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<span>Concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scopophilia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scopophilia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Scopophilia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scopophilia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spectatorship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spectatorship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Spectatorship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spectatorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gazing_at_the_nude_woman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gazing_at_the_nude_woman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Gazing at the nude woman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gazing_at_the_nude_woman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_black_female_nude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_black_female_nude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The black female nude</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_black_female_nude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_the_male_gaze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_the_male_gaze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Effects of the male gaze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_the_male_gaze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_of_the_gaze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_of_the_gaze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Theories of the gaze</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories_of_the_gaze-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories of the gaze subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_the_gaze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Matrixial_gaze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Matrixial_gaze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Matrixial gaze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Matrixial_gaze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_female_gaze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_female_gaze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>The female gaze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_female_gaze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oppositional_gaze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oppositional_gaze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Oppositional gaze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oppositional_gaze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Queering_the_gaze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Queering_the_gaze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Queering the gaze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Queering_the_gaze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_homoerotic_gaze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_homoerotic_gaze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>The homoerotic gaze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_homoerotic_gaze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>In film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox 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Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B0%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="نظرة ذكورية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظرة ذكورية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%27%E0%A6%9C" title="মেল গে'জ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মেল গে'জ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%C5%BEsk%C3%BD_pohled" title="Mužský pohled – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mužský pohled" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_gaze" title="Male gaze – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Male gaze" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirada_masculina" title="Mirada masculina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mirada masculina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begirada_maskulino" title="Begirada maskulino – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Begirada maskulino" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نگاه مردان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نگاه مردان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regard_masculin" title="Regard masculin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Regard masculin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D6%81%D6%84" title="Արական հայացք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արական հայացք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatapan_pria" title="Tatapan pria – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tatapan pria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sguardo_maschile" title="Sguardo maschile – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sguardo maschile" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%98_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99" title="המבט הגברי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המבט הגברי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%95%E1%83%90" title="კაცის ხედვა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კაცის ხედვა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyr%C5%B3_%C5%BEvilgsnis" title="Vyrų žvilgsnis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vyrų žvilgsnis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_gaze" title="Male gaze – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Male gaze" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B7%E6%80%A7%E3%81%AE%E3%81%BE%E3%81%AA%E3%81%96%E3%81%97" title="男性のまなざし – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="男性のまなざし" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%99skie_spojrzenie" title="Męskie spojrzenie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Męskie spojrzenie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olhar_masculino" title="Olhar masculino – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Olhar masculino" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manliga_blicken" title="Manliga blicken – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Manliga blicken" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B4" title="Чоловічий погляд – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Чоловічий погляд" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B7%E6%80%A7%E8%A6%96%E8%A7%92" title="男性視角 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="男性視角" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B7%E6%80%A7%E5%87%9D%E8%A7%86" title="男性凝视 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="男性凝视" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q15930278#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Male_gaze" 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Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Concept in feminist theory</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F%C3%A9lix_Trutat_-_Nude_Girl_on_a_Panther_Skin_-_WGA23101.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="see caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/F%C3%A9lix_Trutat_-_Nude_Girl_on_a_Panther_Skin_-_WGA23101.jpg/300px-F%C3%A9lix_Trutat_-_Nude_Girl_on_a_Panther_Skin_-_WGA23101.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/F%C3%A9lix_Trutat_-_Nude_Girl_on_a_Panther_Skin_-_WGA23101.jpg/450px-F%C3%A9lix_Trutat_-_Nude_Girl_on_a_Panther_Skin_-_WGA23101.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/F%C3%A9lix_Trutat_-_Nude_Girl_on_a_Panther_Skin_-_WGA23101.jpg/600px-F%C3%A9lix_Trutat_-_Nude_Girl_on_a_Panther_Skin_-_WGA23101.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1135" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption><i>Nude Girl on a Panther Skin</i> (1844) by <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Trutat" title="Félix Trutat">Félix Trutat</a> shows a reclining nude woman being watched by a disproportionately large male face at the window of her bedroom; the painting "powerfully exemplifie[s]" the concept of the male gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a>, the <b>male gaze</b> is the act of depicting <a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">women</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">world</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from a masculine, <a href="/wiki/Heterosexuality" title="Heterosexuality">heterosexual</a> perspective that presents and <a href="/wiki/Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">represents</a> women as <a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">sexual objects</a> for the pleasure of the heterosexual <a href="/wiki/Man" title="Man">male</a> viewer.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept was first articulated by British feminist film theorist <a href="/wiki/Laura_Mulvey" title="Laura Mulvey">Laura Mulvey</a> in her 1975 essay, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema. Mulvey's theory draws on historical precedents, such as the depiction of women in European oil paintings from the Renaissance period, where the female form was often idealized and presented from a voyeuristic male perspective. Art historian <a href="/wiki/John_Berger" title="John Berger">John Berger</a>, in his work Ways of Seeing (1972), highlighted how traditional Western art positioned women as subjects of male viewers’ gazes, reinforcing a patriarchal visual narrative.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the visual and aesthetic presentations of narrative cinema, the male gaze has three perspectives: that of the man behind the camera, that of the male characters within the film's cinematic representations, and that of the spectator gazing at the image.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">the gaze</a></i> was first used by the English art critic <a href="/wiki/John_Berger" title="John Berger">John Berger</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Ways_of_Seeing" title="Ways of Seeing">Ways of Seeing</a></i> (1972), which presents analyses of the representation of women — as passive objects to be seen — in advertising and as nude subjects in European art.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The feminist intellectual <a href="/wiki/Laura_Mulvey" title="Laura Mulvey">Laura Mulvey</a> applied the concepts of <i>the gaze</i> to critique traditional representations of women in cinema,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from which work emerged the concept and the term of <i>the male gaze</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The beauty standards perpetuated by the male gaze have historically sexualized and fetishized <a href="/wiki/Black_women" title="Black women">black women</a> due to an attraction to their physical characteristics, but at the same time punished them and excluded their bodies from what is considered desirable.<sup id="cite_ref-Farrington_1983_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farrington_1983-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The psychoanalytic theories of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a> are the foundations from which Mulvey developed the theory of the male gaze and interpreted and explained <a href="/wiki/Scopophilia" title="Scopophilia">scopophilia</a>, the "primordial wish for pleasurable looking" that is satisfied by the cinematic experience.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 807">: 807 </span></sup> The terms <i>scopophilia</i> and <i>scoptophilia</i> identify both the aesthetic joy and the sexual pleasures derived from looking at someone or something.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 815">: 815 </span></sup> </p><p>Concerning the psychologic applications and functions of <i>the gaze</i>, the male gaze is conceptually contrasted with the <a href="/wiki/Female_gaze" title="Female gaze">female gaze</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-interview-mulvey-2011_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interview-mulvey-2011-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jacobsson_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacobsson-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The existentialist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">the gaze</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in his 1943 book <i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i>; the idea is that the act of gazing at another human being creates a subjective power difference, which is felt both by the "gazer" and by the "gazed", because the person being gazed at is <a href="/wiki/Objectification" title="Objectification">objectified</a> – perceived as an object, not as a human being.<sup id="cite_ref-Stack_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stack-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Laura Mulvey's 1975 essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema",<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brainwashedebert_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brainwashedebert-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brainwashedaustinchronicle_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brainwashedaustinchronicle-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> she presents, explains, and develops the cinematic concept of the male gaze. Mulvey proposes that <a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">sexual inequality</a> — the asymmetry of <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">social and political power</a> between men and women — is a controlling social force in the cinematic <a href="/wiki/Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">representations</a> of women and men. The male gaze (the aesthetic pleasure of the male viewer) is a social construct derived from the ideologies and discourses of <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laura_Mulvey_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_July_24_2010_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Laura_Mulvey_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_July_24_2010_02.JPG/170px-Laura_Mulvey_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_July_24_2010_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Laura_Mulvey_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_July_24_2010_02.JPG/255px-Laura_Mulvey_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_July_24_2010_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Laura_Mulvey_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_July_24_2010_02.JPG/340px-Laura_Mulvey_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_July_24_2010_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>In the essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" (1975), Mulvey introduced and described the mechanics of the male gaze.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Feminism" title="Category:Feminism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Venus_symbol_(heavy_pink).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/80px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/120px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/160px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">History of feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Canada" title="History of women in Canada">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Germany" title="History of women in Germany">German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> Waves</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First-wave_feminism" title="First-wave feminism">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-wave_feminism" title="Third-wave feminism">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-wave_feminism" title="Fourth-wave feminism">Fourth</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Timelines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage" title="Timeline of women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_women%27s_suffrage_in_majority-Muslim_countries" title="Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries">Muslim countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States">US</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_legal_rights_(other_than_voting)" title="Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)">Other women's rights</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a> by country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Austria" title="Women's suffrage in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Australia" title="Women's suffrage in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Canada" title="Women's suffrage in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Colombia" title="Women's suffrage in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_India" title="Women's suffrage in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Japan" title="Women's suffrage in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Kuwait" title="Women's suffrage in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Liechtenstein" title="Women's suffrage in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_New_Zealand" title="Women's suffrage in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li>Spain <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_Spanish_Second_Republic_period" title="Women's suffrage in the Spanish Second Republic period">Second Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Francoist_Spain_and_the_democratic_transition" title="Women's suffrage in Francoist Spain and the democratic transition">Francoist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Switzerland" title="Women's suffrage in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Women's suffrage in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Wales" title="Women's suffrage in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_states_of_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in states of the United States">states</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality#Feminist_thought" title="Intersectionality">Intersectional variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_feminism" title="Fat feminism">Fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism#Lesbian_of_color_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_lesbianism" title="Radical lesbianism">Radical lesbianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism#Lesbian_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sex-positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">Transfeminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postgenderism" title="Postgenderism">Postgenderism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarian_ecofeminism" title="Vegetarian ecofeminism">Vegetarian ecofeminism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Socialist_feminism" title="Socialist feminism">Socialist</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Anarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queer_anarchism" title="Queer anarchism">Queer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jineology" title="Jineology">Jineology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_feminism" title="Marxist feminism">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality#Marxist_feminist_critical_theory" title="Intersectionality">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standpoint_feminism" title="Standpoint feminism">Standpoint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialist_feminism" title="Materialist feminism">Materialist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism#Materialist_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_feminism" title="Postcolonial feminism">Postcolonial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_feminism" title="Global feminism">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_feminism" title="Transnational feminism">Transnational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenofeminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenofeminism">Xenofeminism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multicultural</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africana_womanism" title="Africana womanism">Africana womanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hip_hop_feminism" title="Hip hop feminism">Hip hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism#Black_lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratchet_feminism" title="Ratchet feminism">Ratchet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicana_feminism" title="Chicana feminism">Chicana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism#Chicana_lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_feminism" title="Indigenous feminism">Indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_feminism" title="Native American feminism">Native American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiracial_feminist_theory" title="Multiracial feminist theory">Multiracial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_feminism" title="Romani feminism">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanism" title="Womanism">Womanism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Other variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_feminism" title="Anti-abortion feminism">Anti-abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_feminism" title="Maternal feminism">Maternal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postfeminism" title="Postfeminism">Postfeminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofeminism" title="Neofeminism">Neofeminism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_feminism" title="State feminism">State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carceral_feminism" title="Carceral feminism">Carceral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_feminism" title="Imperial feminism">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_feminism" title="Embedded feminism">Embedded</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-critical_feminism" title="Gender-critical feminism"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Gender-critical</span> or <span class="nowrap">trans-exclusionary</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_feminism" title="Victim feminism">Victim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_feminism" title="White feminism">White</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Religious variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_feminism" title="Buddhist feminism">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mormon_feminism" title="Mormon feminism">Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_feminism" title="New feminism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dianic_Wicca" title="Dianic Wicca">Dianic Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaiming_(Neopaganism)" title="Reclaiming (Neopaganism)">Reclaiming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism#Spiritual_Ecofeminism/Cultural_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India#Hindu_community" title="Feminism in India">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_feminism" title="Sikh feminism">Sikh</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movements_and_ideologies" title="Feminist movements and ideologies">Movements and ideologies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4B_movement" title="4B movement">4B movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantifa" title="Fantifa">Anti-fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-pornography_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-pornography feminism">Anti-pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberfeminism" title="Cyberfeminism">Cyberfeminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_HCI" title="Feminist HCI">HCI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networked_feminism" title="Networked feminism">Networked</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenic_feminism" title="Eugenic feminism">Eugenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipstick_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Lipstick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipstick_feminism#Stiletto_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Stiletto</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Difference_feminism" title="Difference feminism">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_feminism" title="Equality feminism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_feminism" title="Social feminism">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labor_feminism" title="Labor feminism">Labor</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian feminism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structural_feminism" title="Post-structural feminism">Post-structural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Postmodern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">Radical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_lesbianism" title="Political lesbianism">Political lesbianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technofeminism" title="Technofeminism">Technofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement" title="Women's liberation movement">Women's liberation</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinaturalism_(politics)" title="Antinaturalism (politics)">Antinaturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice_feminism" title="Choice feminism">Choice feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_labor" title="Cognitive labor">Cognitive labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literature" title="Feminist literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_children%27s_literature" title="Feminist children's literature">Children's literature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_effects_on_society" title="Feminist effects on society">Effects on society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_equality" title="Feminism and equality">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">Female education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_culture" title="Feminism in culture">Feminism in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">Feminist movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">African-American women's suffrage movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement" title="Feminist art movement">Art movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_activism_in_hip_hop" title="Feminist activism in hip hop">In hip hop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_striptease" title="Feminist views on striptease">Feminist stripper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_quota" title="Gender quota">Gender quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girl_power" title="Girl power">Girl power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_womanhood" title="Ideal womanhood">Ideal womanhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_labor" title="Invisible labor">Invisible labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_sexism" title="Internalized sexism">Internalized sexism</a></li> <li>International <a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">Girl's Day</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">Women's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_language_reform" title="Feminist language reform">Language reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_capitalism" title="Feminist capitalism">Feminist capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likeability_trap" title="Likeability trap">Likeability trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">Male privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchal_religion" title="Matriarchal religion">Matriarchal religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_media" title="Feminism and media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_in_feminism" title="Men in feminism">Men in feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Trans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_Oedipus_complex" title="Feminist views on the Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifeminism" title="Antifeminism">Opposition to feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-feminism" title="Pro-feminism">Pro-feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protofeminism" title="Protofeminism">Protofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purplewashing" title="Purplewashing">Purplewashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_racism" title="Feminism and racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_workers%27_rights" title="Sex workers' rights">Sex workers' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">Sexual objectification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_masculinity" title="Toxic masculinity">Toxic masculinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_oppression" title="Triple oppression">Triple oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_women" title="War on women">War on women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women-only_space" title="Women-only space">Women-only space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health"><span class="wrap">Women's health</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Women in the workforce</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Outlooks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicycling_and_feminism" title="Bicycling and feminism">Bicycling and feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_marriage" title="Criticism of marriage">Criticism of marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_BDSM" title="Feminist views on BDSM">Views on BDSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_pornography" title="Feminist views on pornography">Views on pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_sex_industry" title="Feminist views on the sex industry">Views on prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_sexuality" title="Feminist views on sexuality">Views on sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_sexuality" title="Feminist views on sexuality">Views on sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_transgender_topics" title="Feminist views on transgender topics">Views on transgender topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCUM_Manifesto" title="SCUM Manifesto">SCUM Manifesto</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_mainstreaming" title="Gender mainstreaming">Gender mainstreaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynocentrism" title="Gynocentrism">Gynocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyriarchy" title="Kyriarchy">Kyriarchy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Male gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_studies" title="Women's studies">Women's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_studies" title="Men's studies">Men's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89criture_f%C3%A9minine" title="Écriture féminine">Écriture féminine</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Areas of study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_modern_architecture" title="Feminism and modern architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art" title="Feminist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_criticism" title="Feminist art criticism">Art criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism" title="Feminist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_film_theory" title="Feminist film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction" title="Feminist science fiction">Science fiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_biology" title="Feminist biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory_in_composition_studies" title="Feminist theory in composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Criminology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pathways_perspective" title="Feminist pathways perspective">Pathways perspective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_post-structuralist_discourse_analysis" title="Feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis">FDPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">International relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_constructivism" title="Feminist constructivism">Constructivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pedagogy" title="Feminist pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_empiricism" title="Feminist empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_justice_ethics" title="Feminist justice ethics">Justice ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science" title="Feminist philosophy of science">science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_ecology" title="Feminist political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pornography" title="Feminist 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women in the United States">History of women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #DF2B6A;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists and categories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_feminism_articles" title="Index of feminism articles">Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminists" title="List of feminists">Feminists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Feminists_by_nationality" title="Category:Feminists by 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typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/28px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/42px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/56px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Feminism" title="Portal:Feminism">Feminism portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Feminism_sidebar" title="Template:Feminism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Feminism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Feminism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feminism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feminism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the fields of <a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">media studies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feminist_film_theory" title="Feminist film theory">feminist film theory</a>, the male gaze is conceptually related to the behaviors of <a href="/wiki/Voyeurism" title="Voyeurism">voyeurism</a> (looking as sexual pleasure), scopophilia (pleasure from looking), and <a href="/wiki/Narcissism" title="Narcissism">narcissism</a> (pleasure from contemplating one's self). Parting from the Freudian concept of male <a href="/wiki/Castration_anxiety" title="Castration anxiety">castration anxiety</a>, Mulvey said that because the woman does not have a penis, her <i>female presence</i> provokes sexual insecurity in the <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconscious</a> of the male, wherein women are passive recipients of male objectification.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The on-screen presence of a woman's body is notable, because "her lack of penis, [implies] a threat of castration and hence unpleasure", which the male gaze subverts through the over-sexualization of femininity.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the passive subjects and objects of the male gaze, the hypersexualization of women thwarts the man's castration anxiety with the sexual practises of <i>voyeurism-<a href="/wiki/Sadomasochism" title="Sadomasochism">sadism</a></i> and <i>fetishization</i> of the female body.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of voyeurism-sadism is the "pleasure [that] lies in ascertaining guilt (immediately associated with castration), asserting control and subjecting the guilty person through punishment or forgiveness", which aligns more with the structure of narrative cinema than does the fetishization component of scopophilia.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Psychologically, fetishistic scopophilia reduces the man's castration anxiety — induced by the presence of women — by fragmenting the woman's personality and hypersexualizing the parts of her body.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In narrative film, the visual perspective of the male gaze is the <a href="/wiki/Line_of_sight" title="Line of sight">sight-line</a> of the camera as the perspective of the spectator — a heterosexual man whose sight lingers upon the features of a woman's body.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In narrative cinema, the male gaze usually displays the female character (woman, girl, child) on two levels of eroticism: as an erotic object of desire for the characters in the filmed story; and as an erotic object of desire for the male viewer (spectator) of the filmed story. Such visualizations establish the roles of the dominant male and dominated female, by representing the female as a passive object for the male gaze of the active viewer. The social pairing of the passive object (woman) and the active viewer (man) is a functional basis of patriarchy, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender roles</a> that are culturally reinforced in and by the aesthetics (textual, visual, symbolic) of the mainstream, commercial cinema; the movies of which feature the male gaze as more important than the <a href="/wiki/Female_gaze" title="Female gaze">female gaze</a>, an aesthetic choice based upon the inequality of sociopolitical power between men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-interview-mulvey-2011_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interview-mulvey-2011-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 127">: 127 </span></sup> </p><p>As an ideological basis of patriarchy, sociopolitical inequality is realized as a <a href="/wiki/Value_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Value system">value system</a> by which male-created institutions (e.g. the movie business, <a href="/wiki/Advertising_industry" title="Advertising industry">advertising</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">fashion</a>) unilaterally determine what is "natural and normal" in society.<sup id="cite_ref-Privileging_the_Male_Gaze_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Privileging_the_Male_Gaze-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In time, the people of a community believe that the artificial values of patriarchy, as a social system, are the "natural and normal" order of things in society because men look at women and women are looked at by men. The Western hierarchy of "inferior women" and "superior men" derives from misrepresenting men and women as sexual opponents, rather than as <a href="/wiki/Sexual_equality" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual equality">sexual equals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Privileging_the_Male_Gaze_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Privileging_the_Male_Gaze-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concepts">Concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scopophilia">Scopophilia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scopophilia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Freudian concept of scopophilia produced two types of <i>male gaze</i>: the pleasure that is linked to sexual attraction (<a href="/wiki/Voyeurism" title="Voyeurism">voyeurism</a> in the extreme), and the scopophilic pleasure that is linked to <a href="/wiki/Narcissism" title="Narcissism">narcissistic</a> identification (the introjection of <a href="/wiki/Ego_ideal" title="Ego ideal">ego ideal</a>), and each type of male gaze shows how women have been socially compelled to view the cinema from the perspectives (sexual, aesthetic, cultural) of the <i>male gaze</i>. In cinematic representations of women, the male gaze denies the woman's <a href="/wiki/Agency_(sociology)" title="Agency (sociology)">human agency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">human identity</a> to transform her from person to object — someone to be considered only for her beauty, physique, and <a href="/wiki/Sex_appeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex appeal">sex appeal</a>, as defined in the male <a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">sexual fantasy</a> of narrative cinema.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pew_group_MET_DP-1135-002_(cropped)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pew_group_MET_DP-1135-002_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Pew_group_MET_DP-1135-002_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pew_group_MET_DP-1135-002_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Pew_group_MET_DP-1135-002_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Pew_group_MET_DP-1135-002_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Pew_group_MET_DP-1135-002_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="834" data-file-height="1364" /></a><figcaption>The male gaze of a male puppet (detail of an English <a href="/wiki/Pew_group" title="Pew group">pew group</a>, 1740s)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spectatorship">Spectatorship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Spectatorship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two types of spectatorship occur while viewing a film, wherein the spectator consciously and unconsciously engages in the societally defined-and-assigned <a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">roles of men and women</a>. Concerning <a href="/wiki/Phallocentrism" title="Phallocentrism">phallocentrism</a>, the spectator views a film from the perspectives of three different <i>looks</i>: the first look is that of the camera, which photographs and records the events of the filmed story; the second look describes the nearly voyeuristic act of the audience as they view the film proper; and the third look, which is that of the characters who interact with each other throughout the story.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The visual perspective common to the three types of <i>look</i> (camera, spectator, characters) is that the action of <i>looking</i> generally is perceived as the man's active role in the story, while being <i>looked-at</i> generally is perceived as the woman's passive role in the story.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based upon that patriarchal construction, the <a href="/wiki/Cinematography" title="Cinematography">cinematic narrative</a> presents and represents the women characters as objects of sexual desire possessed of a physical "appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact" upon the male spectator. Therefore, in the narrative of the story (screenplay) the actress does not portray a female <a href="/wiki/Protagonist" title="Protagonist">protagonist</a> whose actions directly affect the outcome of the story or propel the <a href="/wiki/Plot_(narrative)" title="Plot (narrative)">plot</a>. Instead of representing a female character with personal agency, the actress is in the film for the purpose of visually supporting the actor portraying the male protagonist, by her "bearing the burden of sexual objectification" — a condition psychologically unbearable for the actor, the character, and the story.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The condition of woman-as-passive-object of the male gaze is the link to scopophilia, the aesthetic pleasure derived from looking at someone as an <a href="/wiki/Objet_d%27art" title="Objet d'art">object of beauty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, as an expression of human <a href="/wiki/Sexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexuality">sexuality</a>, scopophilia refers to the pleasure (sensual and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_pleasure" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual pleasure">sexual</a>) derived from looking at <a href="/wiki/Sexual_fetish" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual fetish">sexual fetishes</a> and photographs, <a href="/wiki/Pornography" title="Pornography">pornography</a> and naked bodies, etc.; sexual spectatorship is in two categories: voyeurism, wherein the viewer's pleasure is in looking at another person from a distance, and he or she projects fantasies, usually sexual, onto the gazed-upon person; and narcissism, wherein the viewer's pleasure is in self-recognition when viewing the image of another person.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bases of voyeurism and narcissism are in the concepts of the object libido and of the ego libido.<sup id="cite_ref-Hollinger-1998_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollinger-1998-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the perspectives of male spectatorship, Mulvey said that in order for women to enjoy cinema, they must choose to identify with the male protagonist and assume his male-gaze perspective in looking at the world and at women.<sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the essay "If Her Stunning Beauty Doesn't Bring You to Your Knees, Her Deadly Drop-kick Will: Violent Women in Hong Kong Kung fu Film" (0000), the dramaturg <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Arons" title="Wendy Arons">Wendy Arons</a> said that the <a href="/wiki/Sexualization" title="Sexualization">hyper-sexualization</a> of the bodies of female characters symbolically diminishes the threat of <a href="/wiki/Emasculation" title="Emasculation">emasculation</a> posed by violent women, hence: "The focus on the [woman's] body — as a body in an ostentatious display of breasts, legs, and buttocks — does mitigate the threat that women pose to 'the very fabric of . . . society', by reassuring the [male] viewer of his <a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male privilege</a>, as the possessor of the objectifying [male] gaze."<sup id="cite_ref-Arons2001_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arons2001-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gazing_at_the_nude_woman">Gazing at the nude woman</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gazing at the nude woman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacopo_Robusti_dit_Le_Tintoret_-_Suzanne_au_Bain_-_Louvre_568.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Jacopo_Robusti_dit_Le_Tintoret_-_Suzanne_au_Bain_-_Louvre_568.jpg/220px-Jacopo_Robusti_dit_Le_Tintoret_-_Suzanne_au_Bain_-_Louvre_568.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Jacopo_Robusti_dit_Le_Tintoret_-_Suzanne_au_Bain_-_Louvre_568.jpg/330px-Jacopo_Robusti_dit_Le_Tintoret_-_Suzanne_au_Bain_-_Louvre_568.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Jacopo_Robusti_dit_Le_Tintoret_-_Suzanne_au_Bain_-_Louvre_568.jpg/440px-Jacopo_Robusti_dit_Le_Tintoret_-_Suzanne_au_Bain_-_Louvre_568.jpg 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="518" /></a><figcaption>The male gaze: In the first version of <a href="/wiki/Susanna_and_the_Elders_(Tintoretto)" title="Susanna and the Elders (Tintoretto)"><i>Susanna and the Elders</i></a> (1550–1560) Tintoretto shows Susanna directly looking at the spectator gazing at the painting of which she is the subject; aware of being looked at.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacopo_Tintoretto_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA22656.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Jacopo_Tintoretto_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA22656.jpg/220px-Jacopo_Tintoretto_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA22656.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Jacopo_Tintoretto_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA22656.jpg/330px-Jacopo_Tintoretto_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA22656.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Jacopo_Tintoretto_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA22656.jpg/440px-Jacopo_Tintoretto_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA22656.jpg 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>The male gaze: in the second version of <a href="/wiki/Susanna_and_the_Elders_(Tintoretto)" title="Susanna and the Elders (Tintoretto)"><i>Susanna and the Elders</i></a> (1555–1556) Tintoretto shows Susannah gazing at herself in a mirror, and thus joins the two old men in their spectatorship of her person and her <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a> as an object.<sup id="cite_ref-Berger-1972_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berger-1972-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the television series and book <i><a href="/wiki/Ways_of_Seeing" title="Ways of Seeing">Ways of Seeing</a></i> (1972), the art critic <a href="/wiki/John_Berger" title="John Berger">John Berger</a> used the term <i>the male gaze</i> to discuss and explain the <a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">sexual objectification</a> of women in the arts and in advertising — by distinguishing that men <i>look at</i> and that women are <i>looked at</i> as the subject of an image, as a <a href="/wiki/Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">representation</a>. Regarding the social function of art-as-spectacle, that men act and that women are acted-upon, accords with the social practices of spectatorship, which are determined by the aesthetic conventions of the artistic objectification of men and women, which artists have not transcended in their production of works of art.<sup id="cite_ref-Bell-2017_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bell-2017-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the genre of the <a href="/wiki/Nude_(art)" title="Nude (art)">Renaissance nude</a>, the nude woman who is the subject of the painting is often depicted being aware that she is being observed, either by other people within the scene portrayed in the painting or by the spectator gazing at the painting.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Berger analyzes the male-gaze perspectives of two <a href="/wiki/Tintoretto" title="Tintoretto">Tintoretto</a> paintings about <a href="/wiki/Susanna_(Book_of_Daniel)" title="Susanna (Book of Daniel)">Susanna and the Elders</a>, a biblical story about a pretty woman falsely accused of <a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">adultery</a> by two old men who discover each other spying on Susanna whilst she bathes. In the first painting, <i>Susanna and the Elders</i> (1550–1560), Susanna "looks back at us looking at her"; in the second painting, <a href="/wiki/Susanna_and_the_Elders_(Tintoretto)" title="Susanna and the Elders (Tintoretto)"><i>Susanna and the Elders</i></a> (1555–1556), Susanna is looking at herself in a mirror, and thus joins the two old men and the spectator in <i>looking at</i> Susanna-as-spectacle.<sup id="cite_ref-Berger-1972_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berger-1972-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The male-gaze perspectives of Tintoretto's paintings represent Susanna as nonchalant at being gazed upon in her nudity, whereas the <a href="/wiki/Female_gaze" title="Female gaze">female-gaze</a> perspective of the painting by <a href="/wiki/Artemisia_Gentileschi" title="Artemisia Gentileschi">Artemisia Gentileschi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susanna_and_the_Elders_(Artemisia_Gentileschi,_Pommersfelden)" title="Susanna and the Elders (Artemisia Gentileschi, Pommersfelden)"><i>Susanna and the Elders</i></a> (1610), represents the bathing Susanna as greatly humiliated at being subjected to the male gaze of two old men — the elders of the community — whose voyeurism has sexually objectified Susanna in the <a href="/wiki/Private_sphere" title="Private sphere">private sphere</a> of her life.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the production of a work of art, the conventions of artistic representation connect the male-gaze <a href="/wiki/Objectification" title="Objectification">objectification</a> of women to Lacan's theory of <a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">social alienation</a>: the psychological splitting that occurs from seeing oneself as one is and seeing one's <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">self</a> as an idealized representation. In <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian Renaissance painting</a>, especially in the nude-woman genre, psychological splitting arises in the objectified woman from the condition of being both the spectator and the spectacle; social alienation arises from seeing herself through <i>the gaze</i> of the spectator.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_black_female_nude">The black female nude</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The black female nude"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Lisa E. Farrington's "Reinventing Herself: The Black Female Nude",<sup id="cite_ref-Farrington_1983_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farrington_1983-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Farrington states that the European female nude has mostly been depicted as passive and complacent to a masculine gaze, or in special occasions has been depicted as sexually liberated and as a <i><a href="/wiki/Femme_fatale" title="Femme fatale">femme fatale</a></i> that uses her sexuality to overpower men. In contrast, black women have been portrayed as "deserving" sexual violence since at least the time of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>, during which many African women<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were removed from their homes, brought across the ocean, and forced into slavery. The power dynamic between enslaved women and their captors forced women to risk death or submit to a chance of surviving till the end of the long voyage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Need to directly link this concept to the concept of black women's hypersexuality (July 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This was used to create a narrative of black women's <a href="/wiki/Hypersexuality" title="Hypersexuality">hypersexuality</a>: the idea and stereotype that black women are inherently sexual creatures with uncontrollable desires reflective of animal behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Farrington_1983_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farrington_1983-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Farrington said that instead of perpetuating the gaze, women artists have the ability to reclaim dominance over their bodies by painting the female nude themselves. This counteracts the male artists who have traditionally painted women in the nude to assert their own sexual dominance over a woman subject. A woman painting a female nude completely flips the gaze because a female audience replaces the male audience.<sup id="cite_ref-Farrington_1983_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farrington_1983-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Western art has lacked representation in all areas and it historically fails to portray black female bodies in the same context that European women have been depicted. While this is a race issue, it is also a gender issue and highlights the specific <a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">intersection</a> of oppression that black women navigate, which is called <a href="/wiki/Misogynoir" title="Misogynoir">misogynoir</a>. When black women are shown in art, they are sexualized and put in submissive positions, like their white counterparts, but unlike their white counterparts black women also experience racialized bigotry, which others them from their own identity groups. It also means black women are considered undesirable because they are not seen the same as other women who were depicted as the epitome of beauty in the art world.<sup id="cite_ref-Farrington_1983_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farrington_1983-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though there is a small portion of media and art that depicts black women in romanticized versions of femininity, this imagery still leads back to <a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">gender stereotypes</a> that apply to all depictions of women.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Black male artists are also responsible for depicting sexualized black women in art and such practice has been seen abundant in recent media.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_the_male_gaze">Effects of the male gaze</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effects of the male gaze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA08572.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA08572.jpg/170px-Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA08572.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA08572.jpg/255px-Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA08572.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA08572.jpg/340px-Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Susanna_and_the_Elders_-_WGA08572.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1057" /></a><figcaption>The female gaze: in the painting <a href="/wiki/Susanna_and_the_Elders_(Artemisia_Gentileschi,_Pommersfelden)" title="Susanna and the Elders (Artemisia Gentileschi, Pommersfelden)"><i>Susanna and the Elders</i></a> (1610), <a href="/wiki/Artemisia_Gentileschi" title="Artemisia Gentileschi">Artemisia Gentileschi</a> shows Susanna greatly distressed and humiliated at being sexually objectified by the male gaze of two elders of the community.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <i>Theorizing the Male Gaze: Some Problems </i>(1989),<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> researcher Edward Snow states that the concept of the male gaze has evolved into a theory of patriarchy, and that being subjected to the male gaze has negative psychological consequences upon the <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a> of women, especially from the emotional and mental stresses of continually being expected <i>to perform</i> by and for men to the unrealistic standards of <a href="/wiki/Phallocentrism" title="Phallocentrism">phallocentric</a> masculinity. In comparison to the feelings of a man who anticipates being subjected to the <i>female gaze</i>, the woman's anticipation of being subjected to the male gaze increases her internal self-objectification, which induces feelings of body-shame and anxiety about her appearance. </p><p>In "Contextualizing Feminism: Gender, Ethnic and Class Divisions" (1983 Feminist Review),<sup id="cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthias_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Floya Anthias and Nira Yuval-Davissay detail the way that the male gaze, in terms of the black female body, is based on <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class</a> and gender divisions. To them, this concept is critical to unveiling the structure of oppression that the male gaze is built upon. Class divisions develop over time as ideologies are formed and reworked to reflect the current class system of an area. The influences of gender and racial divisions create the structure that separates different identities into separate groups. For that reason, black women will always have to deal with the gendered divisions that white women deal with, plus the racial oppression that black men face.<sup id="cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthias_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethnic divisions are an important cross section that impact gender and class divisions. </p><p>Given the prevalence of the male gaze in a patriarchal society, the social conventions of <a href="/wiki/Conservative_traditionalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative traditionalism">conservative traditionalism</a> implicitly teach girls and women how they are expected to behave when scrutinized by the male gaze. These <a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">social graces</a> for girls include <a href="/wiki/Posture_(psychology)" title="Posture (psychology)">postural</a> expectations,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to speak politely and not coarsely, and to groom and dress themselves in consideration of the opinions of other people. Failure to meet such standards of phallocentric masculinity is considered the personal fault of the individual girl or woman for not meeting <i>the female ideal</i> sought by the male gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>A Test of Objectification Theory: The Effect of the Male Gaze on Appearance Concerns in College Women</i> (2004), the researcher Rachel M. Calogero said that the male gaze can negatively affect the self-esteem of a woman and induce feelings of self-objectification that consequently lead to increased occurrences of feelings of <a href="/wiki/Body_shame" class="mw-redirect" title="Body shame">body shame</a> and poor mental health.<sup id="cite_ref-Calogero-2004_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Calogero-2004-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For most women, a physical interaction with a man does not cause internalized feelings of self-objectification and subsequent negative mental state, but the anticipation of being dehumanized into a sexual object, by the male gaze, does cause internalized feelings of <a href="/wiki/Self-hatred" title="Self-hatred">self-hatred</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Calogero-2004_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Calogero-2004-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_of_the_gaze">Theories of the gaze</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Theories of the gaze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Matrixial_gaze">Matrixial gaze</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Matrixial gaze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To address the psychological limitations of the male gaze, the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Bracha_Ettinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Bracha Ettinger">Bracha Ettinger</a> proposed the <i><a href="/wiki/Matrixial_Gaze" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrixial Gaze">matrixial gaze</a></i>, wherein <i>the female gaze</i> and <i>the male gaze</i> constitute each other from their <i>lack of the other</i>; <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan's</a> definition of <i>the gaze</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The matrixial gaze concerns trans-subjectivity and shareability based upon the feminine-matrixial-difference, which is produced by co-emergence by avoiding the phallic opposition of masculine–feminine. Parting from Lacan's later work, Ettinger's analyses the psychological structure of the Lacanian <i>subject</i>, whose deconstruction produces the feminine perspective by way of a shared matrixial gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the essay, "Is the Gaze Male?" (1983), E. Kaplan said that the male gaze constructs a false, hypersexualized <i>feminine Other</i> in order to dismiss the sensual feminine within every person innately connected to a <a href="/wiki/Maternal_figure" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal figure">maternal figure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan-1983_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan-1983-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That "the domination of women by the male gaze is part of men's strategy to contain the threat that the mother embodies, and to control the positive and negative impulses that memory traces of being mothered have left in the male unconsciousness." </p><p>That the <i>mutual gaze</i>, which seeks neither subordination nor domination of the gazer and the gazed-upon person, originates in the mother-child relationship,<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan-1983_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan-1983-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because Western culture is deeply committed to the ideas of "the masculine" and "the feminine" to demarcate differences between the sexes based upon the complex social apparatus of <i>the gaze</i>; and second, that said sexual demarcations are based upon patterns of dominance and submission. Such a demarcation of <i>difference</i> between <a href="/wiki/Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">the representations</a> of the sexes privileges the male gaze (voyeurism and fetishism) because men's desires include the power of action, whereas the desires of women usually do not include the power of acting upon their desires.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan-1983_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan-1983-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_female_gaze">The female gaze</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The female gaze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Social inequality</dt></dl> <p>Conceptually, the female gaze is like the male gaze, the action by which women view men and women, and themselves, from the perspective of a heterosexual man.<sup id="cite_ref-interview-mulvey-2011_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interview-mulvey-2011-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unequal social power of the male gaze is a conscious and subconscious effort to develop, establish, and maintain a sexual order of <a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">gender inequality</a> in a patriarchal society. From either perspective of <a href="/wiki/Power_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (sociology)">power</a>, women are socially unequal. On the one hand, a woman who welcomes the <a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">sexual objectification</a> of the male gaze might be perceived as <a href="/wiki/Conforming" class="mw-redirect" title="Conforming">conforming</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">sexist norms</a> that only benefit men, thereby, the woman's welcoming sexist attention reinforces the social power of the male gaze to dehumanize women. However, the woman who accepts the sexual politics of the male gaze might be perceived as an <a href="/wiki/Exhibitionism" title="Exhibitionism">exhibitionist</a> advantageously using sexual objectification to profitably manipulate the sexist norms of patriarchy for <a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">social capital</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-interview-mulvey-2011_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interview-mulvey-2011-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That <i>the gaze</i> dehumanizes women into objects of desire is a psychological component of male and female sexuality in Western culture;<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan-1983_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan-1983-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus, "men do not simply look; [but] their gaze carries with it the power of action and of possession, which is lacking in the female gaze. Women receive and return a gaze, but cannot act upon it." In that light, "the sexualization and objectification of women is not simply for the purposes of eroticism; [because], from a psychoanalytic point of view, [the objectification] is designed to annihilate the threat that women pose".<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan-1983_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan-1983-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their likeness, the male gaze and the female gaze possess unequal social power; in a patriarchy, the male gaze undermines the social equality of women into positions of gender inequality (subjectivity and submission). </p> <dl><dt>Negating the female gaze</dt></dl> <p>In the essay "Modernity and the Spaces for Femininity" (1988),<sup id="cite_ref-Pollock-pp._50–90_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollock-pp._50–90-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the cultural analyst <a href="/wiki/Griselda_Pollock" title="Griselda Pollock">Griselda Pollock</a> addresses the visual negation of the female gaze. Using the example of the photograph <i>Sidelong Glance</i> (1948), by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Doisneau" title="Robert Doisneau">Robert Doisneau</a>, Pollock describes a middle-aged <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeois</a> couple viewing artworks in the display window of an art gallery. In the photograph, the spectator's perspective is from inside the art gallery. The couple are looking in directions different from the sight-line of the spectator. The woman is speaking to her husband about a painting at which she is gazing, whilst her distracted husband is gazing at a painting of a nude woman, which also is in view of the spectator. The woman is looking at an artwork not in view of the spectator. The man has found someone more interesting to gaze at, thus ignoring his wife's comment. Pollock's analysis of the <i>Sidelong Glance</i> photograph is that: "She [the wife] is contrasted, <a href="/wiki/Iconography" title="Iconography">iconographically</a>, to the naked woman. She is denied the picturing of her desire; what she looks at is blank for the spectator. She is denied <i>being</i> the object of desire, because she is represented as a woman who actively looks, rather than [as a woman passively] returning and confirming the gaze of the masculine spectator."<sup id="cite_ref-Pollock-pp._50–90_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollock-pp._50–90-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Scopophilia displaced</dt></dl> <p>In "Watching the Detectives: The Enigma of the Female Gaze" (1989), <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Gamman" title="Lorraine Gamman">Lorraine Gamman</a> said that the difference between the female gaze and the male gaze is the displacement of scopophilia, which allows different perspectives because "the female gaze cohabits the space occupied by men, rather than being entirely divorced from it"; because the female gaze is not voyeuristic and so disrupts the phallocentric power of the male gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Pursuit of the absent object</dt></dl> <p>In the essay "Film and the Masquerade: Theorising the Female Spectator" (1999),<sup id="cite_ref-Doane-1999_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doane-1999-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Doane" title="Mary Ann Doane">Mary Ann Doane</a> said that Freudian psychoanalysis discounted the importance of the female spectator because she is "too close to herself, entangled in her own enigma, she could not step back, could not achieve the necessary distance of a second look". That the voyeuristic gaze and the fetishistic gaze each are a "pleasurable transgression" of looking depends on the spectator's physical proximity to the person who is the spectacle. In creating space between the subject (the spectator) and the object (the cinema screen), the male gaze perpetuates an "infinite pursuit of an absent object". Such psychological distance — despite physical proximity — is denied to the female spectator because of the "masochism of over-identification or the narcissism entailed in becoming one's own object of desire" — the opposite of what Mulvey said prevented the cinematic objectification of men.<sup id="cite_ref-Doane-1999_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doane-1999-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using the transvestite metaphor, Doane said that the female spectator has two options: to identify with the passive representation to which female characters are subjected by the cinematic male gaze, or to identify the masochistic representation of the male gaze as defiance of the patriarchal social assumptions that define femininity as "a closeness".<sup id="cite_ref-Doane-1999_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doane-1999-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Hypermediacy</dt></dl> <p>In "Networks of Remediation" (1999),<sup id="cite_ref-Remediation_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Remediation-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jay_David_Bolter" title="Jay David Bolter">Jay David Bolter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Grusin" title="Richard Grusin">Richard Grusin</a> said that Mulvey's theory of <i>the male gaze</i> coincides with "the desire for visual immediacy" — the erasure of the visual medium to facilitate the spectator's uninhibited interaction with the woman portrayed — defined in feminist film theory as the "male desire that takes an overt sexual meaning when the object of representation, and, therefore desire, is a woman."<sup id="cite_ref-Remediation_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Remediation-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 79">: 79 </span></sup> Bolter and Grusin proposed the term <i>hypermediacy</i> (directing the attention of the spectator to the visual medium and to the mediation inherent to a work of art) to be a form of the female gaze, because it "is multiple and <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviant</a> in its suggestion of multiplicity — a multiplicity of viewing positions, and a multiplicity of relationships, to the object in view, including sexual objects"; as a form of the female gaze, hypermediacy offers more and greater perspectives than the male gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-Remediation_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Remediation-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 84">: 84 </span></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Feminization of the male gaze</dt></dl> <p>In the essay, "Medusa and the Female Gaze" (1990),<sup id="cite_ref-Bowers-1990_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowers-1990-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Susan Bowers explores the <a href="/wiki/Medusa" title="Medusa">Medusa</a> theory about the feminization of the male gaze, that women who assume the female gaze are societally perceived as psychologically dangerous women, because men both desire and fear <i>the gaze</i> that sexually objectifies a man in the way that the male gaze objectifies a woman. The Medusa theory proposes that the psychological phenomenon of being looked-at begins when the woman who notices that a man is gazing at her deconstructs and rejects his objectification of her. The important aspect of the male gaze is its subdued, unquestioned existence, which is disrupted by the female gaze when women acknowledge themselves as the object of the gaze, and reject such sexual subordination by objectifying the gazing man with their female gaze. Using the illustration <i>Sex Murder on Ackerstrasse</i> (1916–1917), by <a href="/wiki/George_Grosz" title="George Grosz">Georg Grosz</a>, Bower's shows how "without a head, the woman in the drawing can threaten neither the man with her, nor the male spectator, with her own subjectivity. Her mutilated body is a symbol of how men have been able to deal with women by relegating them to visual objectivity".<sup id="cite_ref-Bowers-1990_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowers-1990-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, just as in the Ancient Greek myth of the female gaze of Medusa, the male gaze requires the decapitation of the woman — symbolizing her capacity to wield the female gaze and objectify the male character — in order to subjugate the female gaze to the social norms of <a href="/wiki/Heteropatriarchy" title="Heteropatriarchy">heteropatriarchy</a>, which demarcates sexual roles as either masculine or feminine.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowers-1990_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowers-1990-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the article "From Her Perspective" (2017), photographer and academic <a href="/wiki/Farhat_Basir_Khan" title="Farhat Basir Khan">Farhat Basir Khan</a> said that the female gaze is inherent to photographs taken by a woman, which is a perspective that negates the stereotypical male-gaze look inherent to "male-constructed" photographs, which, in the history of art, usually have presented and represented women as objects, rather than as persons.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oppositional_gaze">Oppositional gaze</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Oppositional gaze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oppositional_gaze" title="Oppositional gaze">Oppositional gaze</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bell_hooks,_October_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bell_hooks%2C_October_2014.jpg/170px-Bell_hooks%2C_October_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bell_hooks%2C_October_2014.jpg/255px-Bell_hooks%2C_October_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bell_hooks%2C_October_2014.jpg/340px-Bell_hooks%2C_October_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption>The oppositional gaze: The academic <a href="/wiki/Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">bell hooks</a> developed male-gaze theory to account for the exclusion and invisibility of black women from the male gaze and idealized white womanhood.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the essay "The Oppositional Gaze: Black Female Spectators" (1997),<sup id="cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the academic <a href="/wiki/Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">bell hooks</a> said that black women are placed outside the "pleasure in looking" (scopophilia) by being excluded as subjects of the male gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beyond the exclusivity of the social signifiers of sex and sexuality as <i><a href="/wiki/Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">difference</a></i>, through the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Oppositional_gaze" title="Oppositional gaze">oppositional gaze</a> hooks said that the power in looking also is defined by <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parting from her interpretation of the essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" (1975), by Laura Mulvey,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hooks said that "from a standpoint that acknowledges race, one sees clearly why black women spectators, [who are] not duped by mainstream cinema, would develop an oppositional gaze" to counter the male gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In relation to Lacan's <a href="/wiki/Mirror_stage" title="Mirror stage">mirror stage</a>, during which a child develops the capacity for self-recognition, and thus the <a href="/wiki/Ego_ideal" title="Ego ideal">ego ideal</a>, the oppositional gaze functions as a form of looking back, in search of the black female body within the cinematic idealization of white womanhood.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The black woman spectator identifies "with neither the phallocentric gaze nor the construction of white womanhood as lack [of the Other]", thus, "critical black female spectators construct a theory of looking relations where cinematic visual delight is the pleasure of interrogation",<sup id="cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which originates from a negative emotional response to the cinematic representation of women that "denies the 'body' of the black female so as to perpetuate <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> and with it a phallocentric spectatorship where the woman to be looked-at and desired is white".<sup id="cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accounting for the social signifiers of <i>difference</i> that lie outside the exclusivity of perpetuated lines of sex-and-sexuality, hooks curated an organic pleasure in looking, which is not related to the scopophilia originally presented and explained in "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema".<sup id="cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the context of feminist theory, the absence of discussion of racial relations within the totalizing category [of] <i>Women</i>" is a sociological denial that refutes criticism that feminist film critics concern themselves only with the cinematic presentation and representation of white women.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the course of being interviewed by hooks, a <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working-class</a> black woman said that "to see Black women in the position [that] white women have occupied in film forever" is to witness a transference without transformation; therefore, in the real world, the oppositional gaze includes <a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">intellectual</a> resistance and understanding and awareness of the politics of race and of racism by way of cinematic whiteness, inclusive of the male gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of sexual difference to justify discrimination towards women is comparable to how <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">racist pseudo-science</a> has been used in the argument black people are less than human.<sup id="cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthias_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This establishes black women as biologically sub-human or as an object to means of sexual reproduction and sexual desire.<sup id="cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthias_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important to note that gender divisions are not backed by sexual reproduction as they were constructed as tools of patriarchal control and used to support that ideology. It is harder to approach racial and ethnic division in such a straightforward manner because of the lack of complete separation between groups; there is too much crossover due to influence of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthias_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The racial discrepancy continues into the Western feminist movement that has historically ignored and excluded black women, to the point where the separation of the terms 'feminism' and '<a href="/wiki/Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">black feminism</a>' had to be made to address the issues of black women (and other <a href="/wiki/Person_of_color" title="Person of color">women of color</a>) which were never addressed or supported by the white feminists.<sup id="cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthias_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/White_feminism" title="White feminism">white feminism</a>, the term 'women" does not refer to women of all races but specifically to white, Eurocentric women; black women are grouped with black men and are not considered in this movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthias_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black feminism uniquely studies the intersection of race, gender and class.<sup id="cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthias_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though it was started as a way to focus on the scope of the overlooked black women, it can also leave women of color who are not black unaccounted for. Neither term is perfect to account for the struggles of all ethnic groups of women; feminism cannot be looked at as black versus white as that does not encompass the vast range of ethnic identities. That said, black feminism is the first account of feminism focusing on the oppression of women who do not fit into the Western beauty standard.<sup id="cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthias_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Queering_the_gaze">Queering the gaze</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Queering the gaze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Primoli,_Giuseppe_-_Das_K%C3%BC%C3%9Fchen_(Zeno_Fotografie).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Primoli%2C_Giuseppe_-_Das_K%C3%BC%C3%9Fchen_%28Zeno_Fotografie%29.jpg/220px-Primoli%2C_Giuseppe_-_Das_K%C3%BC%C3%9Fchen_%28Zeno_Fotografie%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Primoli%2C_Giuseppe_-_Das_K%C3%BC%C3%9Fchen_%28Zeno_Fotografie%29.jpg/330px-Primoli%2C_Giuseppe_-_Das_K%C3%BC%C3%9Fchen_%28Zeno_Fotografie%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Primoli%2C_Giuseppe_-_Das_K%C3%BC%C3%9Fchen_%28Zeno_Fotografie%29.jpg/440px-Primoli%2C_Giuseppe_-_Das_K%C3%BC%C3%9Fchen_%28Zeno_Fotografie%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="1695" /></a><figcaption>Photograph by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Primoli" title="Giuseppe Primoli">Giuseppe Primoli</a>: Two girls greet each other with a kiss; a boy looks on.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most applications of male gaze theory have been about the social <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a> of heterosexual patriarchy: <a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">sexually exclusive relationships</a> between men and women. In "Theorizing Mainstream Female Spectatorship: The Case of the Popular Lesbian Film" (1988),<sup id="cite_ref-Hollinger-1998_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollinger-1998-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> academic Karen Hollinger <a href="/wiki/Queer" title="Queer">queered</a> male-gaze theory to develop and explain <i>the gaze</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">lesbian</a> woman, which is a mutual gaze between two women — neither of whom is the subject or the object of <i>the lesbian gaze</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hollinger-1998_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollinger-1998-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In lesbian cinema, the absence of male-gaze social control voids the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">cultural hegemony</a> of patriarchy; women are free to be themselves, personally and sexually. The theory of the lesbian gaze proposes that cinematic lesbians are "simultaneously both [the] subject and [the] object of <i>the look</i>, and consequently of female desire",<sup id="cite_ref-Hollinger-1998_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollinger-1998-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is communicated in the narrative ambiguity of lesbian cinema, wherein "the <a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">sexual orientation</a> of [the story's] female characters is never made explicit, and viewers are left to read the [cinematic] text largely as they wish." Queering the male gaze eliminates the distinction between erotic love and <a href="/wiki/Platonic_love" title="Platonic love">Platonic love</a> in relationships among women, because the narrative ambiguity of lesbian cinema thwarts the heterosexual <a href="/wiki/Fetishism" title="Fetishism">fetishization</a> of the sexual identity of lesbians.<sup id="cite_ref-Hollinger-1998_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollinger-1998-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_homoerotic_gaze">The homoerotic gaze</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The homoerotic gaze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_Scott_Tuke_-_T._E._Lawrence_as_a_cadet_at_Newporth_Beach,_near_Falmouth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Henry_Scott_Tuke_-_T._E._Lawrence_as_a_cadet_at_Newporth_Beach%2C_near_Falmouth.jpg/220px-Henry_Scott_Tuke_-_T._E._Lawrence_as_a_cadet_at_Newporth_Beach%2C_near_Falmouth.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Henry_Scott_Tuke_-_T._E._Lawrence_as_a_cadet_at_Newporth_Beach%2C_near_Falmouth.jpg/330px-Henry_Scott_Tuke_-_T._E._Lawrence_as_a_cadet_at_Newporth_Beach%2C_near_Falmouth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Henry_Scott_Tuke_-_T._E._Lawrence_as_a_cadet_at_Newporth_Beach%2C_near_Falmouth.jpg/440px-Henry_Scott_Tuke_-_T._E._Lawrence_as_a_cadet_at_Newporth_Beach%2C_near_Falmouth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1637" /></a><figcaption>The Queer gaze: In the painting <i>T.E. Lawrence as a Cadet at Newporth Beach</i> (1921–1922) depicts Lawrence as the young man on the beach being <i>gazed at</i> by the man in the water. (<a href="/wiki/Henry_Scott_Tuke" title="Henry Scott Tuke">Henry Scott Tuke</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Male-gaze theory also proposes that <i>the male gaze</i> is a psychological "safety valve for homoerotic tensions" among heterosexual men; in genre cinema, the <a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">psychological projection</a> of homosexual attraction is sublimated onto the women characters of the story, to distract the spectator of the film story from noticing that <a href="/wiki/Homoeroticism" title="Homoeroticism">homoeroticism</a> is innate to friendships and relationships among men.<sup id="cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuckmann-1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the essay "Masculinity, the Male Spectator and the Homoerotic Gaze" (1998),<sup id="cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuckmann-1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patrick Shuckmann said that homoerotic-gaze theory reframes sexual objectification into the practice of <a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">othering</a> men and women to deflect attention from the homoeroticism inherent to male relationships; thus, the gaze of the cinema camera renders women characters into both objects of desire and objects of displaced desire.<sup id="cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuckmann-1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Using three story-plots in which the male gaze voids the homoerotic gaze in the relationships among the male characters in the story, Schuckmann shows that the visual and thematic purpose of women characters in a movie is to validate <a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">heteronormativity</a>: heterosexuality as the social norm.<sup id="cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuckmann-1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first plot is an <a href="/wiki/Action_film" title="Action film">action film</a> featuring two men in close-quarters combat; their violence is their implicit engagement with the homoeroticism inherent to physical contact, and use their male-gaze-objectification of the women characters as the "safety valve" that displaces the unspoken, emotional conflict of homoerotic attraction.<sup id="cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuckmann-1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second plot is from the <a href="/wiki/Buddy_film" title="Buddy film">buddy film</a> genre, which thematically acknowledges the existence of homoerotic tension between the two men who collaborate to realise a job. By way of allusive jokes and humour, the homoerotic tension is sublimated into the objectification of the heterosexual (man-woman) relationship that each man lives when off the job.<sup id="cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuckmann-1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third plot is the thematic exploration of <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">good-and-evil</a> within a character. In the genre film <i><a href="/wiki/Point_Break" title="Point Break">Point Break</a></i> (1991), the female gaze of the woman director presents and analyses homoerotic attraction between the policeman <a href="/wiki/Protagonist" title="Protagonist">protagonist</a> and the bank-robber <a href="/wiki/Antagonist" title="Antagonist">antagonist</a>. In the course of chasing and evading each other, each man has opportunity to exercise his homoerotic gaze at the other man, both as object and as subject of desire, personal and professional.<sup id="cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuckmann-1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thematically completing the plot and resolving the story requires that the policeman and the criminal seek the definitive masculine confrontation: the physical combat that will express and resolve their homosexual attraction, and the crime.<sup id="cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuckmann-1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, as commercial cinema, and despite the female-gaze cinematic perspective, <i>Point Break</i> includes an <a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">attractive</a> woman to look at, a character whose visual function in the story is to continually affirm the heterosexuality of the male characters to the male spectators of the movie.<sup id="cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuckmann-1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In "The Savage Id" (1999),<sup id="cite_ref-:1_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the feminist academic <a href="/wiki/Camille_Paglia" title="Camille Paglia">Camille Paglia</a> rejected the concept of the male gaze as being the <a href="/wiki/Objectification" title="Objectification">objectifying</a> perspective of cinema: </p> <blockquote><p>From the moment <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a> began to solidify its ideology in the early '70s, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock" title="Alfred Hitchcock">Hitchcock</a> became a whipping-boy for feminist theory. I've been very vocal about my opposition to the simplistic theory of <i>the male gaze</i> that is associated with Laura Mulvey (and that she, herself, has moved somewhat away from) and that has taken over feminist film studies to a vampiric degree in the last twenty-five years.<br /> The idea that a man looking at or a director filming a beautiful woman makes her an object, makes her passive beneath the male gaze which seeks control over woman by turning her into mere matter, into "meat" — I think this was utter nonsense from the start. [The male gaze] was formulated by people who knew nothing about the history of painting or sculpture, the <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">history of the fine arts</a>. [The male gaze] was an <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori">a priori</a></i> theory: First there was feminist ideology, asserting that history is nothing but male oppression and female victimization, and then came this theory — the "victim" model of feminism applied wholesale to works of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Nina_Menkes" title="Nina Menkes">Nina Menkes</a>'s 2022 documentary about the cinematic male gaze based on Mulvey's works, <i><a href="/wiki/Brainwashed:_Sex-Camera-Power" title="Brainwashed: Sex-Camera-Power">Brainwashed: Sex-Camera-Power</a></i>, was criticized by Marya E. Gates of RogerEbert.com as having a <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a><sup id="cite_ref-brainwashedebert_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brainwashedebert-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Sarah Jane of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Austin_Chronicle" title="The Austin Chronicle">The Austin Chronicle</a></i> noting Menkes plucking out scenes from certain films without proper context.<sup id="cite_ref-brainwashedaustinchronicle_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brainwashedaustinchronicle-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elyce Rae Helford, a gender researcher, notes that Mulvey's theory has been criticised for essentialism.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rhea Ashley Hoskin, a lesbian researcher, criticizes the tendency in social science to criticize feminine lesbian characters as created for the male gaze, and to present masculine lesbians as authentic. In her opinion, this trend reinforces the false idea that real lesbians are masculine, when in reality lesbians are diverse in their preferred <a href="/wiki/Gender_expression" title="Gender expression">gender expressions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The male gaze, partly arising out of natural biological pleasure-seeking male urges, and partly arising out of the inflated significance given in secular cultures to narrow aspects of reality (to compensate for the lack of religious/spiritual cosmic significance), results in an excessive cultural focus on the female body.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Thus for the female, the objection to the male gaze serves not only to reject undesirable men and thus facilitate <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">mate choice</a>, but also to counter the feelings of personal insignificance arising out of narrow conceptions of self.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androcentrism" title="Androcentrism">Androcentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze#Imperial_gaze" title="Gaze">Imperial gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_as_norm" title="Male as norm">Male as norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_supremacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Male supremacy">Male supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_theory" title="Screen theory">Screen theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_gaze" title="White gaze">White gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">Sexual objectification</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_film">In film</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Leia%27s_bikini" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Leia's bikini">Princess Leia's bikini</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">le regard</i></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alongside African men and children</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">To stand straight and not slouch</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHoyDiYanni1999" class="citation book cs1">Hoy, Pat C.; DiYanni, Robert (1999-11-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7nHlAAAAMAAJ"><i>Encounters: Essays for Exploration and Inquiry</i></a>. McGraw-Hill Companies, Incorporated. pp. IV. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-229045-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-229045-5"><bdi>978-0-07-229045-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encounters%3A+Essays+for+Exploration+and+Inquiry&rft.pages=IV&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Companies%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=1999-11-23&rft.isbn=978-0-07-229045-5&rft.aulast=Hoy&rft.aufirst=Pat+C.&rft.au=DiYanni%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7nHlAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-aesthetics/">"Feminist Aesthetics"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Winter 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2015</span>. <q>Assumes a standard point of view that is masculine and heterosexual. . . . The phrase 'male gaze' refers to the frequent framing of visual art objects so that the viewer is situated in a masculine position of appreciation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminist+Aesthetics&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Ffeminism-aesthetics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">That the male gaze applies to literature and the visual arts: Łuczyńska-Hołdys, Małgorzata (2013). <i>Soft-Shed Kisses: Re-visioning the Femme Fatale in English Poetry of the 19th Century</i>, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2008" class="citation journal cs1">Eaton, E.W. (September 2008). "Feminist Philosophy of Art". <i>Philosophy Compass</i>. <b>3</b> (5). Wiley-Blackwell: 873–893. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2008.00154.x">10.1111/j.1747-9991.2008.00154.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+Compass&rft.atitle=Feminist+Philosophy+of+Art&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=873-893&rft.date=2008-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2008.00154.x&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=E.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger1972" class="citation book cs1">Berger, John (1972). <i>Ways of Seeing</i>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140135152" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140135152"><bdi>978-0140135152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ways+of+Seeing&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0140135152&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevereaux1995" class="citation book cs1">Devereaux, Mary (1995). "Oppressive Texts, Resisting Readers, and the Gendered Spectator: The "New" Aesthetics". In Brand, Peggy Z.; Korsmeyer, Carolyn (eds.). <i>Feminism and tradition in aesthetics</i>. University Park, Pennsylvania: Penn State University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qVqJvchIb5YC&pg=PA126">126</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780271043968" title="Special:BookSources/9780271043968"><bdi>9780271043968</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oppressive+Texts%2C+Resisting+Readers%2C+and+the+Gendered+Spectator%3A+The+%22New%22+Aesthetics&rft.btitle=Feminism+and+tradition+in+aesthetics&rft.place=University+Park%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Penn+State+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780271043968&rft.aulast=Devereaux&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalters1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Suzanna_Danuta_Walters" title="Suzanna Danuta Walters">Walters, Suzanna Danuta</a> (1995). "Visual Pressures: On Gender and Looking". In Walters, Suzanna Danuta (ed.). <i>Material Girls: Making Sense of Feminist Cultural Theory</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/materialgirlsmak0000walt/page/57">57</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520089778" title="Special:BookSources/9780520089778"><bdi>9780520089778</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Visual+Pressures%3A+On+Gender+and+Looking&rft.btitle=Material+Girls%3A+Making+Sense+of+Feminist+Cultural+Theory&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780520089778&rft.aulast=Walters&rft.aufirst=Suzanna+Danuta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell2017" class="citation web cs1">Bell, Vicki (2017-01-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/john-berger-ways-seeing-a7518001.html">"How John Berger Changed Our Ways of Seeing Art"</a>. <i>The Independent</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=How+John+Berger+Changed+Our+Ways+of+Seeing+Art&rft.date=2017-01-14&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Vicki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Farts-entertainment%2Fart%2Ffeatures%2Fjohn-berger-ways-seeing-a7518001.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMKs_2DRkF8C&pg=PA75"><i>A Companion to Women in the Ancient World</i></a>, edited by Sharon L. James, Sheila Dillon, p. 75, 2012, Wiley, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1444355007" title="Special:BookSources/1444355007">1444355007</a>, 9781444355000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repeller.com/male-gaze-definition/">"6 Female Artists on What the Male Gaze Means to Them"</a>. <i>Repeller</i>. 2016-09-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Repeller&rft.atitle=6+Female+Artists+on+What+the+Male+Gaze+Means+to+Them&rft.date=2016-09-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepeller.com%2Fmale-gaze-definition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farrington_1983-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farrington_1983_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farrington_1983_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farrington_1983_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farrington_1983_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farrington_1983_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrington1983" class="citation journal cs1">Farrington, Lisa E. (1983). "Reinventing Herself: The Black Female Nude". <i>Woman's Art Journal</i>. <b>24</b> (2): 15–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1358782">10.2307/1358782</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1358782">1358782</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Woman%27s+Art+Journal&rft.atitle=Reinventing+Herself%3A+The+Black+Female+Nude&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=15-23&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1358782&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1358782%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Farrington&rft.aufirst=Lisa+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mulvey1975-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mulvey1975_12-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulvey1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Laura_Mulvey" title="Laura Mulvey">Mulvey, Laura</a> (Autumn 1975). "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema". <i><a href="/wiki/Screen_(journal)" title="Screen (journal)">Screen</a></i>. <b>16</b> (3): 6–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fscreen%2F16.3.6">10.1093/screen/16.3.6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Screen&rft.atitle=Visual+Pleasure+and+Narrative+Cinema&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=6-18&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fscreen%2F16.3.6&rft.aulast=Mulvey&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <p><i>Also available as</i>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulvey2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Laura_Mulvey" title="Laura Mulvey">Mulvey, Laura</a> (2009). "Visual pleasure and narrative cinema". In <a href="/wiki/Laura_Mulvey" title="Laura Mulvey">Mulvey, Laura</a> (ed.). <i>Visual and other pleasures</i> (2nd ed.). Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire England New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 14–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230576469" title="Special:BookSources/9780230576469"><bdi>9780230576469</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Visual+pleasure+and+narrative+cinema&rft.btitle=Visual+and+other+pleasures&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Hampshire+England+New+York&rft.pages=14-30&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780230576469&rft.aulast=Mulvey&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amherst.edu/system/files/media/1021/Laura%20Mulvey,%20Visual%20Pleasure.pdf">Pdf via Amherst College.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304111127/https://www.amherst.edu/system/files/media/1021/Laura%20Mulvey,%20Visual%20Pleasure.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </p> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-interview-mulvey-2011-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-interview-mulvey-2011_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-interview-mulvey-2011_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-interview-mulvey-2011_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-interview-mulvey-2011_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSassatelli2011" class="citation journal cs1">Sassatelli, Roberta (September 2011). "Interview with Laura Mulvey: Gender, Gaze and Technology in Film Culture". <i><a href="/wiki/Theory,_Culture_%26_Society" title="Theory, Culture & Society">Theory, Culture & Society</a></i>. <b>28</b> (5): 123–143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0263276411398278">10.1177/0263276411398278</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144070861">144070861</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theory%2C+Culture+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Interview+with+Laura+Mulvey%3A+Gender%2C+Gaze+and+Technology+in+Film+Culture&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=123-143&rft.date=2011-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0263276411398278&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144070861%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sassatelli&rft.aufirst=Roberta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jacobsson-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jacobsson_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsson,_Eva-Maria1999" class="citation report cs1">Jacobsson, Eva-Maria (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cid.nada.kth.se/pdf/cid_51.pdf">A Female Gaze?</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Stockholm, Sweden: Royal Institute of Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111004025557/http://cid.nada.kth.se/pdf/cid_51.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2011-10-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=A+Female+Gaze%3F&rft.place=Stockholm%2C+Sweden&rft.pub=Royal+Institute+of+Technology&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Jacobsson%2C+Eva-Maria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcid.nada.kth.se%2Fpdf%2Fcid_51.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stack-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stack_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStackPlant1982" class="citation journal cs1">Stack, George J.; Plant, Robert W. (1982). "The Phenomenon of 'The Look'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Philosophy and Phenomenological Research</i>. <b>42</b> (3): 359. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2107492">10.2307/2107492</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2107492">2107492</a>. <q>By their presence -- most forcibly by looking into your eyes -- other people compel you to realize that you are an object for them, Sartre (1948) argues.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+and+Phenomenological+Research&rft.atitle=The+Phenomenon+of+%27The+Look%27&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=359&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2107492&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2107492%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stack&rft.aufirst=George+J.&rft.au=Plant%2C+Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brainwashedebert-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brainwashedebert_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brainwashedebert_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/brainwashed-sex-camera-power-2022">Brainwashed: Sex-Camera-Power movie review (2022)|Roger Ebert</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brainwashedaustinchronicle-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brainwashedaustinchronicle_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brainwashedaustinchronicle_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austinchronicle.com/events/film/2022-12-02/brainwashed-sex-camera-power/">Brainwashed: Sex-Camera-Power - Movie Review - The Austin Chronicle</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRitzer2004" class="citation book cs1">Ritzer, George (August 11, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mTZ1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT505"><i>Encyclopedia of Social Theory</i></a>. SAGE Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781452265469" title="Special:BookSources/9781452265469"><bdi>9781452265469</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Social+Theory&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2004-08-11&rft.isbn=9781452265469&rft.aulast=Ritzer&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmTZ1AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT505&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStreeterHintlianChipetzCallender2005" class="citation web cs1">Streeter, Thomas; Hintlian, Nicole; Chipetz, Samantha; Callender, Susanna (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uvm.edu/~tstreete/powerpose/index.html">"This is Not Sex: A Web Essay on the Male Gaze, Fashion Advertising, and the Pose"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20111106152945/http://www.uvm.edu/~tstreete/powerpose/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-11-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=This+is+Not+Sex%3A+A+Web+Essay+on+the+Male+Gaze%2C+Fashion+Advertising%2C+and+the+Pose&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Streeter&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Hintlian%2C+Nicole&rft.au=Chipetz%2C+Samantha&rft.au=Callender%2C+Susanna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uvm.edu%2F~tstreete%2Fpowerpose%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span> Essay about the male gaze in advertising.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Privileging_the_Male_Gaze-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Privileging_the_Male_Gaze_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Privileging_the_Male_Gaze_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPritchardMorgan2000" class="citation journal cs1">Pritchard, Annette; Morgan, Nigel J. (October 2000). "Privileging the Male Gaze: Gendered Tourism Landscapes". <i>Annals of Tourism Research</i>. <b>27</b> (4): 884–905. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0160-7383%2899%2900113-9">10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00113-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Tourism+Research&rft.atitle=Privileging+the+Male+Gaze%3A+Gendered+Tourism+Landscapes&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=884-905&rft.date=2000-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0160-7383%2899%2900113-9&rft.aulast=Pritchard&rft.aufirst=Annette&rft.au=Morgan%2C+Nigel+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hollinger-1998-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hollinger-1998_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hollinger-1998_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hollinger-1998_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hollinger-1998_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hollinger-1998_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollinger1998" class="citation journal cs1">Hollinger, Karen (1998). "Theorizing Mainstream Female Spectatorship: The Case of the Popular Lesbian Film". <i>Cinema Journal</i>. <b>37</b> (2): 3–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1225639">10.2307/1225639</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-7101">0009-7101</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1225639">1225639</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cinema+Journal&rft.atitle=Theorizing+Mainstream+Female+Spectatorship%3A+The+Case+of+the+Popular+Lesbian+Film&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=3-17&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=0009-7101&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1225639%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1225639&rft.aulast=Hollinger&rft.aufirst=Karen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arons2001-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Arons2001_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArons2001" class="citation book cs1">Arons, Wendy (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B_d-V18a39MC&pg=PA41">"If Her Stunning Beauty Doesn't Bring You to Your Knees, Her Deadly Drop-kick Will: Violent Women in Hong Kong Kung fu Film"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Martha_McCaughey" title="Martha McCaughey">McCaughey, Martha</a>; King, Neal (eds.). <i>Reel Knockouts: Violent Women in Film</i>. University of Texas Press. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-75251-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-75251-1"><bdi>978-0-292-75251-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=If+Her+Stunning+Beauty+Doesn%27t+Bring+You+to+Your+Knees%2C+Her+Deadly+Drop-kick+Will%3A+Violent+Women+in+Hong+Kong+Kung+fu+Film&rft.btitle=Reel+Knockouts%3A+Violent+Women+in+Film&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-292-75251-1&rft.aulast=Arons&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB_d-V18a39MC%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berger-1972-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berger-1972_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berger-1972_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Berger, John <i>Ways of Seeing</i> (1972) p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bell-2017-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bell-2017_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell2017" class="citation web cs1">Bell, Vicki (2017-01-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/john-berger-ways-seeing-a7518001.html">"How John Berger Changed Our Ways of Seeing Art"</a>. <i>The Independent</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=How+John+Berger+Changed+Our+Ways+of+Seeing+Art&rft.date=2017-01-14&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Vicki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Farts-entertainment%2Fart%2Ffeatures%2Fjohn-berger-ways-seeing-a7518001.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger1973" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Berger" title="John Berger">Berger, John</a> (1973), "Section 3", in <a href="/wiki/John_Berger" title="John Berger">Berger, John</a> (ed.), <i>Ways of Seeing</i>, London: BBC Penguin Books, pp. 45 and 47, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780563122449" title="Special:BookSources/9780563122449"><bdi>9780563122449</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+3&rft.btitle=Ways+of+Seeing&rft.place=London&rft.pages=45+and+47&rft.pub=BBC+Penguin+Books&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=9780563122449&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristiansenMann2001" class="citation book cs1">Christiansen, Keith; Mann, Judith (2001). <i>Orazio and Artemesia Gentileschi</i>. Metropolitan Museum of Art.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orazio+and+Artemesia+Gentileschi&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Christiansen&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft.au=Mann%2C+Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturkenCartwright2001" class="citation cs2">Sturken, Marita; Cartwright, Lisa (2001), "Spectatorship, Power, and Knowledge", in Sturken, Marita; Cartwright, Lisa (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicesoflooki00mari/page/81"><i>Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture</i></a>, Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicesoflooki00mari/page/81">81</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198742715" title="Special:BookSources/9780198742715"><bdi>9780198742715</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Spectatorship%2C+Power%2C+and+Knowledge&rft.btitle=Practices+of+Looking%3A+An+Introduction+to+Visual+Culture&rft.place=Oxford+New+York&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780198742715&rft.aulast=Sturken&rft.aufirst=Marita&rft.au=Cartwright%2C+Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpracticesoflooki00mari%2Fpage%2F81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnow1989" class="citation journal cs1">Snow, Edward (1989-01-01). "Theorizing the Male Gaze: Some Problems". <i>Representations</i>. <b>25</b> (25): 30–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2928465">10.2307/2928465</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0734-6018">0734-6018</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2928465">2928465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Representations&rft.atitle=Theorizing+the+Male+Gaze%3A+Some+Problems&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=30-41&rft.date=1989-01-01&rft.issn=0734-6018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2928465%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2928465&rft.aulast=Snow&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anthias_2007-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anthias_2007_31-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthiasYuval-Davis2007" class="citation journal cs1">Anthias, Floya; Yuval-Davis, Nira (2007). "Contextualizing Feminism: Gender, Ethnic and Class Divisions". <i>Feminist Review</i> (15): 62–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1394792">10.2307/1394792</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1394792">1394792</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Review&rft.atitle=Contextualizing+Feminism%3A+Gender%2C+Ethnic+and+Class+Divisions&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=62-75&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1394792&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1394792%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Anthias&rft.aufirst=Floya&rft.au=Yuval-Davis%2C+Nira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Calogero-2004-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Calogero-2004_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Calogero-2004_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalogero2004" class="citation journal cs1">Calogero, Rachel M. (2004-03-01). "A Test of Objectification Theory: The Effect of the Male Gaze on Appearance Concerns in College Women". <i>Psychology of Women Quarterly</i>. <b>28</b> (1): 16–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1471-6402.2004.00118.x">10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00118.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0361-6843">0361-6843</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144979328">144979328</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+of+Women+Quarterly&rft.atitle=A+Test+of+Objectification+Theory%3A+The+Effect+of+the+Male+Gaze+on+Appearance+Concerns+in+College+Women&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=16-21&rft.date=2004-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144979328%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0361-6843&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1471-6402.2004.00118.x&rft.aulast=Calogero&rft.aufirst=Rachel+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEttinger1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bracha_Ettinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Bracha Ettinger">Ettinger, Bracha</a> (1995). <i>The Matrixial Gaze</i>. Leeds, UK: Feminist Arts and Histories Network, Department of Fine Art, University of Leeds. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780952489900" title="Special:BookSources/9780952489900"><bdi>9780952489900</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Matrixial+Gaze&rft.place=Leeds%2C+UK&rft.pub=Feminist+Arts+and+Histories+Network%2C+Department+of+Fine+Art%2C+University+of+Leeds&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780952489900&rft.aulast=Ettinger&rft.aufirst=Bracha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEttinger1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bracha_Ettinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Bracha Ettinger">Ettinger, Bracha</a> (1996), "The With-in-visible Screen", in de Zegher, M. Catherine (ed.), <i>Inside the Visible: An Elliptical Traverse of 20th century Art in, of, and from the Feminine</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 89–116, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262540810" title="Special:BookSources/9780262540810"><bdi>9780262540810</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+With-in-visible+Screen&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Visible%3A+An+Elliptical+Traverse+of+20th+century+Art+in%2C+of%2C+and+from+the+Feminine&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=89-116&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780262540810&rft.aulast=Ettinger&rft.aufirst=Bracha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaplan-1983-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan-1983_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan-1983_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan-1983_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan-1983_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan-1983_36-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaplan, E. (1983). "Is the Gaze Male?", in Snitow A., Stansell C., & Thompson S. (Eds.), <i>Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality</i> (pp. 309–327). New York: NYU Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv12pnr6v.28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pollock-pp._50–90-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pollock-pp._50–90_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pollock-pp._50–90_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollock1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Griselda_Pollock" title="Griselda Pollock">Pollock, Griselda</a> (1988), "Modernity and the Spaces for Femininity", in <a href="/wiki/Griselda_Pollock" title="Griselda Pollock">Pollock, Griselda</a> (ed.), <i>Vision and Difference: Femininity, Feminism, and Histories of Art</i>, London New York: Routledge, pp. 50–90, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415007214" title="Special:BookSources/9780415007214"><bdi>9780415007214</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Modernity+and+the+Spaces+for+Femininity&rft.btitle=Vision+and+Difference%3A+Femininity%2C+Feminism%2C+and+Histories+of+Art&rft.place=London+New+York&rft.pages=50-90&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780415007214&rft.aulast=Pollock&rft.aufirst=Griselda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><i>Abridgement available at</i>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollock1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Griselda_Pollock" title="Griselda Pollock">Pollock, Griselda</a> (1992), "Modernity and the Spaces for Femininity", in <a href="/wiki/Norma_Broude" title="Norma Broude">Broude, Norma</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mary_Garrard" title="Mary Garrard">Garrard, Mary D.</a> (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/expandingdiscour00norm/page/245"><i>The Expanding Discourse: Feminism and Art History</i></a>, New York: Icon Editions, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/expandingdiscour00norm/page/245">245–267</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780064302074" title="Special:BookSources/9780064302074"><bdi>9780064302074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Modernity+and+the+Spaces+for+Femininity&rft.btitle=The+Expanding+Discourse%3A+Feminism+and+Art+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=245-267&rft.pub=Icon+Editions&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780064302074&rft.aulast=Pollock&rft.aufirst=Griselda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexpandingdiscour00norm%2Fpage%2F245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://loomen.carnet.hr/pluginfile.php/214673/mod_resource/content/0/griseldapollockMOdernityandSpacesofFemininity.pdf">Pdf.</a></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGamman1989" class="citation cs2">Gamman, Lorraine (1989), "Watching the Detectives: The Enigma of the Female Gaze", in Gamman, Lorraine; Marshment, Margaret (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/femalegazewomena0000unse/page/16"><i>The Female Gaze: Women as Viewers of Popular Culture</i></a>, Seattle: Real Comet Press, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/femalegazewomena0000unse/page/16">16</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780941104425" title="Special:BookSources/9780941104425"><bdi>9780941104425</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Watching+the+Detectives%3A+The+Enigma+of+the+Female+Gaze&rft.btitle=The+Female+Gaze%3A+Women+as+Viewers+of+Popular+Culture&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Real+Comet+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780941104425&rft.aulast=Gamman&rft.aufirst=Lorraine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffemalegazewomena0000unse%2Fpage%2F16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doane-1999-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Doane-1999_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doane-1999_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doane-1999_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoane1999" class="citation book cs1">Doane, Mary Ann (1999). "Film and the Masquerade: Theorising the Female Spectator". In Thornham, Sue (ed.). <i>Feminist Film Theory</i>. pp. 131–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781474473224-017">10.1515/9781474473224-017</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-7322-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-7322-4"><bdi>978-1-4744-7322-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Film+and+the+Masquerade%3A+Theorising+the+Female+Spectator&rft.btitle=Feminist+Film+Theory&rft.pages=131-145&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9781474473224-017&rft.isbn=978-1-4744-7322-4&rft.aulast=Doane&rft.aufirst=Mary+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Remediation-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Remediation_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Remediation_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Remediation_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolterGrusin1999" class="citation cs2">Bolter, Jay David; Grusin, Richard (1999), "Networks of Remediation", in Bolter, Jay David; Grusin, Richard (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/remediationunder00bolt/page/64"><i>Remediation Understanding New Media</i></a>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/remediationunder00bolt/page/64">64–87</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262024525" title="Special:BookSources/9780262024525"><bdi>9780262024525</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Networks+of+Remediation&rft.btitle=Remediation+Understanding+New+Media&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=64-87&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780262024525&rft.aulast=Bolter&rft.aufirst=Jay+David&rft.au=Grusin%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fremediationunder00bolt%2Fpage%2F64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bowers-1990-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bowers-1990_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bowers-1990_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bowers-1990_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowers1990" class="citation journal cs1">Bowers, Susan R. (1990). "Medusa and the Female Gaze". <i>NWSA Journal</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 217–235. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1040-0656">1040-0656</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4316018">4316018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NWSA+Journal&rft.atitle=Medusa+and+the+Female+Gaze&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=217-235&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4316018%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1040-0656&rft.aulast=Bowers&rft.aufirst=Susan+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhan2017" class="citation news cs1">Khan, Atif (2017-01-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/From-her-perspective/article16988924.ece">"From Her Perspective"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180602070404/http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/From-her-perspective/article16988924.ece">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=From+Her+Perspective&rft.date=2017-01-04&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=Atif&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fentertainment%2Fart%2FFrom-her-perspective%2Farticle16988924.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hooks-2003-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooks-2003_43-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooks2003" class="citation book cs1">Hooks, Bell (2003). "The Oppositional Gaze: Black Female Spectators". In Amelia Jones (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nge6bJ-hP8kC"><i>The Feminism and Visual Cultural Reader</i></a>. New York: Routledge. pp. 94–105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415267052" title="Special:BookSources/9780415267052"><bdi>9780415267052</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Oppositional+Gaze%3A+Black+Female+Spectators&rft.btitle=The+Feminism+and+Visual+Cultural+Reader.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=94-105&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780415267052&rft.aulast=Hooks&rft.aufirst=Bell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnge6bJ-hP8kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulvey2006" class="citation book cs1">Mulvey, Laura (2006) [2001]. "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema". In Meenakshi Gigi Durham; Douglas Kellner (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I8dPhB88Sx4C"><i>Media and Cultural Studies: Keywords</i></a>. Malden, MA: Blackwell. pp. 342–352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405150309" title="Special:BookSources/9781405150309"><bdi>9781405150309</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Visual+Pleasure+and+Narrative+Cinema&rft.btitle=Media+and+Cultural+Studies%3A+Keywords&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pages=342-352&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781405150309&rft.aulast=Mulvey&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI8dPhB88Sx4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schuckmann-1998-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schuckmann-1998_45-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuckmann1998" class="citation journal cs1">Schuckmann, Patrick (1998). "Masculinity, the Male Spectator and the Homoerotic Gaze". <i>Amerikastudien / American Studies</i>. <b>43</b> (4): 671–680. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0340-2827">0340-2827</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41157425">41157425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Amerikastudien+%2F+American+Studies&rft.atitle=Masculinity%2C+the+Male+Spectator+and+the+Homoerotic+Gaze&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=671-680&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41157425%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0340-2827&rft.aulast=Schuckmann&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.salon.com/1999/08/13/hitchcock_paglia/">"The Savage Id"</a>. <i>Salon</i>. 13 August 1999.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Salon&rft.atitle=The+Savage+Id&rft.date=1999-08-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.salon.com%2F1999%2F08%2F13%2Fhitchcock_paglia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelford2006" class="citation journal cs1">Helford, Elyce Rae (2006). "<i>The Stepford Wives</i> And the Gaze". <i>Feminist Media Studies</i>. <b>6</b> (2): 145–156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14680770600645119">10.1080/14680770600645119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Media+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Stepford+Wives+And+the+Gaze&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=145-156&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14680770600645119&rft.aulast=Helford&rft.aufirst=Elyce+Rae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoskin2019" class="citation journal cs1">Hoskin, Rhea Ashley (2019). "Can femme be theory? Exploring the epistemological and methodological possibilities of femme". <i>Journal of Lesbian Studies</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10894160.2019.1702288">10.1080/10894160.2019.1702288</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31851870">31851870</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Lesbian+Studies&rft.atitle=Can+femme+be+theory%3F+Exploring+the+epistemological+and+methodological+possibilities+of+femme&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10894160.2019.1702288&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31851870&rft.aulast=Hoskin&rft.aufirst=Rhea+Ashley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPyszczynskiSolomonGreenberg2015" class="citation book cs1">Pyszczynski, Tom; Solomon, Sheldon; Greenberg, Jeff (2015). "Thirty Years of Terror Management Theory". <i>Advances in Experimental Social Psychology</i>. Vol. 52. Elsevier. pp. 1–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fbs.aesp.2015.03.001">10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.03.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802247-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802247-4"><bdi>978-0-12-802247-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thirty+Years+of+Terror+Management+Theory&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Experimental+Social+Psychology&rft.pages=1-70&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fbs.aesp.2015.03.001&rft.isbn=978-0-12-802247-4&rft.aulast=Pyszczynski&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft.au=Solomon%2C+Sheldon&rft.au=Greenberg%2C+Jeff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Male_gaze&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeville2015" class="citation journal cs1">Neville, Lucy (July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/17524/1/MaleGaysInTheFemaleGaze-FinalSubmission%283%29.pdf">"Male gays in the female gaze: women who watch m/m pornography"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Porn_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Porn Studies">Porn Studies</a></i>. <b>2</b> (2–3): 192–207. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23268743.2015.1052937">10.1080/23268743.2015.1052937</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Porn+Studies&rft.atitle=Male+gays+in+the+female+gaze%3A+women+who+watch+m%2Fm+pornography&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=192-207&rft.date=2015-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F23268743.2015.1052937&rft.aulast=Neville&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.mdx.ac.uk%2F17524%2F1%2FMaleGaysInTheFemaleGaze-FinalSubmission%25283%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobson2002" class="citation journal cs1">Hobson, Janell (2002). "Viewing in the Dark: Toward a Black Feminist Approach to Film". <i>Women's Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>30</b> (1/2): 45–59. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0732-1562">0732-1562</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40004636">40004636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Women%27s+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Viewing+in+the+Dark%3A+Toward+a+Black+Feminist+Approach+to+Film&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=45-59&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40004636%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0732-1562&rft.aulast=Hobson&rft.aufirst=Janell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMale+gaze" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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