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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theoretical basis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_basis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quality_control_and_unlicensed_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quality_control_and_unlicensed_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Quality control and unlicensed production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quality_control_and_unlicensed_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Production under license of technology developed elsewhere</div> <p><b>Licensed production</b> is the production under <a href="/wiki/Licence" class="mw-redirect" title="Licence">license</a> of technology developed elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitzinger_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitzinger-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The licensee provides the licensor of a specific product with legal production rights, technical information, process technology, and any other proprietary components that cannot be sourced by the licensor.<sup id="cite_ref-LAC_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LAC-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This is an especially prominent <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commercial</a> practice in <a href="/wiki/Developing_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing nations">developing nations</a>, which often approach licensed production as a starting point for indigenous industrial development.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitzinger_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitzinger-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While licensed production in developing nations provides stimulus to the production and technical capabilities of local industry, in many cases it remains at least partly dependent on foreign support.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitzinger_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitzinger-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Licensed_production&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Licensed_production_of_arms1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Licensed_production_of_arms1.png/300px-Licensed_production_of_arms1.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Licensed_production_of_arms1.png/450px-Licensed_production_of_arms1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Licensed_production_of_arms1.png/600px-Licensed_production_of_arms1.png 2x" data-file-width="2753" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>An example of global licensing agreements: national governments which have purchased foreign licenses to manufacture arms and ammunition are depicted in blue.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-trade_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trade-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The four most common applications of licensed production have historically been automotive engines and parts,<sup id="cite_ref-GM_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GM-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> weaponry,<sup id="cite_ref-Bitzinger_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitzinger-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> aircraft,<sup id="cite_ref-Seyoum_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seyoum-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and pharmaceuticals.<sup id="cite_ref-Drugs_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drugs-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, it was more common for licensing agreements to take place between companies in the same country; for example, <a href="/wiki/Opel" title="Opel">Opel</a> was granted a license to produce <a href="/wiki/BMW" title="BMW">BMW</a>-designed aircraft engines for the German war effort.<sup id="cite_ref-GM_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GM-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1920s, European economists began advocating licensed production of foreign goods as the cure for "industrial particularism"<sup id="cite_ref-GM_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GM-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—it allowed countries to bypass the costly <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> stage of acquiring products with which their own industries were unfamiliar, and refocus on the domestic manufacture of preexisting overseas designs.<sup id="cite_ref-UKArms_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UKArms-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allowed for a much higher rate of production,<sup id="cite_ref-GM_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GM-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was considerably cheaper than national sourcing and off-the-shelf acquisition.<sup id="cite_ref-UKArms_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UKArms-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European automobile manufacturers were the first to adopt this practice, producing a number of specialized American components for their passenger cars under license.<sup id="cite_ref-GM_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GM-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States not only supplied European factories with the necessary blueprints and licenses, but also sourced American-made tooling equipment accordingly, which allowed the automobile companies to optimize their production lines.<sup id="cite_ref-GM_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GM-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1960s it was not uncommon for an entire specialized industry—such as the manufacture of rotary aircraft in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>—to be dependent wholly on foreign-licensed components.<sup id="cite_ref-UKArms_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UKArms-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of countries began making improvements to foreign products manufactured under license, and were even able to re-export them successfully.<sup id="cite_ref-Landgren_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landgren-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This trend resulted in some technology suppliers imposing additional conditions on the licensee.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States began inserting <i>pro forma</i> statements into licensing agreements known as <i>"side letters"</i>, which required the free sharing of any improvements made to American technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Lorell_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lorell-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other attempts were also made to control the destination of licensed products, particularly with regards to the <a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">arms industry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> stipulated that military vehicles manufactured in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> under a French license were not to be exported to other foreign nations without its express approval.<sup id="cite_ref-Portugal-ZA_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Portugal-ZA-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet another form of common licensing restriction related solely to the licensing activity, regulating whether the specified product was fully produced or partly assembled, and whether entire products or their individual components were manufactured.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The governments of Germany and Switzerland imposed similar restrictions on military vehicles manufactured in <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> under license.<sup id="cite_ref-LAC_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LAC-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some cases, the original technology supplier did not need to manufacture the product itself—it merely patented a specific design, then sold the actual production rights to multiple clients.<sup id="cite_ref-Landgren_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landgren-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resulted in different companies separately manufacturing identical products licensed from the same licensee.<sup id="cite_ref-Landgren_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landgren-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For many licensee companies, licensed production by other firms provides a continuous outlet for their proprietary technology, increasing their return on investment and prolonging the economic life of the product.<sup id="cite_ref-LAC_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LAC-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Developing_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing nations">Developing nations</a> began accounting for a significant percentage of licensed production during the late twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governments of developing nations often sought to encourage rapid industrialization, reduce dependence on foreign imports, and combat high levels of unemployment by creating and retaining local jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in many of these nations there was not a strong tradition of technology-based industrial development, and local firms were seldom active participants in creating indigenous technology through research and development.<sup id="cite_ref-LAC_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LAC-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since their research capacity was typically too limited to meet their goals, adopting licensing agreements for foreign technology was an especially attractive option.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manufacturing licensed products generated employment and empowered local industry while reducing dependence on imports.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also avoided the risks inherent in the development of new products by taking advantage of the proven reputation of products which had already achieved success in foreign markets.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The economic life of many products, namely in the automotive and defense sectors, have been prolonged by overseas licensed production long after they were considered obsolete in their countries of origin.<sup id="cite_ref-LAC_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LAC-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Developing nations such as <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> which built important segments of their industry on licensed production have now themselves become licensors of technology and products to less developed states.<sup id="cite_ref-Bourne_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bourne-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_basis">Theoretical basis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Licensed_production&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theoretical basis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MHV_Polski-Fiat_508_1933_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/MHV_Polski-Fiat_508_1933_01.JPG/220px-MHV_Polski-Fiat_508_1933_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/MHV_Polski-Fiat_508_1933_01.JPG/330px-MHV_Polski-Fiat_508_1933_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/MHV_Polski-Fiat_508_1933_01.JPG/440px-MHV_Polski-Fiat_508_1933_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>1933 <a href="/wiki/Fiat_508" title="Fiat 508">Fiat 508</a> manufactured under license in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> by <a href="/wiki/Polski_Fiat" title="Polski Fiat">Polski Fiat</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Licensed production is defined as an overseas production arrangement, usually as a direct result of inter-state trade agreements, that permits a foreign government or entity to acquire the technical information to manufacture all or part of an equipment or component patented in the exporting country.<sup id="cite_ref-Seyoum_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seyoum-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (WIPO), it must constitute a partnership between an <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> owner and a licensee who is authorized to use such rights under certain conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The licensee is manufacturing a product for which it has been granted production rights under specific conditions, while the licensor retains ownership of the intellectual property thereof.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases the licensor will supply the necessary technical data, prototypes, and/or machine tools to the licensee.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While licensed production is often dependent on the appropriate <a href="/wiki/Technology_transfers" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology transfers">technology transfers</a>, it does not necessarily entail ownership and management of the overseas production by the technology supplier.<sup id="cite_ref-Seyoum_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seyoum-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the licensor does retain the right to continue to use the licensed property, and to attribute further licenses to third parties.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Occasionally, licensees may themselves sub-license a third party with or without the agreement of the intellectual property owner.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Licensing agreements determine the form and scope of compensation to the intellectual property owner, which usually takes the form of a flat <i>licensing fee</i> or a running <a href="/wiki/Royalty_payment" title="Royalty payment">royalty payment</a> derived from a share of the licensee's revenue.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The licenses can be terminated by the licensor, or may expire after a set date; however, the technology and knowledge, once transferred, cannot be rescinded, so even if the licensing agreement expires they remain in the licensee's possession.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two related commercial practices are foreign subcontractor production and the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Knock-down_kits" class="mw-redirect" title="Knock-down kits">knock-down kits</a>. Foreign subcontracting occurs when a product's original manufacturer contracts the production of its individual parts and components to a second party overseas.<sup id="cite_ref-Seyoum_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seyoum-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such arrangements are not considered examples of licensed production because they do not involve the explicit licensing of technological information.<sup id="cite_ref-Seyoum_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seyoum-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knock-down kits are regarded as a prerequisite to licensed production; they consist of products assembled locally from imported, pre-manufactured parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitzinger2_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitzinger2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quality_control_and_unlicensed_production">Quality control and unlicensed production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Licensed_production&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Quality control and unlicensed production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Public_domain#Patents" title="Public domain">Public domain § Patents</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Counterfeit_consumer_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfeit consumer goods">Counterfeit consumer goods</a></div> <p>Some licensors find it difficult to regulate the quality of their products manufactured under license.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not always made clear to consumers where exactly a particular good originated, and a poor quality licensed product may damage the reputation of the original licensor.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this is not considered a form of consumer fraud unless the product is unlicensed or <a href="/wiki/Counterfeit" title="Counterfeit">counterfeit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ersatz_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ersatz-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlicensed production is the utilization of foreign manufacturing technology without a license, achieved through <a href="/wiki/Industrial_espionage" title="Industrial espionage">industrial espionage</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reverse_engineering" title="Reverse engineering">reverse engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Products in high demand on the international market can be reproduced, based on the same or similar design, and branded in ways to make them indistinguishable from the original.<sup id="cite_ref-Ersatz_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ersatz-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When copied and reproduced without a license, certain items are sometimes recopied in a similar manner by a third party.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The manufacturers responsible may also grant legitimately registered sub-licenses for their unlicensed products, profiting at the expense of the real intellectual property owner.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quality of unlicensed goods varies greatly; the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_on_Drugs_and_Crime" title="United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime">United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime</a> has noted that while licensing companies often provide quality control measures, and there is some incentive for licensees to comply or risk legal action and the ensuing damage to their own profit, manufacturers who engage in unlicensed production are under no such obligations.<sup id="cite_ref-Ersatz_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ersatz-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another method of circumventing the need for a license involves a manufacturer making slight modifications in the design or function of an existing product, before reproducing it.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The manufacturer could then argue that the resulting product is not an unlicensed copy, but a new product not subject to license.<sup id="cite_ref-Survey_3-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also need to be noted that once the terms of the patent for the particular technology or invention has expired, any manufacturer could legally reverse-engineer and reproduce said technology without needing to negotiate license agreements with former patent holder. However, even after patent terms have lapsed some manufacturers do opt for licensed production, since such agreements also confer transfer of full manufacturing plans and expertise which may prove to be cheaper than acquiring those via reverse engineering.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Licensed_production&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Industrial products which have been built under license include: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> <a href="/wiki/FN_FAL" title="FN FAL">FN FAL</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_rifle" title="Battle rifle">battle rifle</a> by <a href="/wiki/FN_Herstal" title="FN Herstal">FN Herstal</a>, produced under license in fifteen countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Bourne_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bourne-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> <a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_G3" title="Heckler & Koch G3">G3</a> battle rifle by <a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch" title="Heckler & Koch">Heckler & Koch</a>, produced under license in eighteen countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Bourne_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bourne-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> <a href="/wiki/Aermacchi_MB-326" title="Aermacchi MB-326">Aermacchi MB-326</a> <a href="/wiki/Trainer_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trainer (aircraft)">trainer aircraft</a>, produced under license in Australia, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and South Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitzinger2_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitzinger2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The British <a href="/wiki/Folland_Gnat" title="Folland Gnat">Folland Gnat</a> trainer aircraft, produced under license in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The American <a href="/wiki/Northrop_F-5" title="Northrop F-5">Northrop F-5</a> <a href="/wiki/Light_fighter" title="Light fighter">light fighter</a> aircraft, produced under license in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitzinger2_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitzinger2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The Soviet <a href="/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-21" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21">Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21</a> multirole fighter aircraft, produced under license in India.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The American <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">General Dynamics F-16</a> multirole fighter aircraft, produced under license in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitzinger2_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitzinger2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The British <a href="/wiki/English_Electric_Canberra" title="English Electric Canberra">Canberra</a> <a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">bomber</a> aircraft, produced under license in the United States as the <a href="/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra" title="Martin B-57 Canberra">Martin B-57 Canberra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Canberra_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canberra-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The French <a href="/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III" title="Aérospatiale Alouette III">Aérospatiale Alouette III</a> helicopter, produced under license in <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, and India.<sup id="cite_ref-Alo_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alo-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The American <a href="/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois" title="Bell UH-1 Iroquois">Bell UH-1 Iroquois</a> helicopter, produced under license in Germany, Japan, and Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-Bell_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bell-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The French <a href="/wiki/Panhard_AML" title="Panhard AML">Panhard AML</a> <a href="/wiki/Armored_car_(military)" title="Armored car (military)">armored car</a>, produced under license in South Africa as the <a href="/wiki/Eland_Mk7" class="mw-redirect" title="Eland Mk7">Eland Mk7</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Landgren_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landgren-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The French <a href="/wiki/CM60A1" class="mw-redirect" title="CM60A1">CM60A1</a> <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">mortar</a>, produced under license in South Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Moukambi_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moukambi-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The Italian <a href="/wiki/Fiat_125" title="Fiat 125">Fiat 125</a> passenger car, produced under license in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Polski_Fiat_125p" title="Polski Fiat 125p">Polski Fiat 125p</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eastern_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eastern-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/GAZ-M20_Pobeda" title="GAZ-M20 Pobeda">GAZ-M20 Pobeda</a> sedan, produced under license in Poland as the <a href="/wiki/FSO_Warszawa" title="FSO Warszawa">FSO Warszawa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eastern_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eastern-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Licensed_production&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Import_substitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Import substitution">Import substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_purchasing" title="Local purchasing">Local purchasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">Mass production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badge_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Badge engineering">Badge engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalability" title="Scalability">Upscaling</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Licensed_production&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bitzinger-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bitzinger_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitzinger_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitzinger_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitzinger_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBitzinger2009" class="citation book cs1">Bitzinger, Richard (2009). <i>The Modern Defense Industry: Political, Economic, and Technological Issues</i>. Santa Barbara: Praeger Security International (ABC-CLIO). pp. 313–315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275994754" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275994754"><bdi>978-0275994754</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Defense+Industry%3A+Political%2C+Economic%2C+and+Technological+Issues&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=313-315&rft.pub=Praeger+Security+International+%28ABC-CLIO%29&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0275994754&rft.aulast=Bitzinger&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LAC-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LAC_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LAC_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LAC_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LAC_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LAC_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaldifassiAbetti1994" class="citation book cs1">Maldifassi, Jose; Abetti, Pier (1994). <i>Defense Industries in Latin American Countries</i>. Westport: Praeger Publishers. pp. 116–119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-94729-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-94729-7"><bdi>0-275-94729-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defense+Industries+in+Latin+American+Countries&rft.place=Westport&rft.pages=116-119&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-275-94729-7&rft.aulast=Maldifassi&rft.aufirst=Jose&rft.au=Abetti%2C+Pier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Survey-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Survey_3-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161223193229/http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2007/en/full/Small-Arms-Survey-2007-Chapter-01-O-EN.pdf">"Multiplying the Sources: Licensed and Unlicensed Military Production"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Geneva: <a href="/wiki/Small_Arms_Survey" title="Small Arms Survey">Small Arms Survey</a>. 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2007/en/full/Small-Arms-Survey-2007-Chapter-01-O-EN.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Multiplying+the+Sources%3A+Licensed+and+Unlicensed+Military+Production&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Small+Arms+Survey&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smallarmssurvey.org%2Ffileadmin%2Fdocs%2FA-Yearbook%2F2007%2Fen%2Ffull%2FSmall-Arms-Survey-2007-Chapter-01-O-EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-trade-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-trade_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/trade_register.php">"Trade Registers"</a>. Armstrade.sipri.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: Berghahn Books. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845450137" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845450137"><bdi>978-1845450137</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Working+for+the+Enemy%3A+Ford%2C+General+Motors%2C+and+Forced+Labor+in+Germany+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1845450137&rft.aulast=Billstein&rft.aufirst=Reinhold&rft.au=Fings%2C+Karola&rft.au=Kugler%2C+Anita&rft.au=Levis%2C+Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seyoum-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seyoum_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seyoum_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seyoum_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seyoum_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seyoum_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeyoum2008" class="citation book cs1">Seyoum, Belay (2008). <i>Export-Import Theory, Practices, and Procedures</i>. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge Books. pp. 245–236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0789034205" title="Special:BookSources/978-0789034205"><bdi>978-0789034205</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Export-Import+Theory%2C+Practices%2C+and+Procedures&rft.place=Abingdon-on-Thames&rft.pages=245-236&rft.pub=Routledge+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0789034205&rft.aulast=Seyoum&rft.aufirst=Belay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drugs-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drugs_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrd2010" class="citation book cs1">Byrd, William (2010). "8". 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Washington DC: The World Bank. pp. 330–331. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0821380345" title="Special:BookSources/978-0821380345"><bdi>978-0821380345</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8&rft.btitle=Innocent+Bystanders%3A+Developing+Countries+and+the+War+on+Drugs&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pages=330-331&rft.pub=The+World+Bank&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0821380345&rft.aulast=Byrd&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UKArms-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UKArms_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UKArms_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UKArms_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroftDormanReesUttley2001" class="citation book cs1">Croft, Stuart; Dorman, Andrew; Rees, Wyn; Uttley, Matthew (2001). <i>Britain and Defence 1945-2000: A Policy Re-evaluation</i>. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge Books. pp. 118–120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0582303775" title="Special:BookSources/978-0582303775"><bdi>978-0582303775</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+and+Defence+1945-2000%3A+A+Policy+Re-evaluation&rft.place=Abingdon-on-Thames&rft.pages=118-120&rft.pub=Routledge+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0582303775&rft.aulast=Croft&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft.au=Dorman%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Rees%2C+Wyn&rft.au=Uttley%2C+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Landgren-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Landgren_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Landgren_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Landgren_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Landgren_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandgren1989" class="citation book cs1">Landgren, Signe (June 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/embargodisimplem0000land/page/83"><i>Embargo Disimplemented: South Africa's Military Industry</i></a> (1989 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/embargodisimplem0000land/page/83">83–88</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829127-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829127-5"><bdi>978-0-19-829127-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Embargo+Disimplemented%3A+South+Africa%27s+Military+Industry&rft.pages=83-88&rft.edition=1989&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989-06&rft.isbn=978-0-19-829127-5&rft.aulast=Landgren&rft.aufirst=Signe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fembargodisimplem0000land%2Fpage%2F83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lorell-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lorell_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorell2009" class="citation book cs1">Lorell, Mark (2009). <i>Troubled Partnership: A History of U.S.-Japan Collaboration on the Fs-X Fighter</i>. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. pp. 27–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-891-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-891-0"><bdi>978-1-56000-891-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Troubled+Partnership%3A+A+History+of+U.S.-Japan+Collaboration+on+the+Fs-X+Fighter&rft.place=New+Brunswick&rft.pages=27-28&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-56000-891-0&rft.aulast=Lorell&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Portugal-ZA-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Portugal-ZA_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorreia2007" class="citation web cs1">Correia, Paulo (2007). Verhoef, Grietjie (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150228011723/http://152.106.6.200/handle/10210/2544">"Political relations between Portugal and South Africa from the end of the second World War until 1974"</a>. Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand. Archived from the original on 28 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Political+relations+between+Portugal+and+South+Africa+from+the+end+of+the+second+World+War+until+1974&rft.place=Johannesburg&rft.pub=University+of+Witwatersrand&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Correia&rft.aufirst=Paulo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F152.106.6.200%2Fhandle%2F10210%2F2544&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bourne-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bourne_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bourne_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bourne_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourne2007" class="citation book cs1">Bourne, Mike (2007). <i>Arming Conflict: The Proliferation of Small Arms</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 66–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0230019331" title="Special:BookSources/978-0230019331"><bdi>978-0230019331</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arming+Conflict%3A+The+Proliferation+of+Small+Arms&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pages=66-67&rft.pub=Palgrave-Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0230019331&rft.aulast=Bourne&rft.aufirst=Mike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bitzinger2-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bitzinger2_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitzinger2_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitzinger2_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitzinger2_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBitzinger2003" class="citation book cs1">Bitzinger, Richard (2003). <i>Towards a Brave New Arms Industry?</i>. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge Books. pp. 17–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198528357" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198528357"><bdi>978-0198528357</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Towards+a+Brave+New+Arms+Industry%3F&rft.place=Abingdon-on-Thames&rft.pages=17-21&rft.pub=Routledge+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0198528357&rft.aulast=Bitzinger&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ersatz-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ersatz_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ersatz_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ersatz_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161223230500/https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/tocta/8.Counterfeit_products.pdf">"Counterfeit products"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_on_Drugs_and_Crime" title="United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime">United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime</a>. 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/tocta/8.Counterfeit_products.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Counterfeit+products&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=United+Nations+Office+on+Drugs+and+Crime&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unodc.org%2Fdocuments%2Fdata-and-analysis%2Ftocta%2F8.Counterfeit_products.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1994" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Chris (1994). <i>India's Ad Hoc Arsenal: Direction Or Drift in Defence Policy?</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 157–159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198291688" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198291688"><bdi>978-0198291688</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%27s+Ad+Hoc+Arsenal%3A+Direction+Or+Drift+in+Defence+Policy%3F&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=157-159&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0198291688&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Canberra-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Canberra_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2001" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer (2001). <i>Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 17–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195135251" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195135251"><bdi>978-0195135251</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Vietnam+War%3A+A+Political%2C+Social%2C+and+Military+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0195135251&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Spencer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alo-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alo_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGowen2005" class="citation book cs1">McGowen, Stanley (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/helicoptersillus00mcgo_0/page/227"><i>Helicopters: An Illustrated History of Their Impact</i></a>. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO Publishers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/helicoptersillus00mcgo_0/page/227">227</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851094684" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851094684"><bdi>978-1851094684</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Helicopters%3A+An+Illustrated+History+of+Their+Impact&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=227&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1851094684&rft.aulast=McGowen&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhelicoptersillus00mcgo_0%2Fpage%2F227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bell-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bell_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPattillo2000" class="citation book cs1">Pattillo, Donald (2000). <i>Pushing the Envelope: The American Aircraft Industry</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472086719" title="Special:BookSources/978-0472086719"><bdi>978-0472086719</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pushing+the+Envelope%3A+The+American+Aircraft+Industry&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0472086719&rft.aulast=Pattillo&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moukambi-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moukambi_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoukambi2008" class="citation thesis cs1">Moukambi, Victor (December 2008). Grundlingh, A.M. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/1228"><i>Relations between South Africa and France with special reference to military matters, 1960-1990</i></a> (Thesis). Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Relations+between+South+Africa+and+France+with+special+reference+to+military+matters%2C+1960-1990&rft.inst=Stellenbosch+University&rft.date=2008-12&rft.aulast=Moukambi&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.sun.ac.za%2Fhandle%2F10019.1%2F1228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eastern-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eastern_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eastern_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMieczkowski1980" class="citation book cs1">Mieczkowski, Bogdan (1980). <i>East European Transport Regions and Modes: Systems and Modes</i>. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 322–342. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-009-8901-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-009-8901-6"><bdi>978-94-009-8901-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+European+Transport+Regions+and+Modes%3A+Systems+and+Modes&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pages=322-342&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-94-009-8901-6&rft.aulast=Mieczkowski&rft.aufirst=Bogdan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALicensed+production" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Licensed_production&oldid=1228967448">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Licensed_production&oldid=1228967448</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Production_and_manufacturing" title="Category:Production and manufacturing">Production and manufacturing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Licensing" title="Category:Licensing">Licensing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Development_economics" title="Category:Development economics">Development economics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:International_trade" title="Category:International trade">International trade</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Industrial_policy" title="Category:Industrial policy">Industrial policy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_law" title="Category:Intellectual property law">Intellectual property law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Technology_transfer" title="Category:Technology transfer">Technology transfer</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Management_cybernetics" title="Category:Management cybernetics">Management cybernetics</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 June 2024, at 04:17<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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