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It occurs when an individual has to make a judgment (of a ''target attribute'') that is computationally complex, and instead substitutes a more easily calculated ''[[heuristics in judgment and decision making|heuristic]] attribute''.<ref name="newell">{{cite book |last1=Newell |first1=Benjamin R. |first2=David A. |last2=Lagnado |first3=David R. |last3=Shanks |title=Straight choices: the psychology of decision making |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |pages=71–74 |isbn=978-1-84169-588-4}}</ref> This substitution is thought of as taking place in the automatic ''intuitive'' judgment system, rather than the more self-aware ''reflective'' system. Hence, when someone tries to answer a difficult question, they may actually answer a related but different question, without realizing that a substitution has taken place. This explains why individuals can be unaware of their own biases, and why biases persist even when the subject is made aware of them. It also explains why human judgments often fail to show [[regression toward the mean]].<ref name="revisited"/> The theory of attribute substitution unifies a number of separate explanations of reasoning errors in terms of [[heuristics in judgment and decision making|cognitive heuristics]].<ref name="newell"/> In turn, the theory is subsumed by an ''effort-reduction framework'' proposed by Anuj K. Shah and [[Daniel M. Oppenheimer]], which states that people use a variety of techniques to reduce the effort of making decisions.<ref name="shah2008"/> ==History== [[File:Daniel Kahneman (3283955327) (cropped).jpg|thumb|180px|[[Daniel Kahneman]]]] In a 1974 paper, psychologists [[Amos Tversky]] and [[Daniel Kahneman]] argued that a broad family of biases (systematic errors in judgment and decision) were explainable in terms of a few heuristics (information-processing shortcuts), including [[availability heuristic|availability]] and [[representativeness heuristic|representativeness]]. In 1975, psychologist [[Stanley Smith Stevens]] proposed that the strength of a stimulus (e.g., the brightness of a light, the severity of a crime) is encoded neurally in a way that is independent of [[stimulus modality|modality]].{{cn|date=September 2021}} Kahneman and Frederick built on this idea, arguing that the target attribute and heuristic attribute could be unrelated.<ref name="revisited"/> In a 2002 revision of the theory, Kahneman and [[Shane Frederick]] proposed attribute substitution as a process underlying these and other effects.<ref name="revisited">{{cite book |last1= Kahneman |first1=Daniel |first2=Shane |last2=Frederick |title=Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment |url= https://archive.org/details/heuristicsbiases00gilo |url-access= limited |editor=Thomas Gilovich |editor2=Dale Griffin |editor3=Daniel Kahneman |publisher =Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/heuristicsbiases00gilo/page/n60 49]–81 |chapter=Representativeness Revisited: Attribute Substitution in Intuitive Judgment |isbn=978-0-521-79679-8 |oclc=47364085}}</ref> == Conditions == {{Quote box |quote=[P]eople are not accustomed to thinking hard, and are often content to trust a plausible judgment that comes to mind. |source=[[Daniel Kahneman]], ''American Economic Review'' '''93''' (5) December 2003, p. 1450 |width=30% |align=right}} Kahneman and Frederick propose three conditions for attribute substitution:<ref name="revisited"/> # The target attribute is relatively inaccessible. Substitution is not expected to take place in answering factual questions that can be retrieved directly from memory ("What is your birthday?") or about current experience ("Do you feel thirsty now?). # An associated attribute is highly accessible. This might be because it is evaluated automatically in normal perception or because it has been [[priming (psychology)|primed]]. For example, someone who has been thinking about their love life who is then asked about their happiness might substitute how happy they are with their love life rather than answer the question as asked. # The substitution is not detected and corrected by the reflective system. For example, when asked "A bat and a ball together cost $1.10. The bat costs $1 more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?" many subjects incorrectly answer $0.10.<ref name="kahneman_aer">{{cite journal |last=Kahneman |first=Daniel |date=December 2003 |title=Maps of Bounded Rationality: Psychology for Behavioral Economics |journal= American Economic Review |volume=93 |issue=5 |pages=1449–1475 |doi=10.1257/000282803322655392 |issn=0002-8282|citeseerx=10.1.1.194.6554 }}</ref> An explanation in terms of attribute substitution is that, rather than work out the sum, subjects parse the sum of $1.10 into a large amount and a small amount, which is easy to do. Whether they feel that is the right answer will depend on whether they check the calculation with their reflective system. ==Examples== [[File:Opt taeuschung groesse.jpg|thumb|225px|right|This illusion works because 3D (perspective) size is substituted for 2D size (all pairs are equal in size).]] ===Optical illusions=== Attribute substitution explains the persistence of some illusions. For example, when subjects judge the size of two figures in a [[perspective (graphical)|perspective]] picture, their apparent sizes can be distorted by the 3D context, making a convincing optical illusion. The theory states that the three-dimensional size of the figure (which is accessible because it is automatically computed by the visual system) is substituted for its two-dimensional size on the page. Experienced painters and photographers are less susceptible to this illusion, because the two-dimensional size is more accessible to their perception.<ref name="kahneman_aer"/> ===Valuing insurance=== Kahneman gives an example where some Americans were offered [[insurance]] against their own death in a terrorist attack while on a trip to Europe, while another group were offered insurance that would cover death of any kind on the trip. The former group were willing to pay more even though "death of any kind" includes "death in a terrorist attack", Kahneman suggests that the attribute of [[fear]] is being substituted for a calculation of the total risks of travel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kahneman07/kahneman07_index.html |title=Short Course in Thinking About Thinking |last= Kahneman |first=Daniel |year=2007 |work=Edge.org |publisher=Edge Foundation |accessdate=2009-06-03}}</ref> Fear of terrorism for these subjects was stronger than a general fear of dying on a foreign trip. ===Stereotypes=== [[Stereotypes]] can be a source of heuristic attributes.<ref name="revisited"/> In a face-to-face conversation with a stranger, judging their intelligence is more computationally complex than judging the colour of their skin. So if the subject has a stereotype about the relative [[intelligence]] of whites, blacks, and Asians, that racial attribute might substitute for the more intangible attribute of intelligence. The pre-conscious, intuitive nature of attribute substitution explains how subjects can be influenced by the stereotype while thinking that they have made an honest, unbiased evaluation of the other person's intelligence. ===Morality and fairness=== [[Cass Sunstein|Sunstein]] argued that attribute substitution is pervasive when people reason about [[morality|moral]], [[political]], or [[legal]] matters.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sunstein |first=Cass R. |year=2005 |title=Moral Heuristics |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages= 531–542 |issn=0140-525X |doi=10.1017/S0140525X05000099 |pmid= 16209802|s2cid=231738548 }}</ref> Given a difficult, novel problem in these areas, people search for a more familiar, related problem (a "prototypical case") and apply its solution as the solution to the harder problem. According to Sunstein, the opinions of [[Authority bias|trusted]] political or religious [[Argument from authority|authorities]] can serve as heuristic attributes when people are asked their own opinions on a matter. Another source of heuristic attributes is [[emotion]]: people's moral opinions on sensitive subjects like [[human sexuality|sexuality]] and [[human cloning]] may be driven by reactions such as [[disgust]], rather than by reasoned principles.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sunstein |first=Cass R. |year=2009 |title=Some Effects of Moral Indignation on Law |journal=Vermont Law Review |publisher=Vermont Law School |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=405–434 |url=http://lawreview.vermontlaw.edu/articles/3/12%20Sunstein%20Book%203%2C%20Vol.%2033.pdf |accessdate=2009-09-15 |url-status=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610021623/http://lawreview.vermontlaw.edu/articles/3/12%20Sunstein%20Book%203%2C%20Vol.%2033.pdf |archivedate=2011-06-10 }}</ref> Critics demanded more evidence from Sunstein.<ref name="shah2008">{{cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Anuj K. |author-link2=Daniel M. Oppenheimer|first2=Daniel M.|last2=Oppenheimer |date=March 2008 |title=Heuristics Made Easy: An Effort-Reduction Framework |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=134 |issue=2 |pages=207–222 |issn=1939-1455 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.207 |pmid=18298269}}</ref> ===The beautiful-is-familiar effect=== Monin reports a series of experiments in which subjects, looking at photographs of faces, have to judge whether they have seen those faces before. It is repeatedly found that attractive faces are more likely to be mistakenly labeled as familiar.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Monin |first1=Benoît |first2=Daniel M. |last2=Oppenheimer |year=2005 |title=Correlated Averages vs. Averaged Correlations: Demonstrating the Warm Glow Heuristic Beyond Aggregation |journal=Social Cognition |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=257–278 |issn=0278-016X |url=http://web.princeton.edu/sites/opplab/papers/Opp%20Demonstrating%20the%20Warm%20Glow%20Heuristic.pdf |doi=10.1521/soco.2005.23.3.257 |access-date=2009-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527174437/http://web.princeton.edu/sites/opplab/papers/Opp%20Demonstrating%20the%20Warm%20Glow%20Heuristic.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Monin interprets this result in terms of attribute substitution. The heuristic attribute in this case is a "warm glow"; a positive feeling towards someone that might either be due to their being familiar or being attractive. This interpretation has been criticised, because not all the [[variance]] in the familiarity data is accounted for by attractiveness.<ref name="shah2008"/> ==Evidence== The most direct evidence, according to Kahneman,<ref name="kahneman_aer"/> is a 1973 experiment that used a psychological profile of Tom&nbsp;W., a fictional graduate student.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kahneman |first1=Daniel |first2=Amos |last2=Tversky |date=July 1973 |title=On the Psychology of Prediction |journal=Psychological Review |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=237–51 |issn= 0033-295X |doi=10.1037/h0034747}}</ref> One group of subjects had to rate Tom's ''similarity'' to a typical student in each of nine academic areas (Law, Engineering, Library Science etc.). Another group had to rate ''how likely'' it is that Tom specialised in each area. If these ratings of likelihood are governed by [[probability]], then they should resemble the [[base rates]], i.e., the proportion of students in each of the nine areas (which had been separately estimated by a third group). A probabilistic judgment would say that Tom is more likely to be a Humanities student than Library Science, because many more students study Humanities, and the additional information in the profile is vague and unreliable. Instead, the ratings of likelihood matched the ratings of similarity almost perfectly, both in this study and a similar one where subjects judged the likelihood of a fictional woman taking different careers. This suggests that rather than estimating probability using base rates, subjects had substituted the more accessible attribute of similarity. ==See also== {{Portal|Psychology|Philosophy}} * [[Bounded rationality]] * [[Inattentional blindness]] * [[Labeling theory]] * [[List of cognitive biases]] * [[Neglect of probability]] * [[Self-deception]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book |last1=Kahneman |first1=Daniel |first2=Shane |last2=Frederick |title=Models of a man: essays in memory of Herbert A. Simon |url=https://archive.org/details/modelsmanessaysm00marc |url-access=limited |editor=Mie Augier |editor2=James G. March |publisher=MIT Press |year=2004 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/modelsmanessaysm00marc/page/n429 411]–432 |chapter=Attribute Substitution in Intuitive Judgment |isbn=978-0-262-01208-9 |oclc=52257877}} * {{cite book |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning |editor=Keith James Holyoak |editor2=Robert G. Morrison |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |pages=267–294 |isbn=978-0-521-82417-0 |chapter =A Model of Heuristic Judgment |last1=Kahneman |first1=Daniel |first2=Shane |last2=Frederick |chapter-url=http://faculty.som.yale.edu/ShaneFrederick/model_of_heuristic_judgment.pdf |oclc=56011371|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713152713/http://faculty.som.yale.edu/ShaneFrederick/model_of_heuristic_judgment.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-13 }} * {{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/2002/kahneman-lecture.html |title=Maps of Bounded Rationality: A Perspective on Intuitive Judgement and Choice (Nobel Prize Lecture) |last=Kahneman |first=Daniel |date=December 8, 2002 |work=NobelPrize.org |publisher=The Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2009-06-13}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kahneman07/kahneman07_index.html |title=Short Course in Thinking about Thinking |last=Kahneman |first=Daniel |date=July 22, 2007 |work=Edge.org |publisher=Edge Foundation |accessdate=2009-06-13}} * {{cite book |last1=Sinnott-Armstrong |first1=Walter |first2=Liane |last2=Young |first3=Fiery |last3=Cushman |date=2010 |chapter=Moral Intuitions|editor=J. Doris |editor2=G. Harman |editor3=S. Nichols |editor4=J. Prinz |editor5=W. Sinnott-Armstrong |editor6=S. Stich |title=The Oxford Handbook of Moral Psychology |publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=9780199582143 |pages=246–272|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199582143.003.0008|chapter-url=https://www.mit.edu/~lyoung/Site/Publications_files/Sinnott-Armstrong,%20Young,%20Cushman.doc }} *{{cite journal|doi=10.3758/s13423-013-0384-5|title=Bats, balls, and substitution sensitivity: Cognitive misers are no happy fools|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|volume=20|issue=2|pages=269–273|year=2013|last1=De Neys|first1=Wim|last2=Rossi|first2=Sandrine|last3=Houdé|first3=Olivier|pmid=23417270|doi-access=free}} *{{cite journal|doi=10.1257/089533005775196732|title=Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=19|issue=4|pages=25–42|year=2005|last1=Frederick|first1=Shane|doi-access=free}} {{Biases}} [[Category:Prospect theory]] [[Category:Cognitive biases]] [[Category:Cognitive science]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div 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