emerged as a complement to the <a href="/wiki/Quark_model" title="Quark model">quark model</a> developed by Gell-Mann. The relationship between the two models was murky; Gell-Mann referred to Feynman's partons derisively as "put-ons". In the mid-1960s, physicists believed that quarks were just a bookkeeping device for symmetry numbers, not real particles; the statistics of the <a href="/wiki/Omega-minus_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-minus particle">omega-minus particle</a>, if it were interpreted as three identical strange quarks bound together, seemed impossible if quarks were real.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992387–396-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994507–514-148">[148]</a> The <a href="/wiki/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory" title="SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory">SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory</a> <a href="/wiki/Deep_inelastic_scattering" title="Deep inelastic scattering">deep inelastic scattering</a> experiments of the late 1960s showed that <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a> (protons and neutrons) contained point-like particles that scattered electrons. It was natural to identify these with quarks, but Feynman's parton model attempted to interpret the experimental data in a way that did not introduce additional hypotheses. For example, the data showed that some 45% of the energy momentum was carried by electrically neutral particles in the nucleon. These electrically neutral particles are now seen to be the <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a> that carry the forces between the quarks, and their three-valued color quantum number solves the omega-minus problem. Feynman did not dispute the quark model; for example, when the fifth quark was discovered in 1977, Feynman immediately pointed out to his students that the discovery implied the existence of a sixth quark, which was discovered in the decade after his death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992387–396-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994516–519-149">[149]</a> After the success of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman turned to <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a>. By analogy with the photon, which has spin 1, he investigated the consequences of a free massless spin 2 field and derived the <a href="/wiki/Einstein_field_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein field equation">Einstein field equation</a> of general relativity, but little more. The computational device that Feynman discovered then for gravity, "ghosts", which are "particles" in the interior of his diagrams that have the "wrong" connection between spin and statistics, have proved invaluable in explaining the quantum particle behavior of the <a href="/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="Yang–Mills theory">Yang–Mills theories</a>, for example, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">quantum chromodynamics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Electro-weak" class="mw-redirect" title="Electro-weak">electro-weak</a> theory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994505–507-150">[150]</a> He did work on all four of the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental interactions">fundamental interactions</a> of nature: <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic force">electromagnetic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Weak_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak force">weak force</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Strong_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong force">strong force</a> and gravity. John and Mary Gribbin state in their book on Feynman that "Nobody else has made such influential contributions to the investigation of all four of the interactions".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin1997189-151">[151]</a> Partly as a way to bring publicity to progress in physics, Feynman offered $1,000 prizes for <a href="/wiki/There%27s_Plenty_of_Room_at_the_Bottom#Challenges" title="There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom">two of his challenges in nanotechnology</a>; one was claimed by <a href="/wiki/William_McLellan_(nanotechnology)" class="mw-redirect" title="William McLellan (nanotechnology)">William McLellan</a> and the other by <a href="/wiki/Tom_Newman_(scientist)" title="Tom Newman (scientist)">Tom Newman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin1997170-152">[152]</a> Feynman was also interested in the relationship between physics and computation. He was also one of the first scientists to conceive the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum computer">quantum computers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mike_ike-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeutsch199257–61-155">[155]</a> In the 1980s he began to spend his summers working at <a href="/wiki/Thinking_Machines_Corporation" title="Thinking Machines Corporation">Thinking Machines Corporation</a>, helping to build some of the first parallel supercomputers and considering the construction of quantum computers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillis198978–83-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Between 1984 and 1986, he developed a variational method for the approximate calculation of path integrals, which has led to a powerful method of converting divergent perturbation expansions into convergent strong-coupling expansions (<a href="/wiki/Variational_perturbation_theory" title="Variational perturbation theory">variational perturbation theory</a>) and, as a consequence, to the most accurate determination<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> of <a href="/wiki/Critical_exponent" title="Critical exponent">critical exponents</a> measured in satellite experiments.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> At Caltech, he once chalked "What I cannot create I do not understand" on his blackboard.<a href="#cite_note-Way2017-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Machine_technology">Machine technology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Machine technology">edit</a>]</div> Feynman had studied the ideas of <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> while researching <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a>. His most famous lecture on the subject was delivered in 1959 at the California Institute of Technology, published under the title There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom a year later. In this lecture he theorized on future opportunities for designing miniaturized machines, which could build smaller <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproductions</a> of themselves. This lecture is frequently cited in technical literature on <a href="/wiki/Microtechnology" title="Microtechnology">microtechnology</a>, and nanotechnology.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Pedagogy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HD.3A.053_(10481714045).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Feynman standing before a large blackboard with chalk writing all over it" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/HD.3A.053_%2810481714045%29.jpg/260px-HD.3A.053_%2810481714045%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/HD.3A.053_%2810481714045%29.jpg/390px-HD.3A.053_%2810481714045%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/HD.3A.053_%2810481714045%29.jpg/520px-HD.3A.053_%2810481714045%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2850" data-file-height="2269" /></a><figcaption>Feynman during a lecture</figcaption></figure> In the early 1960s, Feynman acceded to a request to "spruce up" the teaching of undergraduates at the California Institute of Technology, also called Caltech. After three years devoted to the task, he produced a series of lectures that later became The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Accounts vary about how successful the original lectures were. Feynman's own preface, written just after an exam on which the students did poorly, was somewhat pessimistic. His colleagues <a href="/wiki/David_L._Goodstein" class="mw-redirect" title="David L. Goodstein">David L. Goodstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Neugebauer" title="Gerry Neugebauer">Gerry Neugebauer</a> said later that the intended audience of first-year students found the material intimidating while older students and faculty found it inspirational, so the lecture hall remained full even as the first-year students dropped away. In contrast, physicist Matthew Sands recalled the student attendance as being typical for a large lecture course.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Converting the lectures into books occupied <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Sands" title="Matthew Sands">Matthew Sands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Leighton" title="Robert B. Leighton">Robert B. Leighton</a> as part-time co-authors for several years. Feynman suggested that the book cover should have a picture of a drum with mathematical diagrams about vibrations drawn upon it, in order to illustrate the application of mathematics to understanding the world. Instead, the publishers gave the books plain red covers, though they included a picture of Feynman playing drums in the foreword.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985318-163">[163]</a> Even though the books were not adopted by universities as textbooks, they continue to sell well because they provide a deep understanding of physics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992357–364-164">[164]</a> Many of Feynman's lectures and miscellaneous talks were turned into other books, including The Character of Physical Law, <a href="/wiki/QED:_The_Strange_Theory_of_Light_and_Matter" title="QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter">QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter</a>, Statistical Mechanics, Lectures on Gravitation, and the Feynman Lectures on Computation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick199212–13-165">[165]</a> Feynman wrote about his experiences teaching physics undergraduates in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>. The students' studying habits and the Portuguese language textbooks were so devoid of any context or applications for their information that, in Feynman's opinion, the students were not learning physics at all. At the end of the year, Feynman was invited to give a lecture on his teaching experiences, and he agreed to do so, provided he could speak frankly, which he did.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985241–246-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994336–341-167">[167]</a> Feynman opposed <a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">rote learning</a>, or unthinking <a href="/wiki/Memorization" title="Memorization">memorization</a>, as well as other <a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">teaching methods</a> that emphasized form over function. In his mind, clear thinking and clear presentation were fundamental prerequisites for his <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a>. It could be perilous even to approach him unprepared, and he did not forget fools and pretenders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBethe1991241-168">[168]</a> In 1964, he served on the California State Curriculum Commission, which was responsible for approving <a href="/wiki/Textbook" title="Textbook">textbooks</a> to be used by schools in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>. He was not impressed with what he found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985288–302-169">[169]</a> Many of the mathematics texts covered subjects of use only to <a href="/wiki/Pure_mathematics" title="Pure mathematics">pure mathematicians</a> as part of the "<a href="/wiki/New_Math" title="New Math">New Math</a>". Elementary students were taught about <a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">sets</a>, but: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">It will perhaps surprise most people who have studied these textbooks to discover that the symbol ∪ or ∩ representing union and intersection of sets and the special use of the brackets { } and so forth, all the elaborate notation for sets that is given in these books, almost never appear in any writings in theoretical physics, in engineering, in business arithmetic, computer design, or other places where mathematics is being used. I see no need or reason for this all to be explained or to be taught in school. It is not a useful way to express one's self. It is not a cogent and simple way. It is claimed to be precise, but precise for what purpose?<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a></blockquote> In April 1966, Feynman delivered an address to the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Teachers_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="National Science Teachers Association">National Science Teachers Association</a>, in which he suggested how <a href="/wiki/Student" title="Student">students</a> could be made to think like <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientists</a>, be open-minded, curious, and especially, to <a href="/wiki/Doubt" title="Doubt">doubt</a>. In the course of the lecture, he gave a definition of science, which he said came about by several stages. The evolution of <a href="/wiki/Intelligent" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent">intelligent</a> life on planet Earth—creatures such as cats that play and learn from experience. The evolution of humans, who came to use language to pass knowledge from one individual to the next, so that the knowledge was not lost when an individual died. Unfortunately, incorrect <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> could be passed down as well as correct knowledge, so another step was needed. <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> and others started doubting the truth of what was passed down and to investigate <a href="/wiki/Ab_initio" title="Ab initio">ab initio</a>, from experience, what the true situation was—this was science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1999184–185-171">[171]</a> In 1974, Feynman delivered the Caltech commencement address on the topic of <a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo cult science">cargo cult science</a>, which has the semblance of science, but is only <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> due to a lack of "a kind of scientific integrity, a principle of scientific thought that corresponds to a kind of utter honesty" on the part of the scientist. He instructed the graduating class that "The first principle is that you must not fool yourself—and you are the easiest person to fool. So you have to be very careful about that. After you've not fooled yourself, it's easy not to fool other scientists. You just have to be honest in a conventional way after that."<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Feynman served as doctoral advisor to 30 students.<a href="#cite_note-31students-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_before_the_Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission">Case before the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Case before the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">edit</a>]</div> In 1977, Feynman supported his English literature colleague <a href="/wiki/Jenijoy_La_Belle" title="Jenijoy La Belle">Jenijoy La Belle</a>, who had been hired as Caltech's first female professor in 1969, and filed suit with the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a> after she was refused tenure in 1974. The EEOC ruled against Caltech in 1977, adding that La Belle had been paid less than male colleagues. La Belle finally received tenure in 1979. Many of Feynman's colleagues were surprised that he took her side, but he had gotten to know La Belle and liked and admired her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992409–412-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surely_You're_Joking,_Mr._Feynman!">Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!">edit</a>]</div> In the 1960s, Feynman began thinking of writing an autobiography, and he began granting interviews to historians. In the 1980s, working with <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Leighton" title="Ralph Leighton">Ralph Leighton</a> (Robert Leighton's son), he recorded chapters on <a href="/wiki/Tape_recorder" title="Tape recorder">audio tape</a> that Ralph transcribed. The book was published in 1985 as <a href="/wiki/Surely_You%27re_Joking,_Mr._Feynman!" title="Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!">Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!</a> and became a best-seller.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992409–411-175">[175]</a> Gell-Mann was upset by Feynman's account in the book of the weak interaction work, and threatened to sue, resulting in a correction being inserted in later editions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992411-176">[176]</a> This incident was just the latest provocation in decades of bad feeling between the two scientists. Gell-Mann often expressed frustration at the attention Feynman received;<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> he remarked: "[Feynman] was a great scientist, but he spent a great deal of his effort generating anecdotes about himself."<a href="#cite_note-Gell-Mann-178">[178]</a> Feynman has been criticized for a chapter in the book entitled "You Just Ask Them?", where he describes how he learned to seduce women at a bar he went to in the summer of 1946. A mentor taught him to ask a woman if she would sleep with him before buying her anything. He describes seeing women at the bar as "bitches" in his thoughts, and tells a story of how he told a woman named Ann that she was "worse than a whore" after Ann persuaded him to buy her sandwiches by telling him he could eat them at her place, but then, after he bought them, saying they actually could not eat together because another man was coming over. Later on that same evening, Ann returned to the bar to take Feynman to her place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985184–191-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992287–291,_341–345-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Feynman states at the end of the chapter that this behaviour was not typical of him: "So it worked even with an ordinary girl! But no matter how effective the lesson was, I never really used it after that. I didn't enjoy doing it that way. But it was interesting to know that things worked much differently from how I was brought up."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman1985191-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Challenger_disaster">Challenger disaster</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Challenger disaster">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Challenger_explosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A cloud of smoke" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Challenger_explosion.jpg/220px-Challenger_explosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Challenger_explosion.jpg/330px-Challenger_explosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Challenger_explosion.jpg/440px-Challenger_explosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3555" data-file-height="2879" /></a><figcaption>The 1986 <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle Challenger disaster</a></figcaption></figure> Feynman played an <a href="/wiki/Rogers_Commission#Role_of_Richard_Feynman" class="mw-redirect" title="Rogers Commission">important role</a> on the Presidential <a href="/wiki/Rogers_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Rogers Commission">Rogers Commission</a>, which investigated the 1986 <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle Challenger disaster</a>. He had been reluctant to participate, but was persuaded by advice from his wife.<a href="#cite_note-1988_Orings-182">[182]</a> Feynman clashed several times with commission chairman <a href="/wiki/William_P._Rogers" title="William P. Rogers">William P. Rogers</a>. During a break in one hearing, Rogers told commission member <a href="/wiki/Neil_Armstrong" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a>, "Feynman is becoming a pain in the ass."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992423-183">[183]</a> During a televised hearing, Feynman demonstrated that the material used in the shuttle's <a href="/wiki/O-ring" title="O-ring">O-rings</a> became less resilient in cold weather by compressing a sample of the material in a clamp and immersing it in ice-cold water.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> The commission ultimately determined that the disaster was caused by the primary O-ring not properly sealing in unusually cold weather at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral" title="Cape Canaveral">Cape Canaveral</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Feynman-185">[185]</a> Feynman devoted the latter half of his 1988 book <a href="/wiki/What_Do_You_Care_What_Other_People_Think%3F" title="What Do You Care What Other People Think?">What Do You Care What Other People Think?</a> to his experience on the Rogers Commission, straying from his usual convention of brief, light-hearted anecdotes to deliver an extended and sober narrative. Feynman's account reveals a disconnect between <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s engineers and executives that was far more striking than he expected. His interviews of NASA's high-ranking managers revealed startling misunderstandings of elementary concepts. For instance, NASA managers claimed that there was a 1 in 100,000 probability of a catastrophic failure aboard the Shuttle, but Feynman discovered that NASA's own engineers estimated the probability of a catastrophe at closer to 1 in 200. He concluded that NASA management's estimate of the reliability of the Space Shuttle was unrealistic, and he was particularly angered that NASA used it to recruit <a href="/wiki/Christa_McAuliffe" title="Christa McAuliffe">Christa McAuliffe</a> into the Teacher-in-Space program. He warned in his appendix to the commission's report (which was included only after he threatened not to sign the report), "For a successful technology, reality must take precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled."<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition_and_awards">Recognition and awards</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Recognition and awards">edit</a>]</div> The first public recognition of Feynman's work came in 1954, when <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Strauss" title="Lewis Strauss">Lewis Strauss</a>, the chairman of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a> (AEC) notified him that he had won the Albert Einstein Award, which was worth $15,000 and came with a gold medal. Because of Strauss's actions in stripping Oppenheimer of his security clearance, Feynman was reluctant to accept the award, but <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a> cautioned him: "You should never turn a man's generosity as a sword against him. Any virtue that a man has, even if he has many vices, should not be used as a tool against him."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992295–296-187">[187]</a> It was followed by the AEC's <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence_Award" title="Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award">Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award</a> in 1962.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Schwinger, Tomonaga and Feynman shared the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles".<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> He was elected a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1965#Foreign_Members" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1965">Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1965</a>,<a href="#cite_note-nobelbio-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-frs-190">[190]</a> received the <a href="/wiki/Oersted_Medal" title="Oersted Medal">Oersted Medal</a> in 1972,<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> in 1979.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> He was elected a <a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Member of the National Academy of Sciences">Member of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, but ultimately resigned<a href="#cite_note-elitist-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-f1-194">[194]</a> and is no longer listed by them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeynman199913-195">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Death">edit</a>]</div> In 1978, Feynman sought medical treatment for abdominal pains and was diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Liposarcoma" title="Liposarcoma">liposarcoma</a>, a rare form of cancer. Surgeons removed a "very large" tumor that had crushed one kidney and his spleen. In 1986 doctors discovered another cancer, <a href="/wiki/Waldenstr%C3%B6m_macroglobulinemia" title="Waldenström macroglobulinemia">Waldenström macroglobulinemia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Further operations were performed in October 1986 and October 1987.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMehra1994600–605-197">[197]</a> He was again hospitalized at the <a href="/wiki/UCLA_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA Medical Center">UCLA Medical Center</a> on February 3, 1988. A ruptured <a href="/wiki/Duodenal_ulcer" class="mw-redirect" title="Duodenal ulcer">duodenal ulcer</a> caused kidney failure, and he declined to undergo the <a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">dialysis</a> that might have prolonged his life for a few months. Feynman's wife Gweneth, sister Joan, and cousin <a href="/wiki/Frances_Lewine" title="Frances Lewine">Frances Lewine</a> watched over him during the final days of his life until he died on February 15, 1988.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleick1992437-198">[198]</a> When Feynman was nearing death, he asked his friend and colleague <a href="/wiki/Danny_Hillis" title="Danny Hillis">Danny Hillis</a> why Hillis appeared so sad. Hillis replied that he thought Feynman was going to die soon. Hillis quotes Feynman as replying: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> "Yeah," he sighed, "that bugs me sometimes too. But not so much as you think. [...] When you get as old as I am, you start to realize that you've told most of the good stuff you know to other people anyway."<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a></blockquote> Near the end of his life, Feynman attempted to visit the <a href="/wiki/Tuvan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic">Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic</a> (ASSR) in the Soviet Union, a dream thwarted by <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> bureaucratic issues. The letter from the Soviet government authorizing the trip was not received until the day after he died. His daughter Michelle later made the journey.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin1997257–258-200">[200]</a> Ralph Leighton chronicled the attempt in <a href="/wiki/Tuva_or_Bust!" title="Tuva or Bust!">Tuva or Bust!</a>, published in 1991. His burial was at <a href="/wiki/Mountain_View_Cemetery,_Altadena" title="Mountain View Cemetery, Altadena">Mountain View Cemetery and Mausoleum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Altadena,_California" title="Altadena, California">Altadena, California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Last_words" title="Last words">last words</a> were: "I'd hate to die twice. It's so boring."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbinGribbin1997257–258-200">[200]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_P._Feynman%E2%80%99s_Grave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Richard_P._Feynman%E2%80%99s_Grave.jpg/220px-Richard_P._Feynman%E2%80%99s_Grave.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Richard_P._Feynman%E2%80%99s_Grave.jpg/330px-Richard_P._Feynman%E2%80%99s_Grave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Richard_P._Feynman%E2%80%99s_Grave.jpg/440px-Richard_P._Feynman%E2%80%99s_Grave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Richard P. and Gweneth M. Feynman’s grave</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Popular_legacy">Popular legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Popular legacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Richard_Feynman" title="List of things named after Richard Feynman">List of things named after Richard Feynman</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard-Feynman-bust-NTHU-campus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A bronze bust with flowers next to it, resting on a stone base" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Richard-Feynman-bust-NTHU-campus.jpg/150px-Richard-Feynman-bust-NTHU-campus.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Richard-Feynman-bust-NTHU-campus.jpg/225px-Richard-Feynman-bust-NTHU-campus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Richard-Feynman-bust-NTHU-campus.jpg/300px-Richard-Feynman-bust-NTHU-campus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Feynman on <a href="/wiki/National_Tsing_Hua_University" title="National Tsing Hua University">NTHU</a> campus, Taiwan</figcaption></figure> Aspects of Feynman's life have been portrayed in various media. Feynman was portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Broderick" title="Matthew Broderick">Matthew Broderick</a> in the 1996 biopic <a href="/wiki/Infinity_(1996_film)" title="Infinity (1996 film)">Infinity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Actor <a href="/wiki/Alan_Alda" title="Alan Alda">Alan Alda</a> commissioned playwright Peter Parnell to write a two-character play about a fictional day in the life of Feynman set two years before Feynman's death. The play, <a href="/wiki/QED_(play)" title="QED (play)">QED</a>, premiered at the <a href="/wiki/Mark_Taper_Forum" title="Mark Taper Forum">Mark Taper Forum</a> in Los Angeles in 2001 and was later presented at the <a href="/wiki/Vivian_Beaumont_Theater" title="Vivian Beaumont Theater">Vivian Beaumont Theater</a> on Broadway, with both presentations starring Alda as Richard Feynman.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> <a href="/wiki/Real_Time_Opera" title="Real Time Opera">Real Time Opera</a> premiered its opera Feynman at the Norfolk (Connecticut) Chamber Music Festival in June 2005.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> In 2011, Feynman was the subject of a biographical <a href="/wiki/Graphic_novel" title="Graphic novel">graphic novel</a> entitled simply Feynman, written by <a href="/wiki/Jim_Ottaviani" title="Jim Ottaviani">Jim Ottaviani</a> and illustrated by <a href="/wiki/Leland_Myrick" title="Leland Myrick">Leland Myrick</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOttavianiMyrick2011-205">[205]</a> In 2013, Feynman's role on the Rogers Commission was dramatised by the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Challenger_Disaster" title="The Challenger Disaster">The Challenger</a> (US title: The Challenger Disaster), with <a href="/wiki/William_Hurt" title="William Hurt">William Hurt</a> playing Feynman.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> In 2016, <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Isaac" title="Oscar Isaac">Oscar Isaac</a> performed a public reading of Feynman's 1946 love letter to the late Arline.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> In the 2023 American film <a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(film)" title="Oppenheimer (film)">Oppenheimer</a>, directed by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan" title="Christopher Nolan">Christopher Nolan</a> and based on <a href="/wiki/American_Prometheus" title="American Prometheus">American Prometheus</a>, Feynman is portrayed by actor <a href="/wiki/Jack_Quaid" title="Jack Quaid">Jack Quaid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> Feynman is commemorated in various ways. On May 4, 2005, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service" title="United States Postal Service">United States Postal Service</a> issued the "American Scientists" commemorative set of four 37-cent self-adhesive stamps in several configurations. The scientists depicted were Richard Feynman, John von Neumann, <a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah Willard Gibbs</a>. Feynman's stamp, sepia-toned, features a photograph of Feynman in his thirties and eight small Feynman diagrams.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> The stamps were designed by <a href="/wiki/Victor_Stabin" title="Victor Stabin">Victor Stabin</a> under the artistic direction of Carl T. Herrman.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stamps_MC-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> The main building for the Computing Division at <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a> is named the "Feynman Computing Center" in his honor.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Two photographs of Feynman were used in <a href="/wiki/Apple_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple Computer">Apple Computer</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Think_Different" class="mw-redirect" title="Think Different">Think Different</a>" advertising campaign, which launched in 1997.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Cooper" title="Sheldon Cooper">Sheldon Cooper</a>, a fictional theoretical physicist from the television series <a href="/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory" title="The Big Bang Theory">The Big Bang Theory</a>, was depicted as a Feynman fan, even emulating him by playing the bongo drums.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> On January 27, 2016, co-founder of <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> <a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a> wrote an article describing Feynman's talents as a teacher ("The Best Teacher I Never Had"), which inspired Gates to create <a href="/wiki/Project_Tuva" title="Project Tuva">Project Tuva</a> to place the videos of Feynman's <a href="/wiki/Messenger_Lectures" title="Messenger Lectures">Messenger Lectures</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law" title="The Character of Physical Law">The Character of Physical Law</a>, on a website for public viewing. In 2015 Gates made a video in response to Caltech's request for thoughts on Feynman for the 50th anniversary of Feynman's 1965 Nobel Prize, on why he thought Feynman was special.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> At <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> (the European Organization for Nuclear Research, home of the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>), a street on the <a href="/wiki/Meyrin" title="Meyrin">Meyrin</a> site is named "<a href="/wiki/List_of_streets_at_CERN" title="List of streets at CERN">Route Feynman</a>". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selected_scientific_works">Selected scientific works</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Selected scientific works">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1942). Laurie M. Brown (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feynmansthesisne00feyn_0">The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics</a>. PhD Dissertation, Princeton University. World Scientific (with title "Feynman's Thesis: a New Approach to Quantum Theory") (published 2005). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-256-380-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-256-380-4"><bdi>978-981-256-380-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principle+of+Least+Action+in+Quantum+Mechanics&rft.series=PhD+Dissertation%2C+Princeton+University&rft.pub=World+Scientific+%28with+title+%22Feynman%27s+Thesis%3A+a+New+Approach+to+Quantum+Theory%22%29&rft.date=1942&rft.isbn=978-981-256-380-4&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffeynmansthesisne00feyn_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_A._Wheeler" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Wheeler">Wheeler, John A.</a>; Feynman, Richard P. (1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200417074134/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11095/">"Interaction with the Absorber as the Mechanism of Radiation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reviews_of_Modern_Physics" title="Reviews of Modern Physics">Reviews of Modern Physics</a>. 17 (2–3): 157–181. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1945RvMP...17..157W">1945RvMP...17..157W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.17.157">10.1103/RevModPhys.17.157</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11095/">the original</a> on April 17, 2020. Retrieved May 20, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=Interaction+with+the+Absorber+as+the+Mechanism+of+Radiation&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=157-181&rft.date=1945&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.17.157&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1945RvMP...17..157W&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft.au=Feynman%2C+Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fauthors.library.caltech.edu%2F11095%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1016199/">A Theorem and its Application to Finite Tampers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2172%2F4341197">10.2172/4341197</a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4341197">4341197</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Theorem+and+its+Application+to+Finite+Tampers&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+Scientific+Laboratory%2C+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.date=1946&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F4341197%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2172%2F4341197&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc1016199%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P.; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Welton" title="Thomas A. Welton">Welton, T. A.</a> (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1018687/">Neutron Diffusion in a Space Lattice of Fissionable and Absorbing Materials</a>. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Atomic Energy Commission. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2172%2F4381097">10.2172/4381097</a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4381097">4381097</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neutron+Diffusion+in+a+Space+Lattice+of+Fissionable+and+Absorbing+Materials&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+Scientific+Laboratory%2C+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.date=1946&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F4381097%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2172%2F4381097&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft.au=Welton%2C+T.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc1018687%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P.; <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Metropolis" title="Nicholas Metropolis">Metropolis, N.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Teller, E.</a> (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3519/1/FEYpr49a.pdf">Equations of State of Elements Based on the Generalized Fermi-Thomas Theory</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory</a>, Atomic Energy Commission. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2172%2F4417654">10.2172/4417654</a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4417654">4417654</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Equations+of+State+of+Elements+Based+on+the+Generalized+Fermi-Thomas+Theory&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+Scientific+Laboratory%2C+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.date=1947&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F4417654%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2172%2F4417654&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft.au=Metropolis%2C+N.&rft.au=Teller%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fauthors.library.caltech.edu%2F3519%2F1%2FFEYpr49a.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917091657/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/47756/">"Space-time approach to non-relativistic quantum mechanics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reviews_of_Modern_Physics" title="Reviews of Modern Physics">Reviews of Modern Physics</a>. 20 (2): 367–387. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948RvMP...20..367F">1948RvMP...20..367F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.20.367">10.1103/RevModPhys.20.367</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/47756/">the original</a> on September 17, 2020. Retrieved May 20, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=Space-time+approach+to+non-relativistic+quantum+mechanics&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=367-387&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.20.367&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1948RvMP...20..367F&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fauthors.library.caltech.edu%2F47756%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200919084455/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3516/">"A Relativistic Cut-Off for Classical Electrodynamics"</a>. Physical Review. 74 (8): 939–946. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948PhRv...74..939F">1948PhRv...74..939F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.74.939">10.1103/PhysRev.74.939</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3516/">the original</a> on September 19, 2020. Retrieved May 20, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=A+Relativistic+Cut-Off+for+Classical+Electrodynamics&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=939-946&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.74.939&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1948PhRv...74..939F&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fauthors.library.caltech.edu%2F3516%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200919121911/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3517/">"Relativistic Cut-Off for Quantum Electrodynamics"</a>. Physical Review. 74 (10): 1430–1438. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948PhRv...74.1430F">1948PhRv...74.1430F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.74.1430">10.1103/PhysRev.74.1430</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3517/">the original</a> on September 19, 2020. 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(1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://calteches.library.caltech.edu/1976/">"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom"</a>. Engineering and Science. 23 (5): 22–36.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Engineering+and+Science&rft.atitle=There%27s+Plenty+of+Room+at+the+Bottom&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=22-36&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcalteches.library.caltech.edu%2F1976%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Edgar, R. S.; Feynman, Richard P.; Klein, S.; Lielausis, I.; Steinberg, C. M. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1210321">"Mapping experiments with r mutants of bacteriophage T4D"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Genetics_(journal)" title="Genetics (journal)">Genetics</a>. 47 (2) (published February 1962): 179–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F47.2.179">10.1093/genetics/47.2.179</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1210321">1210321</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13889186">13889186</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.atitle=Mapping+experiments+with+r+mutants+of+bacteriophage+T4D&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=179-86&rft.date=1962&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1210321%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13889186&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F47.2.179&rft.aulast=Edgar&rft.aufirst=R.+S.&rft.au=Feynman%2C+Richard+P.&rft.au=Klein%2C+S.&rft.au=Lielausis%2C+I.&rft.au=Steinberg%2C+C.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1210321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1968) [1966]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://profizgl.lu.lv/pluginfile.php/32795/mod_resource/content/0/WHAT_IS_SCIENCE_by_R.Feynman_1966.pdf">"What is Science?"</a> (PDF). The Physics Teacher. 7 (6): 313–320. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969PhTea...7..313F">1969PhTea...7..313F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2351388">10.1119/1.2351388</a>. Retrieved June 10, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Physics+Teacher&rft.atitle=What+is+Science%3F&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=313-320&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.2351388&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969PhTea...7..313F&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fprofizgl.lu.lv%2Fpluginfile.php%2F32795%2Fmod_resource%2Fcontent%2F0%2FWHAT_IS_SCIENCE_by_R.Feynman_1966.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"> Lecture presented at the fifteenth annual meeting of the National Science Teachers Association, 1966 in New York City.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1966). "The Development of the Space-Time View of Quantum Electrodynamics". <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. 153 (3737) (published August 12, 1966): 699–708. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966Sci...153..699F">1966Sci...153..699F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.153.3737.699">10.1126/science.153.3737.699</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17791121">17791121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+the+Space-Time+View+of+Quantum+Electrodynamics&rft.volume=153&rft.issue=3737&rft.pages=699-708&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17791121&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.153.3737.699&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1966Sci...153..699F&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1974a). "Structure of the proton". Science. 183 (4125). American Association for the Advancement of Science (published February 15, 1974): 601–610. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974Sci...183..601F">1974Sci...183..601F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.183.4125.601">10.1126/science.183.4125.601</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1737688">1737688</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17778830">17778830</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9938227">9938227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Structure+of+the+proton&rft.volume=183&rft.issue=4125&rft.pages=601-610&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9938227%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974Sci...183..601F&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17778830&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.183.4125.601&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1737688%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://calteches.library.caltech.edu/51/02/CargoCult.pdf">"Cargo Cult Science"</a> (PDF). Engineering and Science. 37 (7).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Engineering+and+Science&rft.atitle=Cargo+Cult+Science&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=7&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcalteches.library.caltech.edu%2F51%2F02%2FCargoCult.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Feynman, Richard P.; <a href="/wiki/Hagen_Kleinert" title="Hagen Kleinert">Kleinert, Hagen</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3553/1/FEYpra86.pdf">"Effective classical partition functions"</a> (PDF). Physical Review A. 34 (6) (published December 1986): 5080–5084. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986PhRvA..34.5080F">1986PhRvA..34.5080F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevA.34.5080">10.1103/PhysRevA.34.5080</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9897894">9897894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+A&rft.atitle=Effective+classical+partition+functions&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=5080-5084&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9897894&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevA.34.5080&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986PhRvA..34.5080F&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft.au=Kleinert%2C+Hagen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fauthors.library.caltech.edu%2F3553%2F1%2FFEYpra86.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/v2appf.htm">Rogers Commission Report, Volume 2 Appendix F – Personal Observations on Reliability of Shuttle</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rogers+Commission+Report%2C+Volume+2+Appendix+F+%E2%80%93+Personal+Observations+on+Reliability+of+Shuttle&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2Frogersrep%2Fv2appf.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Feynman, Richard P. (1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814390187_0003">"Difficulties in Applying the Variational Principle to Quantum Field Theories"</a>, in Polley, L.; Pottinger, D. E. L. (eds.), Variational Calculations in Quantum Field Theory, <a href="/wiki/World_Scientific" title="World Scientific">World Scientific</a> (published August 1, 1988), pp. 28–40, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F9789814390187_0003">10.1142/9789814390187_0003</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-50-500-2" title="Special:BookSources/9971-50-500-2"><bdi>9971-50-500-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Difficulties+in+Applying+the+Variational+Principle+to+Quantum+Field+Theories&rft.btitle=Variational+Calculations+in+Quantum+Field+Theory&rft.pages=28-40&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F9789814390187_0003&rft.isbn=9971-50-500-2&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1142%2F9789814390187_0003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"> Proceedings of the International Workshop at Wangerooge Island, Germany; Sept 1–4, 1987.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (2000). <a href="/wiki/Laurie_Brown_(physicist)" title="Laurie Brown (physicist)">Laurie M. Brown</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/selectedpapersof0000feyn">Selected Papers of Richard Feynman: With Commentary</a>. 20th Century Physics. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-4131-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-4131-5"><bdi>978-981-02-4131-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Papers+of+Richard+Feynman%3A+With+Commentary&rft.series=20th+Century+Physics&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-981-02-4131-5&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fselectedpapersof0000feyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Textbooks_and_lecture_notes">Textbooks and lecture notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Textbooks and lecture notes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A box set of several slim red books" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics.jpg/220px-The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics.jpg/330px-The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics.jpg/440px-The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="2288" /></a><figcaption>The Feynman Lectures on Physics including Feynman's Tips on Physics: The Definitive and Extended Edition (2nd edition, 2005)</figcaption></figure> The Feynman Lectures on Physics is perhaps his most accessible work for anyone with an interest in physics, compiled from lectures to <a href="/wiki/Caltech" class="mw-redirect" title="Caltech">Caltech</a> undergraduates in 1961–1964. As news of the lectures' lucidity grew, professional physicists and graduate students began to drop in to listen. Co-authors <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Leighton" title="Robert B. Leighton">Robert B. Leighton</a> and Matthew Sands, colleagues of Feynman, edited and illustrated them into book form. The work has endured and is useful to this day. They were edited and supplemented in 2005 with Feynman's Tips on Physics: A Problem-Solving Supplement to the Feynman Lectures on Physics by Michael Gottlieb and Ralph Leighton (Robert Leighton's son), with support from <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Kip Thorne</a> and other physicists. <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (2005) [1970]. The Feynman Lectures on Physics: The Definitive and Extended Edition (2nd ed.). Addison Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8053-9045-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8053-9045-6"><bdi>0-8053-9045-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Feynman+Lectures+on+Physics%3A+The+Definitive+and+Extended+Edition&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8053-9045-6&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft.au=Leighton%2C+Robert+B.&rft.au=Sands%2C+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"> Includes Feynman's Tips on Physics (with Michael Gottlieb and Ralph Leighton), which includes four previously unreleased lectures on problem solving, exercises by Robert Leighton and <a href="/wiki/Rochus_Eugen_Vogt" title="Rochus Eugen Vogt">Rochus Vogt</a>, and a historical essay by Matthew Sands. Three volumes; originally published as separate volumes in 1964 and 1966.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1961). Theory of Fundamental Processes. Addison Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8053-2507-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8053-2507-7"><bdi>0-8053-2507-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Fundamental+Processes&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=0-8053-2507-7&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1962). Quantum Electrodynamics. Addison Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-2501-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-2501-0"><bdi>978-0-8053-2501-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantum+Electrodynamics&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-8053-2501-0&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P.; Hibbs, Albert (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/quantummechanics0000feyn">Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals</a>. McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-020650-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-020650-3"><bdi>0-07-020650-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantum+Mechanics+and+Path+Integrals&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=0-07-020650-3&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft.au=Hibbs%2C+Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fquantummechanics0000feyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/characterofphysi0000feyn_u5j3">The Character of Physical Law: The 1964 Messenger Lectures</a>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-56003-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-56003-8"><bdi>0-262-56003-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Character+of+Physical+Law%3A+The+1964+Messenger+Lectures&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0-262-56003-8&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcharacterofphysi0000feyn_u5j3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/statisticalmecha00rich">Statistical Mechanics: A Set of Lectures</a>. Reading, Mass: <a href="/wiki/W._A._Benjamin" class="mw-redirect" title="W. A. Benjamin">W. A. Benjamin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8053-2509-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8053-2509-3"><bdi>0-8053-2509-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Statistical+Mechanics%3A+A+Set+of+Lectures&rft.place=Reading%2C+Mass&rft.pub=W.+A.+Benjamin&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-8053-2509-3&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstatisticalmecha00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1985b). <a href="/wiki/QED_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="QED (book)">QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02417-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02417-0"><bdi>0-691-02417-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=QED%3A+The+Strange+Theory+of+Light+and+Matter&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-691-02417-0&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementarypartic0000feyn">Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-34000-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-34000-4"><bdi>0-521-34000-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elementary+Particles+and+the+Laws+of+Physics%3A+The+1986+Dirac+Memorial+Lectures&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-521-34000-4&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementarypartic0000feyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1995). Brian Hatfield (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feynmanlectureso0000feyn_g4q1">Lectures on Gravitation</a>. Addison Wesley Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-62734-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-62734-5"><bdi>0-201-62734-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+Gravitation&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Longman&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-201-62734-5&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffeynmanlectureso0000feyn_g4q1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1997). <a href="/wiki/Feynman%27s_Lost_Lecture:_The_Motion_of_Planets_Around_the_Sun" class="mw-redirect" title="Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun">Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun</a> (Vintage Press ed.). London, England: Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-09-973621-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-09-973621-7"><bdi>0-09-973621-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feynman%27s+Lost+Lecture%3A+The+Motion+of+Planets+Around+the+Sun&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.edition=Vintage+Press&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-09-973621-7&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (2000). <a href="/wiki/Tony_Hey" title="Tony Hey">Hey, Tony</a>; Allen, Robin W. (eds.). Feynman Lectures on Computation. Perseus Books Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7382-0296-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7382-0296-7"><bdi>0-7382-0296-7</bdi></a>. <q>Computer science also differs from physics in that it is not actually a science. It does not study natural objects. Neither is it, as you might think, mathematics; although it does use mathematical reasoning pretty extensively. Rather, computer science is like engineering – it is all about getting something to do something, rather than just dealing with abstractions</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feynman+Lectures+on+Computation&rft.pub=Perseus+Books+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-7382-0296-7&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988">.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular_works">Popular works</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Popular works">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeynman1985" class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1985). Leighton, Ralph (ed.). Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!: Adventures of a Curious Character. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton">W. W. Norton</a> & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-01921-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-01921-7"><bdi>0-393-01921-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10925248">10925248</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surely+You%27re+Joking%2C+Mr.+Feynman%21%3A+Adventures+of+a+Curious+Character&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10925248&rft.isbn=0-393-01921-7&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeynman1988a" class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1988a). Leighton, Ralph (ed.). What Do You Care What Other People Think?: Further Adventures of a Curious Character. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-02659-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-02659-0"><bdi>0-393-02659-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Do+You+Care+What+Other+People+Think%3F%3A+Further+Adventures+of+a+Curious+Character&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-393-02659-0&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li>No Ordinary Genius: The Illustrated Richard Feynman, ed. Christopher Sykes, W. W. Norton & Company, 1996, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-31393-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-31393-X">0-393-31393-X</a>.</li> <li>Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most Brilliant Teacher, Perseus Books, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-40955-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-40955-0">0-201-40955-0</a>. Listed by the board of directors of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Library" title="Modern Library">Modern Library</a> as one of the 100 best nonfiction books.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a></li> <li>Six Not So Easy Pieces: Einstein's Relativity, Symmetry and Space-Time, Addison Wesley, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-15026-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-15026-3">0-201-15026-3</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/meaningofitallth0000feyn">The Meaning of It All: Thoughts of a Citizen-Scientist</a>. Reading, Massachusetts: Perseus Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7382-0166-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7382-0166-9"><bdi>0-7382-0166-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+It+All%3A+Thoughts+of+a+Citizen-Scientist&rft.place=Reading%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Perseus+Publishing&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7382-0166-9&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmeaningofitallth0000feyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeynman1999" class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1999). Robbins, Jeffrey (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pleasureoffindin00feyn">The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman</a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7382-0108-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7382-0108-1"><bdi>0-7382-0108-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pleasure+of+Finding+Things+Out%3A+The+Best+Short+Works+of+Richard+P.+Feynman&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Perseus+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-7382-0108-1&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpleasureoffindin00feyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Classic Feynman: All the Adventures of a Curious Character, edited by Ralph Leighton, W. W. Norton & Company, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-06132-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-06132-9">0-393-06132-9</a>. Chronologically reordered omnibus volume of <a href="/wiki/Surely_You%27re_Joking,_Mr._Feynman!" title="Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!">Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!</a> and What Do You Care What Other People Think?, with a bundled CD containing one of Feynman's signature lectures.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Audio_and_video_recordings">Audio and video recordings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Audio and video recordings">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Safecracker Suite (a collection of drum pieces interspersed with Feynman telling anecdotes)</li> <li>Los Alamos From Below (audio, talk given by Feynman at Santa Barbara on February 6, 1975)</li> <li>The Feynman Lectures on Physics: The Complete Audio Collection, selections from which were also released as Six Easy Pieces and Six Not So Easy Pieces</li> <li>Samples of Feynman's drumming, chanting and speech are included in the songs "Tuva Groove (Bolur Daa-Bol, Bolbas Daa-Bol)" and "Kargyraa Rap (Dürgen Chugaa)" on the album Back Tuva Future, The Adventure Continues by <a href="/wiki/Kongar-ool_Ondar" title="Kongar-ool Ondar">Kongar-ool Ondar</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hidden_track" title="Hidden track">hidden track</a> on this album also includes excerpts from lectures without musical background.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Messenger_Lectures" title="Messenger Lectures">Messenger Lectures</a>, given at Cornell in 1964, in which he explains basic topics in physics;<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> adapted into the book <a href="/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law" title="The Character of Physical Law">The Character of Physical Law</a></li> <li>Take the world from another point of view [videorecording] / with Richard Feynman; Films for the Hu (1972)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vega.org.uk/video/subseries/8">The Douglas Robb Memorial Lectures</a>, four public lectures of which the four chapters of the book <a href="/wiki/QED_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="QED (book)">QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter</a> are transcripts. (1979)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p018dvyg">The Pleasure of Finding Things Out</a>, BBC Horizon episode (1981) (not to be confused with the later published book of the same title)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/richard-feynman/z6bhd6f">Richard Feynman: Fun to Imagine Collection</a>, BBC Archive of six short films of Feynman talking in a style that is accessible to all about the physics behind common to all experiences. (1983)</li> <li>Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics (1986)</li> <li>Tiny Machines: The Feynman Talk on Nanotechnology (video, 1984)</li> <li>Computers From the Inside Out (video)</li> <li>Quantum Mechanical View of Reality: Workshop at Esalen (video, 1983)</li> <li>Idiosyncratic Thinking Workshop (video, 1985)</li> <li>Bits and Pieces—From Richard's Life and Times (video, 1988)</li> <li>Strangeness Minus Three (video, BBC Horizon 1964)</li> <li>No Ordinary Genius (video, Cristopher Sykes Documentary)</li> <li>Richard Feynman—<a href="/wiki/List_of_Nova_episodes#Season_21:_1993–94" title="List of Nova episodes">The Best Mind Since Einstein</a> (video, Documentary)</li> <li>The Motion of Planets Around the Sun (audio, sometimes titled "Feynman's Lost Lecture")</li> <li>Nature of Matter (audio)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTindol1999" class="citation pressrelease cs1">Tindol, Robert (December 2, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/physics-world-poll-names-richard-feynman-one-10-greatest-physicists-all-time-368">"Physics World poll names Richard Feynman one of 10 greatest physicists of all time"</a> (Press release). <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a>. Retrieved June 10, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Physics+World+poll+names+Richard+Feynman+one+of+10+greatest+physicists+of+all+time&rft.pub=California+Institute+of+Technology&rft.date=1999-12-02&rft.aulast=Tindol&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.caltech.edu%2Fabout%2Fnews%2Fphysics-world-poll-names-richard-feynman-one-10-greatest-physicists-all-time-368&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobelbio-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobelbio_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobelbio_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobelbio_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1965/feynman-bio.html">"Richard P. Feynman – Biographical"</a>. The Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060701224503/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1965/feynman-bio.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 1, 2006. Retrieved April 23, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Richard+P.+Feynman+%E2%80%93+Biographical&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1965%2Ffeynman-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-turnbull-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-turnbull_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-turnbull_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-turnbull_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-turnbull_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-turnbull_3-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson2002" class="citation web cs1">O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (August 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Feynman/">"Richard Feynman (1918–1988) – Biography – MacTutor History of Mathematics"</a>. University of St. Andrews. 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Physics Today. 41 (1): 26–37. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PhT....41b..26F">1988PhT....41b..26F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.881143">10.1063/1.881143</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817022920/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/51304/1/challenger.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved April 26, 2021. <q>Gweneth... explained how she thought I would make a unique contribution—in a way that I am modest enough not to describe. Nevertheless, I believed what she said. So I said, 'OK. 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Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-02225-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-02225-7"><bdi>0-262-02225-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12021988">12021988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IBM%27s+Early+Computers&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=MIT&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F12021988&rft.isbn=0-262-02225-7&rft.aulast=Bashe&rft.aufirst=Charles+J.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Lyle+R.&rft.au=Palmer%2C+John+H.&rft.au=Pugh%2C+Emerson+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fibmsearlycompute00bash&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethe1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe, Hans A.</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/roadfromlosalamo00beth">The Road from Los Alamos</a>. Masters of Modern Physics. Vol. 2. New York: Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-74012-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-74012-1"><bdi>0-671-74012-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24734608">24734608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+from+Los+Alamos&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Masters+of+Modern+Physics&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24734608&rft.isbn=0-671-74012-1&rft.aulast=Bethe&rft.aufirst=Hans+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Froadfromlosalamo00beth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian2001" class="citation book cs1">Brian, Denis (2001). The Voice of Genius: Conversations with Nobel Scientists and Other Luminaries. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0447-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0447-5"><bdi>978-0-7382-0447-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751292707">751292707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Voice+of+Genius%3A+Conversations+with+Nobel+Scientists+and+Other+Luminaries&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Perseus&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751292707&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0447-5&rft.aulast=Brian&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Bissell_Carroll" title="John Bissell Carroll">Carroll, John Bissell</a> (1996). <a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Sternberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert J. Sternberg">Sternberg, Robert J.</a>; Ben-Zeev, Talia (eds.). The Nature of Mathematical Thinking. Mahwah, New Jersey: L. Erlbaum Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-1799-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-1799-7"><bdi>978-0-8058-1799-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34513302">34513302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Mathematical+Thinking&rft.place=Mahwah%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=L.+Erlbaum+Associates&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34513302&rft.isbn=978-0-8058-1799-7&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=John+Bissell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChown1985" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Chown" title="Marcus Chown">Chown, Marcus</a> (May 2, 1985). "Strangeness and Charm". <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a>: 34. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0262-4079">0262-4079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Strangeness+and+Charm&rft.pages=34&rft.date=1985-05-02&rft.issn=0262-4079&rft.aulast=Chown&rft.aufirst=Marcus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClose2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Close" title="Frank Close">Close, Frank</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Po1ijAJEvq0C&pg=PA58">The Infinity Puzzle: The Personalities, Politics, and Extraordinary Science Behind the Higgs Boson</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-959350-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-959350-7"><bdi>978-0-19-959350-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/840427493">840427493</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Infinity+Puzzle%3A+The+Personalities%2C+Politics%2C+and+Extraordinary+Science+Behind+the+Higgs+Boson&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F840427493&rft.isbn=978-0-19-959350-7&rft.aulast=Close&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPo1ijAJEvq0C%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeutsch1992" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Deutsch" title="David Deutsch">Deutsch, David</a> (June 1, 1992). "Quantum computation". <a href="/wiki/Physics_World" title="Physics World">Physics World</a>. 5 (6): 57–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F2058-7058%2F5%2F6%2F38">10.1088/2058-7058/5/6/38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0953-8585">0953-8585</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+World&rft.atitle=Quantum+computation&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=57-61&rft.date=1992-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F2058-7058%2F5%2F6%2F38&rft.issn=0953-8585&rft.aulast=Deutsch&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Friedman, Jerome</a> (2004). "A Student's View of Fermi". In <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">Cronin, James W.</a> (ed.). Fermi Remembered. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-12111-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-12111-6"><bdi>978-0-226-12111-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/835230762">835230762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Student%27s+View+of+Fermi&rft.btitle=Fermi+Remembered&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F835230762&rft.isbn=978-0-226-12111-6&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Jerome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalison1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Galison" title="Peter Galison">Galison, Peter</a> (1998). "Feynman's War: Modelling Weapons, Modelling Nature". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics. 29 (3): 391–434. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998SHPMP..29..391G">1998SHPMP..29..391G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1355-2198%2898%2900013-6">10.1016/S1355-2198(98)00013-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Science+Part+B%3A+Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=Feynman%27s+War%3A+Modelling+Weapons%2C+Modelling+Nature&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=391-434&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1355-2198%2898%2900013-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998SHPMP..29..391G&rft.aulast=Galison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGleick1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Gleick" title="James Gleick">Gleick, James</a> (1992). Genius: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman. <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_Books" title="Pantheon Books">Pantheon Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-40836-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-40836-3"><bdi>0-679-40836-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/243743850">243743850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genius%3A+The+Life+and+Science+of+Richard+Feynman&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F243743850&rft.isbn=0-679-40836-3&rft.aulast=Gleick&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGribbinGribbin1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Gribbin" title="John Gribbin">Gribbin, John</a>; Gribbin, Mary (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/richardfeynmanli00grib">Richard Feynman: A Life in Science</a>. Dutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-525-94124-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-525-94124-X"><bdi>0-525-94124-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/636838499">636838499</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+Feynman%3A+A+Life+in+Science&rft.pub=Dutton&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F636838499&rft.isbn=0-525-94124-X&rft.aulast=Gribbin&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Gribbin%2C+Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frichardfeynmanli00grib&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenderson2011" class="citation book cs1">Henderson, Harry (2011). Richard Feynman: Quarks, Bombs, and Bongos. Chelsea House Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6176-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6176-1"><bdi>978-0-8160-6176-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751114185">751114185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+Feynman%3A+Quarks%2C+Bombs%2C+and+Bongos&rft.pub=Chelsea+House+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751114185&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6176-1&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lillian_Hoddeson" title="Lillian Hoddeson">Hoddeson, Lillian</a>; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Westfall" title="Catherine Westfall">Westfall, Catherine L.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/criticalassembly0000unse">Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945</a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3"><bdi>0-521-44132-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26764320">26764320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Assembly%3A+A+Technical+History+of+Los+Alamos+During+the+Oppenheimer+Years%2C+1943%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26764320&rft.isbn=0-521-44132-3&rft.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft.au=Henriksen%2C+Paul+W.&rft.au=Meade%2C+Roger+A.&rft.au=Westfall%2C+Catherine+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcriticalassembly0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauss2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Krauss" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence M. Krauss">Krauss, Lawrence M.</a> (2011). <a href="/wiki/Quantum_Man:_Richard_Feynman%27s_Life_in_Science" title="Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science">Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science</a>. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06471-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06471-1"><bdi>978-0-393-06471-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/601108916">601108916</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantum+Man%3A+Richard+Feynman%27s+Life+in+Science&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F601108916&rft.isbn=978-0-393-06471-1&rft.aulast=Krauss&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMehra1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Mehra" title="Jagdish Mehra">Mehra, Jagdish</a> (1994). The Beat of a Different Drum: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-853948-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-853948-7"><bdi>0-19-853948-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/28507544">28507544</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beat+of+a+Different+Drum%3A+The+Life+and+Science+of+Richard+Feynman&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F28507544&rft.isbn=0-19-853948-7&rft.aulast=Mehra&rft.aufirst=Jagdish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOakes2007" class="citation book cs1">Oakes, Elizabeth H. (2007). Encyclopedia of World Scientists, Revised edition. New York: Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1882-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1882-6"><bdi>978-1-4381-1882-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/466364697">466364697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Scientists%2C+Revised+edition&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F466364697&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1882-6&rft.aulast=Oakes&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeat1997" class="citation book cs1">Peat, David (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780201406351">Infinite Potential: the Life and Times of David Bohm</a>. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-40635-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-40635-7"><bdi>0-201-40635-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1014736570">1014736570</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Infinite+Potential%3A+the+Life+and+Times+of+David+Bohm&rft.place=Reading%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1014736570&rft.isbn=0-201-40635-7&rft.aulast=Peat&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780201406351&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchweber1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Silvan_S._Schweber" title="Silvan S. Schweber">Schweber, Silvan S.</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/qedmenwhomadeitd0000schw">QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-03327-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-03327-7"><bdi>0-691-03327-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/918243948">918243948</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=QED+and+the+Men+Who+Made+It%3A+Dyson%2C+Feynman%2C+Schwinger%2C+and+Tomonaga&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F918243948&rft.isbn=0-691-03327-7&rft.aulast=Schweber&rft.aufirst=Silvan+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fqedmenwhomadeitd0000schw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSykes1994" class="citation book cs1">Sykes, Christopher (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/noordinarygenius00feyn">No Ordinary Genius: the Illustrated Richard Feynman</a>. New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-03621-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-03621-9"><bdi>0-393-03621-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/924553844">924553844</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Ordinary+Genius%3A+the+Illustrated+Richard+Feynman&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F924553844&rft.isbn=0-393-03621-9&rft.aulast=Sykes&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnoordinarygenius00feyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Physics Today, <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Physics" title="American Institute of Physics">American Institute of Physics</a> magazine, February 1989 Issue. (Vol. 42, No. 2.) Special Feynman memorial issue containing non-technical articles on Feynman's life and work in physics.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Feynman, Richard P. (1987). Leighton, Ralph (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://calteches.library.caltech.edu/3570/">"Mr. Feynman Goes to Washington"</a>. Engineering and Science. 51 (1). Caltech: 6–22. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-7812">0013-7812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Engineering+and+Science&rft.atitle=Mr.+Feynman+Goes+to+Washington&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6-22&rft.date=1987&rft.issn=0013-7812&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcalteches.library.caltech.edu%2F3570%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Brown, Laurie M. and <a href="/wiki/Rigden,_John_S." class="mw-redirect" title="Rigden, John S.">Rigden, John S.</a> (editors) (1993) Most of the Good Stuff: Memories of Richard Feynman Simon & Schuster, New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88318-870-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-88318-870-8">0-88318-870-8</a>. Commentary by Joan Feynman, John Wheeler, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a>, Julian Schwinger, Murray Gell-Mann, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hillis" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Hillis">Daniel Hillis</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Goodstein" title="David Goodstein">David Goodstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a>, and Laurie Brown</li> <li>Dyson, Freeman (1979) Disturbing the Universe. Harper and Row. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-011108-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-011108-9">0-06-011108-9</a>. Dyson's autobiography. The chapters "A Scientific Apprenticeship" and "A Ride to Albuquerque" describe his impressions of Feynman in the period 1947–1948 when Dyson was a graduate student at Cornell</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Leighton, Ralph (2000). <a href="/wiki/Tuva_or_Bust!" title="Tuva or Bust!">Tuva or Bust!: Richard Feynman's last journey</a>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-32069-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-32069-3"><bdi>0-393-32069-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tuva+or+Bust%21%3A+Richard+Feynman%27s+last+journey&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-393-32069-3&rft.aulast=Leighton&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">LeVine, Harry (2009). The Great Explainer: The Story of Richard Feynman. Greensboro, North Carolina: Morgan Reynolds. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59935-113-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59935-113-1"><bdi>978-1-59935-113-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Explainer%3A+The+Story+of+Richard+Feynman&rft.place=Greensboro%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pub=Morgan+Reynolds&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-59935-113-1&rft.aulast=LeVine&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"> for high school readers</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerard_J._Milburn" title="Gerard J. Milburn">Milburn, Gerald J.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feynmanprocessor0000milb_f8a8">The Feynman Processor: Quantum Entanglement and the Computing Revolution</a>. Reading, Massachusetts: Perseus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7382-0173-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7382-0173-1"><bdi>0-7382-0173-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Feynman+Processor%3A+Quantum+Entanglement+and+the+Computing+Revolution&rft.place=Reading%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Perseus+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7382-0173-1&rft.aulast=Milburn&rft.aufirst=Gerald+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffeynmanprocessor0000milb_f8a8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Mlodinow" title="Leonard Mlodinow">Mlodinow, Leonard</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feynmansrainbow00leon">Feynman's Rainbow: A Search For Beauty In Physics And In Life</a>. New York: Warner Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-446-69251-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-446-69251-4"><bdi>0-446-69251-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feynman%27s+Rainbow%3A+A+Search+For+Beauty+In+Physics+And+In+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Warner+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-446-69251-4&rft.aulast=Mlodinow&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffeynmansrainbow00leon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"> Published in the United Kingdom as Some Time With Feynman</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOttavianiMyrick2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jim_Ottaviani" title="Jim Ottaviani">Ottaviani, Jim</a>; <a href="/wiki/Leland_Myrick" title="Leland Myrick">Myrick, Leland</a> (2011). Feynman: The Graphic Novel. New York: First Second. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59643-259-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59643-259-8"><bdi>978-1-59643-259-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/664838951">664838951</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feynman%3A+The+Graphic+Novel&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=First+Second&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F664838951&rft.isbn=978-1-59643-259-8&rft.aulast=Ottaviani&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft.au=Myrick%2C+Leland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARichard+Feynman" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Films_and_plays">Films and plays</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Films and plays">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infinity_(1996_film)" title="Infinity (1996 film)">Infinity</a> (1996), a movie both directed by and starring <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Broderick" title="Matthew Broderick">Matthew Broderick</a> as Feynman, depicting his love affair with his first wife and ending with the Trinity test.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Parnell" title="Peter Parnell">Parnell, Peter</a> (2002), <a href="/wiki/QED_(play)" title="QED (play)">QED</a>, Applause Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55783-592-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55783-592-5">978-1-55783-592-5</a> (play)</li> <li>Whittell, Crispin (2006), Clever Dick, <a href="/wiki/Oberon_Books" title="Oberon Books">Oberon Books</a>, (play)</li> <li>"The Quest for Tannu Tuva", with Richard Feynman and Ralph Leighton. 1987, BBC Horizon and PBS Nova (entitled "Last Journey of a Genius").</li> <li>No Ordinary Genius, a two-part documentary about Feynman's life and work, with contributions from colleagues, friends and family. 1993, BBC Horizon and PBS Nova (a one-hour version, under the title The Best Mind Since Einstein) (2 × 50-minute films)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Challenger_Disaster" title="The Challenger Disaster">The Challenger</a> (2013), a BBC Two factual drama starring <a href="/wiki/William_Hurt" title="William Hurt">William Hurt</a>, tells the story of American Nobel prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman's determination to reveal the truth behind the 1986 <a href="/wiki/Space_shuttle_Challenger_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Space shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle Challenger disaster</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p016d3kk">The Fantastic Mr Feynman</a>. One hour documentary. 2013, BBC TV</li> <li>How We Built The Bomb, a docudrama about The Manhattan Project at Los Alamos. Feynman is played by actor/playwright <a href="/wiki/Michael_Raver" title="Michael Raver">Michael Raver</a>. 2015</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Feynman&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Richard Feynman at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Richard_Feynman" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Richard Feynman">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman" class="extiw" title="q:Richard Feynman">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39246" class="extiw" title="d:Q39246">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?186829-1/perfectly-reasonable-deviations-beaten-track">Presentation by Michelle Feynman on Perfectly Reasonable Deviations from the Beaten Track, May 9, 2005</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://richardfeynman.com">Official website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu">The Feynman Lectures on Physics Website</a> by Michael Gottlieb, assisted by Rudolf Pfeiffer and Caltech</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/5020-1">Oral history interview transcript with Richard Feynman on 4 March 1966, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a> – Session I</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/5020-2">Oral history interview transcript with Richard Feynman on 5 March 1966, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a> – Session II</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/5020-3">Oral history interview transcript with Richard Feynman on 27 June 1966, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a> – Session III</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/5020-4">Oral history interview transcript with Richard Feynman on 28 June 1966, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a> – Session IV</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/5020-5">Oral history interview transcript with Richard Feynman on 4 February 1973, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a> – Session V</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/oral-histories/search?search_api_views_fulltext=Richard+Feynman">Additional Richard Feynman interviews (with and about)</a> – <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Physics" title="American Institute of Physics">American Institute of Physics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.feynman.com/">Feynman Online!</a>, a site dedicated to Feynman</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Richard_Feynman" title="Template:Richard Feynman"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Richard_Feynman" title="Template talk:Richard Feynman"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Richard_Feynman" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Richard Feynman"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Richard_Feynman" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Richard Feynman</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Career</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagram" title="Feynman diagram">Feynman diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feynman%E2%80%93Kac_formula" title="Feynman–Kac formula">Feynman–Kac formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheeler%E2%80%93Feynman_absorber_theory" title="Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory">Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethe%E2%80%93Feynman_formula" title="Bethe–Feynman formula">Bethe–Feynman formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellmann%E2%80%93Feynman_theorem" title="Hellmann–Feynman theorem">Hellmann–Feynman theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feynman_slash_notation" title="Feynman slash notation">Feynman slash notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feynman_parametrization" title="Feynman parametrization">Feynman parametrization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Path_integral_formulation" title="Path integral formulation">Path integral formulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parton_(particle_physics)" title="Parton (particle physics)">Parton model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sticky_bead_argument" title="Sticky bead argument">Sticky bead argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-electron_universe" title="One-electron universe">One-electron universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cellular_automaton" title="Quantum cellular automaton">Quantum cellular automaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogers_Commission_Report" title="Rogers Commission Report">Rogers Commission Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feynman_checkerboard" title="Feynman checkerboard">Feynman checkerboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feynman_sprinkler" title="Feynman sprinkler">Feynman sprinkler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/There%27s_Plenty_of_Room_at_the_Bottom" title="There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom">There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom</a>" (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Feynman_Lectures_on_Physics" title="The Feynman Lectures on Physics">The Feynman Lectures on Physics</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law" title="The Character of Physical Law">The Character of Physical Law</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/QED:_The_Strange_Theory_of_Light_and_Matter" title="QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter">QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surely_You%27re_Joking,_Mr._Feynman!" title="Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!">Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/What_Do_You_Care_What_Other_People_Think%3F" title="What Do You Care What Other People Think?">What Do You Care What Other People Think?</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feynman%27s_Lost_Lecture" title="Feynman's Lost Lecture">Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Meaning_of_It_All" title="The Meaning of It All">The Meaning of It All</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pleasure_of_Finding_Things_Out" title="The Pleasure of Finding Things Out">The Pleasure of Finding Things Out</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfectly_Reasonable_Deviations_from_the_Beaten_Track" title="Perfectly Reasonable Deviations from the Beaten Track">Perfectly Reasonable Deviations from the Beaten Track</a> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Feynman" title="Joan Feynman">Joan Feynman</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hirshberg" title="Charles Hirshberg">Charles Hirshberg</a> (nephew)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Richard_Feynman" title="List of things named after Richard Feynman">Namesakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo cult science">Cargo cult science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Man:_Richard_Feynman%27s_Life_in_Science" title="Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science">Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_or_Bust!" title="Tuva or Bust!">Tuva or Bust!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feynman_Prize_in_Nanotechnology" title="Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology">Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinity_(1996_film)" title="Infinity (1996 film)">Infinity (1996 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QED_(play)" title="QED (play)">QED (2001 play)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Challenger_Disaster" title="The Challenger Disaster">The Challenger Disaster (2013 film)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1901: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Röntgen</a></li> <li>1902: <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Zeeman</a></li> <li>1903: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">P. Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">M. Curie</a></li> <li>1904: <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Rayleigh</a></li> <li>1905: <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard" title="Philipp Lenard">Lenard</a></li> <li>1906: <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></li> <li>1907: <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Michelson</a></li> <li>1908: <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann" title="Gabriel Lippmann">Lippmann</a></li> <li>1909: <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Braun</a></li> <li>1910: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Van der Waals</a></li> <li>1911: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wien</a></li> <li>1912: <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Dal%C3%A9n" title="Gustaf Dalén">Dalén</a></li> <li>1913: <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Kamerlingh Onnes</a></li> <li>1914: <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Laue</a></li> <li>1915: <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">W. L. Bragg</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">W. H. Bragg</a></li> <li>1916</li> <li>1917: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Glover_Barkla" title="Charles Glover Barkla">Barkla</a></li> <li>1918: <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Planck</a></li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Stark" title="Johannes Stark">Stark</a></li> <li>1920: <a href="/wiki/Charles_%C3%89douard_Guillaume" title="Charles Édouard Guillaume">Guillaume</a></li> <li>1921: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></li> <li>1923: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Millikan</a></li> <li>1924: <a href="/wiki/Manne_Siegbahn" title="Manne Siegbahn">M. Siegbahn</a></li> <li>1925: <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">Franck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Hertz</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Perrin</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">C. Wilson</a></li> <li>1928: <a href="/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson" title="Owen Willans Richardson">O. Richardson</a></li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">De Broglie</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">Raman</a></li> <li>1931</li> <li>1932: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a></li> <li>1933: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></li> <li>1934</li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Francis_Hess" title="Victor Francis Hess">Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">C. D. Anderson</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">G. P. Thomson</a></li> <li>1938: <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li>1939: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li>1940</li> <li>1941</li> <li>1942</li> <li>1943: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Stern</a></li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></li> <li>1945: <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Bridgman</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Victor_Appleton" title="Edward Victor Appleton">Appleton</a></li> <li>1948: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Blackett</a></li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Yukawa</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">Powell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1951: <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/Frits_Zernike" title="Frits Zernike">Zernike</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Bothe</a></li> <li>1955: <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Lamb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch" title="Polykarp Kusch">Kusch</a></li> <li>1956: <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Brattain</a></li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">C. N. Yang</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">T. D. Lee</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Cherenkov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Frank" title="Ilya Frank">Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Igor_Tamm" title="Igor Tamm">Tamm</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/Owen_Chamberlain" title="Owen Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Glaser</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Hofstadter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_M%C3%B6ssbauer" title="Rudolf Mössbauer">Mössbauer</a></li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Goeppert Mayer</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></li> <li>1964: <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Basov" title="Nikolay Basov">Basov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov" title="Alexander Prokhorov">Prokhorov</a></li> <li>1965: <a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Tomonaga</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Schwinger</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Feynman</a></li> <li>1966: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Kastler</a></li> <li>1967: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></li> <li>1968: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></li> <li>1969: <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Gell-Mann</a></li> <li>1970: <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_N%C3%A9el" title="Louis Néel">Néel</a></li> <li>1971: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" title="Dennis Gabor">Gabor</a></li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leon_Cooper" title="Leon Cooper">Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">Schrieffer</a></li> <li>1973: <a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Esaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ivar_Giaever" title="Ivar Giaever">Giaever</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Josephson" title="Brian Josephson">Josephson</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Ryle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Hewish</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Roy_Mottelson" title="Ben Roy Mottelson">Mottelson</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">Rainwater</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Richter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._C._Ting" title="Samuel C. C. Ting">Ting</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Philip_W._Anderson" title="Philip W. Anderson">P. W. Anderson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Mott</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">Van Vleck</a></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Kapitsa" title="Pyotr Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">R. Wilson</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Glashow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Salam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">Cronin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Fitch</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Bloembergen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Schawlow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kai_Siegbahn" title="Kai Siegbahn">K. Siegbahn</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">K. Wilson</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">Fowler</a></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Rubbia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Van der Meer</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing" title="Klaus von Klitzing">von Klitzing</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ruska" title="Ernst Ruska">Ruska</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Binnig" title="Gerd Binnig">Binnig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer" title="Heinrich Rohrer">Rohrer</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Bednorz" title="Georg Bednorz">Bednorz</a> / <a href="/wiki/K._Alex_M%C3%BCller" title="K. Alex Müller">Müller</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Lederman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Schwartz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Steinberger</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Ramsey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_Georg_Dehmelt" title="Hans Georg Dehmelt">Dehmelt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Paul" title="Wolfgang Paul">Paul</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Friedman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Taylor" title="Richard E. Taylor">R. Taylor</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Gilles_de_Gennes" title="Pierre-Gilles de Gennes">de Gennes</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Georges_Charpak" title="Georges Charpak">Charpak</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">J. Taylor</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Brockhouse" title="Bertram Brockhouse">Brockhouse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Shull" title="Clifford Shull">Shull</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Perl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Reines</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/David_Lee_(physicist)" title="David Lee (physicist)">D. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Osheroff" title="Douglas Osheroff">Osheroff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Coleman_Richardson" title="Robert Coleman Richardson">R. Richardson</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Chu" title="Steven Chu">Chu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Claude_Cohen-Tannoudji" title="Claude Cohen-Tannoudji">Cohen-Tannoudji</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Daniel_Phillips" title="William Daniel Phillips">Phillips</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin" title="Robert B. Laughlin">Laughlin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Horst_Ludwig_St%C3%B6rmer" title="Horst Ludwig Störmer">Störmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Tsui" title="Daniel C. Tsui">Tsui</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">'t Hooft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martinus_J._G._Veltman" title="Martinus J. G. Veltman">Veltman</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Alferov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kroemer" title="Herbert Kroemer">Kroemer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Kilby</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001– present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2001: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Allin_Cornell" title="Eric Allin Cornell">Cornell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Ketterle" title="Wolfgang Ketterle">Ketterle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieman" title="Carl Wieman">Wieman</a></li> <li>2002: <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Davis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">Koshiba</a> / <a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Giacconi</a></li> <li>2003: <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Abrikosov_(physicist)" title="Alexei Abrikosov (physicist)">Abrikosov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anthony_James_Leggett" title="Anthony James Leggett">Leggett</a></li> <li>2004: <a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">Gross</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer" title="Hugh David Politzer">Politzer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Roy_J._Glauber" title="Roy J. Glauber">Glauber</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_L._Hall" title="John L. Hall">Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._H%C3%A4nsch" title="Theodor W. Hänsch">Hänsch</a></li> <li>2006: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Fert" title="Albert Fert">Fert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gr%C3%BCnberg" title="Peter Grünberg">Grünberg</a></li> <li>2008: <a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Nambu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Makoto_Kobayashi_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makoto Kobayashi (physicist)">Kobayashi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Toshihide_Maskawa" title="Toshihide Maskawa">Maskawa</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Kao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Boyle" title="Willard Boyle">Boyle</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">Smith</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Andre_Geim" title="Andre Geim">Geim</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Novoselov" title="Konstantin Novoselov">Novoselov</a></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Saul_Perlmutter" title="Saul Perlmutter">Perlmutter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Adam_Riess" title="Adam Riess">Riess</a> </li> <li>2012: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">Wineland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Serge_Haroche" title="Serge Haroche">Haroche</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">Englert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Higgs</a></li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki" title="Isamu Akasaki">Akasaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Amano" title="Hiroshi Amano">Amano</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shuji_Nakamura" title="Shuji Nakamura">Nakamura</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Kajita" title="Takaaki Kajita">Kajita</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._McDonald" title="Arthur B. McDonald">McDonald</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Thouless" title="David J. Thouless">Thouless</a> / <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Haldane" title="Duncan Haldane">Haldane</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Kosterlitz" title="J. Michael Kosterlitz">Kosterlitz</a></li> <li>2017: <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Weiss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Thorne</a></li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin" title="Arthur Ashkin">Ashkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou" title="Gérard Mourou">Mourou</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Strickland</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Peebles" title="Jim Peebles">Peebles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michel_Mayor" title="Michel Mayor">Mayor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Didier_Queloz" title="Didier Queloz">Queloz</a></li> <li>2020: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Genzel" title="Reinhard Genzel">Genzel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrea_M._Ghez" title="Andrea M. Ghez">Ghez</a></li> <li>2021: <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Parisi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hasselmann" title="Klaus Hasselmann">Hasselmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Syukuro_Manabe" title="Syukuro Manabe">Manabe</a></li> <li>2022: <a href="/wiki/Alain_Aspect" title="Alain Aspect">Aspect</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">Clauser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Zeilinger</a></li> <li>2023: <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Agostini" title="Pierre Agostini">Agostini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Krausz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">L'Huillier</a></li> <li>2024: <a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">Hopfield</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinton" title="Geoffrey Hinton">Hinton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1965_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1965 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1965_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1965 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1965_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1965 Nobel Prize in Literature">1965</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Sholokhov" title="Mikhail Sholokhov">Mikhail Sholokhov</a> (Soviet Union)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a> (<a href="/wiki/1965_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1965 Nobel Peace Prize">1965</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Sin-Itiro Tomonaga</a> (Japan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a> (United States)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Richard Feynman</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Michel_Lwoff" title="André Michel Lwoff">André Michel Lwoff</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a> (France)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1960_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1960 Nobel Prize winners">1960</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1961_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1961 Nobel Prize winners">1961</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1962_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1962 Nobel Prize winners">1962</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1963_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1963 Nobel Prize winners">1963</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1964_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1964 Nobel Prize winners">1964</a></dd> <dd>1965 </dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1966_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1966 Nobel Prize winners">1966</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1967_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1967 Nobel Prize winners">1967</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1968_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1968 Nobel Prize winners">1968</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1969_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1969 Nobel Prize winners">1969</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1970_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1970 Nobel Prize winners">1970</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39246#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div 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