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colonialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxic_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronic_waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronic_waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Electronic waste</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronic_waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incinerator_ash" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incinerator_ash"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Incinerator ash</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Incinerator_ash-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Incinerator ash subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Incinerator_ash-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Khian_Sea_incident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khian_Sea_incident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span><i>Khian Sea</i> incident</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khian_Sea_incident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Chemical waste</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chemical_waste-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chemical waste subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chemical_waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Italy_dumping_hazardous_chemicals_in_Nigeria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy_dumping_hazardous_chemicals_in_Nigeria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Italy dumping hazardous chemicals in Nigeria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy_dumping_hazardous_chemicals_in_Nigeria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shipbreaking_in_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shipbreaking_in_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Shipbreaking in Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shipbreaking_in_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plastic_waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plastic_waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Plastic waste</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plastic_waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_upon_the_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_upon_the_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Effects upon the environment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_upon_the_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implications_for_human_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implications_for_human_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Implications for human health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implications_for_human_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>In politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_responses_to_global_waste_trade_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_responses_to_global_waste_trade_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>International responses to global waste trade issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-International_responses_to_global_waste_trade_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle International responses to global waste trade issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-International_responses_to_global_waste_trade_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_treaties_and_relevant_trade_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_treaties_and_relevant_trade_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>International treaties and relevant trade law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_treaties_and_relevant_trade_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basel_Convention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basel_Convention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Basel Convention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basel_Convention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ENFORCE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ENFORCE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>ENFORCE</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ENFORCE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protocol_on_Liability_and_Compensation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protocol_on_Liability_and_Compensation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Protocol on Liability and Compensation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protocol_on_Liability_and_Compensation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lomé_IV_Convention_and_Cotonou_Agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lomé_IV_Convention_and_Cotonou_Agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>Lomé IV Convention and Cotonou Agreement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lomé_IV_Convention_and_Cotonou_Agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Bamako_Convention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Bamako_Convention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.5</span> <span>The Bamako Convention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Bamako_Convention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critiques_of_these_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critiques_of_these_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Critiques of these responses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critiques_of_these_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fraudulent_shipments_and_concealments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fraudulent_shipments_and_concealments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Fraudulent shipments and concealments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fraudulent_shipments_and_concealments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues_with_legal_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues_with_legal_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Issues with legal definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Issues_with_legal_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown 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trade</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masnach_gwastraff_byd-eang" title="Masnach gwastraff byd-eang – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Masnach gwastraff byd-eang" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hondakinen_merkataritza_global" title="Hondakinen merkataritza global – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hondakinen merkataritza global" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasuwancin_shara_a_duniya" title="Kasuwancin shara a duniya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kasuwancin shara a duniya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az%E1%BB%A5mah%E1%BB%8Ba_mkpofu_zuru_%E1%BB%A5wa_%E1%BB%8Dn%E1%BB%A5" title="Azụmahịa mkpofu zuru ụwa ọnụ – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Azụmahịa mkpofu zuru ụwa ọnụ" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perdagangan_sampah_global" title="Perdagangan sampah global – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perdagangan sampah global" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">International trade of waste between countries</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/International_waste" title="International waste">International waste</a>.</div> <p>The <b>global waste trade</b> is the <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a> of <a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">waste</a> between countries for further <a href="/wiki/Waste_treatment" title="Waste treatment">treatment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waste_disposal" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste disposal">disposal</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Waste_recycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste recycling">recycling</a>. Toxic or <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous wastes</a> are often imported by <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a> from developed countries. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> Report <i>What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management</i>, describes the amount of solid waste produced in a given country. Specifically, countries which produce more solid waste are more economically developed and more industrialized.<sup id="cite_ref-worldbank_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldbank-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The report explains that "Generally, the higher the economic development and rate of urbanization, the greater the amount of solid waste produced."<sup id="cite_ref-worldbank_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldbank-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, countries in the <a href="/wiki/Global_North" class="mw-redirect" title="Global North">Global North</a>, which are more economically developed and urbanized, produce more solid waste than <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a> countries.<sup id="cite_ref-worldbank_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldbank-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Current international trade flows of waste follow a pattern of waste being produced in the Global North and being exported to and disposed of in the Global South. Multiple factors affect which countries produce waste and at what magnitude, including geographic location, degree of <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a>, and level of integration into the global economy. </p><p> Numerous scholars and researchers have linked the sharp increase in waste trading and the negative impacts of waste trading to the prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism#Economic_neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberal economic policy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nixon_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nixon-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-grossman_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grossman-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-smith_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-blumm_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blumm-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the major economic transition towards neoliberal economic policy in the 1980s, the shift towards <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">"free-market"</a> policy has facilitated the sharp increase in the global waste trade. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Giroux" title="Henry Giroux">Henry Giroux</a>, Chair of Cultural Studies at McMaster University, gives his definition of neoliberal economic policy: </p><blockquote><p>"Neoliberalism ...removes economics and markets from the discourse of social obligations and social costs. ...As a policy and political project, neoliberalism is wedded to the privatization of public services, selling off of state functions, deregulation of finance and labor, elimination of the welfare state and unions, liberalization of trade in goods and capital investment, and the marketization and <a href="/wiki/Commodification" title="Commodification">commodification</a> of society."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Given this economic platform of privatization, neoliberalism is based on expanding free-trade agreements and establishing open-borders to international trade markets. <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade liberalization</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Neoliberal" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoliberal">neoliberal</a> economic policy in which trade is completely <a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">deregulated</a>, leaving no tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions on international trade, is designed to further developing countries' economies and integrate them into the global economy. Critics claim that although free-market trade liberalization was designed to allow any country the opportunity to reach economic success, the consequences of these policies have been devastating for Global South countries, essentially crippling their economies in a servitude to the Global North.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even supporters such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a>, “progress of integration has been uneven in recent decades.”<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Specifically, developing countries have been targeted by trade liberalization policies to import waste as a means of <a href="/wiki/Economic_expansion" title="Economic expansion">economic expansion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cato_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cato-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The guiding neoliberal economic policy argues that the way to be integrated into the global economy is to participate in trade liberalization and exchange in international trade markets.<sup id="cite_ref-cato_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cato-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their claim is that smaller countries, with less infrastructure, less wealth, and less manufacturing ability, should take in hazardous wastes as a way to increase profits and stimulate their economies.<sup id="cite_ref-cato_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cato-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_debate_over_global_waste_trade">Current debate over global waste trade</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Current debate over global waste trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arguments_in_support">Arguments in support</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Arguments in support"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Current supporters of global waste trade argue that importing waste is an economic transaction which can benefit countries with little to offer the <a href="/wiki/Global_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Global economy">global economy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cato_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cato-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Countries which do not have the production capacity to manufacture high quality products can import waste to stimulate their economy. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers">Lawrence Summers</a>, former President of Harvard University and Chief Economist of the World Bank, issued a confidential memo arguing for global waste trade in 1991. The memo stated: </p> <blockquote><p>"I think the economic logic behind dumping a load of toxic waste in the lowest wage country is impeccable and we should face up to that... I've always thought that countries in Africa are vastly under polluted; their air quality is probably vastly inefficiently low compared to Los Angeles... Just between you and me shouldn't the World Bank be encouraging more migration of the dirty industries to the Least Developed Countries?"<sup id="cite_ref-nixon_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nixon-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This position, which is mainly motivated by economics and financial profit in particular, demonstrates the main argument for global waste trade. The <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a> published an article supporting global waste trade suggesting that "there is little evidence that hazardous wastes, which are often chronic carcinogens, contribute to death rates in developing countries."<sup id="cite_ref-cato_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cato-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elaborating on this point, the article argues that "people in developing countries would rationally accept increased exposure to hazardous pollutants in exchange for opportunities to increase their productivity—and, hence, their income."<sup id="cite_ref-cato_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cato-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overall, the argument for global waste trade rests largely upon a perception that developing countries need to further their economic development. Supporters suggest that in engaging in global waste trade, developing countries of the Global South will expand their economies and increase profits.<sup id="cite_ref-cato_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cato-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critiques">Critiques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Critiques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Critics of global waste trade argue that lack of regulation and failed policies have allowed developing nations to become toxic dump yards for hazardous waste. The ever-increasing amounts of hazardous waste being shipped to developing countries increases the disproportionate risk that the people in these nations face. Critics of the effects of the global waste trade emphasize the enormous amount of hazardous wastes that people in poorer countries must deal with. They highlight the fact that most of the world's hazardous wastes are produced by Western countries (the United States and Europe), yet the people who suffer <a href="/wiki/Health_threat" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat">negative health effects</a> from these wastes are from poorer countries that did not produce the waste. </p><p>Peter Newell, Professor of Development Studies, argues that "environmental inequality reinforces and, at the same time reflects, other forms of hierarchy and exploitation along lines of class, race and gender."<sup id="cite_ref-newell_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newell-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguing that the detrimental effects of hazardous waste trade affect the disadvantaged more than others, critics of global waste trade suggest that the implications of dumping hazardous waste has significant consequences for <a href="/wiki/Person_of_color" title="Person of color">people of color</a>, women, and low-income people in particular.<sup id="cite_ref-newell_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newell-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Critiquing the global waste trade for reproducing inequality on a global scale, many activists, organizers, and environmentalists from regions affected in the Global South have vocalized their disappointment with global waste trade policies. Evo Morales, former President of Bolivia, argues against the current economic system forcing the exploitation of his country and people. He claims:</p><blockquote><p>"If we want to save the planet earth, to save life and humanity, we have a duty to put an end to the capitalist system. Unless we put an end to the capitalist system, it is impossible to imagine that there will be equality and justice on this planet earth. This is why I believe that it is important to put an end to the exploitation of human beings and to the pillage of natural resources, to put an end to destructive wars for markets and raw materials, to the plundering of energy, particularly fossil fuels, to the excessive consumption of goods and to the accumulation of waste. The capitalist system only allows us to heap up waste."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Jean Francois Kouadio, an African native living near a toxic dump site in the Ivory Coast, explains his experience with the effects of toxic substances lingering throughout his community. With major Western corporations dumping their toxic wastes in the Ivory Coast, Kuoadio has lost two children to the effects of toxic wastes. He describes the loss of his second daughter Ama Grace, and how the doctors "said she suffered from acute glycemia caused by the toxic waste."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to critics from the Global South, researchers and scholars in the West have begun critiquing the uneven distribution of negative effects these hazardous waste dumpings are causing. <a href="/wiki/Dorceta_Taylor" title="Dorceta Taylor">Dorceta Taylor</a>, Professor at the University of Michigan, argues how Women of Color in the United States are disproportionately affected by these policies: </p><blockquote><p>"Women of color have been at the forefront of the struggle to bring attention to the issues that are devastating minority communities – issues such as hazardous waste disposal; exposure to toxins; ...Their communities, some of the most degraded environments ... are repositories of the waste products of capitalist production and excessive consumption. As a result, they have been in the vanguard of the struggle for environmental justice; they are the founders of environmental groups, grassroots activists, researchers, conference organizers, workshop leaders, lobbyists, and campaign and community organizers."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>T.V. Reed, Professor of English and American Studies at Washington State University, argues that the correlation between historical colonialism and toxic colonialism is based on perceptions of indigenous land as 'waste'.<sup id="cite_ref-reed_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reed-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues that Western cultures have deemed indigenous land as "underdeveloped" and "empty", and that the people inhabiting it are therefore less "civilized".<sup id="cite_ref-reed_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reed-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using the historical premises of colonialism, toxic colonialism reproduces these same arguments by defining Global South land as expendable for Western wastes.<sup id="cite_ref-reed_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reed-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Toxic_colonialism">Toxic colonialism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Toxic colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Toxic_colonialism" title="Toxic colonialism">Toxic colonialism</a>, defined as the process by which "underdeveloped states are used as inexpensive alternatives for the export or disposal of hazardous waste pollution by developed states," is the core critique against the global waste trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toxic colonialism represents the <a href="/wiki/Neocolonial" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocolonial">neocolonial</a> policy which continues to maintain <a href="/wiki/Global_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Global inequality">global inequality</a> today through unfair <a href="/wiki/Trade_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade system">trade systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toxic colonialism uses the term colonialism because "the characteristics of colonialism, involving <a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">economic dependence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">exploitation of labour</a>, and cultural <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">inequality</a> are intimately associated within the new realm of toxic waste colonialism."<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electronic_waste">Electronic waste</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Electronic waste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></div> <p>Electronic waste, also known as e-waste, refers to discarded electrical or electronic devices. A rapidly growing surplus of electronic waste around the world has resulted from quickly evolving technological advances, changes in media (tapes, software, MP3), falling prices, and <a href="/wiki/Planned_obsolescence" title="Planned obsolescence">planned obsolescence</a>. An estimated 50 million tons of e-waste are produced each year, the majority of which comes from the United States and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-developing_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-developing-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of this electronic waste is shipped to developing countries in Asia and Africa to be processed and recycled.<sup id="cite_ref-developing_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-developing-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various studies have investigated the <a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste#Environmental_Impact_of_Electronic_Waste" title="Electronic waste">environmental and health effects</a> of this e-waste upon the people who live and work around electronic waste dumps. <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_(chemical_element)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metal (chemical element)">Heavy metals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a>, and chemicals leak from these discarded products into surrounding waterways and groundwater, <a href="/wiki/Poisoning" title="Poisoning">poisoning</a> the local people.<sup id="cite_ref-E-Waste_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E-Waste-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People who work in these dumps, local children searching for items to sell, and people living in the surrounding communities are all exposed to these deadly toxins. </p><p>One city suffering from the negative results of the hazardous waste trade is <a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste_in_China" title="Electronic waste in China">Guiyu, China</a>, which has been called the electronic waste dump of the world. It may be the world's largest e-waste dump, with workers dismantling over 1.5 million pounds of junked computers, cell phones and other electronic devices per year.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Incinerator_ash">Incinerator ash</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Incinerator ash"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Incinerator_bottom_ash" title="Incinerator bottom ash">Incinerator ash</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">ash</a> produced when incinerators burn waste in order to dispose of it. Incineration has many <a href="/wiki/Incineration#Pollution" title="Incineration">polluting</a> effects which include, if uncontrolled in a modern Waste to Energy (WTE) plant, the potential release of various hazardous metals in leachate (water that has percolated through the ash). In North America, thanks to plant environmental controls, Waste to Energy ash leachate has repeatedly, over dozens of WTE plants and many years, tested as non-toxic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khian_Sea_incident"><i>Khian Sea</i> incident</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Khian Sea incident"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An example of incinerator ash being dumped onto the Global South from the Global North in an unjust trade exchange is the <a href="/wiki/Khian_Sea_waste_disposal_incident" title="Khian Sea waste disposal incident"><i>Khian Sea</i> waste disposal incident</a>. Carrying 14,000 tons of ash from an incinerator in Philadelphia, the cargo ship, <i>Khian Sea</i>, was to dispose of its waste.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, upon being rejected by the Dominican Republic, Panama, Honduras, Bermuda, Guinea Bissau, and the Dutch Antilles, the crew finally dumped a portion of the ash near Haiti.<sup id="cite_ref-mcgraw_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcgraw-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After changing the name of the ship twice to try and conceal the original identity, Senegal, Morocco, Yemen, Sri Lanka, and Singapore still banned the ship's entry.<sup id="cite_ref-mcgraw_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcgraw-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon consistent rejections, the ash is believed to have been disposed of in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this disaster of handling hazardous waste, the Haitian government banned all waste imports leading a movement to recognize all of the disastrous consequences of this global waste trade. Based on the <i>Khian Sea</i> waste disposal incident and similar events, the <a href="/wiki/Basel_Convention" title="Basel Convention">Basel Convention</a> was written to resist what is known to developing countries as 'toxic colonialism.'<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was open for signature in March 1989 and went into effect in May 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-basel_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-basel-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. has signed the treaty, but has yet to ratify it.<sup id="cite_ref-basel_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-basel-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_waste">Chemical waste</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chemical waste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Chemical_waste" title="Chemical waste">Chemical waste</a> is the excess and unusable waste from hazardous chemicals, mainly produced by large factories. It is extremely difficult and costly to dispose of. It poses many problems and health risks upon exposure, and must be carefully treated in toxic waste processing facilities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy_dumping_hazardous_chemicals_in_Nigeria">Italy dumping hazardous chemicals in Nigeria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Italy dumping hazardous chemicals in Nigeria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One example of chemical waste being exported from the Global North onto the Global South was the event of an Italian business man seeking to avoid European economic regulations.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Allegedly exporting 4,000 tons of toxic waste, containing 150 tons of <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">polychlorinated biphenyls</a>, or PCBs, the Italian businessman made $4.3 million in shipping hazardous waste to Nigeria.<sup id="cite_ref-okaru_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-okaru-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Fordham Environmental Law Review published an article explaining the impacts of the toxic waste imposed on Nigeria in further detail: </p> <blockquote><p>"Mislabelling the garbage as fertilizers, the Italian company deceived a retired/illiterate timber worker into agreeing to store the poison in his backyard at the Nigerian river port of <a href="/wiki/Koko,_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Koko, Nigeria">Koko</a> for as little as 100 dollars a month. These toxic chemicals were exposed to the hot sun and to children playing nearby. They leaked into the Koko water system resulting in the death of nineteen villagers who ate contaminated rice from a nearby farm."<sup id="cite_ref-okaru_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-okaru-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> This is just one example of how the traditional trade flow, from developed Western countries has severely, unfairly, and disproportionately impacted developing countries in the Global South. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shipbreaking_in_Asia">Shipbreaking in Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Shipbreaking in Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jafrabad_Chittagong_shipbreaking_(8).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Jafrabad_Chittagong_shipbreaking_%288%29.JPG/220px-Jafrabad_Chittagong_shipbreaking_%288%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Jafrabad_Chittagong_shipbreaking_%288%29.JPG/330px-Jafrabad_Chittagong_shipbreaking_%288%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Jafrabad_Chittagong_shipbreaking_%288%29.JPG/440px-Jafrabad_Chittagong_shipbreaking_%288%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Shipbreaking in <a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a>, Bangladesh</figcaption></figure> <p>Another danger to developing countries is the growing issue of <a href="/wiki/Ship_breaking" title="Ship breaking">shipbreaking</a>, which is occurring mainly in Asia. Industrialized countries seeking to retire used vessels find it cheaper to send these ships to Asia for dismantling. <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> are seen as the two hubs of shipbreaking in Asia. One of the main issues lies in the fact that these ships which are now too aged to continue, were constructed at a time with less environmental regulation. In an environmental fact sheet, researchers demonstrate the immense impact this new toxic trade sector has on workers and the environment. For one, the older ships contain health-damaging substances such as <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead_oxide" title="Lead oxide">lead oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc_chromate" title="Zinc chromate">zinc chromates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tributyltin" title="Tributyltin">tributyltin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jones_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jones-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, shipbreaking workers in China and in other developing countries traditionally lack proper equipment or protective gear when handling these toxic substances.<sup id="cite_ref-jones_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jones-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plastic_waste">Plastic waste</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Plastic waste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The trade in <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">plastic waste</a> has been identified as the main cause of marine litter.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Countries importing the waste plastics often lack the capacity to process all the material. As a result, the United Nations has restrictions on the trade of waste plastic trade unless it meets certain criteria.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The global waste trade has had negative effects for many people, particularly in poorer, developing nations. These countries often do not have safe recycling processes or facilities, and people process the toxic waste with their bare hands.<sup id="cite_ref-Grossman_Elizabeth_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grossman_Elizabeth-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hazardous wastes are often not properly disposed of or treated, leading to poisoning of the surrounding environment and resulting in illness and death in people and animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Frazzoli_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frazzoli-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many people have experienced illnesses or death due to the unsafe way these hazardous wastes are handled. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_upon_the_environment">Effects upon the environment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Effects upon the environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hazardous waste trade has disastrous effects upon the environment and natural ecosystems. Various studies explore how the concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">persistent organic pollutants</a> have poisoned the areas surrounding the dump sites, killing numerous birds, fish, and other wildlife.<sup id="cite_ref-Frazzoli_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frazzoli-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are heavy metal chemical concentrations in the air, water, soil, and sediment in and around these toxic dump areas, and the concentration levels of heavy metals in these areas are extremely high and toxic.<sup id="cite_ref-Frazzoli_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frazzoli-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Implications_for_human_health">Implications for human health</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Implications for human health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hazardous waste trade has serious damaging effects upon the health of humans. People living in developing countries may be more vulnerable to the dangerous effects of the hazardous waste trade, and are particularly at risk from developing health problems.<sup id="cite_ref-Frazzoli_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frazzoli-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The methods of disposal of these toxic wastes in developing countries expose the general population (including future generations) to the highly toxic chemicals. These toxic wastes are often disposed of in open landfills, burned in incinerators, or in other dangerous processes. Workers wear little to no protective gear when processing these toxic chemicals, and are exposed to these toxins through direct contact, inhalation, contact with soil and dust, as well as oral intake of contaminated locally produced food and drinking water.<sup id="cite_ref-Grossman_Elizabeth_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grossman_Elizabeth-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Health problems resulting from these hazardous wastes affect humans by causing cancers, diabetes, alterations in neurochemical balances, hormone disruptions from <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">endocrine disruptors</a>, skin alterations, <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">neurotoxicity</a>, kidney damage, <a href="/wiki/Liver_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Liver damage">liver damage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bone_disease" title="Bone disease">bone disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emphysema" title="Emphysema">emphysema</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ovotoxicity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ovotoxicity (page does not exist)">ovotoxicity</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reproductive_damage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reproductive damage (page does not exist)">reproductive damage</a>, and many other fatal diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Frazzoli_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frazzoli-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The improper disposal of these hazardous wastes creates fatal health problems, and is a serious public health risk. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_politics">In politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Global_waste_trade" title="Special:EditPage/Global waste trade">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Global+waste+trade%22">"Global waste trade"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Global+waste+trade%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Global+waste+trade%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Global+waste+trade%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Global+waste+trade%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Global+waste+trade%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>On April 24, 2018, President Rodrigo Duterte of the Philippines threatened to declare war if Canada failed again to retrieve the 64 tonnes of garbages that they mistakenly labelled as recyclable. The said cargos of garbages from Canada was shipped by a private company that recycled plastic material last 2016. Duterte is already known for blatant comments and aggressive behaviour. During the ASEAN Summit hosted in Manila, Philippines, the Prime Minister Justin Trudeau attended and was controversially ask what actions they can do to solve this issue. Trudeau promised that they will bring back the Canadian garbage from Philippines but two years later it was compromised. Duterte gave the Canadian government until May 30 or the Philippine government supreme court will escalate it in international court of justice. This is also known as the <a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93Philippines_waste_dispute" title="Canada–Philippines waste dispute">Philippine-Canada waste war</a>. </p><p>After a month, Malaysia is the second Asian nation who escalate the illegal garbage trading from Canada, UK, Japan and US. According to the Malaysian Minister of Environment; Yeo Bee Yin made a strong statement that Malaysians will not accept garbages from developed countries because this is against to Malaysian human rights. </p><p>China also restricts imports of garbages from developed countries and now Asian nations such Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam and Myanmar became the next garbage dump of the developed countries which is unethical. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_responses_to_global_waste_trade_issues">International responses to global waste trade issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: International responses to global waste trade issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have been various international responses to the problems associated with the global waste trade and multiple attempts to regulate it for over thirty years. The hazardous waste trade has proven difficult to regulate as there is so much waste being traded, and laws are often difficult to enforce. Furthermore, there are often large loopholes in these international agreements that allow countries and corporations to dump hazardous wastes in dangerous ways. The most notable attempt to regulate the hazardous waste trade has been the <a href="/wiki/Basel_Convention" title="Basel Convention">Basel Convention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Basel_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basel-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_treaties_and_relevant_trade_law">International treaties and relevant trade law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: International treaties and relevant trade law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Basel_Convention">Basel Convention</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Basel Convention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, usually known as the <b><a href="/wiki/Basel_Convention" title="Basel Convention">Basel Convention</a></b>, is an international treaty that plays a crucial role in regulating the transnational movement of hazardous wastes. The Basel Convention was created in 1989 and attempts to regulate the hazardous waste trade, specifically to prevent the dumping of hazardous waste from more developed countries into less developed countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Basel_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basel-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Basel Convention was developed following a series of high-profile cases in which large amounts of toxic waste were dumped into less developed countries, poisoning the people and environment.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Convention seeks to reduce the creation of hazardous wastes, and to control and reduce its trade across borders. </p><p>The Convention was opened for signatures on 22 March 1989, and officially entered into force on 5 May 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-Basel_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basel-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of May 2014, 180 states and the European Union are parties to the Convention.<sup id="cite_ref-Basel2_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basel2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Haiti and the United States have signed the Convention but not ratified it.<sup id="cite_ref-Basel2_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basel2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ENFORCE">ENFORCE</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: ENFORCE"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_Network_for_Optimizing_Regulatory_Compliance_on_Illegal_Traffic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Environmental Network for Optimizing Regulatory Compliance on Illegal Traffic (page does not exist)">Environmental Network for Optimizing Regulatory Compliance on Illegal Traffic</a> (ENFORCE) is an agency staffed by relevant experts to promote compliance with the Basel Convention.<sup id="cite_ref-ENFORCE_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ENFORCE-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an international body created to deal with transboundary issues of the international hazardous waste trade. Because the issue of the transnational hazardous waste trade crosses many borders and affects many nations, it has been important to have a multinational, multilateral organization presiding over these affairs. The members of ENFORCE include one representative from each of the five United Nations regions that are parties to the Convention as well as five representatives from the Basel Convention regional and coordinating centers, based on equitable geographical representation.<sup id="cite_ref-ENFORCE_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ENFORCE-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Members of organizations such as the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), NGOs working to prevent and stop illegal traffic such as the Basel Action Network (BAN), and many other organizations are also eligible to become members of ENFORCE.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Protocol_on_Liability_and_Compensation">Protocol on Liability and Compensation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Protocol on Liability and Compensation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1999 the Basel Convention passed the Protocol on Liability and Compensation that sought to improve regulatory measures and better protect people from hazardous waste. The Protocol on Liability and Compensation attempts to “assign appropriate liability procedures when the transboundary movements of hazardous wastes result in damages to human health and the environment”.<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Protocol “imposes strict liability for damages in situations involving Parties to the Basel Convention, but only while they maintain control of the hazardous waste through their respective notifying, transporting, or disposing entities.”<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It seeks to regulate and ensure countries’ and corporations’ compliance with the Basel Convention laws. However, this Protocol remains unsigned by most countries, so its applicability is limited.<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lomé_IV_Convention_and_Cotonou_Agreement"><span id="Lom.C3.A9_IV_Convention_and_Cotonou_Agreement"></span>Lomé IV Convention and Cotonou Agreement</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Lomé IV Convention and Cotonou Agreement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an effort to protect themselves against unfair hazardous waste dumping, the African, Caribbean, and Pacific States (ACP) signed the Lome IV Convention, which is a supplement to the Basel Convention and prohibits the “export of hazardous wastes from the European Community to ACP States.”<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This Convention is one attempt by developing countries to protect themselves from Western countries exporting their waste to poorer nations through the hazardous waste trade. When the Lomé IV Convention expired in 2000, the ACP countries and the European countries entered into a new agreement known as the Cotonou Agreement, which “recognizes the existence of disproportionate risks in developing countries and desires to protect against inappropriate hazardous waste shipments to these countries.”<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Bamako_Convention">The Bamako Convention</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: The Bamako Convention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1991 multiple developing nations in Africa met to discuss their dissatisfaction with the Basel Convention in regulating the dumping of hazardous waste into their countries, and designed a ban on the import of hazardous wastes into their countries called the <a href="/wiki/Bamako_Convention" title="Bamako Convention">Bamako Convention</a>. The Bamako Convention is different from the Basel Convention in that Bamako “essentially bans the import of all hazardous waste generated outside of the OAU [the Organization of African Unity] for disposal or recycling and deems any import from a non-Party to be an illegal act.”<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these countries could not effectively implement the stipulations of the Convention and could not prevent the dump of toxic wastes due to limited resources and a lack of powerful enforcement. Therefore, the application of the Bamako Convention was very limited. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critiques_of_these_responses">Critiques of these responses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Critiques of these responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laura_Pratt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laura Pratt (page does not exist)">Laura Pratt</a>, expert on the hazardous waste trade, claims that despite local and international attempts to regulate the hazardous waste trade, the “current international agreements, both the widespread, legally binding agreements and the ad hoc agendas among smaller groups of countries, have not been as successful at eliminating toxic waste colonialism as proponents would have hoped.”<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She explains that there are various loopholes in the current system that allow toxic waste to continue being dumped, and toxic colonialism to go unchecked. Some of the problems with these international agreements include continued illegal shipments and unclear definitions of terms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fraudulent_shipments_and_concealments">Fraudulent shipments and concealments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Fraudulent shipments and concealments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pratt explains that despite attempts to regulate illegal dumping, “[o]ftentimes hazardous waste is simply moved under false permits, bribes, improper labels, or even the pretext of 'recycling,' which is a growing trend.”<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Companies often export their hazardous wastes to poorer countries through illegal smuggling.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> International agencies have raised concerns about illegal waste dumping,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but attempts to regulate this market have been hindered by a lack of ability to monitor the trade, as many countries do not have any authoritative legislative bodies in place to prevent or punish the illegal trafficking of hazardous wastes.<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, Pratt explains that without coordinated international methods to enforce the regulations, it is extremely difficult for countries to "control the illegal trade of hazardous waste, due to the disparity between enforcement resources and regulation uniformity.” <sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Developing nations continue to bear the brunt of this illegal activity, and often do not have the resources or capability to protect themselves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Issues_with_legal_definitions">Issues with legal definitions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Issues with legal definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another issue with the Basel Convention and other international agreements to regulate the waste trade is the difficulty of establishing clear, uniform definitions regarding wastes. These overly broad and ambiguous definitions cause problems with the international agreements, as different parties interpret the language of the agreements differently and thus act accordingly. For example, the “‘lack of distinction between ‘waste’ and ‘products’ in the convention and its vague criteria for ‘hazardous’ allowed the continued export of 'hazardous waste’ under the label of commodities or raw materials, despite the fact that these wastes still present environmental and health risks to developing countries.”<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_15-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste#Global_trade_issues" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste § Global trade issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_dumping" title="Environmental dumping">Environmental dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">Environmental justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">Pollution haven hypothesis</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Max_Liboiron#Pollution_is_Colonialism" title="Max Liboiron">Pollution is Colonialism</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_zone" title="Sacrifice zone">Sacrifice zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_colonialism" title="Toxic colonialism">Toxic colonialism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Campaigners have identified the global trade in plastic waste as a main culprit in marine litter, because the industrialised world has for years been shipping much of its plastic “recyclables” to developing countries, which often lack the capacity to process all the material."<sup id="cite_ref-Clive_Cookson_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clive_Cookson-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The new UN rules will effectively prevent the US and EU from exporting any mixed plastic waste, as well plastics that are contaminated or unrecyclable — a move that will slash the global plastic waste trade when it comes into effect in January 2021."<sup id="cite_ref-Clive_Cookson_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clive_Cookson-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_waste_trade&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-worldbank-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-worldbank_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-worldbank_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-worldbank_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/Resources/336387-1334852610766/Chap3.pdf">"3: Waste Generation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management (Report). Urban Development. World Bank. pp. <span class="nowrap">8–</span>13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=What+a+Waste%3A+A+Global+Review+of+Solid+Waste+Management&rft.series=Urban+Development&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.pub=World+Bank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsiteresources.worldbank.org%2FINTURBANDEVELOPMENT%2FResources%2F336387-1334852610766%2FChap3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+waste+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nixon-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nixon_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nixon_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNixon2011" class="citation book cs1">Nixon, Rob (2011). <i>Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slow+Violence+and+the+Environmentalism+of+the+Poor&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Nixon&rft.aufirst=Rob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+waste+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-grossman-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-grossman_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrossmanKrueger1994" class="citation book cs1">Grossman, Gene M.; Krueger, Alan B. (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mexicousfreetrad00pete/page/13">"Environmental Impacts of a North American Free Trade Agreement"</a></span>. In Garber, Peter (ed.). <i>The U.S. Mexico Free Trade Agreement</i>. MIT Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mexicousfreetrad00pete/page/13">13–56</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw3914">10.3386/w3914</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-07152-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-07152-5"><bdi>0-262-07152-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Environmental+Impacts+of+a+North+American+Free+Trade+Agreement&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Mexico+Free+Trade+Agreement&rft.pages=13-56&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3386%2Fw3914&rft.isbn=0-262-07152-5&rft.aulast=Grossman&rft.aufirst=Gene+M.&rft.au=Krueger%2C+Alan+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmexicousfreetrad00pete%2Fpage%2F13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+waste+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-smith-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-smith_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Jackie (March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/26753/1/Battle_in_Seattle_Smith_Mobilization_2000.pdf">"Globalizing Resistance: The Battle of Seattle and the Future of Social Movements"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Mobilization: An International Quarterly</i>. <b>6</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17813%2Fmaiq.6.1.y63133434t8vq608">10.17813/maiq.6.1.y63133434t8vq608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mobilization%3A+An+International+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Globalizing+Resistance%3A+The+Battle+of+Seattle+and+the+Future+of+Social+Movements&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E19&rft.date=2001-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17813%2Fmaiq.6.1.y63133434t8vq608&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jackie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fd-scholarship.pitt.edu%2F26753%2F1%2FBattle_in_Seattle_Smith_Mobilization_2000.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlobal+waste+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-blumm-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-blumm_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">15 Harv. 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waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">Heat waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial wastewater">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">Marine debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Mining waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrap" title="Scrap">Scrap metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharps_waste" title="Sharps waste">Sharps waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic waste</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bedrijfsafval.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bedrijfsafval.jpg/120px-Bedrijfsafval.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bedrijfsafval.jpg/180px-Bedrijfsafval.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bedrijfsafval.jpg/240px-Bedrijfsafval.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_digestion" title="Anaerobic digestion">Anaerobic digestion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balefill" title="Balefill">Balefill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradation" title="Biodegradation">Biodegradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compost" title="Compost">Composting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durable_good" title="Durable good">Durable good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">Ecological design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_waste_dumping" title="Garden waste dumping">Garden waste dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_dumping" title="Illegal dumping">Illegal dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">Incineration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill_mining" title="Landfill mining">Landfill mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_biological_treatment" title="Mechanical biological treatment">Mechanical biological treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_recovery_facility" title="Materials recovery facility">Mechanical sorting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodegradation" title="Photodegradation">Photodegradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_lumber" title="Reclaimed lumber">Reclaimed lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appliance_recycling" title="Appliance recycling">appliance recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">battery recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottle_recycling" title="Bottle recycling">bottle recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp_recycling" title="Fluorescent lamp recycling">fluorescent lamp recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_recycling" title="Land recycling">land recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_recycling" title="Plastic recycling">plastic recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_recycling" title="Textile recycling">textile recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_recycling" title="Timber recycling">timber recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tire_recycling" title="Tire recycling">tire recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_heat_recycling" title="Water heat recycling">water heat recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_recycling_shower" title="Water recycling shower">water recycling shower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repurposing" title="Repurposing">Repurposing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_recovery" title="Resource recovery">Resource recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reusable_packaging" title="Reusable packaging">Reusable packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_repair" title="Right to repair">Right to repair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_mining" title="Urban mining">Urban mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_collection" title="Waste collection">Waste collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_sorting" title="Waste sorting">Waste sorting</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Waste trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_treatment" title="Waste treatment">Waste treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy" title="Waste-to-energy">Waste-to-energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Waste_by_country" title="Waste by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste management in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste management in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Armenia" title="Waste management in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Australia" title="Waste management in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste management in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Bangladesh" title="Waste management in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Brazil#Waste" title="Environmental issues in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste management in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Egypt" title="Waste management in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste management in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Hong_Kong" title="Waste management in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_India#Solid_waste_policy" title="Waste management in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste management in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Japan" title="Waste management in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Kazakhstan" title="Waste management in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_in_New_Zealand" title="Waste in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Russia" title="Waste management in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_South_Korea" title="Waste management in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste management in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Switzerland" title="Waste management in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste management in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Tanzania" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste management in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Taiwan" title="Waste management in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Thailand" title="Waste management in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Turkey" title="Waste management in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Waste in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_in_the_United_States" title="Waste in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamako_Convention" title="Bamako Convention">Bamako Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basel_Convention" title="Basel Convention">Basel Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directive_(European_Union)" title="Directive (European Union)">EU directives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_Directive" title="Battery Directive">batteries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_framework_directive" title="Waste framework directive">framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_Incineration_Directive" title="Waste Incineration Directive">incineration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill_Directive" title="Landfill Directive">landfills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_of_Hazardous_Substances_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive">RoHS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_Life_Vehicles_Directive" title="End of Life Vehicles Directive">vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_Waste_Water_Treatment_Directive" title="Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive">waste water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_Electrical_and_Electronic_Equipment_Directive" title="Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive">WEEE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Convention_on_the_Prevention_of_Marine_Pollution_by_Dumping_of_Wastes_and_Other_Matter" title="London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter">London Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oslo_Dumping_Convention" title="Oslo Dumping Convention">Oslo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSPAR_Convention" title="OSPAR Convention">OSPAR Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Sanitation worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_sweeper" title="Street sweeper">Street sweeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_collector" title="Waste collector">Waste collector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_picker" title="Waste picker">Waste picker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%27s_waste_import_ban" title="China's waste import ban">China's waste import ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downcycling" title="Downcycling">Downcycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-industrial_park" title="Eco-industrial park">Eco-industrial park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_producer_responsibility" title="Extended producer responsibility">Extended producer responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_radioactive_waste_management" title="High-level radioactive waste management">High-level radioactive waste management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_waste_management" title="History of waste management">History of waste management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill_fire" title="Landfill fire">Landfill fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_regulation_and_administration" title="Sewage regulation and administration">Sewage regulation and administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_colonialism" title="Toxic colonialism">Toxic colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upcycling" title="Upcycling">Upcycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_hierarchy" title="Waste hierarchy">Waste hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_law" title="Waste management law">Waste legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_waste" title="Zero waste">Zero waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/24px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Waste" 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