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href="#Campaign_in_the_North-East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.4 Campaign in the North-East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaign_in_the_North-East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_Tibet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_Tibet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.5 Relations with Tibet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_Tibet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reign_of_the_Yongle_Emperor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_the_Yongle_Emperor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Reign of the Yongle Emperor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reign_of_the_Yongle_Emperor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rise_to_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_to_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Rise to power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_to_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_capital_and_foreign_engagement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_capital_and_foreign_engagement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 New capital and foreign engagement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_capital_and_foreign_engagement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tumu_Crisis_and_the_Ming_Mongols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tumu_Crisis_and_the_Ming_Mongols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Tumu Crisis and the Ming Mongols </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tumu_Crisis_and_the_Ming_Mongols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Decline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reign_of_the_Wanli_Emperor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_the_Wanli_Emperor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.1 Reign of the Wanli Emperor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reign_of_the_Wanli_Emperor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_eunuchs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_eunuchs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.2 Role of eunuchs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_eunuchs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_breakdown_and_natural_disasters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_breakdown_and_natural_disasters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.3 Economic breakdown and natural disasters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_breakdown_and_natural_disasters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_the_Ming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_the_Ming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Fall of the Ming </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_the_Ming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_Manchus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_Manchus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.1 Rise of the Manchus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_Manchus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebellion,_invasion,_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebellion,_invasion,_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.2 Rebellion, invasion, collapse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebellion,_invasion,_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Government </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Province,_prefecture,_sub-prefecture_and_county" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Province,_prefecture,_sub-prefecture_and_county"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Province, prefecture, sub-prefecture and county </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Province,_prefecture,_sub-prefecture_and_county-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutions_and_bureaus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions_and_bureaus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Institutions and bureaus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutions_and_bureaus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Institutional_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutional_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Institutional trends </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutional_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grand_Secretariat_and_Six_Ministries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grand_Secretariat_and_Six_Ministries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Grand Secretariat and Six Ministries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grand_Secretariat_and_Six_Ministries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bureaus_and_offices_for_the_imperial_household" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureaus_and_offices_for_the_imperial_household"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Bureaus and offices for the imperial household </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureaus_and_offices_for_the_imperial_household-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personnel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personnel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Personnel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personnel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scholar-officials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholar-officials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Scholar-officials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholar-officials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lesser_functionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lesser_functionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Lesser functionaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lesser_functionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eunuchs,_princes,_and_generals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eunuchs,_princes,_and_generals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Eunuchs, princes, and generals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eunuchs,_princes,_and_generals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature_and_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_and_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Literature and arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_and_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wang_Yangming's_Confucianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wang_Yangming's_Confucianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Wang Yangming's Confucianism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wang_Yangming's_Confucianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservative_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservative_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Conservative reaction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservative_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_and_rural_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_and_rural_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Urban and rural life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_and_rural_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Science and technology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reference_works_and_primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_works_and_primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Reference works and primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_works_and_primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 General studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ming dynasty</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 125 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-125" aria-hidden="true" > 125 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dinastie" title="Ming-dinastie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ming-dinastie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-Dynastie" title="Ming-Dynastie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ming-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%9A%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D_%E1%88%A5%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%88_%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%A5%E1%89%B5" title="የሚንግ ሥርወ መንግሥት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የሚንግ ሥርወ መንግሥት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="मिंग वंश – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="मिंग वंश" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%BA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9" title="سلالة مينغ الحاكمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلالة مينغ الحاكمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Ming" title="Dinastía Ming – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Dinastía Ming" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Ming" title="Dinastía Ming – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dinastía Ming" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_%C3%B1emo%C3%B1anga" title="Ming ñemoñanga – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ming ñemoñanga" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_s%C3%BClal%C9%99si" title="Min sülaləsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Min sülaləsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="مین سولاله‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مین سولاله‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6" title="মিং রাজবংশ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিং রাজবংশ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%AAng-ti%C3%A2u" title="Bêng-tiâu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bêng-tiâu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Мин империяһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мин империяһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Імперыя Мін – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Імперыя Мін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Дынастыя Мін – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дынастыя Мін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Мин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="མིང་རྒྱལ་རབས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མིང་རྒྱལ་རབས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Ming" title="Dinastija Ming – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Dinastija Ming" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierniezh_Ming" title="Tierniezh Ming – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tierniezh Ming" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Мин улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Мин улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D3%97" title="Мин империйӗ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Мин империйӗ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%AD%C5%A1e_Ming" title="Říše Ming – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Říše Ming" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenhinllin_Ming" title="Brenhinllin Ming – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Brenhinllin Ming" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dynastiet" title="Ming-dynastiet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ming-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-Dynastie" title="Ming-Dynastie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ming-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingi_d%C3%BCnastia" title="Mingi dünastia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mingi dünastia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%9C%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA" title="Δυναστεία Μινγκ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυναστεία Μινγκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Ming" title="Dinastía Ming – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dinastía Ming" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastio_Ming" title="Dinastio Ming – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dinastio Ming" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dinastia" title="Ming dinastia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ming dinastia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="دودمان مینگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دودمان مینگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_Dynasty" title="Ming Dynasty – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Ming Dynasty" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastie_Ming" title="Dynastie Ming – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dynastie Ming" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADshliocht_Ming" title="Ríshliocht Ming – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ríshliocht Ming" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ACgh-shliochd_nam_Ming" title="Rìgh-shliochd nam Ming – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Rìgh-shliochd nam Ming" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Ming" title="Dinastía Ming – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dinastía Ming" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E" title="明 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="明" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ACn-chh%C3%A8u" title="Mìn-chhèu – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Mìn-chhèu" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%85%EB%82%98%EB%9D%BC" title="명나라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="명나라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Մին դինաստիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մին դինաստիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="मिंग राजवंश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मिंग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Ming" title="Dinastija Ming – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dinastija Ming" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastio_Ming" title="Dinastio Ming – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Dinastio Ming" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_a_Dinastia" title="Ming a Dinastia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ming a Dinastia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ming" title="Dinasti Ming – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinasti Ming" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingveldi%C3%B0" title="Mingveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mingveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92" title="שושלת מינג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שושלת מינג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangsa_Ming" title="Wangsa Ming – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Wangsa Ming" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C5%8B_Kewiya%C9%A3_K%C9%A9%C9%96%C9%9Bza%C9%A3" title="Miŋ Kewiyaɣ Kɩɖɛzaɣ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Miŋ Kewiyaɣ Kɩɖɛzaɣ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მინის დინასტია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მინის დინასტია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Мин династиясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мин династиясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternieth_Ming" title="Ternieth Ming – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Ternieth Ming" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_(nasaba)" title="Ming (nasaba) – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ming (nasaba)" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%87" title="ລາຊະວົງມິງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ລາຊະວົງມິງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_Mim" title="Familia Mim – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Familia Mim" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minu_dinastija" title="Minu dinastija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Minu dinastija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-Dynastie" title="Ming-Dynastie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Ming-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming%C5%B3_dinastija" title="Mingų dinastija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mingų dinastija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dinasztia" title="Ming-dinasztia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ming-dinasztia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_(%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Минг (династија) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Минг (династија)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="മിങ് രാജവംശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മിങ് രാജവംശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="मिंग राजवंश – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मिंग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მინიშ დინასტია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მინიშ დინასტია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%AC" title="عيلة مينج – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عيلة مينج" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%87" title="مینگ سلسله – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="مینگ سلسله" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ming" title="Dinasti Ming – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dinasti Ming" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ming" title="Dinasti Ming – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Dinasti Ming" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ACng-di%C3%A8u" title="Mìng-dièu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Mìng-dièu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Мин улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мин улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA" title="မြင်တိုင်းပြည် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မြင်တိုင်းပြည်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dynastie" title="Ming-dynastie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ming-dynastie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="मिङ वंश – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मिङ वंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="मिङ्ग राजवंश – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मिङ्ग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E" title="明 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="明" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Импери Мин – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Импери Мин" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-D%C3%BCnastii" title="Ming-Dünastii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ming-Dünastii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dynastiet" title="Ming-dynastiet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ming-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming" title="Ming – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ming" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_(sulola)" title="Min (sulola) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Min (sulola)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC" title="ਮਿੰਗ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਿੰਗ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="منگ سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="منگ سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AB_%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D" title="منګ واکمنه کورنۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="منګ واکمنه کورنۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%84" title="រាជវង្សមិង – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រាជវង្សមិង" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-Dynastie" title="Ming-Dynastie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ming-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastia_Ming" title="Dynastia Ming – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dynastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD%D2%91" title="Дінастія Мінґ – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Дінастія Мінґ" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Империя Мин – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Империя Мин" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Миин династията – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Миин династията" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_Dynasty" title="Ming Dynasty – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ming Dynasty" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Ming" title="Dinastia Ming – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dinastia Ming" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%82_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%BA" title="මිං රාජවංශය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මිං රාජවංශය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ming dynasty" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming" title="Ming – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ming" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Ming" title="Dinastija Ming – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dinastija Ming" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی مینگ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی مینگ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Велико Царство Минг – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Велико Царство Минг" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Ming" title="Dinastija Ming – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dinastija Ming" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Ming" title="Dinasti Ming – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Dinasti Ming" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-dynastia" title="Ming-dynastia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ming-dynastia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingdynastin" title="Mingdynastin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mingdynastin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiyang_Ming" title="Dinastiyang Ming – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Dinastiyang Ming" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="மிங் அரசமரபு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மிங் அரசமரபு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="ราชวงศ์หมิง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชวงศ์หมิง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_Hanedan%C4%B1" title="Ming Hanedanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ming Hanedanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_imperi%C3%BDasy" title="Min imperiýasy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Min imperiýasy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Династія Мін – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Династія Мін" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ming_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ming (disambiguation)">Ming (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ming_Dynasty_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ming Dynasty (disambiguation)">Ming Dynasty (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) 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.ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Great Ming</div><div class="ib-country-names"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>大明 (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</li><li>Dà Míng</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1368–1644</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_Ming_dynasty.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Imperial seal of Ming dynasty"><img alt="Imperial seal of Ming dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Seal_of_Ming_dynasty.svg/85px-Seal_of_Ming_dynasty.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Seal_of_Ming_dynasty.svg/128px-Seal_of_Ming_dynasty.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Seal_of_Ming_dynasty.svg/170px-Seal_of_Ming_dynasty.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="492" data-file-height="492" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Seal_(East_Asia)#Government_authorities" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (East Asia)">Imperial seal</a></div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ming China in 1415 during the reign of the Yongle Emperor"><img alt="Ming China in 1415 during the reign of the Yongle Emperor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415.jpg/250px-Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="371" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415.jpg/375px-Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415.jpg/500px-Map_of_Ming_Chinese_empire_1415.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1577" data-file-height="2339" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Ming China in 1415 during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_Empire_cca_1580_(en).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ming China around 1580"><img alt="Ming China around 1580" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Ming_Empire_cca_1580_%28en%29.svg/250px-Ming_Empire_cca_1580_%28en%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Ming_Empire_cca_1580_%28en%29.svg/375px-Ming_Empire_cca_1580_%28en%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Ming_Empire_cca_1580_%28en%29.svg/500px-Ming_Empire_cca_1580_%28en%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="2344" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Ming China around 1580</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> (1368–1644)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> (1403–1644)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r979066050">.mw-parser-output ul.cslist,.mw-parser-output ul.sslist{margin:0;padding:0;display:inline-block;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output ul.cslist-embedded{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .cslist li,.mw-parser-output .sslist li{margin:0;padding:0 0.25em 0 0;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:after{content:", "}.mw-parser-output .sslist li:after{content:"; "}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .sslist li:last-child:after{content:none}</style><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Mandarin</a> (official)</li><li>other <a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">Chinese languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Karluk_languages" title="Karluk languages">Turki</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Uyghur language">Old Uyghur</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_language" title="Jurchen language">Jurchen</a></li><li>and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">others</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r979066050"><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="/wiki/Heaven_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Heaven worship">Heaven worship</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Roman Catholicism</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Ming dynasty">Emperor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1368–1398 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1402–1424 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1572–1620 (longest) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor">Wanli Emperor</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1627–1644 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen Emperor</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia#Early_modern" title="History of Asia">Early modern</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">23 January 1368</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> designated as capital </div></th><td class="infobox-data">28 October 1420</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beijing_(1644)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Beijing (1644)">Fall of Beijing</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">25 April 1644</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• End of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[b]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1662</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1450<a href="#cite_note-Turchin222-6">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taagepera500-7">[5]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">6,500,000 km2 (2,500,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1393<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259-3">[1]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">65,000,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1500<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank1998109-4">[2]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">125,000,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1600<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238-5">[3]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">160,000,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>(nominal)</th><td class="infobox-data">estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/17px-Decrease2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/22px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> 19.8 taels<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadberry2014-8">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paper_money" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper money">Paper money</a> (1368–1450)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimetallism" title="Bimetallism">Bimetallic</a>:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent" style="padding-left: 1.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li>Copper <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cash_(currency_unit)" title="Chinese cash (currency unit)">cashes</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Cash_(Chinese_coin)" title="Cash (Chinese coin)">strings of coin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cash_(currency_unit)#Paper_money" title="Chinese cash (currency unit)">paper</a>)</li><li>Silver <a href="/wiki/Tael" title="Tael">taels</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Sycee" title="Sycee">sycees</a> and by weight)</li></ul></div></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty">Shun dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Xi_dynasty" title="Xi dynasty">Xi dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Portuguese Macau</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Ming dynasty</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_dynasty_(Chinese_characters).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Ming_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/90px-Ming_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Ming_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/135px-Ming_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Ming_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg/180px-Ming_dynasty_%28Chinese_characters%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="275" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">"Ming dynasty" in Chinese characters</div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">明朝</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Míng cháo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄔㄠˊ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Ming2 ch'ao2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Míng cháo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[mǐŋ ʈʂʰǎʊ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Suzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzhounese">Suzhounese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Mín záu</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Mìhng chìuh</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ming4 ciu4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[mɪŋ˩ tsʰiw˩]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Bêng tiâu</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Bîng tiâu</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Dynastic name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">大明</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dà Míng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄉㄚˋ ㄇㄧㄥˊ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Ta4 Ming2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dà Míng</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">da men</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Daaih Mìhng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">daai6 ming4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[taj˨ mɪŋ˩]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Tāi-bêng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="background:#FFEECC;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_China" title="Category:History of China">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China"><img alt="History of China in Chinese characters and seal script" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/200px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/300px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/400px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="121" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #f0faff; text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 8500 – c. 2000 BCE)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao civilization</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #eeffe8; text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a> (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BCE)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1250 – c. 1046 BCE)</dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> (c. 1046 – c. 256 BCE)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> (1046–771 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a> (771–256 BCE) <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a> (c. 770 – c. 476 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> (475–221 BCE)</dd></dl></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a> (221–207 BCE)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> (206 BCE – 220 CE)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a> (206–202 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a> (202 BCE – 9 CE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin</a> (9–23 CE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a> (25–220 CE)</dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> (220–280 CE)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Wu</a></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a> (266–420)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a> (266–316)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a> (317–420)</dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li> </li> <li> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a> (304–439)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a> (420–589)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a> (581–618)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> (618–907) <ul><li><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Wu_Zhou" title="Wu Zhou">Wu Zhou</a> (690–705)</dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a> (907–979)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> (960–1279)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a> (960–1127)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a> (1127–1279)</dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a> (916–1125)</li> <li> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> (1038–1227)</li> <li> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a> (1115–1234)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a> (1271–1368)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ming</a> (1368–1644)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> (1644–1912)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Modern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern China">Modern</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fff0f6; text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> (mainland, 1912–1949)</li></ul> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fff0f6; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (1949–present)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> (Taiwan, 1949–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related articles</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art#History_and_development" title="Chinese art">Art history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China" title="Economic history of China">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">Education history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_China" title="Legal history of China">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in China">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_history_of_China" title="Media history of China">Media history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China#History" title="Music of China">Music history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_music" title="Timeline of Chinese music">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Military history of China before 1912">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in China">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_China" title="History of Islam in China">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Science and technology history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">Inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport_in_China" title="History of transport in China">Transport history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women's history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_China" title="Template:History of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_China" title="Template talk:History of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Ming dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/mɪŋ/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">MING</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERandom_House_Webster's_Unabridged_Dictionary-9">[7]</a> officially the Great Ming, was an <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">imperial dynasty of China</a>, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>. The Ming dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han people</a>, the majority ethnic group in China. Although the primary capital of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">Li Zicheng</a> (who established the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty">Shun dynasty</a>), numerous <a href="/wiki/Rump_state" title="Rump state">rump regimes</a> ruled by remnants of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">Ming imperial family</a>—collectively called the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a>—survived until 1662.<a href="#cite_note-10">[c]</a> The Ming dynasty's founder, the <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1368–1398), attempted to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid, immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his dynasty:<a href="#cite_note-zhangwen-11">[8]</a> the empire's standing army exceeded one million troops and the <a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">navy</a>'s dockyards in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> were the largest in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271-12">[9]</a> He also took great care breaking the power of the <a href="/wiki/Eunuch_(court_official)#China" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuch (court official)">court eunuchs</a><a href="#cite_note-eunuchpower-13">[10]</a> and unrelated magnates, <a href="/wiki/Enfeoffment" class="mw-redirect" title="Enfeoffment">enfeoffing</a> his many sons throughout China and attempting to guide these princes through the <a href="/wiki/Huang-Ming_Zuxun" title="Huang-Ming Zuxun">Huang-Ming Zuxun</a>, a set of published dynastic instructions. This failed when his teenage successor, the <a href="/wiki/Jianwen_Emperor" title="Jianwen Emperor">Jianwen Emperor</a>, attempted to curtail his uncle's power, prompting the <a href="/wiki/Jingnan_campaign" title="Jingnan campaign">Jingnan campaign</a>, an uprising that placed the Prince of Yan upon the throne as the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> in 1402. The Yongle Emperor established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, constructed the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>, and restored the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Canal of China">Grand Canal</a> and the primacy of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examinations</a> in official appointments. He rewarded his eunuch supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian <a href="/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholar-bureaucrats">scholar-bureaucrats</a>. One eunuch, <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>, led seven enormous <a href="/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages">voyages of exploration</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> as far as Arabia and the eastern coasts of Africa. Hongwu and Yongle emperors had also <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia">expanded the empire's rule</a> into <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a>. The rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances; the capture of the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yingzong_of_Ming" title="Emperor Yingzong of Ming">Emperor Yingzong of Ming</a> during the 1449 <a href="/wiki/Tumu_Crisis" title="Tumu Crisis">Tumu Crisis</a> ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while <a href="/wiki/Corvee#Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Corvee">forced labor</a> constructed the Liaodong palisade and connected and fortified the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall</a> into its modern form. Wide-ranging censuses of the entire empire were conducted decennially, but the desire to avoid labor and taxes and the difficulty of storing and reviewing the enormous archives at Nanjing hampered accurate figures.<a href="#cite_note-zhangwen-11">[8]</a> Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200 million,<a href="#cite_note-14">[d]</a> but necessary revenues were squeezed out of smaller and smaller numbers of farmers as more disappeared from the official records or "donated" their lands to tax-exempt eunuchs or temples.<a href="#cite_note-zhangwen-11">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Haijin" title="Haijin">Haijin</a> laws intended to protect the coasts from <a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Japanese pirates</a> instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves. By the 16th century, the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">expansion of European trade</a>—though restricted to islands near <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Macau</a>—spread the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a> of crops, plants, and animals into China, introducing <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">chili peppers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_cuisine" title="Sichuan cuisine">Sichuan cuisine</a> and highly productive <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Potatoes">potatoes</a>, which diminished famines and spurred population growth. The growth of <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Portugal#Triangular_trade_between_China,_Japan,_and_Europe" title="Economic history of Portugal">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Spain#Gold_and_silver_from_the_New_World" title="Economic history of Spain">Spanish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500%E2%80%931815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)">Dutch</a> trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced a massive influx of <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleons" class="mw-redirect" title="Manila galleons">South American</a> silver. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose paper <a href="/wiki/Ming_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming currency">money</a> had suffered repeated <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">hyperinflation</a> and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, the <a href="/wiki/Heterodoxy" title="Heterodoxy">heterodoxy</a> introduced by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a> permitted a more accommodating attitude. <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Juzheng" title="Zhang Juzheng">Zhang Juzheng</a>'s initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture was produced by the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>. The value of silver rapidly increased because of a disruption in the supply of imported silver from Spanish and Portuguese sources, making it impossible for Chinese farmers to pay their taxes. Combined with crop failure, floods, and <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty">an epidemic</a>, the dynasty collapsed in 1644 as Li Zicheng's rebel forces entered Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-15">[11]</a> Li then established the <a href="/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty">Shun dynasty</a>, but it was defeated shortly afterwards by the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banner" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight Banner">Eight Banner</a> armies of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, with the help of the defecting Ming general <a href="/wiki/Wu_Sangui" title="Wu Sangui">Wu Sangui</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="History of the Ming dynasty">History of the Ming dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Timeline of the Ming dynasty">Timeline of the Ming dynasty</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding">Founding</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revolt_and_rebel_rivalry">Revolt and rebel rivalry</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> (1271–1368) ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty. Explanations for the demise of the Yuan include institutionalized ethnic discrimination against the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han people</a> that stirred resentment and rebellion, overtaxation of areas hard-hit by <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a>, and massive flooding of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> as a result of the abandonment of irrigation projects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150-16">[12]</a> Consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150-16">[12]</a> A number of Han groups revolted, including the <a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Turban Rebellion">Red Turbans</a> in 1351. The Red Turbans were affiliated with the <a href="/wiki/White_Lotus" title="White Lotus">White Lotus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Buddhist</a> secret society. <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Yuanzhang" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhu Yuanzhang">Zhu Yuanzhang</a> was a penniless peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352; he soon gained a reputation after marrying the foster daughter of a rebel commander.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191-17">[13]</a> In 1356, Zhu's rebel force captured the city of <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151-18">[14]</a> which he would later establish as the capital of the Ming dynasty. With the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to <a href="/wiki/Dynastic_cycle" title="Dynastic cycle">establish a new dynasty</a>. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, <a href="/wiki/Chen_Youliang" title="Chen Youliang">Chen Youliang</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Poyang" title="Battle of Lake Poyang">Battle of Lake Poyang</a>, arguably the <a href="/wiki/Largest_naval_battle_in_history" title="Largest naval battle in history">largest naval battle in history</a>. Known for its ambitious use of <a href="/wiki/Fire_ships" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire ships">fire ships</a>, Zhu's force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650,000-strong. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> River Valley and cementing his power in the south. After the dynastic head of the Red Turbans suspiciously died in 1367 while a guest of Zhu, there was no one left who was remotely capable of contesting his march to the throne, and he made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the Yuan capital <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Dadu</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>) in 1368.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-19">[15]</a> The last Yuan emperor fled north to the upper capital <a href="/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu">Shangdu</a>, and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in Dadu to the ground;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-19">[15]</a> the city was renamed Beiping in the same year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii-20">[16]</a> Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or "Vastly Martial", as his <a href="/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name">era name</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reign_of_the_Hongwu_Emperor">Reign of the Hongwu Emperor</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg/170px-A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg/255px-A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg/340px-A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3101" data-file-height="5050" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of the <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a> (r. 1368–98)</figcaption></figure> Hongwu made an immediate effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km (30 mi) long <a href="/wiki/City_Wall_of_Nanjing" title="City Wall of Nanjing">wall around Nanjing</a>, as well as new palaces and government halls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-19">[15]</a> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a> states that as early as 1364 Zhu Yuanzhang had begun drafting a new <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> law code, the <a href="/wiki/Da_Ming_L%C3%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="Da Ming Lü">Da Ming Lü</a>, which was completed by 1397 and repeated certain clauses found in the old <a href="/wiki/Tang_Code" title="Tang Code">Tang Code</a> of 653.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025-21">[17]</a> Hongwu organized a military system known as the weisuo, which was similar to the <a href="/wiki/Fubing_system" title="Fubing system">fubing system</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907). In 1380 Hongwu had the Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Hu_Weiyong" title="Hu Weiyong">Hu Weiyong</a> executed upon suspicion of a conspiracy plot to overthrow him; after that Hongwu abolished the <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor (China)">Chancellery</a> and assumed this role as chief executive and emperor, a precedent mostly followed throughout the Ming period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193-22">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130-23">[19]</a> With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the <a href="/wiki/Jinyiwei" class="mw-redirect" title="Jinyiwei">Jinyiwei</a>, a network of <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> drawn from his own palace guard. Some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193-22">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130-24">[20]</a> The Hongwu Emperor issued many edicts forbidding Mongol practices and proclaiming his intention to purify China of barbarian influence. However, he also sought to use the Yuan legacy to legitimize his authority in China and other areas ruled by the Yuan. He continued policies of the Yuan dynasty such as continued request for Korean concubines and eunuchs, Mongol-style hereditary military institutions, Mongol-style clothing and hats, promoting archery and horseback riding, and having large numbers of Mongols serve in the Ming military. Until the late 16th century Mongols still constituted one-in-three officers serving in capital forces like the <a href="/wiki/Embroidered_Uniform_Guard" title="Embroidered Uniform Guard">Embroidered Uniform Guard</a>, and other peoples such as <a href="/wiki/Jurchens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurchens">Jurchens</a> were also prominent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399-25">[21]</a> He frequently wrote to Mongol, Japanese, Korean, Jurchen, Tibetan, and Southwest frontier rulers offering advice on their governmental and dynastic policy, and insisted on leaders from these regions visiting the Ming capital for audiences. He resettled 100,000 Mongols into his territory, with many serving as guards in the capital. The emperor also strongly advertised the hospitality and role granted to Chinggisid nobles in his court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9-26">[22]</a> Hongwu insisted that he was not a rebel, and he attempted to justify his conquest of the other rebel warlords by claiming that he was a Yuan subject and had been divinely-appointed to restore order by crushing rebels. Most Chinese elites did not view the Yuan's Mongol ethnicity as grounds to resist or reject it. Hongwu emphasised that he was not conquering territory from the Yuan dynasty but rather from the rebel warlords. He used this line of argument to attempt to persuade Yuan loyalists to join his cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146-27">[23]</a> The Ming used the tribute they received from former Yuan vassals as proof that the Ming had taken over the Yuan's legitimacy. Tribute missions were regularly celebrated with music and dance in the Ming court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019248-28">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South-Western_frontier">South-Western frontier</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ming_conquest_of_Yunnan" title="Ming conquest of Yunnan">Ming conquest of Yunnan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_rebellions_in_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty">Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty</a></div> Hui Muslim troops settled in <a href="/wiki/Changde" title="Changde">Changde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>, after serving the Ming in campaigns against aboriginal tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShi2002133-29">[25]</a> In 1381, the Ming dynasty annexed the areas of the southwest that had once been part of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dali" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Dali">Kingdom of Dali</a> following the successful effort by Hui Muslim Ming armies to defeat <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a>-loyalist Mongol and Hui Muslim troops holding out in Yunnan province. The <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> troops under General <a href="/wiki/Mu_Ying" title="Mu Ying">Mu Ying</a>, who was appointed Governor of Yunnan, were resettled in the region as part of a colonization effort.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon199934-30">[26]</a> By the end of the 14th century, some 200,000 military colonists settled some 2,000,000 mu (350,000 acres) of land in what is now <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>. Roughly half a million more Chinese settlers came in later periods; these migrations caused a major shift in the ethnic make-up of the region, since formerly more than half of the population were non-Han peoples. Resentment over such massive changes in population and the resulting government presence and policies sparked more <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yao_people" title="Yao people">Yao</a> revolts in 1464 to 1466, which were crushed by an army of 30,000 Ming troops (including 1,000 Mongols) joining the 160,000 local <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>. After the scholar and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a> (1472–1529) suppressed another rebellion in the region, he advocated single, unitary administration of Chinese and indigenous ethnic groups in order to bring about <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinification</a> of the local peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197-31">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Campaign_in_the_North-East">Campaign in the North-East</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria under Ming rule</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG/220px-Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG/330px-Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG/440px-Chemin_de_ronde_muraille_long.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a>: Although the <a href="/wiki/Rammed_earth" title="Rammed earth">rammed earth</a> walls of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Warring_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Warring States">Warring States</a> were combined into a unified wall under the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> dynasties, the vast majority of the brick and stone Great Wall seen today is a product of the Ming dynasty.</figcaption></figure> After the overthrow of the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> by the Ming dynasty in 1368, Manchuria remained under control of the Mongols of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Yuan dynasty">Northern Yuan dynasty</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Naghachu" title="Naghachu">Naghachu</a>, a former Yuan official and a <a href="/wiki/Uriankhai" title="Uriankhai">Uriankhai</a> general of the Northern Yuan dynasty, won hegemony over the Mongol tribes in Manchuria (<a href="/wiki/Liaoyang_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Liaoyang province">Liaoyang province</a> of the former Yuan dynasty). He grew strong in the northeast, with forces large enough (numbering hundreds of thousands) to threaten invasion of the newly founded Ming dynasty in order to restore the Mongols to power in China. The Ming decided to defeat him instead of waiting for the Mongols to attack. In 1387 the Ming sent <a href="/wiki/Ming_military_campaign_against_Naghachu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming military campaign against Naghachu">a military campaign to attack Naghachu</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144-32">[28]</a> which concluded with the surrender of Naghachu and Ming conquest of Manchuria. The early Ming court could not, and did not, aspire to the control imposed upon the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchens</a> in Manchuria by the Mongols, yet it created a norm of organization that would ultimately serve as the main instrument for the relations with peoples along the northeast frontiers. By the end of the Hongwu reign, the essentials of a policy toward the Jurchens had taken shape. Most of the inhabitants of Manchuria, except for the <a href="/wiki/Wild_Jurchens" title="Wild Jurchens">Wild Jurchens</a>, were at peace with China. In 1409, under the Yongle Emperor, the Ming Dynasty established the <a href="/wiki/Nurgan_Regional_Military_Commission" title="Nurgan Regional Military Commission">Nurgan Regional Military Commission</a> on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Amur_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Amur River">Amur River</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yishiha" title="Yishiha">Yishiha</a>, a eunuch of <a href="/wiki/Haixi_Jurchens" title="Haixi Jurchens">Haixi Jurchen</a> origin, was ordered to lead an expedition to the mouth of the Amur to pacify the Wild Jurchens. After the death of Yongle Emperor, the Nurgan Regional Military Commission was abolished in 1435, and the Ming court ceased to have substantial activities there, although the guards continued to exist in Manchuria. Throughout its existence, the Ming established a total of 384 guards (衛, wei) and 24 battalions (所, suo) in Manchuria, but these were probably only nominal offices and did not necessarily imply political control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai2001159-33">[29]</a> By the late Ming period, Ming's political presence in Manchuria has declined significantly. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_Tibet">Relations with Tibet</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Ming–Tibet relations">Ming–Tibet relations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra,_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra%2C_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg/200px-17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra%2C_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra%2C_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg/300px-17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra%2C_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra%2C_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg/400px-17th_century_Central_Tibeten_thanka_of_Guhyasamaja_Akshobhyavajra%2C_Rubin_Museum_of_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1776" data-file-height="2300" /></a><figcaption>A 17th-century Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">thangka</a> of Guhyasamaja Akshobhyavajra; the Ming dynasty court gathered various tribute items that were native products of Tibet (such as thangkas),<a href="#cite_note-information_office_of_the_state_council_2002_73-34">[30]</a> and in return granted gifts to Tibetan tribute-bearers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41-35">[31]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">Mingshi</a>—the official history of the Ming dynasty compiled by the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> in 1739—states that the Ming established itinerant commanderies overseeing Tibetan administration while also renewing titles of ex-Yuan dynasty officials from <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and conferring new princely titles on leaders of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhist sects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mingshi-36">[32]</a> However, Turrell V. Wylie states that <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a> in the Mingshi in favor of bolstering the Ming emperor's prestige and reputation at all costs obfuscates the nuanced history of Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-37">[33]</a> Modern scholars debate whether the Ming dynasty had <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> over Tibet. Some believe it was a relationship of loose <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> that was largely cut off when the <a href="/wiki/Jiajing_Emperor" title="Jiajing Emperor">Jiajing Emperor</a> (r. 1521–67) persecuted Buddhism in favor of <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a> at court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-37">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima19971–40-38">[34]</a> Others argue that the significant religious nature of the relationship with Tibetan lamas is underrepresented in modern scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200152-39">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196732-40">[36]</a> Others note the Ming need for Central Asian horses and the need to maintain the <a href="/wiki/Tibet_during_the_Ming_dynasty#Tribute_and_exchanging_tea_for_horses" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibet during the Ming dynasty">tea-horse trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–40-41">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling2003474–75,_478-42">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerdue2000273-43">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196728–29-44">[40]</a> The Ming sporadically sent armed forays into Tibet during the 14th century, which the Tibetans successfully resisted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanglois1988139,_161-45">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeiss1988417–418-46">[42]</a> Several scholars point out that unlike the preceding Mongols, the Ming dynasty did not garrison permanent troops in Tibet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999227-47">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199738-48">[44]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor">Wanli Emperor</a> (r. 1572–1620) attempted to reestablish Sino-Tibetan relations in the wake of a <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet#The_origin_of_the_title_of_'Dalai_Lama'" title="History of Tibet">Mongol-Tibetan alliance</a> initiated in 1578, an alliance which affected the foreign policy of the subsequent Manchu <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> (1644–1912) in their support for the <a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Yellow Hat</a> sect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-37">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196730–31-49">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19978-50">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ming_Biographical_Dictionary_23-51">[47]</a> By the late 16th century, the Mongols proved to be successful armed protectors of the Yellow Hat Dalai Lama after their increasing presence in the <a href="/wiki/Amdo" title="Amdo">Amdo</a> region, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Tibet" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Tibet">conquest of Tibet</a> by <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCshi_Khan" title="Güshi Khan">Güshi Khan</a> (1582–1655) in 1642,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylie2003470-37">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolmaš196734–35-52">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19976–9-53">[49]</a> establishing the <a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut Khanate</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reign_of_the_Yongle_Emperor">Reign of the Yongle Emperor</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia">Ming dynasty in Inner Asia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_to_power">Rise to power</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg/170px-Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg/255px-Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg/340px-Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Chengzu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="13737" data-file-height="19935" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> (r. 1402–24)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a> specified his grandson Zhu Yunwen as his successor, and he assumed the throne as the <a href="/wiki/Jianwen_Emperor" title="Jianwen Emperor">Jianwen Emperor</a> (r. 1398–1402) after Hongwu's death in 1398. The most powerful of Hongwu's sons, Zhu Di, then the militarily mighty disagreed with this, and soon a political showdown erupted between him and his nephew Jianwen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2000527-54">[50]</a> After Jianwen arrested many of Zhu Di's associates, Zhu Di plotted a rebellion that sparked a <a href="/wiki/Jingnan_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Jingnan Campaign">three-year civil war</a>. Under the pretext of rescuing the young Jianwen from corrupting officials, Zhu Di personally led forces in the revolt; the palace in Nanjing was burned to the ground, along with Jianwen himself, his wife, mother, and courtiers. Zhu Di assumed the throne as the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> (r. 1402–24); his reign is universally viewed by scholars as a "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200284-55">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_capital_and_foreign_engagement">New capital and foreign engagement</h4></div> Yongle demoted Nanjing to a secondary capital and in 1403 announced the new capital of China was to be at his power base in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. Construction of a new city there lasted from 1407 to 1420, employing hundreds of thousands of workers daily.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006272-56">[52]</a> At the center was the political node of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_City_(Beijing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial City (Beijing)">Imperial City</a>, and at the center of this was the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>, the palatial residence of the emperor and his family. By 1553, the Outer City was added to the south, which brought the overall size of Beijing to <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>6.5 by 7 kilometres (4 by 4+1⁄2 miles).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194-57">[53]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg/220px-Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg/330px-Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg/440px-Noel_2005_P%C3%A9kin_tombeaux_Ming_voie_des_%C3%A2mes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ming_Tombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Tombs">Ming Tombs</a> located 50 km (31 mi) north of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>; the site was chosen by <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle</a>.</figcaption></figure> Beginning in 1405, the Yongle Emperor entrusted his favored <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuch</a> commander <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a> (1371–1433) as the admiral for a gigantic new fleet of ships designated for international <a href="/wiki/Treasure_voyages" class="mw-redirect" title="Treasure voyages">tributary missions</a>. Among the kingdoms visited by Zheng He, Yongle proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochin" title="Kingdom of Cochin">Kingdom of Cochin</a> to be its protectorate.<a href="#cite_note-Sen_2016_pp._609–636-58">[54]</a> The Chinese had <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign relations of Imperial China">sent diplomatic missions</a> over land since the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BCE – 220 CE) and engaged in <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Economy of the Song dynasty">private overseas trade</a>, but these missions were unprecedented in grandeur and scale. To service seven different tributary voyages, the Nanjing shipyards constructed two thousand vessels from 1403 to 1419, including <a href="/wiki/Chinese_treasure_ship" title="Chinese treasure ship">treasure ships</a> measuring 112 to 134 m (367 to 440 ft) in length and 45 to 54 m (148 to 177 ft) in width.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006137-59">[55]</a> Yongle used <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock printing</a> to spread Chinese culture. He also <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_military_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming dynasty military conquests">used the military</a> to expand China's borders. This included the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam">brief occupation of Vietnam</a>, from the initial invasion in 1406 until the Ming withdrawal in 1427 as a result of protracted <a href="/wiki/Lam_S%C6%A1n_uprising" title="Lam Sơn uprising">guerrilla warfare</a> led by <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_L%E1%BB%A3i" title="Lê Lợi">Lê Lợi</a>, the founder of the Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Lê dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1998317–327-60">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tumu_Crisis_and_the_Ming_Mongols">Tumu Crisis and the Ming Mongols</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tumu_Crisis" title="Tumu Crisis">Tumu Crisis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_Cao_Qin" title="Rebellion of Cao Qin">Rebellion of Cao Qin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg/170px-Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg/255px-Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg/340px-Tribute_Giraffe_with_Attendant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2063" data-file-height="4096" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Bengali_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali people">Bengali</a> envoy presenting a <a href="/wiki/Giraffe" title="Giraffe">giraffe</a> as a tributary gift in the name of King <a href="/wiki/Saifuddin_Hamza_Shah" title="Saifuddin Hamza Shah">Saif Al-Din Hamzah Shah</a> of Bengal (r. 1410–12) to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China (r. 1402–24)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirat</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Esen_Tayisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Esen Tayisi">Esen Tayisi</a> launched an invasion into Ming China in July 1449. The chief eunuch <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(eunuch)" title="Wang Zhen (eunuch)">Wang Zhen</a> encouraged the <a href="/wiki/Zhengtong_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhengtong Emperor">Zhengtong Emperor</a> (r. 1435–49) to lead a force personally to face the Oirats after a recent Ming defeat; the emperor left the capital and put his half-brother <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Qiyu" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhu Qiyu">Zhu Qiyu</a> in charge of affairs as temporary regent. On 8 September, Esen routed Zhengtong's army, and Zhengtong was captured—an event known as the <a href="/wiki/Tumu_Crisis" title="Tumu Crisis">Tumu Crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273-61">[57]</a> The Oirats held the Zhengtong Emperor for ransom. However, this scheme was foiled once the emperor's younger brother assumed the throne under the era name <a href="/wiki/Jingtai_Emperor" title="Jingtai Emperor">Jingtai</a> (r. 1449–57); the Oirats were also repelled once the Jingtai Emperor's confidant and defense minister <a href="/wiki/Yu_Qian" title="Yu Qian">Yu Qian</a> (1398–1457) gained control of the Ming armed forces. Holding the Zhengtong Emperor in captivity was a useless bargaining chip for the Oirats as long as another sat on his throne, so they released him back into Ming China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006273-61">[57]</a> The former emperor was placed under house arrest in the palace until the coup against the Jingtai Emperor in 1457 known as the "Wresting the Gate Incident".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199983-62">[58]</a> The former emperor retook the throne under the new era name <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yingzong_of_Ming" title="Emperor Yingzong of Ming">Tianshun</a> (r. 1457–64). <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yingzong_of_Ming" title="Emperor Yingzong of Ming">Tianshun</a> proved to be a troubled time and Mongol forces within the Ming military structure continued to be problematic. On 7 August 1461, the Chinese general Cao Qin and his Ming troops of Mongol descent <a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_Cao_Qin" title="Rebellion of Cao Qin">staged a coup against the Tianshun Emperor</a> out of fear of being next on his purge-list of those who aided him in the Wresting the Gate Incident.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199984–85-63">[59]</a> Cao's rebel force managed to set fire to the western and eastern gates of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_City_(Beijing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial City (Beijing)">Imperial City</a> (doused by rain during the battle) and killed several leading ministers before his forces were finally cornered and he was forced to commit suicide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson199979,_101–08-64">[60]</a> While the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> had staged <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor%27s_campaigns_against_the_Mongols" title="Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols">five major offensives north</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Wall">Great Wall</a> against the Mongols and the Oirats, the constant threat of Oirat incursions prompted the Ming authorities to fortify the Great Wall from the late 15th century to the 16th century; nevertheless, John Fairbank notes that "it proved to be a futile military gesture but vividly expressed China's siege mentality."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006139-65">[61]</a> Yet the Great Wall was not meant to be a purely defensive fortification; its towers functioned rather as a series of lit beacons and signalling stations to allow rapid warning to friendly units of advancing enemy troops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999208-66">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reign_of_the_Wanli_Emperor">Reign of the Wanli Emperor</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wanli-Emperor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Wanli-Emperor.jpg/170px-Wanli-Emperor.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Wanli-Emperor.jpg/255px-Wanli-Emperor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Wanli-Emperor.jpg/340px-Wanli-Emperor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="695" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor">Wanli Emperor</a> (r. 1572–1620) in state ceremonial court dress</figcaption></figure> There were many problems—fiscal or other—facing Ming China that started during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor">Wanli Emperor</a> (1572–1620). In the beginning of his reign, Wanli surrounded himself with able advisors and made a conscientious effort to handle state affairs. His Grand Secretary <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Juzheng" title="Zhang Juzheng">Zhang Juzheng</a> (1572–82) built up an effective network of alliances with senior officials. However, there was no one after him skilled enough to maintain the stability of these alliances;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831-67">[63]</a> officials soon banded together in opposing political factions. Over time Wanli grew tired of court affairs and frequent political quarreling amongst his ministers, preferring to stay behind the walls of the Forbidden City and out of his officials' sight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199916-68">[64]</a> Scholar-officials lost prominence in administration as eunuchs became intermediaries between the aloof emperor and his officials; any senior official who wanted to discuss state matters had to persuade powerful eunuchs with a bribe simply to have his demands or message relayed to the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917-69">[65]</a> There were several military campaigns, which included the <a href="/wiki/Ordos_campaign_(1592)" title="Ordos campaign (1592)">Ordos campaign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bozhou_rebellion" title="Bozhou rebellion">Bozhou rebellion</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Bozhou" title="Chiefdom of Bozhou">Chiefdom of Bozhou</a> in southwestern China and the <a href="/wiki/Imjin_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Imjin War">Imjin War</a>, during the Wanli Emperor's reign.<a href="#cite_note-70">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwope2011122–125-71">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXie2013118–120-72">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2007164,_165,_281-73">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENess1998139–140-74">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_of_eunuchs">Role of eunuchs</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg/220px-Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg/330px-Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg/440px-Porcelain_tea_cups_from_the_reign_of_the_Tianqi_Emperor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tianqi_Emperor" title="Tianqi Emperor">Tianqi-era</a> teacups, from the Nantoyōsō Collection in Japan; the Tianqi Emperor was heavily influenced and largely controlled by the eunuch <a href="/wiki/Wei_Zhongxian" title="Wei Zhongxian">Wei Zhongxian</a> (1568–1627).</figcaption></figure> The Hongwu Emperor forbade eunuchs to learn how to read or engage in politics. Whether or not these restrictions were carried out with absolute success in his reign, eunuchs during the Yongle Emperor's reign (1402–1424) and afterwards managed huge imperial workshops, commanded armies, and participated in matters of appointment and promotion of officials. Yongle put 75 eunuchs in charge of foreign policy; they traveled frequently to vassal states including Annam, Mongolia, the Ryukyu Islands, and Tibet and less frequently to farther-flung places like Japan and Nepal. In the later 15th century, however, eunuch envoys generally only traveled to Korea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai1996119-120-75">[71]</a> The eunuchs developed their own bureaucracy that was organized parallel to but was not subject to the civil service bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999194–195-76">[72]</a> Although there were several dictatorial eunuchs throughout the Ming, such as <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(eunuch)" title="Wang Zhen (eunuch)">Wang Zhen</a>, Wang Zhi, and <a href="/wiki/Liu_Jin" title="Liu Jin">Liu Jin</a>, excessive tyrannical eunuch power did not become evident until the 1590s when the <a href="/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor">Wanli Emperor</a> increased their rights over the civil bureaucracy and granted them power to collect provincial taxes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917-69">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811-77">[73]</a> The eunuch <a href="/wiki/Wei_Zhongxian" title="Wei Zhongxian">Wei Zhongxian</a> (1568–1627) dominated the court of the <a href="/wiki/Tianqi_Emperor" title="Tianqi Emperor">Tianqi Emperor</a> (r. 1620–1627) and had his political rivals tortured to death, mostly the vocal critics from the faction of the <a href="/wiki/Donglin_movement" title="Donglin movement">Donglin Society</a>. He ordered temples built in his honor throughout the Ming Empire, and built personal palaces created with funds allocated for building the previous emperor's tombs. His friends and family gained important positions without qualifications. Wei also published a historical work lambasting and belittling his political opponents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199917–18-78">[74]</a> The instability at court came right as natural calamity, pestilence, rebellion, and foreign invasion came to a peak. The <a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen Emperor</a> (r. 1627–44) had Wei dismissed from court, which led to Wei's suicide shortly after. The eunuchs built their own social structure, providing and gaining support to their birth clans. Instead of fathers promoting sons, it was a matter of uncles promoting nephews. The Heishanhui Society in Peking sponsored the temple that conducted rituals for worshiping the memory of Gang Tie, a powerful eunuch of the Yuan dynasty. The Temple became an influential base for highly placed eunuchs, and continued in a somewhat diminished role during the Qing dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen201627–47-79">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson19951–16-80">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai1996[httpswwwamazoncomEunuchs-Dynasty-Chinese-Local-Studiesdp0791426882_excerpt]-81">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_breakdown_and_natural_disasters">Economic breakdown and natural disasters</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/The_General_Crisis" title="The General Crisis">The General Crisis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg/220px-Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg/330px-Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg/440px-Ch%27iu_Ying_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1567" /></a><figcaption>Spring morning in a Han palace, by <a href="/wiki/Qiu_Ying" title="Qiu Ying">Qiu Ying</a> (1494–1552); excessive luxury and decadence marked the late Ming period, spurred by the enormous state <a href="/wiki/Bullion" title="Bullion">bullion</a> of incoming silver and by private transactions involving silver.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet,_Ming_Dynasty,_16th_century.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet%2C_Ming_Dynasty%2C_16th_century.png/220px-Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet%2C_Ming_Dynasty%2C_16th_century.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet%2C_Ming_Dynasty%2C_16th_century.png/330px-Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet%2C_Ming_Dynasty%2C_16th_century.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet%2C_Ming_Dynasty%2C_16th_century.png/440px-Imperial_%27dragon%27_throne_carpet%2C_Ming_Dynasty%2C_16th_century.png 2x" data-file-width="1214" data-file-height="1086" /></a><figcaption>An imperial throne carpet with double dragon and seed pearl motif, Ming dynasty, 16th century</figcaption></figure> During the last years of the Wanli era and those of his two successors, an economic crisis developed that was centered on a sudden widespread lack of the empire's chief medium of exchange: silver. <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">The Portuguese</a> first <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Perestrello" title="Rafael Perestrello">established trade with China</a> in 1516.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998124-82">[78]</a> Following the Ming Emperor's decision to ban direct trade with Japan, Portuguese traders acted as an intermediary between China and Japan by buying Chinese silks from China and selling it to Japan for silver.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199919–20-83">[79]</a> After some <a href="/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Pires_de_Andrade" title="Fernão Pires de Andrade">initial hostilities</a> gained consent from the Ming court in 1557 to settle <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> as their permanent trade base in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998343–349-84">[80]</a> Their role in providing silver was gradually surpassed by <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">the Spanish</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920-85">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998205-86">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELane2019-87">[83]</a> while even <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">the Dutch</a> challenged them for control of this trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206,_208-88">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills1998349–353-89">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV of Spain</a> (r. 1621–1665) began cracking down on illegal smuggling of silver from <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> towards China, in favor of <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">shipping silver mined in the Spanish Latin American colonies</a> through Spanish ports. People began hoarding precious silver as there was progressively less of it, forcing the ratio of the value of copper to silver into a steep decline. In the 1630s a string of one thousand <a href="/wiki/Cash_(Chinese_coin)" title="Cash (Chinese coin)">copper coins</a> equaled an ounce of silver; by 1640 that sum could fetch half an ounce; and, by 1643 only one-third of an ounce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920-85">[81]</a> For peasants this meant economic disaster, since they paid taxes in silver while conducting local trade and crop sales in copper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920–21-90">[86]</a> Historians have debated the validity of the theory that silver shortages caused the downfall of the Ming dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell2005467–489-91">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESo20124,_17–18,_32–34-92">[88]</a> Famines became common in northern China in the early 17th century because of unusually dry and cold weather that shortened the growing season—effects of a larger ecological event now known as the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921-93">[89]</a> Famine, alongside tax increases, widespread military desertions, a declining relief system, and natural disasters such as flooding and inability of the government to properly manage irrigation and flood-control projects caused widespread loss of life and normal civility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921-93">[89]</a> The central government, starved of resources, could do very little to mitigate the effects of these calamities. Making matters worse, a widespread epidemic, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty">Great Plague of 1633–1644</a>, spread across China from Zhejiang to Henan, killing an unknown but large number of people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199922–24-94">[90]</a> The deadliest earthquake of all time, the <a href="/wiki/1556_Shaanxi_earthquake" title="1556 Shaanxi earthquake">Shaanxi earthquake of 1556</a>, occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Jiajing_Emperor" title="Jiajing Emperor">Jiajing Emperor</a>'s reign, killing approximately 830,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News_(2004)-95">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_the_Ming">Fall of the Ming</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_of_the_Manchus">Rise of the Manchus</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria under Ming rule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shanhaiguan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Shanhaiguan.jpg/220px-Shanhaiguan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Shanhaiguan.jpg/330px-Shanhaiguan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Shanhaiguan.jpg/440px-Shanhaiguan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhaiguan</a> along the Great Wall, the gate where the Manchus were repeatedly repelled before being finally let through by Wu Sangui in 1644.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beijingbelltower2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Beijingbelltower2.jpg/220px-Beijingbelltower2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Beijingbelltower2.jpg/330px-Beijingbelltower2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Beijingbelltower2.jpg/440px-Beijingbelltower2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Drum_Tower_and_Bell_Tower_of_Beijing" title="Drum Tower and Bell Tower of Beijing">Drum Tower and Bell Tower of Beijing</a> was built in the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a> and rebuilt in the Ming.</figcaption></figure> Originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial Ming power,<a href="#cite_note-chv9-96">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Jianzhou_Jurchens" title="Jianzhou Jurchens">Jianzhou Jurchens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">unified other Jurchen clans</a> to create a new Manchu ethnic identity. He offered to lead his armies to support Ming and <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon</a> armies against the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)">Japanese invasions of Korea</a> in the 1590s. Ming officials declined the offer, but granted him the title of dragon-tiger general for his gesture. Recognizing the weakness of Ming authority in Manchuria at the time, he consolidated power by co-opting or conquering surrounding territories. In 1616 he declared himself <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a> and established the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin dynasty</a> in reference to the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty</a>. In 1618 he openly renounced the Ming overlordship and effectively declared war against the Ming with the "<a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199927-28-97">[93]</a> In 1636, Nurhaci's son <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a> renamed his dynasty the "<a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Great Qing</a>" at <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Mukden</a> (modern Shenyang), which had been made their capital in 1625.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199924,_28-98">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200792-99">[95]</a> Hong Taiji also adopted the Chinese imperial title <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">huangdi</a>, declared the <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Chongde</a> ("Revering Virtue") era, and changed the ethnic name of his people from "Jurchen" to "<a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200792-99">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199931-100">[96]</a> In 1636, Banner Armies defeated Joseon during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Manchu_invasion_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Manchu invasion of Korea">Second Manchu invasion of Korea</a> and forced Joseon to become a Qing tributary. Shortly after, the Koreans renounced their long-held loyalty to the Ming dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199931-100">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rebellion,_invasion,_collapse">Rebellion, invasion, collapse</h4></div> A peasant soldier named <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">Li Zicheng</a> mutinied with his fellow soldiers in western Shaanxi in the early 1630s after the Ming government failed to ship much-needed supplies there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921-93">[89]</a> In 1634 he was captured by a Ming general and released only on the terms that he return to service.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199921–22-101">[97]</a> The agreement soon broke down when a local magistrate had thirty-six of his fellow rebels executed; Li's troops retaliated by killing the officials and continued to lead a rebellion based in Rongyang, central <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> province by 1635.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199922-102">[98]</a> By the 1640s, an ex-soldier and rival to Li—<a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xianzhong" title="Zhang Xianzhong">Zhang Xianzhong</a> (1606–1647)—had created a firm rebel base in <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Xi_dynasty" title="Xi dynasty">Xi dynasty</a>, while Li's center of power was in <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> with extended influence over Shaanxi and Henan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199922-102">[98]</a> In 1640, masses of Chinese peasants who were starving, unable to pay their taxes, and no longer in fear of the frequently defeated Chinese army, began to form into huge bands of rebels. The Chinese military, caught between fruitless efforts to defeat the Manchu raiders from the north and huge peasant revolts in the provinces, essentially fell apart. Unpaid and unfed, the army was defeated by Li Zicheng—now self-styled as the Prince of <a href="/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty">Shun</a>—and deserted the capital without much of a fight. On 25 April 1644, Beijing fell to a rebel army led by Li Zicheng when the city gates were opened by rebel allies from within. During the turmoil, <a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen</a>, the last Ming emperor, accompanied only by a eunuch servant, hanged himself <a href="/wiki/Guilty_Chinese_Scholartree" class="mw-redirect" title="Guilty Chinese Scholartree">on a tree in the imperial garden</a> right outside the Forbidden City.<a href="#cite_note-spence_25-103">[99]</a> Seizing opportunity, the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a> crossed the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Wall">Great Wall</a> after the Ming border general <a href="/wiki/Wu_Sangui" title="Wu Sangui">Wu Sangui</a> (1612–1678) opened the gates at <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a>. This occurred shortly after he learned about the fate of the capital and an army of Li Zicheng marching towards him; weighing his options of alliance, he decided to side with the Manchus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199932–33-104">[100]</a> The Eight Banners under the Manchu Prince <a href="/wiki/Dorgon" title="Dorgon">Dorgon</a> (1612–1650) and Wu Sangui approached Beijing after the army sent by Li was destroyed at <a href="/wiki/Shanhaiguan_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanhaiguan District">Shanhaiguan</a>; the Prince of Shun's army fled the capital on the fourth of June. On 6 June, the Manchus and Wu entered the capital and proclaimed the young <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> ruler of China. After being forced out of <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a> by the Qing, chased along the <a href="/wiki/Han_River_(Hanshui)" class="mw-redirect" title="Han River (Hanshui)">Han River</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wuchang,_Hubei" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuchang, Hubei">Wuchang</a>, and finally along the northern border of <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> province, Li Zicheng died there in the summer of 1645, thus ending the <a href="/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty">Shun dynasty</a>. One report says his death was a suicide; another states that he was beaten to death by peasants after he was caught stealing their food.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199933-105">[101]</a> Despite the loss of Beijing and the death of the emperor, the Ming were not yet totally destroyed. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. However, there were several pretenders for the Ming throne, and their forces were divided. These scattered Ming remnants in southern China after 1644 were collectively designated by 19th-century historians as the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennerline1985824–25-106">[102]</a> Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing until 1662, when the last Southern Ming emperor, <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Youlang" title="Zhu Youlang">Zhu Youlang</a>, the Yongli Emperor, was captured and executed.<a href="#cite_note-109">[e]</a> Despite the Ming defeat, smaller loyalist movements continued until the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912-1949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912-1949)">Republic of China</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Government of the Ming dynasty">Government of the Ming dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Ming dynasty">List of emperors of the Ming dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Province,_prefecture,_sub-prefecture_and_county">Province, prefecture, sub-prefecture and county</h3></div> Described as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history" by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_O._Reischauer" title="Edwin O. Reischauer">Edwin O. Reischauer</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_K._Fairbank" class="mw-redirect" title="John K. Fairbank">John K. Fairbank</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_M._Craig" title="Albert M. Craig">Albert M. Craig</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFan201697-110">[105]</a> the Ming emperors took over the provincial administration system of the Yuan dynasty, and the thirteen Ming provinces are the precursors of the modern provinces. Throughout the Song dynasty, the largest political division was the <a href="/wiki/Circuit_(country_subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit (country subdivision)">circuit</a> (lu 路).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuan1994193–194-111">[106]</a> However, after the <a href="/wiki/Jingkang_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Jingkang Incident">Jurchen invasion</a> in 1127, the Song court established four semi-autonomous regional command systems based on territorial and military units, with a detached service secretariat that would become the provincial administrations of the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwell1982397–398-112">[107]</a> Copied on the Yuan model, the Ming provincial bureaucracy contained three commissions: one civil, one military, and one for surveillance. Below the level of the <a href="/wiki/Province_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Province (China)">province</a> (sheng 省) were <a href="/wiki/Prefecture_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefecture (China)">prefectures</a> (fu 府) operating under a prefect (zhifu 知府), followed by <a href="/wiki/Zhou_(country_subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou (country subdivision)">subprefectures</a> (zhou 州) under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the <a href="/wiki/Counties_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Counties of the People's Republic of China">county</a> (xian 縣), overseen by a magistrate. Besides the provinces, there were also two large areas that belonged to no province, but were metropolitan areas (jing 京) attached to Nanjing and Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19585-113">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Institutions_and_bureaus">Institutions and bureaus</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Institutional_trends">Institutional trends</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gugong.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Gugong.jpg/220px-Gugong.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Gugong.jpg/330px-Gugong.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Gugong.jpg/440px-Gugong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>, the official imperial household of the Ming and Qing dynasties from 1420 until 1924, when the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> evicted <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a> from the Inner Court</figcaption></figure> Departing from the main central administrative system generally known as the <a href="/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries">Three Departments and Six Ministries</a> system, <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Government of the Han dynasty">which was instituted by various dynasties</a> since late <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> (202 BCE – 220 CE), the Ming administration had only one department, the Secretariat, that controlled the six ministries. Following the execution of the <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor (China)">Chancellor</a> Hu Weiyong in 1380, the Hongwu Emperor abolished the Secretariat, the <a href="/wiki/Censorate" title="Censorate">Censorate</a>, and the Chief Military Commission and personally took charge of the Six Ministries and the regional Five Military Commissions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195828-114">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007p._15,_footnote_42-115">[110]</a> Thus a whole level of administration was cut out and only partially rebuilt by subsequent rulers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195828-114">[109]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Secretariat" title="Grand Secretariat">Grand Secretariat</a>, at the beginning a secretarial institution that assisted the emperor with administrative paperwork, was instituted, but without employing grand counselors, or <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor (China)">chancellors</a>. The Hongwu Emperor sent his heir apparent to Shaanxi in 1391 to "tour and soothe" (xunfu) the region; in 1421 the Yongle Emperor commissioned 26 officials to travel the empire and uphold similar investigatory and patrimonial duties. By 1430 these xunfu assignments became institutionalized as "<a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand coordinator">grand coordinators</a>". Hence, the Censorate was reinstalled and first staffed with investigating censors, later with censors-in-chief. By 1453, the grand coordinators were granted the title vice censor-in-chief or assistant censor-in-chief and were allowed direct access to the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200716-116">[111]</a> As in prior dynasties, the provincial administrations were monitored by a travelling inspector from the Censorate. Censors had the power to impeach officials on an irregular basis, unlike the senior officials who were to do so only in triennial evaluations of junior officials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang200716-116">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195816-117">[112]</a> Although decentralization of state power within the provinces occurred in the early Ming, the trend of central government officials delegated to the provinces as virtual provincial governors began in the 1420s. By the late Ming dynasty, there were central government officials delegated to two or more provinces as supreme commanders and viceroys, a system which reined in the power and influence of the military by the civil establishment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195823-118">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grand_Secretariat_and_Six_Ministries">Grand Secretariat and Six Ministries</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg/200px-Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg/300px-Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg/400px-Portrait_of_Jiang_Shunfu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Shunfu" title="Jiang Shunfu">Jiang Shunfu</a>, an official under the <a href="/wiki/Hongzhi_Emperor" title="Hongzhi Emperor">Hongzhi Emperor</a>, now in the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Museum" title="Nanjing Museum">Nanjing Museum</a>. The decoration of two <a href="/wiki/Crane_(bird)" title="Crane (bird)">cranes</a> on his chest is a "<a href="/wiki/Mandarin_square" title="Mandarin square">rank badge</a>" that indicates he was a civil official of the first rank.</figcaption></figure> Governmental institutions in China conformed to a similar pattern for some two thousand years, but each dynasty installed special offices and bureaus, reflecting its own particular interests. The Ming administration utilized <a href="/wiki/Grand_Secretaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Secretaries">Grand Secretaries</a> to assist the emperor, handling paperwork under the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> and later appointed as top officials of agencies and Grand Preceptor, a top-ranking, non-functional civil service post, under the <a href="/wiki/Hongxi_Emperor" title="Hongxi Emperor">Hongxi Emperor</a> (r. 1424–25).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195829–30-119">[114]</a> The Grand Secretariat drew its members from the <a href="/wiki/Hanlin_Academy" title="Hanlin Academy">Hanlin Academy</a> and were considered part of the imperial authority, not the ministerial one (hence being at odds with both the emperor and ministers at times).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195830-120">[115]</a> The Secretariat operated as a coordinating agency, whereas the Six Ministries—<a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Personnel" title="Ministry of Personnel">Personnel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Revenue_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)">Revenue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Rites" title="Ministry of Rites">Rites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of War (imperial China)">War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Justice (imperial China)">Justice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Works_(imperial_China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Public Works (imperial China)">Public Works</a>—were direct administrative organs of the state:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195831–32-121">[116]</a> <ol><li>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Personnel" title="Ministry of Personnel">Ministry of Personnel</a> was in charge of appointments, merit ratings, promotions, and demotions of officials, as well as granting of honorific titles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195832-122">[117]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Revenue_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)">Ministry of Revenue</a> was in charge of gathering census data, collecting taxes, and handling state revenues, while there were two offices of currency that were subordinate to it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833-123">[118]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Rites" title="Ministry of Rites">Ministry of Rites</a> was in charge of state ceremonies, rituals, and sacrifices; it also oversaw registers for Buddhist and Daoist priesthoods and even the reception of envoys from tributary states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195833–35-124">[119]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of War (imperial China)">Ministry of War</a> was in charge of the appointments, promotions, and demotions of military officers, the maintenance of military installations, equipment, and weapons, as well as the courier system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195835-125">[120]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Justice (imperial China)">Ministry of Justice</a> was in charge of judicial and penal processes, but had no supervisory role over the Censorate or the Grand Court of Revision.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195836-126">[121]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Works_(imperial_China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Public Works (imperial China)">Ministry of Public Works</a> had charge of government construction projects, hiring of artisans and laborers for temporary service, manufacturing government equipment, the maintenance of roads and canals, standardization of weights and measures, and the gathering of resources from the countryside.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195836-126">[121]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bureaus_and_offices_for_the_imperial_household">Bureaus and offices for the imperial household</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg/260px-Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg/390px-Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg/520px-Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1459" data-file-height="519" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chinese_coinage_in_the_Ming_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese coinage in the Ming dynasty">Ming coinage</a>, 14–17th century</figcaption></figure> The imperial household was staffed almost entirely by eunuchs and ladies with their own bureaus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824-127">[122]</a> Female servants were organized into the Bureau of Palace Attendance, Bureau of Ceremonies, Bureau of Apparel, Bureau of Foodstuffs, Bureau of the Bedchamber, Bureau of Handicrafts, and Office of Staff Surveillance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824-127">[122]</a> Starting in the 1420s, eunuchs began taking over these ladies' positions until only the Bureau of Apparel with its four subsidiary offices remained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824-127">[122]</a> Hongwu had his eunuchs organized into the Directorate of Palace Attendants, but as eunuch power at court increased, so did their administrative offices, with eventual twelve directorates, four offices, and eight bureaus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824-127">[122]</a> The dynasty had a vast imperial household, staffed with thousands of eunuchs, who were headed by the Directorate of Palace Attendants. The eunuchs were divided into different directorates in charge of staff surveillance, ceremonial rites, food, utensils, documents, stables, seals, apparel, and so on.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195825-128">[123]</a> The offices were in charge of providing fuel, music, paper, and baths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195825-128">[123]</a> The bureaus were in charge of weapons, silverwork, laundering, headgear, bronze work, textile manufacture, wineries, and gardens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195825-128">[123]</a> At times, the most influential eunuch in the Directorate of Ceremonial acted as a de facto dictator over the state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811,_25-129">[124]</a> Although the imperial household was staffed mostly by eunuchs and palace ladies, there was a civil service office called the Seal Office, which cooperated with eunuch agencies in maintaining imperial seals, tallies, and stamps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195825–26-130">[125]</a> There were also civil service offices to oversee the affairs of imperial princes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195826-131">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personnel">Personnel</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scholar-officials">Scholar-officials</h4></div> The Hongwu emperor from 1373 to 1384 staffed his bureaus with officials gathered through recommendations only. After that the scholar-officials who populated the many ranks of bureaucracy were recruited through a rigorous <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial examinations">examination system</a> that was initially established by the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> (581–618).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195812-132">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200696-133">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999145–146-134">[129]</a> Theoretically the system of exams allowed anyone to join the ranks of imperial officials (although it was frowned upon for merchants to join); in reality the time and funding needed to support the study in preparation for the exam generally limited participants to those already coming from the landholding class. However, the government did exact provincial quotas while drafting officials. This was an effort to curb monopolization of power by landholding gentry who came from the most prosperous regions, where education was the most advanced. The expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Technology_of_the_Song_dynasty#Movable_type_printing" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology of the Song dynasty">printing industry since Song times</a> enhanced the spread of knowledge and number of potential exam candidates throughout the provinces. For young schoolchildren there were printed multiplication tables and primers for elementary vocabulary; for adult examination candidates there were mass-produced, inexpensive volumes of Confucian classics and successful examination answers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198–202-135">[130]</a> As in earlier periods, the focus of the examination was classical Confucian texts, while the bulk of test material centered on the <a href="/wiki/Four_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Books">Four Books</a> outlined by <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> in the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999198-136">[131]</a> Ming era examinations were perhaps more difficult to pass since the 1487 requirement of completing the "<a href="/wiki/Eight-legged_essay" title="Eight-legged essay">eight-legged essay</a>", a departure from basing essays off progressing literary trends. The exams increased in difficulty as the student progressed from the local level, and appropriate titles were accordingly awarded successful applicants. Officials were classified in nine hierarchic grades, each grade divided into two degrees, with ranging salaries (nominally paid in piculs of rice) according to their rank. While provincial graduates who were appointed to office were immediately assigned to low-ranking posts like the county graduates, those who passed the palace examination were awarded a jinshi ('presented scholar') degree and assured a high-level position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxv-137">[132]</a> In 276 years of Ming rule and ninety palace examinations, the number of doctoral degrees granted by passing the palace examinations was 24,874.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195811–14-138">[133]</a> Ebrey states that "there were only two to four thousand of these jinshi at any given time, on the order of one out of 10,000 adult males." This was in comparison to the 100,000 shengyuan ('government students'), the lowest tier of graduates, by the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999199-139">[134]</a> The maximum tenure in office was nine years, but every three years officials were graded on their performance by senior officials. If they were graded as superior then they were promoted, if graded adequate then they retained their ranks, and if graded inadequate they were demoted one rank. In extreme cases, officials would be dismissed or punished. Only capital officials of grade 4 and above were exempt from the scrutiny of recorded evaluation, although they were expected to confess any of their faults. There were over 4,000 school instructors in county and prefectural schools who were subject to evaluations every nine years. The Chief Instructor on the prefectural level was classified as equal to a second-grade county graduate. The Supervisorate of Imperial Instruction oversaw the education of the heir apparent to the throne; this office was headed by a Grand Supervisor of Instruction, who was ranked as first class of grade three.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195815–17,_26-140">[135]</a> Historians debate whether the examination system expanded or contracted upward social mobility. On the one hand, the exams were graded without regard to a candidate's social background, and were theoretically open to everyone.<a href="#cite_note-141">[f]</a> In actual practice, the successful candidates had years of a very expensive, sophisticated tutoring of the sort that wealthy gentry families specialized in providing their talented sons. In practice, 90 percent of the population was ineligible due to lack of education, but the upper 10 percent had equal chances for moving to the top. To be successful young men had to have extensive, expensive training in classical Chinese, the use of Mandarin in spoken conversation, calligraphy, and had to master the intricate poetic requirements of the eight-legged essay. Not only did the traditional gentry dominated the system, they also learned that conservatism and resistance to new ideas was the path to success. For centuries critics had pointed out these problems, but the examination system only became more abstract and less relevant to the needs of China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman19917–28-142">[136]</a> The consensus of scholars is that the eight-legged essay can be blamed as a major cause of "China's cultural stagnation and economic backwardness." However Benjamin Ellman argues there were some positive features, since the essay form was capable of fostering "abstract thinking, persuasiveness, and prosodic form" and that its elaborate structure discouraged a wandering, unfocused narrative".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman2000380,_394,_392-143">[137]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 165px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_Dynasty_Activities_of_Minister_of_War_Wang_Qiong.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Painting that depicts the career of a civil servant. The career path starts with passing the civil service examinations (left side) and progresses to a high position in the government (right side)."><img alt="Painting that depicts the career of a civil servant. The career path starts with passing the civil service examinations (left side) and progresses to a high position in the government (right side)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ming_Dynasty_Activities_of_Minister_of_War_Wang_Qiong.jpg/200px-Ming_Dynasty_Activities_of_Minister_of_War_Wang_Qiong.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ming_Dynasty_Activities_of_Minister_of_War_Wang_Qiong.jpg/300px-Ming_Dynasty_Activities_of_Minister_of_War_Wang_Qiong.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ming_Dynasty_Activities_of_Minister_of_War_Wang_Qiong.jpg/400px-Ming_Dynasty_Activities_of_Minister_of_War_Wang_Qiong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2501" data-file-height="1322" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Painting that depicts the career of a civil servant. The career path starts with passing the civil service examinations (left side) and progresses to a high position in the government (right side).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 165px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Candidates who had taken the civil service examinations would crowd around the wall where the results were posted; detail from a handscroll in ink and color on silk, by Qiu Ying (1494–1552).[138]"><img alt="Candidates who had taken the civil service examinations would crowd around the wall where the results were posted; detail from a handscroll in ink and color on silk, by Qiu Ying (1494–1552).[138]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg/200px-Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg/300px-Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg/400px-Ming-Beamtenpr%C3%BCfungen1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="1970" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Candidates who had taken the civil service examinations would crowd around the wall where the results were posted; detail from a handscroll in ink and color on silk, by <a href="/wiki/Qiu_Ying" title="Qiu Ying">Qiu Ying</a> (1494–1552).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999200-144">[138]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 165px;"><a href="/wiki/File:PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Processional figurines from the Shanghai tomb of Pan Yongzheng, a Ming dynasty official who lived during the 16th century"><img alt="Processional figurines from the Shanghai tomb of Pan Yongzheng, a Ming dynasty official who lived during the 16th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg/200px-PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg/300px-PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg/400px-PanYongzheng-ProcessionalTombFigurines-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="1680" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Processional figurines from the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> tomb of Pan Yongzheng, a Ming dynasty official who lived during the 16th century</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lesser_functionaries">Lesser functionaries</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg/300px-Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg/450px-Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg/600px-Ming_Emperor_Xuande_playing_Golf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="749" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Xuande_Emperor" title="Xuande Emperor">Xuande Emperor</a> playing <a href="/wiki/Chuiwan" title="Chuiwan">chuiwan</a> with his eunuchs, a game similar to <a href="/wiki/Golf" title="Golf">golf</a>, by an anonymous court painter of the Xuande period (1425–35)</figcaption></figure> Scholar-officials who entered civil service through examinations acted as executive officials to a much larger body of non-ranked personnel called lesser functionaries. They outnumbered officials by four to one; Charles Hucker estimates that they were perhaps as many as 100,000 throughout the empire. These lesser functionaries performed clerical and technical tasks for government agencies. Yet they should not be confused with lowly lictors, runners, and bearers; lesser functionaries were given periodic merit evaluations like officials and after nine years of service might be accepted into a low civil service rank.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818-145">[139]</a> The one great advantage of the lesser functionaries over officials was that officials were periodically rotated and assigned to different regional posts and had to rely on the good service and cooperation of the local lesser functionaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195818–19-146">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eunuchs,_princes,_and_generals">Eunuchs, princes, and generals</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach,_Xuande_period.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach%2C_Xuande_period.jpg/220px-Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach%2C_Xuande_period.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach%2C_Xuande_period.jpg/330px-Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach%2C_Xuande_period.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach%2C_Xuande_period.jpg/440px-Detail_of_The_Emperor%27s_Approach%2C_Xuande_period.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4451" data-file-height="4431" /></a><figcaption>Detail of The Emperor's Approach showing the <a href="/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor">Wanli Emperor</a>'s royal carriage being pulled by elephants and escorted by cavalry (<a href="/wiki/File:Departure_Herald-Ming_Dynasty.jpg" title="File:Departure Herald-Ming Dynasty.jpg">full panoramic painting here</a>)</figcaption></figure> Eunuchs gained unprecedented power over state affairs during the Ming dynasty. One of the most effective means of control was the secret service stationed in what was called the Eastern Depot at the beginning of the dynasty, later the Western Depot. This secret service was overseen by the Directorate of Ceremonial, hence this state organ's often totalitarian affiliation. Eunuchs had ranks that were equivalent to civil service ranks, only theirs had four grades instead of nine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195824–25-147">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003602–606-148">[142]</a> Descendants of the first Ming emperor were made princes and given (typically nominal) military commands, annual stipends, and large estates. The title used was "king" (王, wáng) but—unlike the princes in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265%E2%80%93420)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (265–420)">Jin</a> dynasties—these estates were not <a href="/wiki/Feudatories" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudatories">feudatories</a>, the princes did not serve any administrative function, and they partook in military affairs only during the reigns of the first two emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker19588-149">[143]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jingnan_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Jingnan Campaign">rebellion of the Prince of Yan</a> was justified in part as upholding the rights of the princes, but once the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> was enthroned, he continued his nephew's policy of disarming his brothers and moved their fiefs away from the militarized northern border. Although princes served no organ of state administration, the princes, consorts of the imperial princesses, and ennobled relatives did staff the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a>, which supervised the imperial genealogy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195826-131">[126]</a> Like scholar-officials, military generals were ranked in a hierarchic grading system and were given merit evaluations every five years (as opposed to three years for officials).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819-150">[144]</a> However, military officers had less prestige than officials. This was due to their hereditary service (instead of solely merit-based) and Confucian values that dictated those who chose the profession of violence (wu) over the cultured pursuits of knowledge (wen).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006109–112-151">[145]</a> Although seen as less prestigious, military officers were not excluded from taking civil service examinations, and after 1478 the military even held their own examinations to test military skills.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHucker195819–20-152">[146]</a> In addition to taking over the established bureaucratic structure from the Yuan period, the Ming emperors established the new post of the travelling military inspector. In the early half of the dynasty, men of noble lineage dominated the higher ranks of military office; this trend was reversed during the latter half of the dynasty as men from more humble origins eventually displaced them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1999116–117-153">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Culture of the Ming dynasty">Culture of the Ming dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_and_arts">Literature and arts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_painting" title="Ming dynasty painting">Ming dynasty painting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ming_poetry" title="Ming poetry">Ming poetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Musicians_in_Ming_China" title="Musicians in Ming China">Musicians in Ming China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg/170px-Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg/255px-Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg/340px-Lofty_Mt.Lu_by_Shen_Zhou.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="3549" /></a><figcaption>Lofty <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lu" title="Mount Lu">Mount Lu</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhou" title="Shen Zhou">Shen Zhou</a>, 1467</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg/170px-Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg/255px-Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg/340px-Pipa_MET_DP218070.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2510" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Decorated back of a <a href="/wiki/Pipa" title="Pipa">pipa</a> from the Ming dynasty</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_painting" title="Chinese painting">painting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">music</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Chinese opera</a> of various types flourished during the Ming dynasty, especially in the economically prosperous lower Yangzi valley. Although short fiction had been popular as far back as the Tang dynasty (618–907),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006104–105-154">[148]</a> and the works of contemporaneous authors such as Xu Guangqi, Xu Xiake, and Song Yingxing were often technical and encyclopedic, the most striking literary development was the vernacular novel. While the gentry elite were educated enough to fully comprehend the language of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>, those with rudimentary education—such as women in educated families, merchants, and shop clerks—became a large potential audience for literature and performing arts that employed <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular Chinese">Vernacular Chinese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999202–203-155">[149]</a> Literati scholars edited or developed <a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Classical_Novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Great Classical Novels">major Chinese novels</a> into mature form in this period, such as <a href="/wiki/Water_Margin" title="Water Margin">Water Margin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_West" title="Journey to the West">Journey to the West</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jin_Ping_Mei" title="Jin Ping Mei">Jin Ping Mei</a>, published in 1610, although incorporating earlier material, marks the trend toward independent composition and concern with psychology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlaks198755–182-156">[150]</a> In the later years of the dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Feng_Menglong" title="Feng Menglong">Feng Menglong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ling_Mengchu" title="Ling Mengchu">Ling Mengchu</a> innovated with vernacular short fiction. Theater scripts were equally imaginative. The most famous, <a href="/wiki/The_Peony_Pavilion" title="The Peony Pavilion">The Peony Pavilion</a>, was written by <a href="/wiki/Tang_Xianzu" title="Tang Xianzu">Tang Xianzu</a> (1550–1616), with its first performance at the <a href="/wiki/Pavilion_of_Prince_Teng" title="Pavilion of Prince Teng">Pavilion of Prince Teng</a> in 1598. Informal essay and travel writing was another highlight. <a href="/wiki/Xu_Xiake" title="Xu Xiake">Xu Xiake</a> (1587–1641), a <a href="/wiki/Travel_literature" title="Travel literature">travel literature</a> author, published his Travel Diaries in 404,000 written <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">characters</a>, with information on everything from local <a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">geography</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959524-157">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargett198569-158">[152]</a> The first reference to the publishing of private newspapers in Beijing was in 1582; by 1638 the <a href="/wiki/Peking_Gazette" title="Peking Gazette">Peking Gazette</a> switched from using <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock print</a> to <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> printing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998xxi-159">[153]</a> The new literary field of the moral guide to business ethics was developed during the late Ming period, for the readership of the merchant class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998215–217-160">[154]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg/170px-Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg/255px-Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg/340px-Ji_Sheng-Peddler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="2118" /></a><figcaption>Painting of a peddler selling birds, by <a href="/wiki/Ji_Sheng" title="Ji Sheng">Ji Sheng</a> (計盛), 15th century</figcaption></figure> In contrast to Xu Xiake, who focused on technical aspects in his travel literature, the Chinese poet and official <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Hongdao" title="Yuan Hongdao">Yuan Hongdao</a> (1568–1610) used travel literature to express his desires for individualism as well as autonomy from and frustration with Confucian court politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318–319-161">[155]</a> Yuan desired to free himself from the ethical compromises that were inseparable from the career of a scholar-official. This anti-official sentiment in Yuan's travel literature and poetry was actually following in the tradition of the Song dynasty poet and official <a href="/wiki/Su_Shi" title="Su Shi">Su Shi</a> (1037–1101).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007319-162">[156]</a> Yuan Hongdao and his two brothers, Yuan Zongdao (1560–1600) and <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Zhongdao" title="Yuan Zhongdao">Yuan Zhongdao</a> (1570–1623), were the founders of the Gong'an School of letters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318-163">[157]</a> This highly individualistic school of poetry and prose was criticized by the Confucian establishment for its association with intense sensual lyricism, which was also apparent in Ming vernacular novels such as the Jin Ping Mei.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang2007318-163">[157]</a> Yet even gentry and scholar-officials were affected by the new popular romantic literature, seeking gejis as soulmates to re-enact the heroic love stories that arranged marriages often could not provide or accommodate. During the Ming Dynasty, some gentry dated well-educated gejis outside of marriage and the concubine system. <a href="/wiki/G%C4%93j%C3%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="Gējì">Gējì</a> culture of the Ming Dynasty reshaped the purely sexual relationship with prostitutes into a cultural relationship, and men could even become friends with like-minded gejis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229–231-164">[158]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chen_Hongshou,_leaf_album_painting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Chen_Hongshou%2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg/170px-Chen_Hongshou%2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Chen_Hongshou%2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg/255px-Chen_Hongshou%2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Chen_Hongshou%2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg/340px-Chen_Hongshou%2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1820" data-file-height="1948" /></a><figcaption>Painting of flowers, a butterfly, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_scholar%27s_rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese scholar's rocks">rock sculpture</a> by <a href="/wiki/Chen_Hongshou" title="Chen Hongshou">Chen Hongshou</a> (1598–1652); small leaf album paintings like this one first <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Culture of the Song dynasty">became popular in the Song dynasty</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg/170px-Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg/255px-Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg/340px-Shen_Zhou_at_age_80.Palace_Museum_Beijing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="1010" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhou" title="Shen Zhou">Shen Zhou</a> (1427–1509) founded the <a href="/wiki/Wu_School" title="Wu School">Wu School</a> of painting, contributing greatly to Chinese artistic tradition.</figcaption></figure> Famous painters included <a href="/wiki/Ni_Zan" title="Ni Zan">Ni Zan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dong_Qichang" title="Dong Qichang">Dong Qichang</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters of the Ming dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhou" title="Shen Zhou">Shen Zhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tang_Yin" title="Tang Yin">Tang Yin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wen_Zhengming" title="Wen Zhengming">Wen Zhengming</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qiu_Ying" title="Qiu Ying">Qiu Ying</a>. They drew upon the techniques, styles, and complexity in painting achieved by their Song and Yuan predecessors, but added techniques and styles. Well-known Ming artists could make a living simply by painting due to the high prices they demanded for their artworks and the great demand by the highly cultured community to collect precious works of art. The artist Qiu Ying was once paid 2.8 kg (100 oz) of silver to paint a long handscroll for the eightieth birthday celebration of the mother of a wealthy patron. Renowned artists often gathered an entourage of followers, some who were amateurs who painted while pursuing an official career and others who were full-time painters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999201-165">[159]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_dynasty_Xuande_mark_and_period_(1426%E2%80%9335)_imperial_blue_and_white_vase,_from_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art._%E6%98%8E%E5%AE%A3%E5%BE%B7_%E6%99%AF%E5%BE%B7%E9%8E%AE%E7%AA%AF%E9%9D%92%E8%8A%B1%E8%B2%AB%E8%80%B3%E7%93%B6,_%E7%BA%BD%E7%BA%A6%E5%A4%A7%E9%83%BD%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ming_dynasty_Xuande_mark_and_period_%281426%E2%80%9335%29_imperial_blue_and_white_vase%2C_from_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art._%E6%98%8E%E5%AE%A3%E5%BE%B7_%E6%99%AF%E5%BE%B7%E9%8E%AE%E7%AA%AF%E9%9D%92%E8%8A%B1%E8%B2%AB%E8%80%B3%E7%93%B6%2C_%E7%BA%BD%E7%BA%A6%E5%A4%A7%E9%83%BD%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_.jpg/170px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ming_dynasty_Xuande_mark_and_period_%281426%E2%80%9335%29_imperial_blue_and_white_vase%2C_from_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art._%E6%98%8E%E5%AE%A3%E5%BE%B7_%E6%99%AF%E5%BE%B7%E9%8E%AE%E7%AA%AF%E9%9D%92%E8%8A%B1%E8%B2%AB%E8%80%B3%E7%93%B6%2C_%E7%BA%BD%E7%BA%A6%E5%A4%A7%E9%83%BD%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_.jpg/255px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ming_dynasty_Xuande_mark_and_period_%281426%E2%80%9335%29_imperial_blue_and_white_vase%2C_from_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art._%E6%98%8E%E5%AE%A3%E5%BE%B7_%E6%99%AF%E5%BE%B7%E9%8E%AE%E7%AA%AF%E9%9D%92%E8%8A%B1%E8%B2%AB%E8%80%B3%E7%93%B6%2C_%E7%BA%BD%E7%BA%A6%E5%A4%A7%E9%83%BD%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A6%86_.jpg/340px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="2146" /></a><figcaption>Ming dynasty <a href="/wiki/Xuande_Emperor" title="Xuande Emperor">Xuande</a> mark and period (1426–35) imperial <a href="/wiki/Blue_and_white_porcelain" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue and white porcelain">blue and white</a> vase. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, New York.</figcaption></figure> The period was also renowned for ceramics and porcelains. The major production center for porcelain was the <a href="/wiki/Jingdezhen_porcelain#Ming" title="Jingdezhen porcelain">imperial kilns at Jingdezhen</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> province, most famous in the period for <a href="/wiki/Blue_and_white_pottery" title="Blue and white pottery">blue and white porcelain</a>, but also producing other styles. The <a href="/wiki/Dehua_porcelain_factories" class="mw-redirect" title="Dehua porcelain factories">Dehua porcelain factories</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> catered to European tastes by creating <a href="/wiki/Chinese_export_porcelain" title="Chinese export porcelain">Chinese export porcelain</a> by the late 16th century. Individual potters also became known, such as <a href="/wiki/He_Chaozong" title="He Chaozong">He Chaozong</a>, who became famous in the early 17th century for his style of <a href="/wiki/Blanc-de-Chine" class="mw-redirect" title="Blanc-de-Chine">white porcelain</a> sculpture. In The Ceramic Trade in Asia, Chuimei Ho estimates that about 16% of late Ming era Chinese ceramic exports were sent to Europe, while the rest were destined for Japan and South East Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998206-166">[160]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carved_lacquer" title="Carved lacquer">Carved designs in lacquerware</a> and designs glazed onto <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a> wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting. These items could be found in the homes of the wealthy, alongside embroidered silks and wares in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_jade" title="Chinese jade">jade</a>, ivory, and <a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9" title="Cloisonné">cloisonné</a>. The houses of the rich were also furnished with rosewood furniture and feathery <a href="/wiki/Latticework" title="Latticework">latticework</a>. The writing materials in a scholar's private study, including elaborately carved brush holders made of stone or wood, were designed and arranged ritually to give an aesthetic appeal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199910-167">[161]</a> Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered on these items of refined artistic taste, which provided work for art dealers and even underground scammers who themselves made imitations and false attributions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199910-167">[161]</a> The Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> while staying in Nanjing wrote that Chinese scam artists were ingenious at making forgeries and huge profits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998224–225-168">[162]</a> However, there were guides to help the wary new connoisseur; <a href="/wiki/Liu_Tong" title="Liu Tong">Liu Tong</a> (died 1637) wrote a book printed in 1635 that told his readers how to spot fake and authentic pieces of art.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225-169">[163]</a> He revealed that a <a href="/wiki/Xuande" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuande">Xuande era</a> (1426–1435) bronze work could be authenticated by judging its sheen; porcelain wares from the Yongle era (1402–1424) could be judged authentic by their thickness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998225–226-170">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Islam during the Ming dynasty">Islam during the Ming dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit China missions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_Controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Rites Controversy">Chinese Rites Controversy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG/170px-SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG/255px-SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG/340px-SFEC_BritMus_Asia_021.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Chinese glazed <a href="/wiki/Stoneware" title="Stoneware">stoneware</a> statue of a <a href="/wiki/Daoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoist">Daoist</a> deity, from the Ming dynasty, 16th century</figcaption></figure> The dominant religious beliefs during the Ming dynasty were the various forms of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Three_Teachings" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Teachings">Three Teachings</a>—<a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a>-supported <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan lamas</a> fell from favor, and the early Ming emperors particularly favored Taoism, granting its practitioners many positions in the state's ritual offices.<a href="#cite_note-dickwang-171">[165]</a> The Hongwu Emperor curtailed the cosmopolitan culture of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and the prolific Prince of Ning <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Quan" title="Zhu Quan">Zhu Quan</a> even composed one encyclopedia attacking Buddhism as a foreign "mourning cult", deleterious to the state, and another encyclopedia that subsequently joined the <a href="/wiki/Taoist_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist canon">Taoist canon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dickwang-171">[165]</a> The Yongle Emperor and later emperors strongly patronised Tibetan Buddhism by supporting construction, printing of sutras, ceremonies etc., to seek legitimacy among foreign audiences. Yongle tried to portray himself as a Buddhist ideal king, a cakravartin.<a href="#cite_note-172">[166]</a> There is evidence that this portrayal was successful in persuading foreign audiences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2020203–207-173">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a> was also well-established throughout China, with a history said to have begun with <a href="/wiki/Sa%27d_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" title="Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas">Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Tang_dynasty" title="Islam during the Tang dynasty">during the Tang dynasty</a> and strong official support <a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Islam during the Yuan dynasty">during the Yuan</a>. Although the Ming <a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Islam during the Ming dynasty">sharply curtailed this support</a>, there were still several prominent Muslim figures early on, including the Yongle Emperor's powerful eunuch <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>. The Hongwu Emperor's generals Chang Yuqun, <a href="/wiki/Lan_Yu_(general)" title="Lan Yu (general)">Lan Yu</a>, Ding Dexing, and <a href="/wiki/Mu_Ying" title="Mu Ying">Mu Ying</a> have also been identified as Muslim by Hui scholars, though this is doubted by non-Muslim sources. Regardless, the presence of Muslims in the armies that drove the Mongols northwards caused a gradual shift in the Chinese perception of Muslims, transitioning from "foreigners" to "familiar strangers".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipman199838-39-174">[168]</a> The Hongwu Emperor wrote <a href="/wiki/The_Hundred-word_Eulogy" title="The Hundred-word Eulogy">a 100 character praise</a> of Islam and the prophet Muhammad. The Ming Emperors strongly sponsored the construction of mosques and granted generous liberties for the practice of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-:0-175">[169]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:He_Chaozong_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/He_Chaozong_1.JPG/170px-He_Chaozong_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/He_Chaozong_1.JPG/255px-He_Chaozong_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/He_Chaozong_1.JPG/340px-He_Chaozong_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Manjusri" class="mw-redirect" title="Manjusri">Manjusri</a> in <a href="/wiki/Blanc-de-Chine" class="mw-redirect" title="Blanc-de-Chine">Blanc-de-Chine</a>, by <a href="/wiki/He_Chaozong" title="He Chaozong">He Chaozong</a>, 17th century; <a href="/wiki/Song_Yingxing" title="Song Yingxing">Song Yingxing</a> devoted an entire section of his book to the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">ceramics industry</a> in the making of porcelain items like this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965171–172-176">[170]</a></figcaption></figure> The advent of the Ming was initially devastating to Christianity: in his first year, the <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a> declared the eighty-year-old <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscan</a> missions among the Yuan heterodox and illegal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeslie199815-177">[171]</a> The centuries-old <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China" title="Church of the East in China">Church of the East in China</a> also disappeared. During the later Ming a new wave of Christian missionaries arrived—particularly <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuits</a>—who employed new western science and technology in their arguments for conversion. They were educated in Chinese language and culture at <a href="/wiki/St._Paul%27s_College,_Macau" title="St. Paul's College, Macau">St. Paul's College</a> on <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> after its founding in 1579. The most influential was <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a>, whose "<a href="/wiki/Kunyu_Wanguo_Quantu" title="Kunyu Wanguo Quantu">Map of the Myriad Countries of the World</a>" upended <a href="/wiki/Chinese_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese geography">traditional geography</a> throughout East Asia, and whose work with the convert <a href="/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi">Xu Guangqi</a> led to the first Chinese translation of <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Elements</a> in 1607. The discovery of a <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Stele" title="Xi'an Stele">Xi'an Stele</a> at <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a> in 1625 also permitted Christianity to be treated as an old and established faith, rather than as a new and dangerous cult. However, there were strong disagreements about the extent to which converts could continue to perform rituals to the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult#Imperial_China" title="Imperial cult">emperor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucian_temple#Worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian temple">Confucius</a>, or their <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ancestor_veneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese ancestor veneration">ancestors</a>: Ricci had been very accommodating and an attempt by his successors to backtrack from this policy led to the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Incident_of_1616" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing Incident of 1616">Nanjing Incident of 1616</a>, which exiled four Jesuits to <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> and forced the others out of public life for six years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong196330–32-178">[172]</a> A series of spectacular failures by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomers</a>—including missing an eclipse easily computed by Xu Guangqi and <a href="/wiki/Sabatino_de_Ursis" title="Sabatino de Ursis">Sabatino de Ursis</a>—and a return by the Jesuits to presenting themselves as educated scholars in the Confucian mold<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999212-179">[173]</a> restored their fortunes. However, by the end of the Ming the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominicans</a> had begun the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a> in Rome that would eventually lead to a full ban of Christianity under the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. During his mission, Ricci was also contacted in Beijing by one of the approximately 5,000 <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a> and introduced them and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">their long history in China</a> to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite196631–38-180">[174]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/1642_Kaifeng_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="1642 Kaifeng flood">1642 flood</a> caused by Kaifeng's Ming governor devastated the community, which lost five of its twelve families, its synagogue, and most of its Torah.<a href="#cite_note-XX-181">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wang_Yangming's_Confucianism">Wang Yangming's Confucianism</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg/170px-%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg/255px-%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg/340px-%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%88%E4%BB%81.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="836" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a> (1472–1529), considered the most influential Confucian thinker since <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a>.</figcaption></figure> During the Ming dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucian</a> doctrines of the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> <a href="/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholar-bureaucrat">scholar</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> were embraced by the court and the Chinese literati at large, although the direct line of his school was destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Extermination_of_the_ten_degrees_of_kinship" class="mw-redirect" title="Extermination of the ten degrees of kinship">extermination of the ten degrees of kinship</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fang_Xiaoru" title="Fang Xiaoru">Fang Xiaoru</a> in 1402. The Ming scholar most influential upon subsequent generations, however, was <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a> (1472–1529), whose teachings were attacked in his own time for their similarity to <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Chan Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-182">[176]</a> Building upon Zhu Xi's concept of the "extension of knowledge" (理學 or 格物致知), gaining understanding through careful and rational investigation of things and events, Wang argued that universal concepts would appear in the minds of anyone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281-183">[177]</a> Therefore, he claimed that anyone—no matter their pedigree or education—could become as wise as <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a> had been and that their writings were not sources of truth but merely guides that might have flaws when carefully examined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282-184">[178]</a> A peasant with a great deal of experience and intelligence would then be wiser than an official who had memorized the <a href="/wiki/Five_Classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Classics">Classics</a> but not experienced the real world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006281–282-184">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conservative_reaction">Conservative reaction</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg/170px-Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg/255px-Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg/340px-Confucius_on_his_way_to_Luoyang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="423" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>A Ming dynasty print drawing of <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> on his way to the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> capital of <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a></figcaption></figure> Other <a href="/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholar-bureaucrat">scholar-bureaucrats</a> were wary of Wang's heterodoxy, the increasing number of his disciples while he was still in office, and his overall socially rebellious message. To curb his influence, he was often sent out to deal with military affairs and rebellions far away from the capital. Yet his ideas penetrated mainstream Chinese thought and spurred new interest in Taoism and Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-182">[176]</a> Furthermore, people began to question the validity of the social hierarchy and the idea that the scholar should be above the farmer. Wang Yangming's disciple and salt-mine worker Wang Gen gave lectures to commoners about pursuing education to improve their lives, while his follower He Xinyin (何心隱) challenged the elevation and emphasis of the family in Chinese society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006282-182">[176]</a> His contemporary <a href="/wiki/Li_Zhi_(philosopher)" title="Li Zhi (philosopher)">Li Zhi</a> even taught that women were the intellectual equals of men and should be given a better education; both Li and He eventually died in prison, jailed on charges of spreading "dangerous ideas".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006283-185">[179]</a> Yet these "dangerous ideas" of educating women had long been embraced by some mothers<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999158-186">[180]</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Courtesan" title="Courtesan">courtesans</a> who were as literate and skillful in calligraphy, painting, and poetry as their male guests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998230-187">[181]</a> The liberal views of Wang Yangming were opposed by the <a href="/wiki/Censorate" title="Censorate">Censorate</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/Donglin_Academy" title="Donglin Academy">Donglin Academy</a>, re-established in 1604. These conservatives wanted a revival of orthodox Confucian ethics. Conservatives such as Gu Xiancheng (1550–1612) argued against Wang's idea of innate moral knowledge, stating that this was simply a legitimization for unscrupulous behavior such as greedy pursuits and personal gain. These two strands of Confucian thought, hardened by Chinese scholars' notions of obligation towards their mentors, developed into pervasive factionalism among the ministers of state, who used any opportunity to impeach members of the other faction from court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999213-188">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_and_rural_life">Urban and rural life</h3></div> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:1508px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto;direction:rtl"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="‪The Bustling and Hustling of Nanjing—handscroll (zh:南都繁会图) by Qiu Ying, depicting the urban life of Nanjing.‬"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg/1500px-%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="1500" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg/2250px-%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg/3000px-%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="15836" data-file-height="2000" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E6%9C%83%E5%9C%96_01.jpg" title="File:南都繁會圖 01.jpg"> </a></div>The Bustling and Hustling of Nanjing—handscroll (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E9%83%BD%E7%B9%81%E4%BC%9A%E5%9B%BE" class="extiw" title="zh:南都繁会图">zh:南都繁会图</a>) by <a href="/wiki/Qiu_Ying" title="Qiu Ying">Qiu Ying</a>, depicting the urban life of <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>.</div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:816px;max-width:816px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><a href="/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_13.jpg/200px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_13.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_13.jpg/300px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_13.jpg/400px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2925" data-file-height="1980" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><a href="/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_12.jpg/200px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_12.jpg/300px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_12.jpg/400px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2925" data-file-height="1980" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><a href="/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_11.jpg/200px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_11.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_11.jpg/300px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_11.jpg/400px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2925" data-file-height="1980" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><a href="/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(Suzhou_Imitation)_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_10.jpg/200px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_10.jpg/300px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_10.jpg/400px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28Suzhou_Imitation%29_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2925" data-file-height="1980" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Suzhou Imitation" of <a href="/wiki/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival" title="Along the River During the Qingming Festival">Along the River During the Qingming Festival</a> (蘇州片清明上河圖), depicting urban life of the Ming dynasty.</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_Paste_Box_(Yinnihe)_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_(1_of_2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Seal_Paste_Box_%28Yinnihe%29_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_%281_of_2%29.jpg/170px-Seal_Paste_Box_%28Yinnihe%29_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_%281_of_2%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Seal_Paste_Box_%28Yinnihe%29_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_%281_of_2%29.jpg/255px-Seal_Paste_Box_%28Yinnihe%29_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_%281_of_2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Seal_Paste_Box_%28Yinnihe%29_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_%281_of_2%29.jpg/340px-Seal_Paste_Box_%28Yinnihe%29_with_Litchi_Stems_LACMA_M.87.205a-b_%281_of_2%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1940" /></a><figcaption>A Ming dynasty red "seal paste box" in <a href="/wiki/Carved_lacquer" title="Carved lacquer">carved lacquer</a></figcaption></figure> Wang Gen was able to give philosophical lectures to many commoners from different regions because—following the trend already apparent in the Song dynasty—communities in Ming society were becoming less isolated as the distance between market towns was shrinking. Schools, descent groups, religious associations, and other local voluntary organizations were increasing in number and allowing more contact between educated men and local villagers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999206-189">[183]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spence" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Spence">Jonathan Spence</a> writes that the distinction between what was town and country was blurred in Ming China, since suburban areas with farms were located just outside and in some cases within the walls of a city. Not only was the blurring of town and country evident, but also of socioeconomic class in the traditional four occupations (Shì nóng gōng shāng, 士農工商), since artisans sometimes worked on farms in peak periods, and farmers often traveled into the city to find work during times of dearth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-190">[184]</a> A variety of occupations could be chosen or inherited from a father's line of work. This would include – but was not limited to – coffin makers, ironworkers and blacksmiths, tailors, cooks and noodle-makers, retail merchants, tavern, teahouse, or winehouse managers, shoemakers, seal cutters, pawnshop owners, brothel heads, and merchant bankers engaging in a proto-banking system involving notes of exchange.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199920-85">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13-191">[185]</a> Virtually every town had a <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothel</a> where female and male prostitutes could be had.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998229,_232-192">[186]</a> Male catamites fetched a higher price than female concubines since <a href="/wiki/Pederasty" title="Pederasty">pederasty</a> with a teenage boy was seen as a mark of elite status, regardless of <a href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">sodomy</a> being repugnant to sexual norms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998232–223-193">[187]</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_bathing" title="Public bathing">Public bathing</a> became much more common than in earlier periods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafer195657-194">[188]</a> Urban shops and retailers sold a variety of goods such as <a href="/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">special paper money</a> to burn at ancestral sacrifices, specialized luxury goods, headgear, fine cloth, teas, and others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199912–13-191">[185]</a> Smaller communities and townships too poor or scattered to support shops and artisans obtained their goods from periodic market fairs and traveling peddlers. A small township also provided a place for simple schooling, news and gossip, matchmaking, religious festivals, traveling theater groups, tax collection, and bases of famine relief distribution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-190">[184]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg/170px-%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg/255px-%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg/340px-%E9%82%9D%E7%92%A0%E3%80%8A%E4%BE%BF%E6%B0%91%E5%9B%BE%E7%BA%82%C2%B7%E8%80%95%E7%BB%87%E5%9B%BE%C2%B7%E8%80%98%E7%94%B0%E3%80%8B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1689" /></a><figcaption>Weeding out the field, illustrated on Fan Kuang's Bianmintuzuan (便民图纂).</figcaption></figure> Farming villagers in the north spent their days harvesting crops like wheat and millet, while farmers south of the <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a> engaged in intensive rice cultivation and had lakes and ponds where ducks and fish could be raised. The cultivation of mulberry trees for silkworms and tea bushes could be found mostly south of the <a href="/wiki/Yangzi_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangzi River">Yangzi River</a>; even further south <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> and citrus were grown as basic crops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199913-190">[184]</a> Some people in the mountainous southwest made a living by selling lumber from hard bamboo. Besides cutting down trees to sell wood, the poor also made a living by turning wood into charcoal, and by burning <a href="/wiki/Oyster" title="Oyster">oyster</a> shells to make <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_lime" title="Agricultural lime">lime</a> and fired pots, and weaving mats and baskets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-195">[189]</a> In the north traveling by horse and carriage was most common, while in the south the myriad of rivers, canals, and lakes provided cheap and easy water transport. Although the south had the characteristic of the wealthy landlord and tenant farmers, there were on average many more owner-cultivators north of the Huai River due to harsher climate, living not far above subsistence level.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence199914-196">[190]</a> Early Ming dynasty saw the strictest <a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumptuary laws">sumptuary laws</a> in Chinese history. It was illegal for commoners to wear fine silk or dress in bright red, dark green or yellow colors; nor could they wear boots or <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_clothing#Hats,_headwear_and_hairstyles" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Chinese clothing">guan</a> hats. Women could not use ornaments made from gold, jade, pearl or emerald. Merchants and their families were further banned from using silk. However, these laws were no longer enforced from the middle Ming period onwards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhou199034–40-197">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">History of science and technology in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">List of Chinese inventions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">List of Chinese discoveries</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/220px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/330px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/440px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>The puddling process of smelting iron <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> to make <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>, with the right illustration displaying men working a <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Tiangong_Kaiwu" title="Tiangong Kaiwu">Tiangong Kaiwu</a> encyclopedia, 1637</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif/220px-Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif/330px-Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif/440px-Zhenghe-sailing-chart.gif 2x" data-file-width="1454" data-file-height="1036" /></a><figcaption>Map of the known world by <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>: India at the top, <a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a> at the upper right and <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> along the bottom. Sailing directions and distances are marked using zhenlu (針路) or compass route.</figcaption></figure> After the flourishing of <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Song dynasty">science and technology in the Song dynasty</a>, the Ming dynasty perhaps saw fewer advancements in science and technology compared to the pace of discovery in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>. In fact, key advances in Chinese science in the late Ming were spurred by contact with Europe. In 1626 <a href="/wiki/Johann_Adam_Schall_von_Bell" title="Johann Adam Schall von Bell">Johann Adam Schall von Bell</a> wrote the first Chinese treatise on the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>, the Yuanjingshuo (Far Seeing Optic Glass); in 1634 the <a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen Emperor</a> acquired the telescope of the late <a href="/wiki/Johann_Schreck" title="Johann Schreck">Johann Schreck</a> (1576–1630).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–445-198">[192]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> model of the solar system was rejected by the Catholic missionaries in China, but <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>'s ideas slowly trickled into China starting with the Polish Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Michael_Boym" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Boym">Michael Boym</a> (1612–1659) in 1627, Adam Schall von Bell's treatise in 1640, and finally <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Edkins" title="Joseph Edkins">Joseph Edkins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Wylie_(missionary)" title="Alexander Wylie (missionary)">Alex Wylie</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Fryer_Thomas_Keane" title="John Fryer Thomas Keane">John Fryer</a> in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959444–447-199">[193]</a> Catholic Jesuits in China would promote <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernican</a> theory at court, yet at the same time embrace the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemaic</a> system in their writing; it was not until 1865 that Catholic missionaries in China sponsored the heliocentric model as their Protestant peers did.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong1963p._31,_footnote_1-200">[194]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095) and <a href="/wiki/Guo_Shoujing" title="Guo Shoujing">Guo Shoujing</a> (1231–1316) had laid the basis for <a href="/wiki/History_of_trigonometry" title="History of trigonometry">trigonometry</a> in China, another important work in Chinese trigonometry would not be published again until 1607 with the efforts of Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1959110-201">[195]</a> Ironically, some inventions which had their origins in ancient China were reintroduced to China from Europe during the late Ming; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Field_mill_(carriage)" title="Field mill (carriage)">field mill</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965255–257-202">[196]</a> By the 16th century the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">Chinese calendar</a> was in need of reform. Although the Ming had adopted <a href="/wiki/Guo_Shoujing" title="Guo Shoujing">Guo Shoujing</a>'s Shoushi calendar of 1281, which was just as accurate as the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a>, the Ming Directorate of Astronomy failed to periodically readjust it;[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] this was perhaps due to their lack of expertise since their offices had become hereditary in the Ming and the Statutes of the Ming prohibited private involvement in astronomy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson198647-203">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-204">[198]</a> A sixth-generation descendant of the Hongxi Emperor, the "Prince" <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Zaiyu" title="Zhu Zaiyu">Zhu Zaiyu</a> (1536–1611), submitted a proposal to fix the calendar in 1595, but the ultra-conservative astronomical commission rejected it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166-205">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-204">[198]</a> This was the same Zhu Zaiyu who discovered the system of tuning known as <a href="/wiki/Equal_temperament" title="Equal temperament">equal temperament</a>, a discovery made simultaneously by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin" title="Simon Stevin">Simon Stevin</a> (1548–1620) in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167-206">[200]</a> In addition to publishing his works on music, he was able to publish his findings on the calendar in 1597.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-204">[198]</a> A year earlier, the memorial of Xing Yunlu suggesting a calendar improvement was rejected by the Supervisor of the Astronomical Bureau due to the law banning private practice of astronomy; Xing would later serve with Xu Guangqi in reforming the calendar (Chinese: 崇禎暦書) in 1629 according to Western standards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878-204">[198]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ming-marine-compass.jpg/220px-Ming-marine-compass.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ming-marine-compass.jpg/330px-Ming-marine-compass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ming-marine-compass.jpg/440px-Ming-marine-compass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>A 24-point compass chart employed by <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a> during his explorations</figcaption></figure> When the Ming founder Hongwu came upon the mechanical devices housed in the Yuan dynasty's palace at Khanbaliq—such as fountains with balls dancing on their jets, <a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">self-operating tiger automata</a>, dragon-headed devices that spouted mists of perfume, and <a href="/wiki/Striking_clock" title="Striking clock">mechanical clocks</a> in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Yi_Xing" title="Yi Xing">Yi Xing</a> (683–727) and <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a> (1020–1101)—he associated all of them with the decadence of Mongol rule and had them destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508-207">[201]</a> This was described in full length by the Divisional Director of the Ministry of Works, Xiao Xun, who also carefully preserved details on the architecture and layout of the Yuan dynasty palace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508-207">[201]</a> Later, European Jesuits such as Matteo Ricci and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Trigault" title="Nicolas Trigault">Nicolas Trigault</a> would briefly mention indigenous Chinese clockworks that featured drive wheels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965438-208">[202]</a> However, both Ricci and Trigault were quick to point out that 16th-century European clockworks were far more advanced than the common time keeping devices in China, which they listed as <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water clocks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incense_clock" title="Incense clock">incense clocks</a>, and "other instruments ... with wheels rotated by sand as if by water" (Chinese: 沙漏).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965509-209">[203]</a> Chinese records—namely the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">Yuan Shi</a>—describe the 'five-wheeled sand clock', a mechanism pioneered by Zhan Xiyuan (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl.</a> 1360–80) which featured the scoop wheel of Su Song's earlier <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical clock</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Dial_(measurement)" title="Dial (measurement)">stationary dial face</a> over which a pointer circulated, similar to European models of the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965511-210">[204]</a> This sand-driven wheel clock was improved upon by Zhou Shuxue (fl. 1530–58) who added a fourth large gear wheel, changed gear ratios, and widened the orifice for collecting sand grains since he criticized the earlier model for clogging up too often.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511-211">[205]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ricciportrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ricciportrait.jpg/170px-Ricciportrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ricciportrait.jpg/255px-Ricciportrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ricciportrait.jpg/340px-Ricciportrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="974" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> by Yu Wenhui, Latinized as Emmanuel Pereira, dated the year of Ricci's death, 1610</figcaption></figure> The Chinese were intrigued with European technology, but so were visiting Europeans of Chinese technology. In 1584, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius" title="Abraham Ortelius">Abraham Ortelius</a> (1527–1598) featured in his atlas Theatrum Orbis Terrarum the peculiar Chinese innovation of <a href="/wiki/Wheelbarrow#Chinese_sailing_carriage" title="Wheelbarrow">mounting masts and sails onto carriages</a>, just like <a href="/wiki/Junk_(ship)" title="Junk (ship)">Chinese ships</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965276-212">[206]</a> <a href="/wiki/Juan_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Mendoza" title="Juan González de Mendoza">Gonzales de Mendoza</a> also mentioned this a year later—noting even the designs of them on Chinese silken robes—while <a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a> (1512–1594) featured them in his atlas, <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a> (1608–1674) in one of his famous poems, and <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Everardus_van_Braam_Houckgeest" title="Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest">Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest</a> (1739–1801) in the writings of his travel diary in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276-213">[207]</a> The encyclopedist <a href="/wiki/Song_Yingxing" title="Song Yingxing">Song Yingxing</a> (1587–1666) documented a wide array of technologies, metallurgic and industrial processes in his <a href="/wiki/Tiangong_Kaiwu" title="Tiangong Kaiwu">Tiangong Kaiwu</a> encyclopedia of 1637. This includes mechanical and hydraulic powered devices for agriculture and irrigation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong19667–30,_84–103-214">[208]</a> nautical technology such as vessel types and <a href="/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling">snorkeling</a> gear for pearl divers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966171–72,_189,_196-215">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971668-216">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971634,_649–50,_668–69-217">[211]</a> the annual processes of <a href="/wiki/Sericulture" title="Sericulture">sericulture</a> and weaving with the <a href="/wiki/Loom" title="Loom">loom</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong196636–36-218">[212]</a> metallurgic processes such as the <a href="/wiki/Crucible" title="Crucible">crucible</a> technique and <a href="/wiki/Quench" class="mw-redirect" title="Quench">quenching</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966237,_190-219">[213]</a> manufacturing processes such as for roasting iron <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> in converting sulphide to oxide in <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> used in gunpowder compositions—illustrating how ore was piled up with coal briquettes in an earthen furnace with a still-head that sent over sulfur as vapor that would solidify and <a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystallize</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987126-220">[214]</a>—and the use of gunpowder weapons such as a <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">naval mine</a> ignited by use of a rip-cord and <a href="/wiki/Wheellock" title="Wheellock">steel flint wheel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205,_339ff-221">[215]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg/170px-Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg/255px-Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg/340px-Ming_Dynasty_eruptor_proto-cannon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="818" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannon</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Huolongjing" title="Huolongjing">Huolongjing</a>, compiled by <a href="/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu">Jiao Yu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bowen" title="Liu Bowen">Liu Bowen</a> before the latter's death in 1375</figcaption></figure> Focusing on agriculture in his Nongzheng Quanshu, the agronomist <a href="/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi">Xu Guangqi</a> (1562–1633) took an interest in irrigation, fertilizers, famine relief, economic and textile crops, and empirical observation of the elements that gave insight into early understandings of chemistry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66-222">[216]</a> There were many advances and new designs in gunpowder weapons during the beginning of the dynasty, but by the mid to late Ming the Chinese began to frequently employ European-style artillery and firearms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987372-223">[217]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Huolongjing" title="Huolongjing">Huolongjing</a>, compiled by <a href="/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu">Jiao Yu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bowen" title="Liu Bowen">Liu Bowen</a> sometime before the latter's death on 16 May 1375 (with a preface added by Jiao in 1412),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25-224">[218]</a> featured many types of cutting-edge gunpowder weaponry for the time. This includes hollow, gunpowder-filled <a href="/wiki/Round_shot" title="Round shot">exploding cannonballs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987264-225">[219]</a> <a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">land mines</a> that used a complex trigger mechanism of falling weights, pins, and a steel wheellock to ignite the train of fuses,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205-226">[220]</a> naval mines,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205-227">[221]</a> fin-mounted winged rockets for <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic">aerodynamic</a> control,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502-228">[222]</a> <a href="/wiki/Multistage_rocket" title="Multistage rocket">multistage rockets</a> propelled by <a href="/wiki/Booster_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Booster rocket">booster rockets</a> before igniting a swarm of smaller rockets issuing forth from the end of the missile (shaped like a dragon's head),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987508-229">[223]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hand_cannon" title="Hand cannon">hand cannons</a> that had up to <a href="/wiki/Gun_barrel" title="Gun barrel">ten barrels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987229-230">[224]</a> <a href="/wiki/Li_Shizhen" title="Li Shizhen">Li Shizhen</a> (1518–1593)—one of the most renowned <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacologists</a> and physicians <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">in Chinese history</a>—belonged to the late Ming period. His <a href="/wiki/Bencao_Gangmu" title="Bencao Gangmu">Bencao Gangmu</a> is a medical text with 1,892 entries, each entry with its own name called a gang. The mu in the title refers to the synonyms of each name.<a href="#cite_note-Yaniv-231">[225]</a> Inoculation, although it can be traced to earlier Chinese folk medicine, was detailed in Chinese texts by the sixteenth century. Throughout the Ming dynasty, around fifty texts were published on the treatment of smallpox.<a href="#cite_note-Hopkins-232">[226]</a> In regards to <a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">oral hygiene</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a> had a primitive toothbrush of a twig frayed at the end, but the Chinese were the first to invent the modern <a href="/wiki/Toothbrush" title="Toothbrush">bristle toothbrush</a> in 1498, although it used stiff pig hair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)-233">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population">Population</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg/170px-Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg/255px-Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg/340px-Portrait_assis_de_l%27empereur_Ming_Xuanzong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2356" data-file-height="2968" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Xuande_Emperor" title="Xuande Emperor">Xuande Emperor</a> (r. 1425–35); he stated in 1428 that his populace was dwindling due to palace construction and military adventures. But the population was rising under him, a fact noted by Zhou Chen—governor of <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">South Zhili</a>—in his 1432 report to the throne about widespread itinerant commerce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-234">[228]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">Sinologist historians</a> debate the population figures for each era in the Ming dynasty. The historian <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Brook" title="Timothy Brook">Timothy Brook</a> notes that the Ming government census figures are dubious since fiscal obligations prompted many families to underreport the number of people in their households and many county officials to underreport the number of households in their jurisdiction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827-235">[229]</a> Children were often underreported, especially female children, as shown by skewed population statistics throughout the Ming.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267-236">[230]</a> Even adult women were underreported;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99-237">[231]</a> for example, the Daming Prefecture in <a href="/wiki/North_Zhili" title="North Zhili">North Zhili</a> reported a population of 378,167 males and 226,982 females in 1502.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897-238">[232]</a> The government attempted to revise the census figures using estimates of the expected average number of people in each household, but this did not solve the widespread problem of tax registration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267-239">[233]</a> Some part of the gender imbalance may be attributed to the practice of female <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a>. The practice is well documented in China, going back over two thousand years, and it was described as "rampant" and "practiced by almost every family" by contemporary authors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–01-240">[234]</a> However, the dramatically skewed sex ratios, which many counties reported exceeding 2:1 by 1586, cannot likely be explained by infanticide alone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99-237">[231]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chen_Hongshou,_Appreciating_Plums,_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Chen_Hongshou%2C_Appreciating_Plums%2C_detail.jpg/170px-Chen_Hongshou%2C_Appreciating_Plums%2C_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Chen_Hongshou%2C_Appreciating_Plums%2C_detail.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="234" data-file-height="343" /></a><figcaption>Appreciating Plums, by <a href="/wiki/Chen_Hongshou" title="Chen Hongshou">Chen Hongshou</a> (1598–1652), showing a lady holding an oval fan while enjoying the beauty of the plum</figcaption></figure> The number of people counted in the census of 1381 was 59,873,305; however, this number dropped significantly when the government found that some 3 million people were missing from the tax census of 1391.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28-241">[235]</a> Even though underreporting figures was made a capital crime in 1381, the need for survival pushed many to abandon the tax registration and wander from their region, where Hongwu had attempted to impose rigid immobility on the populace. The government tried to mitigate this by creating their own conservative estimate of 60,545,812 people in 1393.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-234">[228]</a> In his Studies on the Population of China, Ho Ping-ti suggests revising the 1393 census to 65 million people, noting that large areas of North China and frontier areas were not counted in that census.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259-3">[1]</a> Brook states that the population figures gathered in the official censuses after 1393 ranged between 51 and 62 million, while the population was in fact increasing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-234">[228]</a> Even the <a href="/wiki/Hongzhi_Emperor" title="Hongzhi Emperor">Hongzhi Emperor</a> (r. 1487–1505) remarked that the daily increase in subjects coincided with the daily dwindling number of registered civilians and soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-195">[189]</a> William Atwell states that around 1400 the population of China was perhaps 90 million people, citing Heijdra and Mote.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200286-242">[236]</a> Historians are now turning to local <a href="/wiki/Gazetteer" title="Gazetteer">gazetteers</a> of Ming China for clues that would show consistent growth in population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267-236">[230]</a> Using the gazetteers, Brook estimates that the overall population under the <a href="/wiki/Chenghua_Emperor" title="Chenghua Emperor">Chenghua Emperor</a> (r. 1464–87) was roughly 75 million,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267-239">[233]</a> despite mid-Ming census figures hovering around 62 million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199895-195">[189]</a> While prefectures across the empire in the mid-Ming period were reporting either a drop in or stagnant population size, local gazetteers reported massive amounts of incoming vagrant workers with not enough good cultivated land for them to till, so that many would become drifters, conmen, or wood-cutters that contributed to deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96-243">[237]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hongzhi_Emperor" title="Hongzhi Emperor">Hongzhi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhengde_Emperor" title="Zhengde Emperor">Zhengde</a> emperors lessened the penalties against those who had fled their home region, while the <a href="/wiki/Jiajing_Emperor" title="Jiajing Emperor">Jiajing Emperor</a> (r. 1521–67) finally had officials register migrants wherever they had moved or fled in order to bring in more revenues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897-238">[232]</a> Even with the Jiajing reforms to document migrant workers and merchants, by the late Ming era the government census still did not accurately reflect the enormous growth in population. Gazetteers across the empire noted this and made their own estimations of the overall population in the Ming, some guessing that it had doubled, tripled, or even grown fivefold since 1368.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162-244">[238]</a> Fairbank estimates that the population was perhaps 160 million in the late Ming dynasty,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006128-245">[239]</a> while Brook estimates 175 million,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162-244">[238]</a> and Ebrey states perhaps as large as 200 million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999195-246">[240]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty">a great epidemic</a> that started in Shanxi Province in 1633, ravaged the densely populated areas along the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a>; a gazetteer in northern <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> noted more than half the population fell ill that year and that 90% of the local populace in one area was dead by 1642.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998163-247">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1642_Yellow_River_flood" title="1642 Yellow River flood">1642 Yellow River flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Economy of the Ming dynasty">Economy of the Ming dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_premodern_China" title="Taxation in premodern China">Taxation in premodern China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tributaries of Imperial China">List of tributaries of Imperial China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luchuan%E2%80%93Pingmian_campaigns" title="Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns">Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria under Ming rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_conquests_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Military conquests of the Ming dynasty">Military conquests of the Ming dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics#Ming_dynasty,_1368–1644" title="Chinese ceramics">Ming ceramics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia">Ming dynasty in Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Ming_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Ming emperors family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_official_headwear" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming official headwear">Ming official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_poetry" title="Ming poetry">Ming poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye_Chunji" title="Ye Chunji">Ye Chunji</a> (for further information on <a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">rural economics</a> in the Ming)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Zhilong" title="Zheng Zhilong">Zheng Zhilong</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Prior to proclaiming himself emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang declared himself <a href="/wiki/King_of_Wu" title="King of Wu">King of Wu</a> in Nanjing in 1364. The regime is known in historiography as the "Western Wu" (西吳). </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Remnants of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">Ming imperial family</a>, whose regimes are collectively called the Southern Ming in historiography, ruled southern China until 1662. The Ming loyalist state <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a> on Taiwan lasted until 1683, but it was not ruled by the Zhu clan and thus usually not considered part of the Southern Ming. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> The Ming loyalist regime <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a> on the island of Taiwan, ruled by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Koxinga" title="House of Koxinga">House of Zheng</a>, is usually not considered part of the Southern Ming. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> For the lower population estimate, see (<a href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006">Fairbank & Goldman 2006</a>:128); for the higher, see (<a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>:197). </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> The last Ming princes to hold out were <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Shugui" title="Zhu Shugui">Zhu Shugui</a>, Prince of Ningjing and Zhu Honghuan, who stayed with <a href="/wiki/Koxinga" title="Koxinga">Koxinga</a>'s Ming loyalists in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Taiwan</a> until 1683. Zhu Shugui proclaimed that he acted in the name of the deceased Yongli Emperor.<a href="#cite_note-Shepherd1993-107">[103]</a> The Qing eventually sent the 17 Ming princes still living in Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManthorpe2008108-108">[104]</a> In 1725, the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> bestowed the hereditary title of marquis on a descendant of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">Ming imperial family</a>, Zhu Zhilian, who received a salary from the Qing government and whose duty was to perform rituals at the <a href="/wiki/Ming_tombs" title="Ming tombs">Ming tombs</a>, and was also inducted into the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a>. He was posthumously promoted to <a href="/wiki/Marquis_of_Extended_Grace" title="Marquis of Extended Grace">Marquis of Extended Grace</a> in 1750 by the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>, and the title passed on through twelve generations of Ming descendants until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> For the argument that they increased social mobility see <a href="#CITEREFHo1962">Ho (1962)</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo19598–9,_22,_259_3-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHo1959">Ho (1959)</a>, pp. 8–9, 22, 259. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank1998109-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank1998109_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrank1998">Frank (1998)</a>, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddison2006238_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaddison2006">Maddison (2006)</a>, p. 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-Turchin222-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Turchin222_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006">Turchin, Adams & Hall (2006)</a>, p. 222 </li> <li id="cite_note-Taagepera500-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera500_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaagepera1997">Taagepera (1997)</a>, p. 500 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadberry2014-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroadberry2014_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBroadberry2014">Broadberry (2014)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERandom_House_Webster's_Unabridged_Dictionary-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandom_House_Webster's_Unabridged_Dictionary_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRandom_House_Webster's_Unabridged_Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-zhangwen-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zhangwen_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zhangwen_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zhangwen_11-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFZhang2008">Zhang (2008)</a>, pp. 148–175 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais2006271_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)</a>, p. 271. </li> <li id="cite_note-eunuchpower-13"><a href="#cite_ref-eunuchpower_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrawford1961">Crawford (1961)</a>, p. 115–148 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrook2023" class="citation book cs1">Brook, Timothy (2023). The price of collapse: the Little Ice Age and the fall of Ming China. Princeton Oxford: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-25040-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-25040-3"><bdi>978-0-691-25040-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+price+of+collapse%3A+the+Little+Ice+Age+and+the+fall+of+Ming+China&rft.place=Princeton+Oxford&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-691-25040-3&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003150_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGascoigne2003">Gascoigne (2003)</a>, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999190–191_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey (1999)</a>, pp. 190–191. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGascoigne2003151_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGascoigne2003">Gascoigne (2003)</a>, p. 151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999191_19-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaquin2000xxxiii_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNaquin2000">Naquin (2000)</a>, p. xxxiii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrewRapp200025_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrewRapp2000">Andrew & Rapp (2000)</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999192–193_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey (1999)</a>, pp. 192–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006130_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006">Fairbank & Goldman (2006)</a>, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006129–130_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006">Fairbank & Goldman (2006)</a>, pp. 129–130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2008365–399_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2008">Robinson (2008)</a>, pp. 365–399. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson20208–9_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2020">Robinson (2020)</a>, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2019144–146_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2019">Robinson (2019)</a>, pp. 144–146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2019248-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2019248_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2019">Robinson (2019)</a>, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShi2002133-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShi2002133_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShi2002">Shi (2002)</a>, p. 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon199934-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDillon199934_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDillon1999">Dillon (1999)</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999197_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey (1999)</a>, p. 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2011101–144_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWang2011">Wang (2011)</a>, p. 101–144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsai2001159-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsai2001159_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTsai2001">Tsai (2001)</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-information_office_of_the_state_council_2002_73-34"><a href="#cite_ref-information_office_of_the_state_council_2002_73_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZhangXiang2002">Zhang & Xiang (2002)</a>, p. 73 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangNyima199739–41_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWangNyima1997">Wang & Nyima (1997)</a>, pp. 39–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-mingshi-36"><a href="#cite_ref-mingshi_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHistory_of_Ming">History of Ming</a>, Geography I, III; 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_204-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_204-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngelfriet199878_204-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFEngelfriet1998">Engelfriet (1998)</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuttner1975">Kuttner (1975)</a>, p. 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuttner1975166–167_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuttner1975">Kuttner (1975)</a>, pp. 166–167. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508-207">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508_207-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965133,_508_207-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1965">Needham (1965)</a>, pp. 133, 508. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965438-208"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965438_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1965">Needham (1965)</a>, p. 438. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965509-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965509_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1965">Needham (1965)</a>, p. 509. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965511-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965511_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1965">Needham (1965)</a>, p. 511. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965510–511_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1965">Needham (1965)</a>, pp. 510–511. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965276-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965276_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1965">Needham (1965)</a>, p. 276. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1965274–276_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1965">Needham (1965)</a>, pp. 274–276. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESong19667–30,_84–103-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong19667–30,_84–103_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSong1966">Song (1966)</a>, pp. 7–30, 84–103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966171–72,_189,_196-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong1966171–72,_189,_196_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSong1966">Song (1966)</a>, pp. 171–72, 189, 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971668-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1971668_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1971">Needham (1971)</a>, p. 668. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1971634,_649–50,_668–69-217"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1971634,_649–50,_668–69_217-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1971">Needham (1971)</a>, pp. 634, 649–50, 668–69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESong196636–36-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong196636–36_218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSong1966">Song (1966)</a>, pp. 36–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESong1966237,_190-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESong1966237,_190_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSong1966">Song (1966)</a>, pp. 237, 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987126-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987126_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1987">Needham (1987)</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205,_339ff-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205,_339ff_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1987">Needham (1987)</a>, pp. 205, 339ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham198465–66_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1984">Needham (1984)</a>, pp. 65–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987372-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987372_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1987">Needham (1987)</a>, p. 372. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham198724–25_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1987">Needham (1987)</a>, pp. 24–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987264-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987264_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1987">Needham (1987)</a>, p. 264. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987203–205_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1987">Needham (1987)</a>, pp. 203–205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987205_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1987">Needham (1987)</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987498–502_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1987">Needham (1987)</a>, pp. 498–502. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987508-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987508_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1987">Needham (1987)</a>, p. 508. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1987229-230"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedham1987229_230-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedham1987">Needham (1987)</a>, p. 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-Yaniv-231"><a href="#cite_ref-Yaniv_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYanivBachrach2005">Yaniv & Bachrach (2005)</a>, p. 37 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hopkins-232"><a href="#cite_ref-Hopkins_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHopkins2002">Hopkins (2002)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatestkillersm0000hopk/page/110">110</a>: "Inoculation had been a popular folk practice ... in all, some fifty texts on the treatment of smallpox are known to have been published in China during the Ming dynasty." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThe_Library_of_Congress_(2007)">The Library of Congress (2007)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828_234-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828_234-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook (1998)</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199827_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook (1998)</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267-236">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267_236-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998267_236-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook (1998)</a>, p. 267. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897–99_237-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook (1998)</a>, pp. 97–99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199897-238">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897_238-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199897_238-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook (1998)</a>, p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199828,_267_239-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook (1998)</a>, pp. 28, 267. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–01-240"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinney1995200–01_240-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinney1995">Kinney (1995)</a>, p. 200–01. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28-241"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199827–28_241-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook (1998)</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwell200286-242"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwell200286_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAtwell2002">Atwell (2002)</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook199894–96_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook (1998)</a>, pp. 94–96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162-244">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162_244-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrook1998162_244-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrook1998">Brook (1998)</a>, p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbankGoldman2006128-245"><a 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T'oung Pao. 49 (3): 115–148. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853262X00057">10.1163/156853262X00057</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4527509">4527509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=T%27oung+Pao&rft.atitle=Eunuch+Power+in+the+Ming+Dynasty&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=115-148&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156853262X00057&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4527509%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandom_House_Webster's_Unabridged_Dictionary" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/ming">"Definition of Ming"</a>. 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Richmond: Curzon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1026-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1026-3"><bdi>978-0-7007-1026-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Muslim+Hui+community%3A+migration%2C+settlement+and+sects&rft.place=Richmond&rft.pub=Curzon+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3&rft.aulast=Dillon&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhUEswLE4SWUC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="citation cs2">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. 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(eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 333–375, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24333-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24333-9"><bdi>978-0-521-24333-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Relations+with+Maritime+Europe%2C+1514%E2%80%931662&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Volume+8%2C+The+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1368%E2%80%931644%2C+Part+2&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pages=333-375&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24333-9&rft.aulast=Wills&rft.aufirst=John+E.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWong1963" class="citation cs2">Wong, H.C. (1963), "China's Opposition to Western Science during Late Ming and Early Ch'ing", Isis, 54 (1): 29–49, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F349663">10.1086/349663</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144136313">144136313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=China%27s+Opposition+to+Western+Science+during+Late+Ming+and+Early+Ch%27ing&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-49&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349663&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144136313%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=H.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWylie2003" class="citation cs2">Wylie, Turrell V. (2003), "Lama Tribute in the Ming Dynasty", in McKay, Alex (ed.), The History of Tibet: Volume 2, The Medieval Period: c. AD 850–1895, the Development of Buddhist Paramountcy, New York: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30843-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30843-4"><bdi>978-0-415-30843-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lama+Tribute+in+the+Ming+Dynasty&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Tibet%3A+Volume+2%2C+The+Medieval+Period%3A+c.+AD+850%E2%80%931895%2C+the+Development+of+Buddhist+Paramountcy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-30843-4&rft.aulast=Wylie&rft.aufirst=Turrell+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXie2013" class="citation book cs1">Xie, Xiaohui (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lNBTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA120">"5 From Woman's Fertility to Masculine Authority: The Story of the White Emperor Heavenly Kings in Western Hunan"</a>. In Faure, David; Ho, Ts'ui-p'ing (eds.). Chieftains into Ancestors: Imperial Expansion and Indigenous Society in Southwest China (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-2371-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-2371-5"><bdi>978-0-7748-2371-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5+From+Woman%27s+Fertility+to+Masculine+Authority%3A+The+Story+of+the+White+Emperor+Heavenly+Kings+in+Western+Hunan&rft.btitle=Chieftains+into+Ancestors%3A+Imperial+Expansion+and+Indigenous+Society+in+Southwest+China&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-2371-5&rft.aulast=Xie&rft.aufirst=Xiaohui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlNBTCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXu2003" class="citation book cs1">Xu, Xin (2003). The Jews of Kaifeng, China : history, culture, and religion. Jersey City, NJ: KTAV Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-791-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-791-5"><bdi>978-0-88125-791-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Kaifeng%2C+China+%3A+history%2C+culture%2C+and+religion&rft.place=Jersey+City%2C+NJ&rft.pub=KTAV+Publishing+House&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-88125-791-5&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Xin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYanivBachrach2005" class="citation book cs1">Yaniv, Zohara; Bachrach, Uriel (2005). Handbook of Medicinal Plants. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56022-995-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56022-995-7"><bdi>978-1-56022-995-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Medicinal+Plants&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-56022-995-7&rft.aulast=Yaniv&rft.aufirst=Zohara&rft.au=Bachrach%2C+Uriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuan1994" class="citation cs2">Yuan, Zheng (1994), "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment", History of Education Quarterly, 34 (2): 193–213, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F369121">10.2307/369121</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/369121">369121</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144538656">144538656</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Local+Government+Schools+in+Sung+China%3A+A+Reassessment&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=193-213&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144538656%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F369121%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F369121&rft.aulast=Yuan&rft.aufirst=Zheng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHistory_of_Ming" class="citation cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhang Tingyu; et al. (1739). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/zh:%E6%98%8E%E5%8F%B2">History of Ming </a> (in Chinese) – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Ming&rft.date=1739&rft.au=Zhang+Tingyu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2008" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Wenxian (2008). "The Yellow Register Archives of Imperial Ming China". Libraries & the Cultural Record. 43 (2): 148–175. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flac.0.0016">10.1353/lac.0.0016</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25549473">25549473</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201773710">201773710</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Libraries+%26+the+Cultural+Record&rft.atitle=The+Yellow+Register+Archives+of+Imperial+Ming+China&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=148-175&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201773710%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25549473%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Flac.0.0016&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Wenxian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangXiang2002" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Yuxin; Xiang, Hongjia (2002). Testimony of History. China: China Intercontinental Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-80113-885-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-80113-885-9"><bdi>978-7-80113-885-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Testimony+of+History&rft.place=China&rft.pub=China+Intercontinental+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-7-80113-885-9&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Yuxin&rft.au=Xiang%2C+Hongjia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhou1990" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhou, Shao Quan (1990). "明代服饰探论" [On the Costumes of Ming Dynasty]. 史学月刊 (in Chinese) (6): 34–40.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E5%8F%B2%E5%AD%A6%E6%9C%88%E5%88%8A&rft.atitle=%E6%98%8E%E4%BB%A3%E6%9C%8D%E9%A5%B0%E6%8E%A2%E8%AE%BA&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=34-40&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Zhou&rft.aufirst=Shao+Quan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Ming dynasty <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ming+dynasty">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ming+dynasty&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reference_works_and_primary_sources">Reference works and primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li>Farmer, Edward L. ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mingstudies.arts.ubc.ca/ming-history-an-introductory-guide-to-research/">Ming History: An Introductory Guide to Research</a> (1994).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Ming_Biographical_Dictionary_(1976)" class="citation book cs1">Goodrich, Luther Carrington (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JWpF-dObxW8C">Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644</a>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03833-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03833-1"><bdi>978-0-231-03833-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Ming+Biography%2C+1368%E2%80%931644&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-231-03833-1&rft.aulast=Goodrich&rft.aufirst=Luther+Carrington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJWpF-dObxW8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://knit.ucsd.edu/minghistoryinenglish/">The Ming History English Translation Project</a>, A collaborative project that makes available translations (from Chinese to English) of portions of the 明史 Mingshi (Official History of the Ming Dynasty).</li> <li>Lynn Struve, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/handle/2022/3592">The Ming-Qing Conflict, 1619–1683: A Historiography and Source Guide</a>, Online Indiana University.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_studies">General studies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Brook, Timothy. The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties (History of Imperial China) (Harvard UP, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Troubled-Empire-Dynasties-History-Imperial/dp/0674072537/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Chan, Hok-Lam (1988), "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-shi, and Hsuan-te reigns, 1399–1435", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 182–384, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24332-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24332-2"><bdi>978-0-521-24332-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Chien-wen%2C+Yung-lo%2C+Hung-shi%2C+and+Hsuan-te+reigns%2C+1399%E2%80%931435&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Volume+7%2C+The+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1368%E2%80%931644%2C+Part+1&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pages=182-384&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24332-2&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Hok-Lam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Dardess, John W. (1983), Confucianism and Autocracy: Professional Elites in the Founding of the Ming Dynasty, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04733-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04733-4"><bdi>978-0-520-04733-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucianism+and+Autocracy%3A+Professional+Elites+in+the+Founding+of+the+Ming+Dynasty&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04733-4&rft.aulast=Dardess&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Dardess, John W. (1968), Background Factors in the Rise of the Ming Dynasty, Columbia University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Background+Factors+in+the+Rise+of+the+Ming+Dynasty&rft.pub=Columbia+University&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Dardess&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Dardess, John W. (2012), Ming China, 1368–1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire, Rowman & Littlefield, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0491-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0491-1"><bdi>978-1-4422-0491-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ming+China%2C+1368%E2%80%931644%3A+A+Concise+History+of+a+Resilient+Empire&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-0491-1&rft.aulast=Dardess&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dardess, John W. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft2s2004qh/">A Ming Society: T'ai-ho County, Kiangsi, in the Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries</a>. University of California Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ray_Huang" title="Ray Huang">Huang, Ray</a> (1981), <a href="/wiki/1587,_a_Year_of_No_Significance:_The_Ming_Dynasty_in_Decline" class="mw-redirect" title="1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline">1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline</a>, New Haven: Yale UP, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-02518-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-02518-7"><bdi>978-0-300-02518-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1587%2C+a+Year+of+No+Significance%3A+The+Ming+Dynasty+in+Decline&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+UP&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-300-02518-7&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Mote, Frederick W. (1988), "The Ch'eng-hua and Hung-chih reigns, 1465–1505", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP, pp. 343–402, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24332-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24332-2"><bdi>978-0-521-24332-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ch%27eng-hua+and+Hung-chih+reigns%2C+1465%E2%80%931505&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Volume+7%2C+The+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1368%E2%80%931644%2C+Part+1&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pages=343-402&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24332-2&rft.aulast=Mote&rft.aufirst=Frederick+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMote2003" class="citation book cs1">Mote, Frederick W. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC">Imperial China, 900–1800</a>. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01212-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01212-7"><bdi>978-0-674-01212-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+China%2C+900%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01212-7&rft.aulast=Mote&rft.aufirst=Frederick+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQWW7QgUH4gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Owen, Stephen (1997), "The Yuan and Ming Dynasties", in Owen, Stephen (ed.), An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911, New York: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton">W. W. Norton</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Yuan+and+Ming+Dynasties&rft.btitle=An+Anthology+of+Chinese+Literature%3A+Beginnings+to+1911&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenSanqu.pdf">pp. 723–743</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303173356/http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenSanqu.pdf">Archive</a>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenInformalProse.pdf">pp. 807–832</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003143/http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenInformalProse.pdf">Archive</a>).</li> <li>Swope, Kenneth M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286678256_Manifesting_Awe_Grand_Strategy_and_Imperial_Leadership_in_the_Ming_Dynasty">"Manifesting Awe: Grand Strategy and Imperial Leadership in the Ming Dynasty"</a>. Journal of Military History 79.3 (2015). pp. 597–634.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Wade, Geoff (2008), "Engaging the South: Ming China and Southeast Asia in the Fifteenth Century", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 51 (4): 578–638, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852008X354643">10.1163/156852008X354643</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25165269">25165269</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Engaging+the+South%3A+Ming+China+and+Southeast+Asia+in+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=578-638&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156852008X354643&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25165269%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldron1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Waldron" title="Arthur Waldron">Waldron, Arthur</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e4ybBQAAQBAJ">The Great Wall of China: From History to Myth</a>. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36518-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36518-X"><bdi>0-521-36518-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Wall+of+China%3A+From+History+to+Myth&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-521-36518-X&rft.aulast=Waldron&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De4ybBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output 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class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ming_Dynasty" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/painting-masters.php">Notable Ming dynasty painters and galleries</a> at China Online Museum</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ming/hd_ming.htm">Ming dynasty art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancientchina.org.uk/ming/">Highlights from the British Museum exhibition</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200620145525/http://www.ancientchina.org.uk/ming-top-ten/">Archived</a> 20 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">Dynasties in Chinese history</a> 1368–1644 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ming_dynasty_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ming_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Ming dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ming_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Ming dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ming_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ming dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ming_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ming dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="History of the Ming dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;">(1368–1435)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Turban Rebellion">Red Turban Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Mian_rebellion" title="Wu Mian rebellion">Wu Mian rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_conquest_of_Yunnan" title="Ming conquest of Yunnan">Ming conquest of Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Mong_Mao_War_(1386%E2%80%931388)" title="Ming–Mong Mao War (1386–1388)">Ming–Mong Mao War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_campaign_against_the_Uriankhai" title="Ming campaign against the Uriankhai">Campaign against the Uriankhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buir_Lake" title="Battle of Buir Lake">Battle of Buir Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Kuan_rebellion" title="Lin Kuan rebellion">Lin Kuan rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dao_Ganmeng_rebellion" title="Dao Ganmeng rebellion">Dao Ganmeng rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingnan_campaign" title="Jingnan campaign">Jingnan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages">Ming treasure voyages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Turpan_conflict" title="Ming–Turpan conflict">Ming–Turpan conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_conquest_of_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Ngu" title="Ming conquest of Đại Ngu">Ming–Đại Ngu War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Palembang_(1407)" title="Battle of Palembang (1407)">Battle of Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kherlen" title="Battle of Kherlen">Battle of Kherlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Kotte_War" title="Ming–Kotte War">Ming–Kotte War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lam_S%C6%A1n_uprising" title="Lam Sơn uprising">Lam Sơn uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor%27s_campaigns_against_the_Mongols" title="Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols">Campaigns against the Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Ren_and_Xuan" title="Reign of Ren and Xuan">Reign of Ren and Xuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Middle <div style="float: right;">(1435–1572)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luchuan%E2%80%93Pingmian_campaigns" title="Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns">Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumu_Crisis" title="Tumu Crisis">Tumu Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_Beijing" title="Defense of Beijing">Defense of Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_Cao_Qin" title="Rebellion of Cao Qin">Rebellion of Cao Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_rebellions_in_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty">Miao rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Anhua_rebellion" title="Prince of Anhua rebellion">Prince of Anhua rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Ning_rebellion" title="Prince of Ning rebellion">Prince of Ning rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Malacca_(1511)" title="Capture of Malacca (1511)">Capture of Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_missions_to_Ming_China" title="Japanese missions to Ming China">Japanese missions to Ming China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_incident" title="Ningbo incident">Ningbo incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Rites_Controversy" title="Great Rites Controversy">Great Rites Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_plot_of_Renyin_year" title="Palace plot of Renyin year">Renyin plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luso-Chinese_agreement" title="Luso-Chinese agreement">Luso-Chinese agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiajing_wokou_raids" title="Jiajing wokou raids">Jiajing wokou raids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_whip_law" title="Single whip law">Single whip law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Late <div style="float: right;">(1572–1683)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification#Jianzhou_war" title="Jurchen unification">Jianzhou war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bozhou_rebellion" title="Bozhou rebellion">Bozhou rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordos_campaign_(1592)" title="Ordos campaign (1592)">Ordos campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)">Japanese invasions of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donglin_movement" title="Donglin movement">Donglin movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Dutch_conflicts" title="Sino-Dutch conflicts">Sino-Dutch conflicts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liaoluo_Bay" title="Battle of Liaoluo Bay">Liaoluo Bay</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarh%C5%AB" title="Battle of Sarhū">Sarhū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty">Great Plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She-An_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="She-An Rebellion">She-An Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ming_peasant_rebellions" title="Late Ming peasant rebellions">Peasant rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiashen_Incident" title="Jiashen Incident">Jiashen Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Ming dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)#Ming_dynasty_and_Southern_Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">House of Zhu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Secretariat" title="Grand Secretariat">Grand Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_territory_in_dynastic_China#Ming_dynasty_(1368–1644)" title="Administration of territory in dynastic China">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Depot" title="Eastern Depot">Eastern Depot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princes_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Princes of the Ming dynasty">Princes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vassal_prince_peerages_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="List of vassal prince peerages of the Ming dynasty">Vassal prince</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Grand coordinator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embroidered_Uniform_Guard" title="Embroidered Uniform Guard">Embroidered Uniform Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futou#Ming_dynasty" title="Futou">Fotou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Military of the Ming dynasty">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_Great_Wall" title="Ming Great Wall">Great Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_weapons_in_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Gunpowder weapons in the Ming dynasty">Gunpowder weapons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shenjiying" title="Shenjiying">Shenjiying</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_conquests_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Military conquests of the Ming dynasty">Military conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Garrisons_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Nine Garrisons of the Ming dynasty">Nine Garrisons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Frontiers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Ming–Tibet relations">Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Wokou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunnan_under_Ming_rule" title="Yunnan under Ming rule">Yunnan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Compilations and Documents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">History of Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Hundred-word_Eulogy" title="The Hundred-word Eulogy">The Hundred-word Eulogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang-Ming_Zuxun" title="Huang-Ming Zuxun">Huang-Ming Zuxun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongle_Encyclopedia" title="Yongle Encyclopedia">Yongle Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collected_Statutes_of_the_Ming_Dynasty" title="Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty">Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_Veritable_Records" title="Ming Veritable Records">Ming Veritable Records</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces and Mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaotian_Palace" title="Chaotian Palace">Chaotian Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_Xiaoling" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Xiaoling">Ming Xiaoling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_Ancestors_Mausoleum" title="Ming Ancestors Mausoleum">Ming Ancestors Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_tombs" title="Ming tombs">Ming tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society and Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_poetry" title="Ming poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicians_in_Ming_China" title="Musicians in Ming China">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_painting" title="Ming dynasty painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_School" title="Wu School">Wu School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhe_school_(painting)" title="Zhe school (painting)">Zhe School</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_lacquerware_table" title="Chinese lacquerware table">Chinese lacquerware table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_presentation_porcelain" title="Ming presentation porcelain">Ming presentation porcelain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covered_jar_with_carp_design" title="Covered jar with carp design">Covered jar with carp design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongning_Temple_Stele" title="Yongning Temple Stele">Yongning Temple Stele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Economy of the Ming dynasty">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples#Ming_dynasty_Tai_history" title="Tai peoples">Tai history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Islam during the Ming dynasty">Islam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_coinage" title="Ming dynasty coinage">Coinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Tongbao" title="Hongwu Tongbao">Hongwu Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongle_Tongbao" title="Yongle Tongbao">Yongle Tongbao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ming_Treasure_Note" title="Great Ming Treasure Note">Great Ming Treasure Note</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9903#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4101004-8">Germany</a></li><li><a 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title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ming_dynasty" title="Category:Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1368_establishments_in_Asia" title="Category:1368 establishments in Asia">1368 establishments in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:14th_century_in_China" title="Category:14th century in China">14th century in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:14th-century_establishments_in_China" title="Category:14th-century establishments in China">14th-century establishments in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:15th_century_in_China" title="Category:15th century in China">15th century in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1640s_disestablishments_in_China" title="Category:1640s disestablishments in China">1640s disestablishments in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1644_disestablishments_in_Asia" title="Category:1644 disestablishments in Asia">1644 disestablishments in Asia</a></li><li><a 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