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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Independent_suspension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_suspension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Independent suspension</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Independent_suspension-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Independent suspension subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Independent_suspension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Suspension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suspension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Suspension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suspension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Advantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Double_wishbone_suspension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Double_wishbone_suspension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Double wishbone suspension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Double_wishbone_suspension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multi-link_suspension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multi-link_suspension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Multi-link suspension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multi-link_suspension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-MacPherson_strut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#MacPherson_strut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>MacPherson strut</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-MacPherson_strut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transverse_leaf-spring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transverse_leaf-spring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Transverse leaf-spring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transverse_leaf-spring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einzelradaufh%C3%A4ngung" title="Einzelradaufhängung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Einzelradaufhängung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspensi%C3%B3n_independiente" title="Suspensión independiente – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Suspensión independiente" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%84" title="تعلیق مستقل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تعلیق مستقل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_ind%C3%A9pendante" title="Suspension indépendante – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Suspension indépendante" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8B%AC%E7%AB%8B%E6%87%B8%E6%9E%B6" title="独立懸架 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="独立懸架" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erillisjousitus" title="Erillisjousitus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" 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decoding="async" width="255" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Independent_rear_suspension_AWD.jpg/383px-Independent_rear_suspension_AWD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Independent_rear_suspension_AWD.jpg/510px-Independent_rear_suspension_AWD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2210" data-file-height="1608" /></a><figcaption>A multi-link type rear independent suspension on an <a href="/wiki/Four-wheel_drive" title="Four-wheel drive">AWD</a> car. The anti-roll bar has some yellow paint on it.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Independent suspension</b> is any <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> <a href="/wiki/Suspension_(vehicle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Suspension (vehicle)">suspension</a> system that allows each wheel on the same <a href="/wiki/Axle" title="Axle">axle</a> to move vertically (i.e. reacting to a bump on the road) independently of the others. This is contrasted with a <a href="/wiki/Beam_axle" title="Beam axle">beam axle</a> or <a href="/wiki/DeDion_axle" class="mw-redirect" title="DeDion axle">deDion axle</a> system in which the wheels are linked. "Independent" refers to the motion or path of movement of the wheels or suspension. It is common for the left and right sides of the suspension to be connected with <a href="/wiki/Sway_bar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sway bar">anti-roll bars</a> or other such mechanisms. The anti-roll bar ties the left and right suspension spring rates together but does not tie their motion together. </p><p>Most modern vehicles have <b>independent front suspension</b> (<b>IFS</b>). Many vehicles also have an <b>independent rear suspension</b> (<b>IRS</b>). IRS, as the name implies, has the rear wheels independently sprung. A <b>fully independent suspension</b> has an independent suspension on all wheels. Some early independent systems used <a href="/wiki/Swing_axle" title="Swing axle">swing axles</a>, but modern systems use <a href="/wiki/Chapman_strut" title="Chapman strut">Chapman</a> or <a href="/wiki/MacPherson_strut" title="MacPherson strut">MacPherson struts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trailing_arm" class="mw-redirect" title="Trailing arm">trailing arms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multi-link_suspension" title="Multi-link suspension">multilink</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Double_wishbone_suspension" title="Double wishbone suspension">wishbones</a>. </p><p>Independent suspension typically offers better <a href="/wiki/Ride_quality" title="Ride quality">ride quality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Car_handling" class="mw-redirect" title="Car handling">handling</a> characteristics, due to lower <i>unsprung weight</i> and the ability of each wheel to address the road undisturbed by activities of the other wheel on the vehicle. Independent suspension requires additional engineering effort and expense in development versus a beam or live axle arrangement. A very complex IRS solution can also result in higher manufacturing costs. </p><p>The key reason for lower unsprung weight relative to a live axle design is that, for driven wheels, the <a href="/wiki/Differential_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential (mechanics)">differential</a> unit does not form part of the <a href="/wiki/Unsprung_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsprung weight">unsprung elements</a> of the suspension system. Instead, it is either bolted directly to the vehicle's <a href="/wiki/Chassis" title="Chassis">chassis</a> or more commonly to a <a href="/wiki/Subframe" title="Subframe">subframe</a>. </p><p>The relative movement between the wheels and the differential is achieved through the use of swinging driveshafts connected via <a href="/wiki/Universal_joint" title="Universal joint">universal joints (U joints)</a>, analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Constant-velocity_joint" title="Constant-velocity joint">constant-velocity (CV) joints</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Front-wheel-drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Front-wheel-drive">front-wheel-drive</a> vehicles. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Independent_suspension">Independent suspension</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Independent_suspension&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Independent suspension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suspension">Suspension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Independent_suspension&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Suspension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Suspension is the only component that separates the driver and/or passenger from the ground. The suspension in a vehicle helps absorb harshness in the road. There are many systems and designs that do this, such as independent suspension.<sup id="cite_ref-longhurst_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longhurst-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advantages">Advantages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Independent_suspension&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This system provides many advantages over other suspension systems. For example, in solid axle suspension systems, when one wheel hits a bump, it affects both wheels. This will compromise traction, smoothness of the ride, and could also cause a dangerous wheel shimmy when moving at high speeds. With independent suspension systems, the bump primarily affects only the contacted wheel. This offers many advantages such as greater ride comfort, better traction, and safer, more stable vehicles on the road.<sup id="cite_ref-longhurst_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longhurst-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Independent_suspension&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Double_wishbone_suspension">Double wishbone suspension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Independent_suspension&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Double wishbone suspension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Double_wishbone_suspension" title="Double wishbone suspension">Double wishbone suspension</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Double_wishbone_suspension.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Double_wishbone_suspension.jpg/220px-Double_wishbone_suspension.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Double_wishbone_suspension.jpg/330px-Double_wishbone_suspension.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Double_wishbone_suspension.jpg/440px-Double_wishbone_suspension.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1619" data-file-height="1446" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Double_wishbone_suspension" title="Double wishbone suspension">Double wishbone suspension</a>; arms and knuckle painted yellow</figcaption></figure> <p>In automobiles, a double wishbone suspension is an independent suspension design using two (occasionally parallel) wishbone-shaped arms to locate the wheel. Each wishbone or arm has two mounting points to the chassis and one joint at the knuckle. The shock absorber and coil spring mount to the wishbones to control vertical movement. Double wishbone designs allow the engineer to carefully control the motion of the wheel throughout suspension travel, controlling such parameters as <a href="/wiki/Camber_angle" title="Camber angle">camber angle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caster_angle" title="Caster angle">caster angle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toe_(automotive)" title="Toe (automotive)">toe pattern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roll_center" title="Roll center">roll center</a> height, <a href="/wiki/Scrub_radius" title="Scrub radius">scrub radius</a>, scuff<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and more. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multi-link_suspension">Multi-link suspension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Independent_suspension&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Multi-link suspension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Multi-link_suspension" title="Multi-link suspension">Multi-link suspension</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mercedes-Benz_C111_suspension.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Mercedes-Benz_C111_suspension.PNG/220px-Mercedes-Benz_C111_suspension.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Mercedes-Benz_C111_suspension.PNG/330px-Mercedes-Benz_C111_suspension.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Mercedes-Benz_C111_suspension.PNG/440px-Mercedes-Benz_C111_suspension.PNG 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="565" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_C111" title="Mercedes-Benz C111">Mercedes-Benz C111</a>; cutaway view of suspension</figcaption></figure> <p>A multi-link suspension is a type of vehicle suspension design typically used in independent suspensions, using three or more lateral arms, and one or more longitudinal arms. A wider definition considers any independent suspensions having three control links or more multi-link suspensions. These arms do not have to be of equal length, and may be angled away from their "obvious" direction. It was first introduced in the late 1960s on the Mercedes-Benz C111 prototype and put into production later on their W201 and W124 series. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="MacPherson_strut">MacPherson strut</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Independent_suspension&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: MacPherson strut"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/MacPherson_strut" title="MacPherson strut">MacPherson strut</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proton-MPV-Chassis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Proton-MPV-Chassis.jpg/220px-Proton-MPV-Chassis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Proton-MPV-Chassis.jpg/330px-Proton-MPV-Chassis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Proton-MPV-Chassis.jpg/440px-Proton-MPV-Chassis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="634" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/MacPherson_strut" title="MacPherson strut">MacPherson strut</a> (painted black) on <a href="/wiki/Proton_Exora" title="Proton Exora">Proton Exora</a></figcaption></figure> <p>This is the most common, widely used front suspension system in cars today. It is a very simple and effective design that uses a strut-type spring and shock absorber that work as a team that will pivot on a single ball joint. This system was popularized in British Fords in the 1950s, then adopted by BMW (1962) and Porsche (1963). Later, this space-efficient system became widespread with the growing popularity of front-wheel drive vehicles. </p><p>One problem with this system is that once the spring or the top plate becomes worn, the driver of a car with this system may hear a loud "clonk" noise at full lock (i.e. steering wheel turned to the extreme left or extreme right positions), as the strut's spring jumps back into place. This noise is often confused with CV-joint knock.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transverse_leaf-spring">Transverse leaf-spring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Independent_suspension&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Transverse leaf-spring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Studebaker_front_suspension_(Autocar_Handbook,_13th_ed,_1935).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Studebaker_front_suspension_%28Autocar_Handbook%2C_13th_ed%2C_1935%29.jpg/220px-Studebaker_front_suspension_%28Autocar_Handbook%2C_13th_ed%2C_1935%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Studebaker_front_suspension_%28Autocar_Handbook%2C_13th_ed%2C_1935%29.jpg/330px-Studebaker_front_suspension_%28Autocar_Handbook%2C_13th_ed%2C_1935%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Studebaker_front_suspension_%28Autocar_Handbook%2C_13th_ed%2C_1935%29.jpg/440px-Studebaker_front_suspension_%28Autocar_Handbook%2C_13th_ed%2C_1935%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Studebaker" title="Studebaker">Studebaker</a> "Planar" transverse <a href="/wiki/Leaf_spring" title="Leaf spring">leaf spring</a> front suspension</figcaption></figure> <p>Several independent suspension designs have featured transverse leaf springs. Most applications used multi-leaf steel springs, although more recent designs have used fiber reinforced plastic (FRP, typically fibers are fiberglass) springs. In addition to spring type (multi-leaf steel, FRP), a distinction can be drawn between systems where the spring also acts as a locating link and those where the spring only acts as a spring member. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/AC_Cobra" title="AC Cobra">AC Cobra</a> is an example of a transverse, multi-leaf steel spring suspension that uses the leaf spring as the upper suspension arm. Alternatively, the <a href="/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_(C2)" title="Chevrolet Corvette (C2)">1963 Corvette</a>'s rear suspension is an example where the transverse leaf spring is used only as a ride spring. In both examples, the leaf spring is centrally mounted, preventing displacement of the wheel on one side from affecting the wheel on the other side. </p><p>In 1981, General Motors pioneered the use of a FRP plastic transverse leaf spring on the <a href="/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_(C3)" title="Chevrolet Corvette (C3)">third-generation Corvette</a>. As in the examples above, the spring used a single, central mount which isolated the left and right movements. The FRP spring reduced weight and eliminated the inner leaf friction as compared to the multi-leaf metal spring which was standard on the car.<sup id="cite_ref-McLellan_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLellan-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rather than centrally mounting the transverse leaf spring and thus isolating the left and right sides of the springs, some manufacturers, starting with <a href="/wiki/Fiat" title="Fiat">Fiat</a> used two widely spaced spring mounts. This was first used on the front of the 1955 <a href="/wiki/Fiat_600" title="Fiat 600">Fiat 600</a> and later at the rear on the <a href="/wiki/Fiat_128" title="Fiat 128">Fiat 128</a>. The spring is allowed to pivot inside of the mounts which allows the displacement of the spring on one side to affect the other side. This mechanical communication between the left and right sides of the suspension results in an effect similar to that of an <a href="/wiki/Anti-roll_bar" title="Anti-roll bar">anti-roll bar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McLellan_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLellan-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lamm_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamm-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chevrolet Corvettes, starting with the 4th generation in 1984 have combined the <a href="/wiki/Corvette_leaf_spring" title="Corvette leaf spring">dual pivot mounts with FRP leaf springs</a>. </p><p>The transverse leaf spring is not used as commonly as it was earlier. It is very rare on modern cars, the Corvette and a few Volvo models being examples.<sup id="cite_ref-CandD_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CandD-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the past it was more widely used in many <a href="/wiki/Triumph_Motor_Company" title="Triumph Motor Company">Triumphs</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Triumph_Herald" title="Triumph Herald">Herald</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triumph_Vitesse" title="Triumph Vitesse">Vitesse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triumph_Spitfire" title="Triumph Spitfire">Spitfire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Triumph_GT6" title="Triumph GT6">GT6</a> all used a rear transverse leaf spring, as well as the 1995-98 <a href="/wiki/Volvo_900_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Volvo 900 series">Volvo 960/S90/V90</a> and a rare Swedish sports car incorporating the Volvo 960 rear suspension called the <a href="/wiki/Indigo_3000" title="Indigo 3000">JC Indigo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-longhurst_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longhurst-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> </p><p>This type of suspension should not be confused with earlier, rigid axle applications such as those used on <a href="/wiki/Transverse_leaf_spring_and_solid_axle_front_suspension_of_early_Ford_cars" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse leaf spring and solid axle front suspension of early Ford cars">early Ford cars</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Independent_suspension&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-longhurst-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-longhurst_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-longhurst_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-longhurst_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLonghurst2005" class="citation web cs1">Longhurst, Chris (5 August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issuu.com/sofiamartel/docs/car-bibles-the-car-suspension">"Car Bibles : The Car Suspension Bible"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Car+Bibles+%3A+The+Car+Suspension+Bible&rft.date=2005-08-05&rft.aulast=Longhurst&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fissuu.com%2Fsofiamartel%2Fdocs%2Fcar-bibles-the-car-suspension&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndependent+suspension" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLellan-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McLellan_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McLellan_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLellan2002" class="citation book cs1">McLellan, Dave (2002). <i>Corvette from the Inside</i>. Cambridge, MA: Bentley Publishers. pp. <span class="nowrap">86–</span>87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8376-0859-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8376-0859-7"><bdi>0-8376-0859-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corvette+from+the+Inside&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E86-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.pub=Bentley+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8376-0859-7&rft.aulast=McLellan&rft.aufirst=Dave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndependent+suspension" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lamm-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lamm_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamm1983" class="citation book cs1">Lamm, Michael (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120206012928/http://temp.corvetteforum.net/c4/gcrouse/Suspension/fiberglass_spring.gif"><i>The Newest Corvette. Corvette from A to Z-51</i></a> (1st ed.). Lamm-Morada Publishing. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0932128041" title="Special:BookSources/978-0932128041"><bdi>978-0932128041</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://temp.corvetteforum.net/c4/gcrouse/Suspension/fiberglass_spring.gif">the original</a> on 2012-02-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Newest+Corvette.+Corvette+from+A+to+Z-51&rft.pages=44&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Lamm-Morada+Publishing&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0932128041&rft.aulast=Lamm&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftemp.corvetteforum.net%2Fc4%2Fgcrouse%2FSuspension%2Ffiberglass_spring.gif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndependent+suspension" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CandD-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CandD_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoklosa" class="citation web cs1">Stoklosa, Alexander. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171229021116/https://blog.caranddriver.com/10-things-you-need-to-know-about-the-2016-volvo-xc90/">"10 Things You Need to Know About the 2016 Volvo XC90"</a>. <i>Car and Driver</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.caranddriver.com/10-things-you-need-to-know-about-the-2016-volvo-xc90/">the original</a> on 2017-12-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Car+and+Driver&rft.atitle=10+Things+You+Need+to+Know+About+the+2016+Volvo+XC90&rft.aulast=Stoklosa&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.caranddriver.com%2F10-things-you-need-to-know-about-the-2016-volvo-xc90%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndependent+suspension" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ol><li>Arvinmertitor Inc. "Independent Suspension for Off-highway Use." LexisNexis Academic.</li> <li>"independent suspension." Dictionary.com's 21st Century Lexicon. Dictionary.com, LLC. 14 Nov. 2011. <Dictionary.com</li> <li>Pintado, Publio, and Miguel-Angel Castell. "Independent Suspension." Vehicle System Dynamics 31.3 (1999): 137-55. EBSCO Host. 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tire">Tubeless</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hybrid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle_drivetrain" title="Hybrid vehicle drivetrain">Hybrid vehicle drivetrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">Electric generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternator" title="Alternator">Alternator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Automotive_handling97" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Automotive_handling" title="Template:Automotive handling"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Automotive_handling" title="Template talk:Automotive 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Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishtailing" title="Fishtailing">Fishtailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inboard_brake" title="Inboard brake">Inboard brake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understeer_and_oversteer" title="Understeer and oversteer">Oversteer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steering" title="Steering">Steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspension_(vehicle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Suspension (vehicle)">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tire" title="Tire">Tire / Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transaxle" title="Transaxle">Transaxle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understeer_and_oversteer" title="Understeer and oversteer">Understeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsprung_mass" title="Unsprung mass">Unsprung mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_dynamics" title="Vehicle dynamics">Vehicle dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weight_transfer" title="Weight transfer">Weight transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spring_(device)" title="Spring (device)">Spring</a> types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coil_spring" title="Coil spring">Coil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf_spring" title="Leaf spring">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_suspension" title="Air suspension">Pneumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_spring" title="Torsion spring">Torsion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Car_suspension" title="Car suspension">Suspension</a> types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_axle" title="Beam axle">Beam axle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Dion_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="De Dion tube">De Dion tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Semi-independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twist-beam_rear_suspension" title="Twist-beam rear suspension">Twist beam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Independent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_wishbone_suspension" title="Double wishbone suspension">Double wishbone</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Jaguar_independent_rear_suspension" title="Jaguar independent rear suspension">Jaguar IRS</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubonnet_suspension" title="Dubonnet suspension">Dubonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacPherson_strut" title="MacPherson strut">MacPherson strut</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Chapman_strut" title="Chapman strut">Chapman strut</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-link_suspension" title="Multi-link suspension">Multi-link</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sliding_pillar_suspension" title="Sliding pillar suspension">Sliding pillar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_axle" title="Swing axle">Swing axle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailing_arm" class="mw-redirect" title="Trailing arm">Trailing arm</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Semi-trailing_arm" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-trailing arm">Semi-trailing arm</a>)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" 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