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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology_and_related_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology_and_related_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology and related terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology_and_related_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification_by_size,_shape_and_behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_by_size,_shape_and_behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Classification by size, shape and behavior</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_by_size,_shape_and_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_by_thermal_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_by_thermal_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Classification by thermal state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_by_thermal_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Motion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Motion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Motion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Motion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fracture_zone_and_cracks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fracture_zone_and_cracks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Fracture zone and cracks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fracture_zone_and_cracks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subglacial_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subglacial_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Subglacial processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subglacial_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basal_melting_and_sliding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basal_melting_and_sliding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Basal melting and sliding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basal_melting_and_sliding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Speed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ogives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ogives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Ogives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ogives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glacial_geology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glacial_geology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Glacial geology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Glacial_geology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Glacial geology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Glacial_geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Erosion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erosion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Erosion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erosion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moraines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moraines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Moraines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moraines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drumlins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drumlins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Drumlins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drumlins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glacial_valleys,_cirques,_arêtes,_and_pyramidal_peaks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glacial_valleys,_cirques,_arêtes,_and_pyramidal_peaks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Glacial valleys, cirques, arêtes, and pyramidal peaks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glacial_valleys,_cirques,_arêtes,_and_pyramidal_peaks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roches_moutonnées" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roches_moutonnées"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Roches moutonnées</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roches_moutonnées-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alluvial_stratification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alluvial_stratification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Alluvial stratification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alluvial_stratification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glacial_deposits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glacial_deposits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Glacial deposits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glacial_deposits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loess_deposits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loess_deposits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Loess deposits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loess_deposits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Retreat_of_glaciers_due_to_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Retreat_of_glaciers_due_to_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Retreat of glaciers due to climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Retreat_of_glaciers_due_to_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isostatic_rebound" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isostatic_rebound"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Isostatic rebound</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isostatic_rebound-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_other_planets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_other_planets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>On other planets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_other_planets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>General references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Glacier</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 134 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-134" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">134 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletser" title="Gletser – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Gletser" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletscher" title="Gletscher – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Gletscher" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="جليدية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جليدية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciar" title="Glaciar – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Glaciar" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gllaci%C3%A9r" title="Gllaciér – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Gllaciér" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9" title="হিমবাহ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="হিমবাহ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciar" title="Glaciar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Glaciar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ro%27yrupa" title="Ro'yrupa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ro'yrupa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzlaq" title="Buzlaq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Buzlaq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82" title="بوزلاق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بوزلاق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9" title="হিমবাহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হিমবাহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peng-h%C3%B4" title="Peng-hô – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Peng-hô" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Ледавік – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ледавік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Ледавік – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ледавік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0" title="ग्लेशियर – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="ग्लेशियर" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Ледник – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ледник" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletscha" title="Gletscha – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Gletscha" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lednik" title="Lednik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Lednik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skorneg" title="Skorneg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Skorneg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacera" title="Glacera – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Glacera" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%C4%83%D1%80%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Пăрлăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пăрлăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledovec" title="Ledovec – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ledovec" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhewlif" title="Rhewlif – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhewlif" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletsjer" title="Gletsjer – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gletsjer" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletscher" title="Gletscher – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gletscher" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liustik" title="Liustik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Liustik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Παγετώνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παγετώνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Эймар – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Эймар" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciar" title="Glaciar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Glaciar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gla%C4%89ero" title="Glaĉero – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Glaĉero" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaziar" title="Glaziar – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Glaziar" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%AE%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="یخچال طبیعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="یخچال طبیعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Glacier" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletsjer" title="Gletsjer – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Gletsjer" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oighearshruth" title="Oighearshruth – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Oighearshruth" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awin_rioee" title="Awin rioee – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Awin rioee" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigh-shruth" title="Eigh-shruth – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eigh-shruth" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciar" title="Glaciar – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Glaciar" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B0%E5%B7%9D" title="冰川 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="冰川" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%99%ED%95%98" title="빙하 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="빙하" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%BC%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%BF" title="Սառցադաշտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սառցադաշտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="हिमानी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हिमानी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledenjak" title="Ledenjak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ledenjak" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciero" title="Glaciero – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Glaciero" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletser" title="Gletser – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gletser" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciero" title="Glaciero – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Glaciero" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%8A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Цъити – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Цъити" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6kull" title="Jökull – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Jökull" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghiacciaio" title="Ghiacciaio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ghiacciaio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A9%D7%AA%D7%99" title="קרחון יבשתי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרחון יבשתי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%A8tser" title="Glètser – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Glètser" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%89omba_%C9%9Bwa%C9%A3_(glacier)" title="Ɖomba ɛwaɣ (glacier) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ɖomba ɛwaɣ (glacier)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%BF" title="ಹಿಮನದಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹಿಮನದಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A7%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="მყინვარი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მყინვარი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%81%D9%95_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%9B%D9%84" title="شینہٕ ترٛل – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="شینہٕ ترٛل" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodof%C3%B4%C5%82t" title="Lodofôłt – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Lodofôłt" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D2%B1%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Мұздық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мұздық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewliv" title="Rewliv – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Rewliv" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barafuto" title="Barafuto – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Barafuto" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasye" title="Glasye – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Glasye" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasy%C3%A9" title="Glasyé – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Glasyé" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%A9%D2%A3%D0%B3%D2%AF" title="Мөңгү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мөңгү" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dlaci%C3%A1" title="Dlaciá – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Dlaciá" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laduojs" title="Laduojs – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Laduojs" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latgaļu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciarium" title="Glaciarium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Glaciarium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led%C4%81js" title="Ledājs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ledājs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletscher" title="Gletscher – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Gletscher" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledynas" title="Ledynas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ledynas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletsjer" title="Gletsjer – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Gletsjer" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedretta" title="Vedretta – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Vedretta" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleccser" title="Gleccser – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gleccser" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="हिमनदी – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="हिमनदी" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Ледник – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ледник" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF" title="ഹിമാനി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹിമാനി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="हिमनदी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="हिमनदी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%97%E1%83%98" title="ჯიშთი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯიშთი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasier" title="Glasier – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Glasier" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%A9%D1%81%D3%A9%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Мөсөн гол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мөсөн гол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%81%E1%80%B2%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ရေခဲမြစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရေခဲမြစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletsjer" title="Gletsjer – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gletsjer" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletsjer" title="Gletsjer – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Gletsjer" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="हिमनदी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="हिमनदी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF" title="च्वापुखुसि – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="च्वापुखुसि" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B7%E6%B2%B3" title="氷河 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="氷河" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istong" title="Istong – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Istong" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isbre" title="Isbre – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Isbre" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isbre" title="Isbre – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Isbre" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaci%C3%A8r" title="Glacièr – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Glacièr" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Ийнальык – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Ийнальык" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzlik" title="Muzlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Muzlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0" title="ਗਲੇਸ਼ੀਅਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗਲੇਸ਼ੀਅਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1" title="گلیشیئر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گلیشیئر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%AB%D9%84" title="کنګل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کنګل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliesia" title="Gliesia – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Gliesia" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodowiec" title="Lodowiec – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Lodowiec" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geleira" title="Geleira – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geleira" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzl%C4%B1q" title="Muzlıq – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Muzlıq" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghe%C8%9Bar" title="Ghețar – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ghețar" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glatscher" title="Glatscher – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Glatscher" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatun_chullunku" title="Hatun chullunku – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hatun chullunku" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Ледник – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ледник" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%83%D1%81" title="Булуус – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Булуус" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Glacier" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glitsker" title="Glitsker – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Glitsker" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akullnaja" title="Akullnaja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Akullnaja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghiacciaiu" title="Ghiacciaiu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ghiacciaiu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Glacier" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88" title="برفالو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="برفالو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%BDadovec_(s%C3%BAvisl%C3%BD_%C4%BEad)" title="Ľadovec (súvislý ľad) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ľadovec (súvislý ľad)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledenik" title="Ledenik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ledenik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%DA%BE%DB%86%DA%B5%D8%A8%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF" title="سەھۆڵبەند – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەھۆڵبەند" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Ледник – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ледник" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledenjak" title="Ledenjak – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ledenjak" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4%C3%A4tikk%C3%B6" title="Jäätikkö – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jäätikkö" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaci%C3%A4r" title="Glaciär – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Glaciär" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasyar" title="Glasyar – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Glasyar" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="பனியாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பனியாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Бозлык – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Бозлык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%82" title="హిమానీనదం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="హిమానీనదం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%82%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%87" title="ธารน้ำแข็ง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ธารน้ำแข็ง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8F%D1%85" title="Пирях – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Пирях" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzul" title="Buzul – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Buzul" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Льодовик – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Льодовик" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="گلیشیر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گلیشیر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%87%D8%B2%D9%84%DB%87%D9%82" title="مۇزلۇق – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="مۇزلۇق" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasaro" title="Jasaro – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Jasaro" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B4ng_b%C4%83ng" title="Sông băng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sông băng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaec%C3%AE" title="Glaecî – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Glaecî" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gletsjer" title="Gletsjer – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Gletsjer" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleysyer" title="Gleysyer – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Gleysyer" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B0%E5%B7%9D" title="冰川 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="冰川" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%A9%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="גלעטשער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="גלעטשער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B0%E5%B7%9D" title="冰川 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="冰川" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B0%E5%B7%9D" title="冰川 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="冰川" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Persistent body of ice that moves downhill under its own weight</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the geological formation. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Glacier_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Glacier (disambiguation)">Glacier (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ice river" redirects here. For the Chinese ski course, see <a href="/wiki/Ice_River_(ski_course)" title="Ice River (ski course)">Ice River (ski course)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geikie_Plateau_Glacier.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Geikie_Plateau_Glacier.JPG/325px-Geikie_Plateau_Glacier.JPG" decoding="async" width="325" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Geikie_Plateau_Glacier.JPG/488px-Geikie_Plateau_Glacier.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Geikie_Plateau_Glacier.JPG/650px-Geikie_Plateau_Glacier.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Glacier of the Geikie Plateau in <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wildspitze_seen_from_Hinterer_Brunnkogel,_with_visible_ascent_track_of_ski_mountaineer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Wildspitze_seen_from_Hinterer_Brunnkogel%2C_with_visible_ascent_track_of_ski_mountaineer.jpg/325px-Wildspitze_seen_from_Hinterer_Brunnkogel%2C_with_visible_ascent_track_of_ski_mountaineer.jpg" decoding="async" width="325" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Wildspitze_seen_from_Hinterer_Brunnkogel%2C_with_visible_ascent_track_of_ski_mountaineer.jpg/488px-Wildspitze_seen_from_Hinterer_Brunnkogel%2C_with_visible_ascent_track_of_ski_mountaineer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Wildspitze_seen_from_Hinterer_Brunnkogel%2C_with_visible_ascent_track_of_ski_mountaineer.jpg/650px-Wildspitze_seen_from_Hinterer_Brunnkogel%2C_with_visible_ascent_track_of_ski_mountaineer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1862" data-file-height="1026" /></a><figcaption>The Taschachferner in the <a href="/wiki/%C3%96tztal_Alps" title="Ötztal Alps">Ötztal Alps</a> in <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>. The mountain to the left is the <a href="/wiki/Wildspitze" title="Wildspitze">Wildspitze</a> (3.768 m), second highest in Austria.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baltoro_glacier_from_air.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Baltoro_glacier_from_air.jpg/325px-Baltoro_glacier_from_air.jpg" decoding="async" width="325" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Baltoro_glacier_from_air.jpg/488px-Baltoro_glacier_from_air.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Baltoro_glacier_from_air.jpg/650px-Baltoro_glacier_from_air.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2136" /></a><figcaption>With 7,253 known glaciers, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> contains more glacial ice than any other country on earth outside the polar regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Craig_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At 62 kilometres (39 mi) in length, the pictured <a href="/wiki/Baltoro_Glacier" title="Baltoro Glacier">Baltoro Glacier</a> is one of the world's longest alpine glaciers.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>glacier</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its <a href="/wiki/Ablation#Glaciology" title="Ablation">ablation</a> over many years, often <a href="/wiki/Century" title="Century">centuries</a>. It acquires distinguishing features, such as <a href="/wiki/Crevasse" title="Crevasse">crevasses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serac" title="Serac">seracs</a>, as it slowly flows and deforms under stresses induced by its weight. As it moves, it abrades rock and debris from its substrate to create landforms such as <a href="/wiki/Cirque" title="Cirque">cirques</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">moraines</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjords</a>. Although a glacier may flow into a body of water, it forms only on land and is distinct from the much thinner <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a> and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water. </p><p>On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a> (also known as "continental glaciers") in the <a href="/wiki/Polar_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar region">polar regions</a>, but glaciers may be found in <a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">mountain ranges</a> on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceania's high-latitude <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_island" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic island">oceanic island</a> countries such as <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. Between latitudes 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>, and a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> and on <a href="/wiki/Zard-Kuh" title="Zard-Kuh">Zard-Kuh</a> in Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-Post_2000_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Post_2000-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With more than 7,000 known glaciers, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> has more glacial ice than any other country outside the polar regions.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Craig_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glaciers cover about 10% of Earth's land surface. Continental glaciers cover nearly 13 million km<sup>2</sup> (5 million sq mi) or about 98% of <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>'s 13.2 million km<sup>2</sup> (5.1 million sq mi), with an average thickness of ice 2,100 m (7,000 ft). Greenland and <a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a> also have huge expanses of continental glaciers.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The volume of glaciers, not including the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland, has been estimated at 170,000 km<sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> on Earth, holding with ice sheets about 69 percent of the world's freshwater.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IMS_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IMS-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many glaciers from <a href="/wiki/Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">temperate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alpine_climate" title="Alpine climate">alpine</a> and seasonal <a href="/wiki/Polar_climate" title="Polar climate">polar climates</a> store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of <a href="/wiki/Meltwater" title="Meltwater">meltwater</a> as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt, creating a <a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">water source</a> that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. However, within high-altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. </p><p>Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">mean temperature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cloud_cover" title="Cloud cover">cloud cover</a>, <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">glacial mass changes</a> are considered among the most sensitive indicators of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> and are a major source of variations in <a href="/wiki/Current_sea_level_rise" class="mw-redirect" title="Current sea level rise">sea level</a>. </p><p>A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, <a href="/wiki/Blue_ice_(glacial)" title="Blue ice (glacial)">appears blue</a>, as large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">water appear blue</a>, because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the blue color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a white color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the created ice's density. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_related_terms">Etymology and related terms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and related terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>glacier</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanword</a> from French and goes back, via <a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Provençal language">Franco-Provençal</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">glaciārium</i></span></i>, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">glacia</i></span></i>, and ultimately <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">glaciēs</i></span></i>, meaning "ice".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of glacier establishment, growth and flow is called <a href="/wiki/Glacial_period" title="Glacial period">glaciation</a>. The corresponding area of study is called <a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">glaciology</a>. Glaciers are important components of the global <a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">cryosphere</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification_by_size,_shape_and_behavior"><span id="Classification_by_size.2C_shape_and_behavior"></span>Classification by size, shape and behavior</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classification by size, shape and behavior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Glacier_morphology" title="Glacier morphology">Glacier morphology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quelccaya_Glacier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Quelccaya_Glacier.jpg/220px-Quelccaya_Glacier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Quelccaya_Glacier.jpg/330px-Quelccaya_Glacier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Quelccaya_Glacier.jpg/440px-Quelccaya_Glacier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Quelccaya_Ice_Cap" title="Quelccaya Ice Cap">Quelccaya Ice Cap</a> in Peru is the second-largest glaciated area in the tropics</figcaption></figure> <p>Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior. <i><a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alpine</a> glaciers</i> form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a <i>valley glacier</i>, or alternatively, an <i>alpine glacier</i> or <i>mountain glacier</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcano</a> is termed an <i><a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">ice cap</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Ice_field" title="Ice field">ice field</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ice caps have an area less than 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> (19,000 sq mi) by definition. </p><p>Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> (19,000 sq mi) are called <i><a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a></i> or <i>continental glaciers</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only <a href="/wiki/Nunatak" title="Nunatak">nunataks</a> protrude from their surfaces. The only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They contain vast quantities of freshwater, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m (230 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Portions of an ice sheet or cap that extend into water are called <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice shelves">ice shelves</a>; they tend to be thin with limited slopes and reduced velocities.<sup id="cite_ref-NSIDC_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSIDC-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Narrow, fast-moving sections of an ice sheet are called <i><a href="/wiki/Ice_streams" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice streams">ice streams</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BAS2009_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BAS2009-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Antarctica, many ice streams drain into large <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">ice shelves</a>. Some drain directly into the sea, often with an <a href="/wiki/Ice_tongue" title="Ice tongue">ice tongue</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Mertz_Glacier" title="Mertz Glacier">Mertz Glacier</a>. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Tidewater_glacier_cycle" title="Tidewater glacier cycle">Tidewater glaciers</a></i> are glaciers that terminate in the sea, including most glaciers flowing from Greenland, Antarctica, <a href="/wiki/Baffin_Island" title="Baffin Island">Baffin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devon_Island" title="Devon Island">Devon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ellesmere_Island" title="Ellesmere Island">Ellesmere Islands</a> in Canada, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Alaska" title="Southeast Alaska">Southeast Alaska</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Patagonian_Ice_Field" title="Northern Patagonian Ice Field">Northern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Patagonian_Ice_Field" title="Southern Patagonian Ice Field">Southern Patagonian Ice Fields</a>. As the ice reaches the sea, pieces break off or calve, forming <a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">icebergs</a>. Most tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous impact as the iceberg strikes the water. Tidewater glaciers undergo centuries-long <a href="/wiki/Tidewater_glacier_cycle" title="Tidewater glacier cycle">cycles of advance and retreat</a> that are much less affected by climate change than other glaciers.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification_by_thermal_state">Classification by thermal state</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classification by thermal state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ellesmere_Island_06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ellesmere_Island_06.jpg/220px-Ellesmere_Island_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ellesmere_Island_06.jpg/330px-Ellesmere_Island_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ellesmere_Island_06.jpg/440px-Ellesmere_Island_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3206" data-file-height="2176" /></a><figcaption> Webber Glacier on <a href="/wiki/Grant_Land" title="Grant Land">Grant Land</a> is an advancing polar glacier</figcaption></figure> <p>Thermally, a <i>temperate glacier</i> is at a melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its base. The ice of a <i>polar glacier</i> is always below the freezing threshold from the surface to its base, although the surface <a href="/wiki/Snowpack" title="Snowpack">snowpack</a> may experience seasonal melting. A <i>subpolar glacier</i> includes both temperate and polar ice, depending on the depth beneath the surface and position along the length of the glacier. In a similar way, the thermal regime of a glacier is often described by its basal temperature. A <i>cold-based glacier</i> is below freezing at the ice-ground interface and is thus frozen to the underlying substrate. A <i>warm-based glacier</i> is above or at freezing at the interface and is able to slide at this contact.<sup id="cite_ref-ColdBased_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ColdBased-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This contrast is thought to a large extent to govern the ability of a glacier to effectively <a href="/wiki/Glacial_erosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial erosion">erode its bed</a>, as sliding ice promotes <a href="/wiki/Plucking_(glaciation)" title="Plucking (glaciation)">plucking</a> at rock from the surface below.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glaciers which are partly cold-based and partly warm-based are known as <i>polythermal</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ColdBased_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ColdBased-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:153_-_Glacier_Perito_Moreno_-_Grotte_glaciaire_-_Janvier_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/153_-_Glacier_Perito_Moreno_-_Grotte_glaciaire_-_Janvier_2010.jpg/220px-153_-_Glacier_Perito_Moreno_-_Grotte_glaciaire_-_Janvier_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/153_-_Glacier_Perito_Moreno_-_Grotte_glaciaire_-_Janvier_2010.jpg/330px-153_-_Glacier_Perito_Moreno_-_Grotte_glaciaire_-_Janvier_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/153_-_Glacier_Perito_Moreno_-_Grotte_glaciaire_-_Janvier_2010.jpg/440px-153_-_Glacier_Perito_Moreno_-_Grotte_glaciaire_-_Janvier_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2055" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Glacier_cave" title="Glacier cave">glacier cave</a> located on the <a href="/wiki/Perito_Moreno_Glacier" title="Perito Moreno Glacier">Perito Moreno Glacier</a> in Argentina</figcaption></figure> <p>Glaciers form where the <a href="/wiki/Glacier_ice_accumulation" title="Glacier ice accumulation">accumulation</a> of snow and ice exceeds <a href="/wiki/Ablation" title="Ablation">ablation</a>. A glacier usually originates from a <a href="/wiki/Cirque" title="Cirque">cirque</a> landform (alternatively known as a corrie or as a <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">cwm</span></span>) – a typically armchair-shaped geological feature (such as a depression between mountains enclosed by <a href="/wiki/Ar%C3%AAte" title="Arête">arêtes</a>) – which collects and compresses through gravity the snow that falls into it. This snow accumulates and the weight of the snow falling above compacts it, forming <a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9v%C3%A9" title="Névé">névé</a> (granular snow). Further crushing of the individual snowflakes and squeezing the air from the snow turns it into "glacial ice". This glacial ice will fill the cirque until it "overflows" through a geological weakness or vacancy, such as a gap between two mountains. When the mass of snow and ice reaches sufficient thickness, it begins to move by a combination of surface slope, gravity, and pressure. On steeper slopes, this can occur with as little as 15 m (49 ft) of snow-ice. </p><p>In temperate glaciers, snow repeatedly freezes and thaws, changing into granular ice called <a href="/wiki/Firn" title="Firn">firn</a>. Under the pressure of the layers of ice and snow above it, this granular ice fuses into denser firn. Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further compaction and become glacial ice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011260–262Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011260–262Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glacier ice is slightly more dense than ice formed from frozen water because glacier ice contains fewer trapped air bubbles. </p><p>Glacial ice has a distinctive blue tint because it absorbs some red light due to an <a href="/wiki/Overtone" title="Overtone">overtone</a> of the infrared <a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">OH stretching</a> mode of the water molecule. (Liquid water appears blue for the same reason. The blue of glacier ice is sometimes misattributed to <a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering" title="Rayleigh scattering">Rayleigh scattering</a> of bubbles in the ice.)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ellesmere_Island_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Ellesmere_Island_05.jpg/220px-Ellesmere_Island_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Ellesmere_Island_05.jpg/330px-Ellesmere_Island_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Ellesmere_Island_05.jpg/440px-Ellesmere_Island_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2165" data-file-height="3181" /></a><figcaption>The overhanging icefront of the advancing Webber Glacier with waterfalls (Borup Fiord area, Northern Ellesmere Island) on July 20, 1978. Debris rich layers have been sheared and folded into the basal cold glacier ice. The glacier front is 6 km broad and up to 40 m high</figcaption></figure> <p>A glacier originates at a location called its glacier head and terminates at its glacier foot, snout, or <a href="/wiki/Glacier_terminus" title="Glacier terminus">terminus</a>. </p><p>Glaciers are broken into zones based on surface snowpack and melt conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ablation zone is the region where there is a net loss in glacier mass. The upper part of a glacier, where accumulation exceeds ablation, is called the <a href="/wiki/Accumulation_zone" title="Accumulation zone">accumulation zone</a>. The equilibrium line separates the ablation zone and the accumulation zone; it is the contour where the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the amount of ice lost through ablation. In general, the accumulation zone accounts for 60–70% of the glacier's surface area, more if the glacier calves icebergs. Ice in the accumulation zone is deep enough to exert a downward force that erodes underlying rock. After a glacier melts, it often leaves behind a bowl- or amphitheater-shaped depression that ranges in size from large basins like the Great Lakes to smaller mountain depressions known as <a href="/wiki/Cirque" title="Cirque">cirques</a>. </p><p>The accumulation zone can be subdivided based on its melt conditions. </p> <ol><li>The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer, and the snowpack remains dry.</li> <li>The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, causing meltwater to percolate into the snowpack. This zone is often marked by refrozen <a href="/wiki/Ice_segregation" title="Ice segregation">ice lenses</a>, glands, and layers. The snowpack also never reaches the melting point.</li> <li>Near the equilibrium line on some glaciers, a superimposed ice zone develops. This zone is where meltwater refreezes as a cold layer in the glacier, forming a continuous mass of ice.</li> <li>The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been raised to 0 °C.</li></ol> <p>The health of a glacier is usually assessed by determining the <a href="/wiki/Glacier_mass_balance" title="Glacier mass balance">glacier mass balance</a> or observing terminus behavior. Healthy glaciers have large accumulation zones, more than 60% of their area is snow-covered at the end of the melt season, and they have a terminus with a vigorous flow. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>'s end around 1850, <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">glaciers around the Earth have retreated substantially</a>. A slight cooling led to the advance of many alpine glaciers between 1950 and 1985, but since 1985 glacier retreat and mass loss has become larger and increasingly ubiquitous.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Motion">Motion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Motion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ice flow" redirects here. For floating ice, see <a href="/wiki/Ice_floe" title="Ice floe">Ice floe</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stress-strain1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Stress-strain1.svg/260px-Stress-strain1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Stress-strain1.svg/390px-Stress-strain1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Stress-strain1.svg/520px-Stress-strain1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="335" /></a><figcaption>The stress–strain relationship of plastic flow (teal section): a small increase in stress creates an exponentially greater increase in strain, which equates to deformation speed.</figcaption></figure> <p>Glaciers move downhill by the force of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> and the internal deformation of ice.<sup id="cite_ref-GreveBlatter2009_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GreveBlatter2009-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the molecular level, ice consists of stacked layers of molecules with relatively weak bonds between layers. When the amount of strain (deformation) is proportional to the stress being applied, ice will act as an elastic solid. Ice needs to be at least 30 m (98 ft) thick to even start flowing, but once its thickness exceeds about 50 m (160 ft) (160 ft), stress on the layer above will exceeds the inter-layer binding strength, and then it'll move faster than the layer below.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that small amounts of stress can result in a large amount of strain, causing the deformation to become a <a href="/wiki/Plasticity_(physics)" title="Plasticity (physics)">plastic flow</a> rather than elastic. Then, the glacier will begin to deform under its own weight and flow across the landscape. According to the <a href="/wiki/Glen%E2%80%93Nye_flow_law" title="Glen–Nye flow law">Glen–Nye flow law</a>, the relationship between stress and strain, and thus the rate of internal flow, can be modeled as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-Easterbrook_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Easterbrook-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GreveBlatter2009_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GreveBlatter2009-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Sigma =k\tau ^{n},\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Σ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>k</mi> <msup> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Sigma =k\tau ^{n},\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/42771c2d09a867f89e3e28733915c211e8fcc2d9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.498ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Sigma =k\tau ^{n},\,}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Sigma \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Σ</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Sigma \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ab1f46dc8e076447cefda3f2096f1ae37035d627" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.065ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Sigma \,}"></span> = shear strain (flow) rate</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tau \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>τ</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tau \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8661cd2a09f95bb46a58ad86eebc9c7d81a31bea" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.589ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tau \,}"></span> = stress</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/205e33e6845813cc72ca346b896a7945f90ca373" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.782ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n\,}"></span> = a constant between 2–4 (typically 3 for most glaciers)</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a5665cb00a844c1c6a671c119c6e4984d28fb851" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.598ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k\,}"></span> = a temperature-dependent constant</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geirangerfjord_(6-2007).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Geirangerfjord_%286-2007%29.jpg/170px-Geirangerfjord_%286-2007%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Geirangerfjord_%286-2007%29.jpg/255px-Geirangerfjord_%286-2007%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Geirangerfjord_%286-2007%29.jpg/340px-Geirangerfjord_%286-2007%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Differential erosion enhances relief, as clear in this incredibly steep-sided Norwegian <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjord</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The lowest velocities are near the base of the glacier and along valley sides where friction acts against flow, causing the most deformation. Velocity increases inward toward the center line and upward, as the amount of deformation decreases. The highest flow velocities are found at the surface, representing the sum of the velocities of all the layers below.<sup id="cite_ref-Easterbrook_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Easterbrook-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GreveBlatter2009_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GreveBlatter2009-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker, the rate of glacier-induced erosion is directly proportional to the thickness of overlying ice. Consequently, pre-glacial low hollows will be deepened and pre-existing topography will be amplified by glacial action, while <a href="/wiki/Nunatak" title="Nunatak">nunataks</a>, which protrude above ice sheets, barely erode at all – erosion has been estimated as 5 m per 1.2 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-ngeo2008_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ngeo2008-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This explains, for example, the deep profile of <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjords</a>, which can reach a kilometer in depth as ice is topographically steered into them. The extension of fjords inland increases the rate of ice sheet thinning since they are the principal conduits for draining ice sheets. It also makes the ice sheets more sensitive to changes in climate and the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-ngeo2008_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ngeo2008-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although evidence in favor of glacial flow was known by the early 19th century, other theories of glacial motion were advanced, such as the idea that meltwater, refreezing inside glaciers, caused the glacier to dilate and extend its length. As it became clear that glaciers behaved to some degree as if the ice were a viscous fluid, it was argued that "regelation", or the melting and refreezing of ice at a temperature lowered by the pressure on the ice inside the glacier, was what allowed the ice to deform and flow. <a href="/wiki/James_David_Forbes" title="James David Forbes">James Forbes</a> came up with the essentially correct explanation in the 1840s, although it was several decades before it was fully accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fracture_zone_and_cracks">Fracture zone and cracks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fracture zone and cracks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TitlisIceCracksDeep.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/TitlisIceCracksDeep.jpg/220px-TitlisIceCracksDeep.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/TitlisIceCracksDeep.jpg/330px-TitlisIceCracksDeep.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/TitlisIceCracksDeep.jpg/440px-TitlisIceCracksDeep.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2296" data-file-height="1776" /></a><figcaption>Ice cracks in the <a href="/wiki/Titlis" title="Titlis">Titlis</a> Glacier</figcaption></figure> <p>The top 50 m (160 ft) of a glacier are rigid because they are under low <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>. This upper section is known as the <i>fracture zone</i> and moves mostly as a single unit over the plastic-flowing lower section. When a glacier moves through irregular terrain, cracks called <a href="/wiki/Crevasse" title="Crevasse">crevasses</a> develop in the fracture zone. Crevasses form because of differences in glacier velocity. If two rigid sections of a glacier move at different speeds or directions, <a href="/wiki/Shear_(geology)" title="Shear (geology)">shear</a> forces cause them to break apart, opening a crevasse. Crevasses are seldom more than 46 m (150 ft) deep but, in some cases, can be at least 300 m (1,000 ft) deep. Beneath this point, the plasticity of the ice prevents the formation of cracks. Intersecting crevasses can create isolated peaks in the ice, called <a href="/wiki/Serac" title="Serac">seracs</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chevron_Crevasses_00.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Chevron_Crevasses_00.JPG/220px-Chevron_Crevasses_00.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Chevron_Crevasses_00.JPG/330px-Chevron_Crevasses_00.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Chevron_Crevasses_00.JPG/440px-Chevron_Crevasses_00.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Shear or herring-bone <a href="/wiki/Crevasse" title="Crevasse">crevasses</a> on <a href="/wiki/Emmons_Glacier" title="Emmons Glacier">Emmons Glacier</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mount_Rainier" title="Mount Rainier">Mount Rainier</a>); such crevasses often form near the edge of a glacier where interactions with underlying or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marginal_rock&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marginal rock (page does not exist)">marginal rock</a> impede flow. In this case, the impediment appears to be some distance from the near margin of the glacier.</figcaption></figure> <p>Crevasses can form in several different ways. Transverse crevasses are transverse to flow and form where steeper slopes cause a glacier to accelerate. Longitudinal crevasses form semi-parallel to flow where a glacier expands laterally. Marginal crevasses form near the edge of the glacier, caused by the reduction in speed caused by friction of the valley walls. Marginal crevasses are largely transverse to flow. Moving glacier ice can sometimes separate from the stagnant ice above, forming a <a href="/wiki/Bergschrund" title="Bergschrund">bergschrund</a>. Bergschrunds resemble crevasses but are singular features at a glacier's margins. Crevasses make travel over glaciers hazardous, especially when they are hidden by fragile <a href="/wiki/Snow_bridge" title="Snow bridge">snow bridges</a>. </p><p>Below the equilibrium line, glacial meltwater is concentrated in stream channels. Meltwater can pool in proglacial lakes on top of a glacier or descend into the depths of a glacier via <a href="/wiki/Moulin_(geomorphology)" title="Moulin (geomorphology)">moulins</a>. Streams within or beneath a glacier flow in englacial or sub-glacial tunnels. These tunnels sometimes reemerge at the glacier's surface.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subglacial_processes">Subglacial processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Subglacial processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Davies_2018_glacier_sediment_erosion_rates.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Davies_2018_glacier_sediment_erosion_rates.png/220px-Davies_2018_glacier_sediment_erosion_rates.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Davies_2018_glacier_sediment_erosion_rates.png/330px-Davies_2018_glacier_sediment_erosion_rates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Davies_2018_glacier_sediment_erosion_rates.png/440px-Davies_2018_glacier_sediment_erosion_rates.png 2x" data-file-width="2067" data-file-height="1410" /></a><figcaption>Erosion rates of subglacial sediment caused by the motion of different glaciers across the world <sup id="cite_ref-Davies2018_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies2018-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Most of the important processes controlling glacial motion occur in the ice-bed contact—even though it is only a few meters thick.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bed's temperature, roughness and softness define basal shear stress, which in turn defines whether movement of the glacier will be accommodated by motion in the sediments, or if it'll be able to slide. A soft bed, with high porosity and low pore fluid pressure, allows the glacier to move by sediment sliding: the base of the glacier may even remain frozen to the bed, where the underlying sediment slips underneath it like a tube of toothpaste. A hard bed cannot deform in this way; therefore the only way for hard-based glaciers to move is by basal sliding, where meltwater forms between the ice and the bed itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Boulton2006_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boulton2006-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether a bed is hard or soft depends on the porosity and pore pressure; higher porosity decreases the sediment strength (thus increases the shear stress τ<sub>B</sub>).<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Porosity may vary through a range of methods. </p> <ul><li>Movement of the overlying glacier may cause the bed to undergo <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dilatancy" class="extiw" title="wikt:dilatancy">dilatancy</a>; the resulting shape change reorganizes blocks. This reorganizes closely packed blocks (a little like neatly folded, tightly packed clothes in a suitcase) into a messy jumble (just as clothes never fit back in when thrown in in a disordered fashion). This increases the porosity. Unless water is added, this will necessarily reduce the pore pressure (as the pore fluids have more space to occupy).<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Pressure may cause compaction and consolidation of underlying sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since water is relatively incompressible, this is easier when the pore space is filled with vapor; any water must be removed to permit compression. In soils, this is an irreversible process.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Sediment degradation by abrasion and fracture decreases the size of particles, which tends to decrease pore space. However, the motion of the particles may disorder the sediment, with the opposite effect. These processes also generate heat.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Bed softness may vary in space or time, and changes dramatically from glacier to glacier. An important factor is the underlying geology; glacial speeds tend to differ more when they change bedrock than when the gradient changes.<sup id="cite_ref-Boulton2006_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boulton2006-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, bed roughness can also act to slow glacial motion. The roughness of the bed is a measure of how many boulders and obstacles protrude into the overlying ice. Ice flows around these obstacles by melting under the high pressure on their <a href="/wiki/Stoss_(geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoss (geography)">stoss side</a>; the resultant meltwater is then forced into the cavity arising in their <a href="/wiki/Lee_side" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee side">lee side</a>, where it re-freezes.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As well as affecting the sediment stress, fluid pressure (p<sub>w</sub>) can affect the friction between the glacier and the bed. High fluid pressure provides a buoyancy force upwards on the glacier, reducing the friction at its base. The fluid pressure is compared to the ice overburden pressure, p<sub>i</sub>, given by ρgh. Under fast-flowing ice streams, these two pressures will be approximately equal, with an effective pressure (p<sub>i</sub> – p<sub>w</sub>) of 30 kPa; i.e. all of the weight of the ice is supported by the underlying water, and the glacier is afloat.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Basal_melting_and_sliding">Basal melting and sliding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Basal melting and sliding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glacier_cross-section.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Glacier_cross-section.jpg/170px-Glacier_cross-section.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Glacier_cross-section.jpg/255px-Glacier_cross-section.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Glacier_cross-section.jpg/340px-Glacier_cross-section.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2120" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>A cross-section through a glacier. The base of the glacier is more transparent as a result of melting.</figcaption></figure> <p>Glaciers may also move by <a href="/wiki/Basal_sliding" title="Basal sliding">basal sliding</a>, where the base of the glacier is <a href="/wiki/Lubrication" title="Lubrication">lubricated</a> by the presence of liquid water, reducing basal <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear stress</a> and allowing the glacier to slide over the terrain on which it sits. <a href="/wiki/Meltwater" title="Meltwater">Meltwater</a> may be produced by pressure-induced melting, friction or <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal heat">geothermal heat</a>. The more variable the amount of melting at surface of the glacier, the faster the ice will flow. Basal sliding is dominant in temperate or warm-based glaciers.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoof2010_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoof2010-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>τ<sub>D</sub> = ρgh sin α</dd> <dd>where τ<sub>D</sub> is the driving stress, and α the ice surface slope in radians.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd>τ<sub>B</sub> is the basal shear stress, a function of bed temperature and softness.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd>τ<sub>F</sub>, the shear stress, is the lower of τ<sub>B</sub> and τ<sub>D</sub>. It controls the rate of plastic flow.</dd></dl> <p>The presence of basal meltwater depends on both bed temperature and other factors. For instance, the melting point of water decreases under pressure, meaning that water melts at a lower temperature under thicker glaciers.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This acts as a "double whammy", because thicker glaciers have a lower heat conductance, meaning that the basal temperature is also likely to be higher.<sup id="cite_ref-Boulton2006_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boulton2006-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bed temperature tends to vary in a cyclic fashion. A cool bed has a high strength, reducing the speed of the glacier. This increases the rate of accumulation, since newly fallen snow is not transported away. Consequently, the glacier thickens, with three consequences: firstly, the bed is better insulated, allowing greater retention of geothermal heat.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secondly, the increased pressure can facilitate melting. Most importantly, τ<sub>D</sub> is increased. These factors will combine to accelerate the glacier. As friction increases with the square of velocity, faster motion will greatly increase frictional heating, with ensuing melting – which causes a positive feedback, increasing ice speed to a faster flow rate still: west Antarctic glaciers are known to reach velocities of up to a kilometer per year.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke2005_33-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke2005-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, the ice will be surging fast enough that it begins to thin, as accumulation cannot keep up with the transport. This thinning will increase the conductive heat loss, slowing the glacier and causing freezing. This freezing will slow the glacier further, often until it is stationary, whence the cycle can begin again.<sup id="cite_ref-Boulton2006_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boulton2006-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lake_Vostok_drill_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Lake_Vostok_drill_2011.jpg/220px-Lake_Vostok_drill_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Lake_Vostok_drill_2011.jpg/330px-Lake_Vostok_drill_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Lake_Vostok_drill_2011.jpg/440px-Lake_Vostok_drill_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2390" data-file-height="1506" /></a><figcaption>Location and diagram of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Vostok" title="Lake Vostok">Lake Vostok</a>, a prominent subglacial lake beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.</figcaption></figure> <p>The flow of water under the glacial surface can have a large effect on the motion of the glacier itself. Subglacial lakes contain significant amounts of water, which can move fast: cubic kilometers can be transported between lakes over the course of a couple of years.<sup id="cite_ref-Fricker2007_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fricker2007-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This motion is thought to occur in two main modes: <i>pipe flow</i> involves liquid water moving through pipe-like conduits, like a sub-glacial river; <i>sheet flow</i> involves motion of water in a thin layer. A switch between the two flow conditions may be associated with surging behavior. Indeed, the loss of sub-glacial water supply has been linked with the shut-down of ice movement in the Kamb ice stream.<sup id="cite_ref-Fricker2007_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fricker2007-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subglacial motion of water is expressed in the surface topography of ice sheets, which slump down into vacated subglacial lakes.<sup id="cite_ref-Fricker2007_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fricker2007-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speed">Speed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Speed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wendleder_2024_Baltoro_supraglacial_acceleration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Wendleder_2024_Baltoro_supraglacial_acceleration.jpg/220px-Wendleder_2024_Baltoro_supraglacial_acceleration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Wendleder_2024_Baltoro_supraglacial_acceleration.jpg/330px-Wendleder_2024_Baltoro_supraglacial_acceleration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Wendleder_2024_Baltoro_supraglacial_acceleration.jpg/440px-Wendleder_2024_Baltoro_supraglacial_acceleration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2067" data-file-height="2206" /></a><figcaption>The formation of supraglacial lakes at Baltoro Glacier in April 2018 (top) had substantially accelerated its melting and motion in the following summer months (bottom)<sup id="cite_ref-Wendleder2024_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wendleder2024-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a>. Friction makes the ice at the bottom of the glacier move more slowly than ice at the top. In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at the valley's sidewalls, which slows the edges relative to the center. </p><p>Mean glacial speed varies greatly but is typically around 1 m (3 ft) per day.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There may be no motion in stagnant areas; for example, in parts of Alaska, trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits. In other cases, glaciers can move as fast as 20–30 m (70–100 ft) per day, such as in Greenland's <a href="/wiki/Jakobshavn_Isbr%C3%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobshavn Isbræ">Jakobshavn Isbræ</a>. Glacial speed is affected by factors such as slope, ice thickness, snowfall, longitudinal confinement, basal temperature, meltwater production, and bed hardness. </p><p>A few glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called <a href="/wiki/Surge_(glacier)" title="Surge (glacier)">surges</a>. These glaciers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous movement state.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These surges may be caused by the failure of the underlying bedrock, the pooling of meltwater at the base of the glacier<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — perhaps delivered from a <a href="/wiki/Supraglacial_lake" title="Supraglacial lake">supraglacial lake</a> — or the simple accumulation of mass beyond a critical "tipping point".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temporary rates up to 90 m (300 ft) per day have occurred when increased temperature or overlying pressure caused bottom ice to melt and water to accumulate beneath a glacier. </p><p>In glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one km per year, <a href="/wiki/Glacial_earthquake" title="Glacial earthquake">glacial earthquakes</a> occur. These are large scale earthquakes that have seismic magnitudes as high as 6.1.<sup id="cite_ref-people.deas.harvard.edu_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-people.deas.harvard.edu-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TsaiEkstrom_JGR2007_2007_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TsaiEkstrom_JGR2007_2007-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of <a href="/wiki/Glacial_earthquake" title="Glacial earthquake">glacial earthquakes</a> in Greenland peaks every year in July, August, and September and increased rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s. In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005, more events were detected every year since 2002, and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year.<sup id="cite_ref-TsaiEkstrom_JGR2007_2007_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TsaiEkstrom_JGR2007_2007-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ogives">Ogives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ogives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forbes_Bands_on_Mer_de_Glace_in_France.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Forbes_Bands_on_Mer_de_Glace_in_France.jpg/220px-Forbes_Bands_on_Mer_de_Glace_in_France.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Forbes_Bands_on_Mer_de_Glace_in_France.jpg/330px-Forbes_Bands_on_Mer_de_Glace_in_France.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Forbes_Bands_on_Mer_de_Glace_in_France.jpg/440px-Forbes_Bands_on_Mer_de_Glace_in_France.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Forbes bands on the <a href="/wiki/Mer_de_Glace" title="Mer de Glace">Mer de Glace</a> glacier in France</figcaption></figure> <p>Ogives or Forbes bands<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are alternating wave crests and valleys that appear as dark and light bands of ice on glacier surfaces. They are linked to seasonal motion of glaciers; the width of one dark and one light band generally equals the annual movement of the glacier. Ogives are formed when ice from an icefall is severely broken up, increasing ablation surface area during summer. This creates a <a href="/wiki/Swale_(landform)" title="Swale (landform)">swale</a> and space for snow accumulation in the winter, which in turn creates a ridge.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes ogives consist only of undulations or color bands and are described as wave ogives or band ogives.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on this topic: <a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers" title="List of glaciers">List of glaciers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fox-Gletscher1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Fox-Gletscher1.jpg/220px-Fox-Gletscher1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Fox-Gletscher1.jpg/330px-Fox-Gletscher1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Fox-Gletscher1.jpg/440px-Fox-Gletscher1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="910" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fox_Glacier" title="Fox Glacier">Fox Glacier</a> in New Zealand finishes near a rainforest</figcaption></figure> <p>Glaciers are present on every continent and in approximately fifty countries, excluding those (Australia, South Africa) that have glaciers only on distant <a href="/wiki/Subantarctic" title="Subantarctic">subantarctic</a> island territories. Extensive glaciers are found in Antarctica, Argentina, Chile, Canada, Pakistan,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Mountain glaciers are widespread, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Mountains" title="Scandinavian Mountains">Scandinavian Mountains</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>. <a href="/wiki/Snezhnika" title="Snezhnika">Snezhnika</a> glacier in <a href="/wiki/Pirin" title="Pirin">Pirin</a> Mountain, <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> of 41°46′09″ N is the southernmost glacial mass in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-grunewald-129_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grunewald-129-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mainland Australia currently contains no glaciers, although a small glacier on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Kosciuszko" title="Mount Kosciuszko">Mount Kosciuszko</a> was present in the <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial period">last glacial period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In New Guinea, small, rapidly diminishing, glaciers are located on <a href="/wiki/Puncak_Jaya" title="Puncak Jaya">Puncak Jaya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Africa has glaciers on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro" title="Mount Kilimanjaro">Mount Kilimanjaro</a> in Tanzania, on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Kenya" title="Mount Kenya">Mount Kenya</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Rwenzori_Mountains" title="Rwenzori Mountains">Rwenzori Mountains</a>. Oceanic islands with glaciers include Iceland, several of the islands off the coast of Norway including <a href="/wiki/Svalbard" title="Svalbard">Svalbard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Mayen" title="Jan Mayen">Jan Mayen</a> to the far north, New Zealand and the subantarctic islands of <a href="/wiki/Marion_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Marion Island">Marion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heard_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Heard Island">Heard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Islands#Grande_Terre" title="Kerguelen Islands">Grande Terre (Kerguelen)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bouvet_Island" title="Bouvet Island">Bouvet</a>. During glacial periods of the Quaternary, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">Hawaii</a> on <a href="/wiki/Mauna_Kea" title="Mauna Kea">Mauna Kea</a><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Tenerife" title="Tenerife">Tenerife</a> also had large alpine glaciers, while the <a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islands" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crozet_Islands" title="Crozet Islands">Crozet Islands</a><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were completely glaciated. </p><p>The permanent snow cover necessary for glacier formation is affected by factors such as the degree of slope on the land, amount of snowfall and the winds. Glaciers can be found in all <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudes</a> except from 20° to 27° north and south of the equator where the presence of the descending limb of the <a href="/wiki/Hadley_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadley circulation">Hadley circulation</a> lowers precipitation so much that with high <a href="/wiki/Insolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Insolation">insolation</a> <a href="/wiki/Snow_line" title="Snow line">snow lines</a> reach above 6,500 m (21,330 ft). Between 19˚N and 19˚S, however, precipitation is higher, and the mountains above 5,000 m (16,400 ft) usually have permanent snow. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Black-Glacier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Black-Glacier.jpg/220px-Black-Glacier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Black-Glacier.jpg/330px-Black-Glacier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Black-Glacier.jpg/440px-Black-Glacier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2608" data-file-height="1952" /></a><figcaption>Black ice glacier near <a href="/wiki/Aconcagua" title="Aconcagua">Aconcagua</a>, Argentina</figcaption></figure> <p>Even at high latitudes, glacier formation is not inevitable. Areas of the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Banks_Island" title="Banks Island">Banks Island</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/McMurdo_Dry_Valleys" title="McMurdo Dry Valleys">McMurdo Dry Valleys</a> in Antarctica are considered <a href="/wiki/Polar_desert" title="Polar desert">polar deserts</a> where glaciers cannot form because they receive little snowfall despite the bitter cold. Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport much water vapor. Even during glacial periods of the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, lowland <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Alaska Interior">central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Alaska" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Alaska">northern Alaska</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though extraordinarily cold, had such light snowfall that glaciers could not form.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the dry, unglaciated polar regions, some mountains and volcanoes in Bolivia, Chile and Argentina are high (4,500 to 6,900 m or 14,800 to 22,600 ft) and cold, but the relative lack of precipitation prevents snow from accumulating into glaciers. This is because these peaks are located near or in the <a href="/wiki/Hyperarid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperarid">hyperarid</a> <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Desert" title="Atacama Desert">Atacama Desert</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glacial_geology">Glacial geology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Glacial geology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Erosion">Erosion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Erosion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arranque_glaciar-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Arranque_glaciar-en.svg/220px-Arranque_glaciar-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Arranque_glaciar-en.svg/330px-Arranque_glaciar-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Arranque_glaciar-en.svg/440px-Arranque_glaciar-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="308" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of glacial plucking and <a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(geology)" title="Abrasion (geology)">abrasion</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Glaciers erode terrain through two principal processes: <a href="/wiki/Plucking_(glaciation)" title="Plucking (glaciation)">plucking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(geology)" title="Abrasion (geology)">abrasion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011263–264Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011263–264Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As glaciers flow over bedrock, they soften and lift blocks of rock into the ice. This process, called plucking, is caused by subglacial water that penetrates fractures in the bedrock and subsequently freezes and expands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011263Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011263Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This expansion causes the ice to act as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting it. Thus, sediments of all sizes become part of the glacier's load. If a retreating glacier gains enough debris, it may become a <a href="/wiki/Rock_glacier" title="Rock glacier">rock glacier</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Timpanogos_Glacier" title="Timpanogos Glacier">Timpanogos Glacier</a> in Utah. </p><p> Abrasion occurs when the ice and its load of rock fragments slide over bedrock<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011263Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011263Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and function as sandpaper, smoothing and polishing the bedrock below. The pulverized rock this process produces is called <a href="/wiki/Rock_flour" title="Rock flour">rock flour</a> and is made up of rock grains between 0.002 and 0.00625 mm in size. Abrasion leads to steeper valley walls and mountain slopes in alpine settings, which can cause avalanches and rock slides, which add even more material to the glacier. Glacial abrasion is commonly characterized by <a href="/wiki/Glacial_striation" title="Glacial striation">glacial striations</a>. Glaciers produce these when they contain large boulders that carve long scratches in the bedrock. By mapping the direction of the striations, researchers can determine the direction of the glacier's movement. Similar to striations are <a href="/wiki/Chatter_mark" title="Chatter mark">chatter marks</a>, lines of crescent-shape depressions in the rock underlying a glacier. They are formed by abrasion when boulders in the glacier are repeatedly caught and released as they are dragged along the bedrock.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PluckedGraniteAlandIslands.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/PluckedGraniteAlandIslands.JPG/220px-PluckedGraniteAlandIslands.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/PluckedGraniteAlandIslands.JPG/330px-PluckedGraniteAlandIslands.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/PluckedGraniteAlandIslands.JPG/440px-PluckedGraniteAlandIslands.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Glacially plucked granitic bedrock near <a href="/wiki/Mariehamn" title="Mariehamn">Mariehamn</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%85land" title="Åland">Åland</a></figcaption></figure><p>The rate of glacier erosion varies. Six factors control erosion rate: </p><ul><li>Velocity of glacial movement</li> <li>Thickness of the ice</li> <li>Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the glacier</li> <li>Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier</li> <li>Thermal conditions at the glacier base</li> <li>Permeability and water pressure at the glacier base</li></ul> <p>When the bedrock has frequent fractures on the surface, glacial erosion rates tend to increase as plucking is the main erosive force on the surface; when the bedrock has wide gaps between sporadic fractures, however, abrasion tends to be the dominant erosive form and glacial erosion rates become slow.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glaciers in lower latitudes tend to be much more erosive than glaciers in higher latitudes, because they have more meltwater reaching the glacial base and facilitate sediment production and transport under the same moving speed and amount of ice.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier is typically carried as far as the zone of ablation before being deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types: </p> <ul><li><i>Glacial till</i>: material directly deposited from glacial ice. Till includes a mixture of undifferentiated material ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual composition of a moraine.</li> <li><i>Fluvial and outwash sediments</i>: sediments deposited by water. These deposits are stratified by size.</li></ul> <p>Larger pieces of rock that are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called "<a href="/wiki/Glacial_erratic" title="Glacial erratic">glacial erratics</a>". They range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they are often moved great distances, they may be drastically different from the material upon which they are found. Patterns of glacial erratics hint at past glacial motions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moraines">Moraines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Moraines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MorainesLakeLouise.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/MorainesLakeLouise.JPG/220px-MorainesLakeLouise.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/MorainesLakeLouise.JPG/330px-MorainesLakeLouise.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/MorainesLakeLouise.JPG/440px-MorainesLakeLouise.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2874" /></a><figcaption>Glacial moraines above <a href="/wiki/Lake_Louise_(Alberta)" title="Lake Louise (Alberta)">Lake Louise</a>, Alberta, Canada</figcaption></figure> <p>Glacial <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">moraines</a> are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated. They usually appear as linear mounds of <a href="/wiki/Till" title="Till">till</a>, a non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel, and boulders within a matrix of fine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier. Medial moraines are formed when two different glaciers merge and the lateral moraines of each coalesce to form a moraine in the middle of the combined glacier. Less apparent are <a href="/wiki/Ground_moraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground moraine">ground moraines</a>, also called <i>glacial drift</i>, which often blankets the surface underneath the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line. The term <i>moraine</i> is of French origin. It was coined by peasants to describe alluvial embankments and rims found near the margins of glaciers in the French <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>. In modern geology, the term is used more broadly and is applied to a series of formations, all of which are composed of till. Moraines can also create moraine-dammed lakes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drumlins">Drumlins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Drumlins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drumlins_around_Horicon_Marsh_in_Wisconsin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Drumlins_around_Horicon_Marsh_in_Wisconsin.jpg/220px-Drumlins_around_Horicon_Marsh_in_Wisconsin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Drumlins_around_Horicon_Marsh_in_Wisconsin.jpg/330px-Drumlins_around_Horicon_Marsh_in_Wisconsin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Drumlins_around_Horicon_Marsh_in_Wisconsin.jpg/440px-Drumlins_around_Horicon_Marsh_in_Wisconsin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5633" data-file-height="3393" /></a><figcaption>Drumlins around <a href="/wiki/Horicon_Marsh" title="Horicon Marsh">Horicon Marsh</a>, Wisconsin, in an area with one of the highest concentration of drumlins in the world. The curved path of the <a href="/wiki/Laurentide_Ice_Sheet" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurentide Ice Sheet">Laurentide Ice Sheet</a> is evident in the orientation of the various mounds.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Drumlin" title="Drumlin">Drumlins</a> are asymmetrical, canoe-shaped hills made mainly of till. Their heights vary from 15 to 50 meters, and they can reach a kilometer in length. The steepest side of the hill faces the direction from which the ice advanced (<i>stoss</i>), while a longer slope is left in the ice's direction of movement (<i>lee</i>). Drumlins are found in groups called <i><a href="/wiki/Drumlin_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Drumlin field">drumlin fields</a></i> or <i>drumlin camps</i>. One of these fields is found east of <a href="/wiki/Rochester,_New_York" title="Rochester, New York">Rochester, New York</a>; it is estimated to contain about 10,000 drumlins. Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, their shape implies that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glacial_valleys,_cirques,_arêtes,_and_pyramidal_peaks"><span id="Glacial_valleys.2C_cirques.2C_ar.C3.AAtes.2C_and_pyramidal_peaks"></span><span class="anchor" id="Glacial_valleys"></span>Glacial valleys, cirques, arêtes, and pyramidal peaks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Glacial valleys, cirques, arêtes, and pyramidal peaks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glacial_landscape.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Glacial_landscape.svg/220px-Glacial_landscape.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Glacial_landscape.svg/330px-Glacial_landscape.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Glacial_landscape.svg/440px-Glacial_landscape.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="388" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>Features of a glacial landscape</figcaption></figure> <p>Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic <a href="/wiki/V-shaped_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="V-shaped valley">"V" shape</a>, produced by eroding water. During glaciation, these valleys are often widened, deepened and smoothed to form a <a href="/wiki/U-shaped_valley" title="U-shaped valley">U-shaped</a> glacial valley or glacial trough, as it is sometimes called.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The erosion that creates glacial valleys truncates any spurs of rock or earth that may have earlier extended across the valley, creating broadly triangular-shaped cliffs called <a href="/wiki/Truncated_spurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Truncated spurs">truncated spurs</a>. Within glacial valleys, depressions created by plucking and abrasion can be filled by lakes, called <a href="/wiki/Paternoster_lake" title="Paternoster lake">paternoster lakes</a>. If a glacial valley runs into a large body of water, it forms a <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjord</a>. </p><p>Typically glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller <a href="/wiki/Tributary" title="Tributary">tributaries</a>. Therefore, when glaciers recede, the valleys of the tributary glaciers remain above the main glacier's depression and are called <a href="/wiki/Hanging_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanging valley">hanging valleys</a>. </p><p>At the start of a classic valley glacier is a bowl-shaped cirque, which have escarped walls on three sides but is open on the side that descends into the valley. Cirques are where ice begins to accumulate in a glacier. Two glacial cirques may form back to back and erode their backwalls until only a narrow ridge, called an <a href="/wiki/Ar%C3%AAte" title="Arête">arête</a> is left. This structure may result in a <a href="/wiki/Mountain_pass" title="Mountain pass">mountain pass</a>. If multiple cirques encircle a single mountain, they create pointed <a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_peak" title="Pyramidal peak">pyramidal peaks</a>; particularly steep examples are called <a href="/wiki/Glacial_horn" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial horn">horns</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roches_moutonnées"><span id="Roches_moutonn.C3.A9es"></span>Roches moutonnées</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Roches moutonnées"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Passage of glacial ice over an area of bedrock may cause the rock to be sculpted into a knoll called a <i><a href="/wiki/Roche_moutonn%C3%A9e" title="Roche moutonnée">roche moutonnée</a>,</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011271Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011271Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "sheepback" rock. Roches moutonnées may be elongated, rounded and asymmetrical in shape. They range in length from less than a meter to several hundred meters long.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roches moutonnées have a gentle slope on their up-glacier sides and a steep to vertical face on their down-glacier sides. The glacier abrades the smooth slope on the upstream side as it flows along, but tears rock fragments loose and carries them away from the downstream side via plucking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alluvial_stratification">Alluvial stratification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Alluvial stratification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the water that rises from the ablation zone moves away from the glacier, it carries fine eroded sediments with it. As the speed of the water decreases, so does its capacity to carry objects in suspension. The water thus gradually deposits the sediment as it runs, creating an <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_plain" title="Alluvial plain">alluvial plain</a>. When this phenomenon occurs in a valley, it is called a <i>valley train</i>. When the deposition is in an <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuary</a>, the sediments are known as <a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">bay mud</a>. Outwash plains and valley trains are usually accompanied by basins known as "<a href="/wiki/Kettle_(landform)" title="Kettle (landform)">kettles</a>". These are small lakes formed when large ice blocks that are trapped in alluvium melt and produce water-filled depressions. Kettle diameters range from 5 m to 13 km, with depths of up to 45 meters. Most are circular in shape because the blocks of ice that formed them were rounded as they melted.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glacial_deposits">Glacial deposits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Glacial deposits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Receding_glacier-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/300px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/450px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Receding_glacier-en.svg/600px-Receding_glacier-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="562" /></a><figcaption>Landscape produced by a receding glacier</figcaption></figure> <p>When a glacier's size shrinks below a critical point, its flow stops and it becomes stationary. Meanwhile, meltwater within and beneath the ice leaves <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratified</a> alluvial deposits. These deposits, in the forms of columns, <a href="/wiki/Terrace_(geology)" title="Terrace (geology)">terraces</a> and clusters, remain after the glacier melts and are known as "<a href="/wiki/Glacial_deposits" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial deposits">glacial deposits</a>". Glacial deposits that take the shape of hills or mounds are called <i><a href="/wiki/Kame" title="Kame">kames</a></i>. Some kames form when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice. Others are produced by fans or <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">deltas</a> created by meltwater. When the glacial ice occupies a valley, it can form terraces or kames along the sides of the valley. Long, sinuous glacial deposits are called <i><a href="/wiki/Esker" title="Esker">eskers</a></i>. Eskers are composed of sand and gravel that was deposited by meltwater streams that flowed through ice tunnels within or beneath a glacier. They remain after the ice melts, with heights exceeding 100 meters and lengths of as long as 100 km. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loess_deposits">Loess deposits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Loess deposits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Very fine glacial sediments or rock flour<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011264Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett2011264Glacial_and_Glaciofluvial_Landscapes-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is often picked up by wind blowing over the bare surface and may be deposited great distances from the original <a href="/wiki/Fluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">fluvial</a> deposition site. These <a href="/wiki/Eolian_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eolian processes">eolian</a> <a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">loess</a> deposits may be very deep, even hundreds of meters, as in areas of China and the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern United States</a>. <a href="/wiki/Katabatic_wind" title="Katabatic wind">Katabatic winds</a> can be important in this process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Retreat_of_glaciers_due_to_climate_change">Retreat of glaciers due to climate change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Retreat of glaciers due to climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:492px;max-width:492px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:175px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glacer_Retreat_Photo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Glacer_Retreat_Photo.png/220px-Glacer_Retreat_Photo.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Glacer_Retreat_Photo.png/330px-Glacer_Retreat_Photo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Glacer_Retreat_Photo.png/440px-Glacer_Retreat_Photo.png 2x" data-file-width="690" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/South_Cascade_Glacier" title="South Cascade Glacier">South Cascade Glacier</a> in Washington photographs from 1928 to 2003 showing the recent rapid glacier retreating</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:266px;max-width:266px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:175px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg/264px-2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg.png" decoding="async" width="264" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg/396px-2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg/528px-2015-2100_Impacts_of_global_warming_on_glaciers_and_sea_level_rise.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Based on current national pledges, global average temperature increase is projected to cause loss of ~half of Earth's glaciers by 2100 and raise sea level by ~115 mm<sup id="cite_ref-Science_20230105_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Science_20230105-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (not counting rise from melting <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a>).</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Glaciers, which can be hundreds of thousands of years old, are used to track climate change over long periods of time.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAAiceCores_20230128_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAAiceCores_20230128-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers melt or crush samples from glacier <a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">ice cores</a> whose progressively deep layers represent respectively earlier times in Earth's climate history.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAAiceCores_20230128_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAAiceCores_20230128-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The researchers apply various instruments to the content of bubbles trapped in the cores' layers in order to track changes in the atmosphere's composition.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAAiceCores_20230128_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAAiceCores_20230128-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temperatures are deduced from differing relative concentrations of respective gases, confirming that for at least the last million years, global temperatures have been linked to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAAiceCores_20230128_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAAiceCores_20230128-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Human activities in the industrial era have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> in the air, causing current <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">global warming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NASAcauses_2019_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASAcauses_2019-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human influence is the principal driver of <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">changes</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">cryosphere</a> of which glaciers are a part.<sup id="cite_ref-NASAcauses_2019_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASAcauses_2019-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vatnaj%C3%B6kull_glacier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Vatnaj%C3%B6kull_glacier.jpg/350px-Vatnaj%C3%B6kull_glacier.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Vatnaj%C3%B6kull_glacier.jpg/525px-Vatnaj%C3%B6kull_glacier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Vatnaj%C3%B6kull_glacier.jpg/700px-Vatnaj%C3%B6kull_glacier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2835" data-file-height="1347" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6kuls%C3%A1rl%C3%B3n" title="Jökulsárlón">Ice lagoon Jökulsárlón</a> at the foot of the <a href="/wiki/Vatnaj%C3%B6kull" title="Vatnajökull">Vatnajökull Glacier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, 2023</figcaption></figure> <p>Global warming creates <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback loops</a> with glaciers.<sup id="cite_ref-NatureComms_20201027_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatureComms_20201027-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in <a href="/wiki/Ice%E2%80%93albedo_feedback" title="Ice–albedo feedback">ice–albedo feedback</a>, rising temperatures increase glacier melt, exposing more of earth's land and sea surface (which is darker than glacier ice), allowing sunlight to warm the surface rather than being reflected back into space.<sup id="cite_ref-NatureComms_20201027_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatureComms_20201027-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reference glaciers tracked by the <a href="/wiki/World_Glacier_Monitoring_Service" title="World Glacier Monitoring Service">World Glacier Monitoring Service</a> have lost ice every year since 1988.<sup id="cite_ref-WGMS_thru2022_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WGMS_thru2022-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study that investigated the period 1995 to 2022 showed that the flow velocity of glaciers in the Alps accelerates and slows down to a similar extent at the same time, despite large distances. This clearly shows that their speed is controlled by the climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Water runoff from melting glaciers causes global sea level to <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">rise</a>, a phenomenon the <a href="/wiki/IPCC" class="mw-redirect" title="IPCC">IPCC</a> terms a "slow onset" event.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGII_Summary_for_Policymakers_20_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGII_Summary_for_Policymakers_20-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impacts at least partially attributable to sea level rise include for example encroachment on coastal settlements and infrastructure, existential threats to small islands and low-lying coasts, losses of coastal ecosystems and ecosystem services, groundwater salinization, and compounding damage from tropical cyclones, flooding, storm surges, and land subsidence.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGII_Summary_for_Policymakers_20_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGII_Summary_for_Policymakers_20-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Isostatic_rebound">Isostatic rebound</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Isostatic rebound"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glacier_weight_effects_LMB.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Glacier_weight_effects_LMB.png/300px-Glacier_weight_effects_LMB.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Glacier_weight_effects_LMB.png/450px-Glacier_weight_effects_LMB.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Glacier_weight_effects_LMB.png 2x" data-file-width="482" data-file-height="174" /></a><figcaption>Isostatic pressure by a glacier on the Earth's crust</figcaption></figure> <p>Large masses, such as ice sheets or glaciers, can depress the crust of the Earth into the mantle.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The depression usually totals a third of the ice sheet or glacier's thickness. After the ice sheet or glacier melts, the mantle begins to flow back to its original position, pushing the crust back up. This <a href="/wiki/Post-glacial_rebound" title="Post-glacial rebound">post-glacial rebound</a>, which proceeds very slowly after the melting of the ice sheet or glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> region of North America. </p><p>A geomorphological feature created by the same process on a smaller scale is known as <i>dilation-faulting</i>. It occurs where previously compressed rock is allowed to return to its original shape more rapidly than can be maintained without faulting. This leads to an effect similar to what would be seen if the rock were hit by a large hammer. Dilation faulting can be observed in recently de-glaciated parts of Iceland and Cumbria. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="On_other_planets">On other planets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: On other planets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Glaciers_on_Mars" title="Glaciers on Mars">Glaciers on Mars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_Planitia" title="Sputnik Planitia">Sputnik Planitia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wide_view_of_glacier_showing_image_field.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wide_view_of_glacier_showing_image_field.JPG/220px-Wide_view_of_glacier_showing_image_field.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="355" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wide_view_of_glacier_showing_image_field.JPG/330px-Wide_view_of_glacier_showing_image_field.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wide_view_of_glacier_showing_image_field.JPG/440px-Wide_view_of_glacier_showing_image_field.JPG 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="827" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Protonilus_Mensae" title="Protonilus Mensae">Protonilus Mensae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ismenius_Lacus_quadrangle" title="Ismenius Lacus quadrangle">Ismenius Lacus quadrangle</a>, Mars</figcaption></figure> <p>The polar ice caps of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> show geologic evidence of glacial deposits. The south polar cap is especially comparable to glaciers on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Topographical features and computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars' past.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At mid-latitudes, between 35° and 65° north or south, Martian glaciers are affected by the thin Martian atmosphere. Because of the low atmospheric pressure, ablation near the surface is solely caused by <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimation</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">melting</a>. As on Earth, many glaciers are covered with a layer of rocks which insulates the ice. A radar instrument on board the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a> found ice under a thin layer of rocks in formations called <a href="/wiki/Lobate_debris_apron" title="Lobate debris apron">lobate debris aprons</a> (LDAs).<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, as <i><a href="/wiki/New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a></i> flew by the <a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>-<a href="/wiki/Charon_(moon)" title="Charon (moon)">Charon</a> system, the spacecraft discovered a massive basin covered in a layer of nitrogen ice on Pluto. A large portion of the basin's surface is divided into irregular polygonal features separated by narrow troughs, interpreted as convection cells fueled by internal heat from Pluto's interior.<sup id="cite_ref-Pluto_updates_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pluto_updates-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McKinnon2016_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinnon2016-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glacial flows were also observed near Sputnik Planitia's margins, appearing to flow both into and out of the basin.<sup id="cite_ref-Umurhan2016_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Umurhan2016-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_landform" title="Glacial landform">Glacial landform</a> – Landform created by the action of glaciers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_motion" title="Glacial motion">Glacial motion</a> – Geological phenomenon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_growing" title="Glacier growing">Glacier growing</a> – Artificial process used for making glaciers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_morphology" title="Glacier morphology">Glacier morphology</a> – Geomorphology of glaciers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_jam" title="Ice jam">Ice jam</a> – Accumulation of ice in a river</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Craig-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Craig_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Craig_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCraig2016" class="citation news cs1">Craig, Tim (2016-08-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/pakistan-has-more-glaciers-than-almost-anywhere-on-earth-but-they-are-at-risk/2016/08/11/7a6b4cd4-4882-11e6-8dac-0c6e4accc5b1_story.html">"Pakistan has more glaciers than almost anywhere on Earth. But they are at risk"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-04</span></span>. <q>With 7,253 known glaciers, including 543 in the Chitral Valley, there is more glacial ice in Pakistan than anywhere on Earth outside the polar regions, according to various studies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Pakistan+has+more+glaciers+than+almost+anywhere+on+Earth.+But+they+are+at+risk.&rft.date=2016-08-12&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fworld%2Fasia_pacific%2Fpakistan-has-more-glaciers-than-almost-anywhere-on-earth-but-they-are-at-risk%2F2016%2F08%2F11%2F7a6b4cd4-4882-11e6-8dac-0c6e4accc5b1_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Post_2000-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Post_2000_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPostLaChapelle2000" class="citation book cs1">Post, Austin; LaChapelle, Edward R (2000). <i>Glacier ice</i>. Seattle: University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-97910-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-97910-6"><bdi>978-0-295-97910-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glacier+ice&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-295-97910-6&rft.aulast=Post&rft.aufirst=Austin&rft.au=LaChapelle%2C+Edward+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff2020" class="citation news cs1">Staff (June 9, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/06/millions-risk-melting-pakistan-glaciers-raise-flood-fears-200609033202702.html">"Millions at risk as melting Pakistan glaciers raise flood fears"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network" title="Al Jazeera Media Network">Al Jazeera</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Millions+at+risk+as+melting+Pakistan+glaciers+raise+flood+fears&rft.date=2020-06-09&rft.au=Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2020%2F06%2Fmillions-risk-melting-pakistan-glaciers-raise-flood-fears-200609033202702.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">National Geographic Almanac of Geography, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7922-3877-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7922-3877-X">0-7922-3877-X</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20170817140736/http://www.arcinfo.ch/fr/monde/170-000-km-cube-d-eau-dans-les-glaciers-du-monde-577-1052031">"170'000 km cube d'eau dans les glaciers du monde"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/ArcInfo_(newspaper)" title="ArcInfo (newspaper)">ArcInfo</a></i>. 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Paterson, Physics of ice</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Easterbrook-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Easterbrook_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Easterbrook_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Easterbrook, Don J., Surface Processes and Landforms, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1999<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ngeo2008-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ngeo2008_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ngeo2008_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler,_Mark_A.AndersonBriner2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kessler, Mark A.; Anderson, Robert S.; Briner, Jason P. (2008). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-01-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Moulin+%27Blanc%27%3A+NASA+Expedition+Probes+Deep+Within+a+Greenland+Glacier&rft.date=2006-12-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fvision%2Fearth%2Flookingatearth%2Fmoulin-20061211.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies2018-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies2018_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesBinghamKingSmith2018" class="citation journal cs1">Davies, Damon; Bingham, Robert G.; King, Edward C.; Smith, Andrew M.; Brisbourne, Alex M.; Spagnolo, Matteo; Graham, Alastair G. C.; Hogg, Anna E.; Vaughan, David G. 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K. C. (2005). "Subglacial processes". <i>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences</i>. <b>33</b> (1): 247–276. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AREPS..33..247C">2005AREPS..33..247C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.33.092203.122621">10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=Subglacial+processes&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=247-276&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.33.092203.122621&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005AREPS..33..247C&rft.au=Clarke%2C+G.+K.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boulton2006-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Boulton2006_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boulton2006_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boulton2006_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boulton2006_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoulton2006" class="citation book cs1">Boulton, Geoffrey S. 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NASA. 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191221010331/https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-12-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=climate.nasa.gov&rft.atitle=The+Causes+of+Climate+Change&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclimate.nasa.gov%2Fcauses%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NatureComms_20201027-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NatureComms_20201027_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NatureComms_20201027_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWunderlingWilleitDongesWinkelmann2020" class="citation journal cs1">Wunderling, Nico; Willeit, Matteo; Donges, Jonathan F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda (27 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7591863">"Global warming due to loss of large ice masses and Arctic summer sea ice"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 5177. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatCo..11.5177W">2020NatCo..11.5177W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-18934-3">10.1038/s41467-020-18934-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7591863">7591863</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33110092">33110092</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Global+warming+due+to+loss+of+large+ice+masses+and+Arctic+summer+sea+ice&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5177&rft.date=2020-10-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7591863%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33110092&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-18934-3&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatCo..11.5177W&rft.aulast=Wunderling&rft.aufirst=Nico&rft.au=Willeit%2C+Matteo&rft.au=Donges%2C+Jonathan+F.&rft.au=Winkelmann%2C+Ricarda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7591863&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span> Source mentions ice-albedo and melt-elevation feedbacks.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WGMS_thru2022-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WGMS_thru2022_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wgms.ch/global-glacier-state/">"Global Glacier State"</a>. World Glacier Monitoring Service ("under the auspices of: ISC (WDS), IUGG (IACS), UN environment, UNESCO, WMO"). January 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230129051518/https://wgms.ch/global-glacier-state/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Global+Glacier+State&rft.pub=World+Glacier+Monitoring+Service+%28%22under+the+auspices+of%3A+ISC+%28WDS%29%2C+IUGG+%28IACS%29%2C+UN+environment%2C+UNESCO%2C+WMO%22%29&rft.date=2023-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwgms.ch%2Fglobal-glacier-state%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span> See <a href="/wiki/File:1950-_Glacier_annual_mass_change_-_World_Glacier_Monitoring_Service.svg" title="File:1950- Glacier annual mass change - World Glacier Monitoring Service.svg">chart on Wikimedia</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellerer-PirklbauerBodinDelaloyeLambiel2024" class="citation journal cs1">Kellerer-Pirklbauer, Andreas; Bodin, Xavier; Delaloye, Reynald; Lambiel, Christophe; Gärtner-Roer, Isabelle; Bonnefoy-Demongeot, Mylène; Carturan, Luca; Damm, Bodo; Eulenstein, Julia; Fischer, Andrea; Hartl, Lea; Ikeda, Atsushi; Kaufmann, Viktor; Krainer, Karl; Matsuoka, Norikazu (2024-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad25a4">"Acceleration and interannual variability of creep rates in mountain permafrost landforms (rock glacier velocities) in the European Alps in 1995–2022"</a>. <i>Environmental Research Letters</i>. <b>19</b> (3): 034022. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024ERL....19c4022K">2024ERL....19c4022K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fad25a4">10.1088/1748-9326/ad25a4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1748-9326">1748-9326</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Acceleration+and+interannual+variability+of+creep+rates+in+mountain+permafrost+landforms+%28rock+glacier+velocities%29+in+the+European+Alps+in+1995%E2%80%932022&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=034022&rft.date=2024-03-01&rft.issn=1748-9326&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fad25a4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024ERL....19c4022K&rft.aulast=Kellerer-Pirklbauer&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft.au=Bodin%2C+Xavier&rft.au=Delaloye%2C+Reynald&rft.au=Lambiel%2C+Christophe&rft.au=G%C3%A4rtner-Roer%2C+Isabelle&rft.au=Bonnefoy-Demongeot%2C+Myl%C3%A8ne&rft.au=Carturan%2C+Luca&rft.au=Damm%2C+Bodo&rft.au=Eulenstein%2C+Julia&rft.au=Fischer%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Hartl%2C+Lea&rft.au=Ikeda%2C+Atsushi&rft.au=Kaufmann%2C+Viktor&rft.au=Krainer%2C+Karl&rft.au=Matsuoka%2C+Norikazu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Fad25a4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGII_Summary_for_Policymakers_20-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGII_Summary_for_Policymakers_20_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_WGII_Summary_for_Policymakers_20_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf">"IPCC AR6 WGII Summary for Policymakers"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ipcc.ch</i>. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230122220619/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 22 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ipcc.ch&rft.atitle=IPCC+AR6+WGII+Summary+for+Policymakers&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Freport%2Far6%2Fwg2%2Fdownloads%2Freport%2FIPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasper2010" class="citation book cs1">Casper, Julie Kerr (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2UYrRG2ocHoC&q=Large+masses,+such+as+ice+sheets+and+glaciers,+can+depress+the+crust+of+the+Earth+into+the+mantle.&pg=PT95"><i>Global Warming Cycles: Ice Ages and Glacial Retreat</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7262-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7262-0"><bdi>978-0-8160-7262-0</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Warming+Cycles%3A+Ice+Ages+and+Glacial+Retreat&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-7262-0&rft.aulast=Casper&rft.aufirst=Julie+Kerr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2UYrRG2ocHoC%26q%3DLarge%2Bmasses%2C%2Bsuch%2Bas%2Bice%2Bsheets%2Band%2Bglaciers%2C%2Bcan%2Bdepress%2Bthe%2Bcrust%2Bof%2Bthe%2BEarth%2Binto%2Bthe%2Bmantle.%26pg%3DPT95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/polar2003/pdf/8112.pdf">"Kargel, J.S. et al.:<i>Martian Polar Ice Sheets and Mid-Latitude Debris-Rich Glaciers, and Terrestrial Analogs</i>, Third International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration, Alberta, Canada, October 13–17, 2003 (pdf 970 Kb)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080227091117/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/polar2003/pdf/8112.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2008-02-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Convection in a volatile nitrogen-ice-rich layer drives Pluto's geological vigour". <i>Nature</i>. <b>534</b> (7605): 82–85. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1903.05571">1903.05571</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016Natur.534...82M">2016Natur.534...82M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature18289">10.1038/nature18289</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27251279">27251279</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30903520">30903520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Convection+in+a+volatile+nitrogen-ice-rich+layer+drives+Pluto%27s+geological+vigour&rft.volume=534&rft.issue=7605&rft.pages=82-85&rft.date=2016-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30903520%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016Natur.534...82M&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1903.05571&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27251279&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature18289&rft.aulast=McKinnon&rft.aufirst=W.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Umurhan2016-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Umurhan2016_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUmurhan2016" class="citation web cs1">Umurhan, O. (January 8, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/pluto/2016/01/08/probing-the-mysterious-glacial-flow-on-plutos-frozen-heart/">"Probing the Mysterious Glacial Flow on Pluto's Frozen 'Heart'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>blogs.nasa.gov</i>. NASA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 24,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=blogs.nasa.gov&rft.atitle=Probing+the+Mysterious+Glacial+Flow+on+Pluto%27s+Frozen+%27Heart%27&rft.date=2016-01-08&rft.aulast=Umurhan&rft.aufirst=O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.nasa.gov%2Fpluto%2F2016%2F01%2F08%2Fprobing-the-mysterious-glacial-flow-on-plutos-frozen-heart%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuggett2011" class="citation book cs1">Huggett, Richard John (2011). <i>Fundamentals Of Geomorphology</i>. Routledge Fundamentals of Physical Geography Series (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-86008-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-86008-3"><bdi>978-0-203-86008-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+Of+Geomorphology&rft.series=Routledge+Fundamentals+of+Physical+Geography+Series&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-203-86008-3&rft.aulast=Huggett&rft.aufirst=Richard+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_references">General references</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: General references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>This article draws heavily on the <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciar" class="extiw" title="es:Glaciar">corresponding article</a> in the <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Portada" class="extiw" title="es:Wikipedia:Portada">Spanish-language Wikipedia</a>, which was accessed in the version of 24 July 2005.</i></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHambreyAlean2004" class="citation book cs1">Hambrey, Michael; Alean, Jürg (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/glaciers0002hamb"><i>Glaciers</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82808-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82808-6"><bdi>978-0-521-82808-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54371738">54371738</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glaciers&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54371738&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82808-6&rft.aulast=Hambrey&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Alean%2C+J%C3%BCrg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fglaciers0002hamb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span> A less-technical treatment of all aspects, with photographs and firsthand accounts of glaciologists' experiences. All images of this book can be found online (see Weblinks: Glaciers-online)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennEvans1999" class="citation book cs1">Benn, Douglas I.; Evans, David J.A. (1999). <i>Glaciers and Glaciation</i>. Arnold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-23651-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-23651-2"><bdi>978-0-470-23651-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38329570">38329570</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glaciers+and+Glaciation&rft.pub=Arnold&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38329570&rft.isbn=978-0-470-23651-2&rft.aulast=Benn&rft.aufirst=Douglas+I.&rft.au=Evans%2C+David+J.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennettGlasser1996" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, M.R.; Glasser, N.F. (1996). <i>Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-96344-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-96344-8"><bdi>978-0-471-96344-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/33359888">33359888</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glacial+Geology%3A+Ice+Sheets+and+Landforms&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33359888&rft.isbn=978-0-471-96344-8&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=M.R.&rft.au=Glasser%2C+N.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHambrey1994" class="citation book cs1">Hambrey, Michael (1994). <i>Glacial Environments</i>. University of British Columbia Press, UCL Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0510-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0510-0"><bdi>978-0-7748-0510-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30512475">30512475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glacial+Environments&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press%2C+UCL+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30512475&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0510-0&rft.aulast=Hambrey&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span> An undergraduate-level textbook.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight1999" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Peter G. (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/glaciers0000knig"><i>Glaciers</i></a></span>. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-4000-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-4000-0"><bdi>978-0-7487-4000-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42656957">42656957</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glaciers&rft.place=Cheltenham&rft.pub=Nelson+Thornes&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42656957&rft.isbn=978-0-7487-4000-0&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Peter+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fglaciers0000knig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span> A textbook for undergraduates avoiding mathematical complexities</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalley1992" class="citation book cs1">Walley, Robert (1992). <i>Introduction to Physical Geography</i>. Wm. C. Brown Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Physical+Geography&rft.pub=Wm.+C.+Brown+Publishers&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Walley&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span> A textbook devoted to explaining the geography of our planet.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaterson1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stan_Paterson" title="Stan Paterson">Paterson, W.S.B.</a> (1994). <i>Physics of Glaciers</i> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Press" title="Pergamon Press">Pergamon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-013972-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-013972-2"><bdi>978-0-08-013972-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26188">26188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+of+Glaciers&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26188&rft.isbn=978-0-08-013972-2&rft.aulast=Paterson&rft.aufirst=W.S.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span> A comprehensive reference on the physical principles underlying formation and behavior.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Gornitz, Vivien. <i>Vanishing Ice: Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Rising Seas</i> (Columbia University Press, 2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=56939">online review</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twila_Moon" title="Twila Moon">Moon, Twila</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.aam9625">Saying goodbye to glaciers</a>, <i>Science,</i> 12 May 2017, Vol. 356, Issue 6338, pp. 580–581, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aam9625">10.1126/science.aam9625</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glacier&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/glacier" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/glacier">glacier</a></b></i> in 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to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Glacier" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Glacier">Glacier</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181225130137/http://www.grid.unep.ch/glaciers/">"Global Glacier Changes: Facts and Figures"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> (UNEP). 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grid.unep.ch/glaciers/">the original</a> on 2018-12-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-11-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Global+Glacier+Changes%3A+Facts+and+Figures&rft.pub=United+Nations+Environment+Programme+%28UNEP%29&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.grid.unep.ch%2Fglaciers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlacier" class="Z3988"></span>, a report in the <a href="/wiki/Global_Environment_Outlook" title="Global Environment Outlook">Global Environment Outlook</a> (GEO) series.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://danbbs.dk/~stst/glaciologi/">Glacial structures – photo atlas</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/now/shows/516/index.html">NOW on PBS "On Thin Ice"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asiasociety.org/onthinnerice">Photo project tracks changes in Himalayan glaciers since 1921</a></li> <li>Short radio episode <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040523194932/http://californialegacy.org/radio_anthology/scripts/muir.html">California Glaciers</a></i> from <i>The Mountains of California</i> by John Muir, 1894. <a href="/w/index.php?title=California_Legacy_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="California Legacy Project (page does not exist)">California Legacy Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://donlehmanjr.com/Mountain/08%20The%20Dynamics%20of%20Glaciers.htm">Dynamics of Glaciers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geo.badw.de/en/the-project.html">Mountain glaciers and their role in the Earth system</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gletschervergleiche.ch/Pages/ImageCompare.aspx?Id=6">GletscherVergleiche.ch</a> – Before/After Images by Simon Oberli</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing<br /> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glaciers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Glaciers" title="Template:Glaciers"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Glaciers" title="Template talk:Glaciers"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Glaciers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Glaciers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Glaciers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glaciers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aufeis" title="Aufeis">Aufeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirque" title="Cirque">Cirque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">Ice cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_field" title="Ice field">Ice field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">Ice sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">Ice shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_stream" title="Ice stream">Ice stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ledoyom" title="Ledoyom">Ledoyom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlet_glacier" class="mw-redirect" title="Outlet glacier">Outlet glacier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmont_glacier" class="mw-redirect" title="Piedmont glacier">Piedmont glacier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_glacier" title="Rock glacier">Rock glacier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_glacier" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley glacier">Valley glacier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ablation_zone" title="Ablation zone">Ablation zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_zone" title="Accumulation zone">Accumulation zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergschrund" title="Bergschrund">Bergschrund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_ice_(glacial)" title="Blue ice (glacial)">Blue ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crevasse" title="Crevasse">Crevasse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirt_cone" title="Dirt cone">Dirt cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firn" title="Firn">Firn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_cave" title="Glacier cave">Glacier cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_head" title="Glacier head">Glacier head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_divide" title="Ice divide">Ice divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacier tongue">Glacier tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icefall" title="Icefall">Icefall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_moraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral moraine">Lateral moraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_moraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial moraine">Medial moraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">Moraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moulin_(geomorphology)" title="Moulin (geomorphology)">Moulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penitente_(snow_formation)" title="Penitente (snow formation)">Penitente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randkluft" title="Randkluft">Randkluft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serac" title="Serac">Sérac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_terminus" title="Glacier terminus">Terminus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ablation" title="Ablation">Ablation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_ice_accumulation" title="Glacier ice accumulation">Accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basal_sliding" title="Basal sliding">Basal sliding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_calving" title="Ice calving">Calving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creep_(deformation)" title="Creep (deformation)">Creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_motion" title="Glacial motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_lake_outburst_flood" title="Glacial lake outburst flood">Outburst flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdeepening" title="Overdeepening">Overdeepening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periglaciation" title="Periglaciation">Periglaciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plucking_(glaciation)" title="Plucking (glaciation)">Plucking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(glaciology)" title="Starvation (glaciology)">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surge_(glacier)" title="Surge (glacier)">Surge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">Ice core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_mass_balance" title="Glacier mass balance">Mass balance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Volcanic relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6kulhlaup" title="Jökulhlaup">Jökulhlaup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subglacial_eruption" title="Subglacial eruption">Subglacial eruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subglacial_volcano" title="Subglacial volcano">Subglacial volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuya" title="Tuya">Tuya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glacial_landform" title="Glacial landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Erosional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ar%C3%AAte" title="Arête">Arête</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirque" title="Cirque">Cirque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirque_stairway" title="Cirque stairway">Cirque stairway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crag_and_tail" title="Crag and tail">Crag and tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_lake" title="Finger lake">Finger lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">Fjord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_peak" title="Pyramidal peak">Glacial horn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_lake" title="Glacial lake">Glacial lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_striation" title="Glacial striation">Glacial striae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanging_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanging valley">Hanging valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunatak" title="Nunatak">Nunatak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-form_(geology)" title="P-form (geology)">P-form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribbon_lake" title="Ribbon lake">Ribbon lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roche_moutonn%C3%A9e" title="Roche moutonnée">Roche moutonnée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suncup_(snow)" title="Suncup (snow)">Suncup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarn_(lake)" title="Tarn (lake)">Tarn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_lake" title="Finger lake">Trough lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trough_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Trough valley">Trough valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_valley" title="Tunnel valley">Tunnel valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley#Glacial_valleys" title="Valley">U-valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_step" title="Valley step">Valley step</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zungenbecken" title="Zungenbecken">Zungenbecken</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Depositional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drumlin" title="Drumlin">Drumlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_erratic" title="Glacial erratic">Erratic block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">Moraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moraine-dammed_lake" title="Moraine-dammed lake">Moraine-dammed lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulju_moraine" title="Pulju moraine">Pulju moraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogen_moraine" title="Rogen moraine">Rogen moraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevetti_moraine" title="Sevetti moraine">Sevetti moraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_moraine" title="Terminal moraine">Terminal moraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Till_plain" title="Till plain">Till plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veiki_moraine" title="Veiki moraine">Veiki moraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glaciofluvial_deposits" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciofluvial deposits">Glaciofluvial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpentor" title="Alpentor">Alpentor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diluvium" title="Diluvium">Diluvium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esker" title="Esker">Esker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_current_ripples" title="Giant current ripples">Giant current ripples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kame" title="Kame">Kame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kame_delta" title="Kame delta">Kame delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kettle_(landform)" title="Kettle (landform)">Kettle hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outwash_fan" title="Outwash fan">Outwash fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outwash_plain" title="Outwash plain">Sandur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urstromtal" title="Urstromtal">Urstromtal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Glaciers" title="Category:Glaciers">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers" title="List of glaciers">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Periglacial_environment" title="Template:Periglacial environment">Template:Periglacial environment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ice" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ice" title="Template:Ice"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ice" title="Template talk:Ice"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ice" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ice"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ice" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>The <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major phases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice#Amorphous_ice" title="Phases of ice">Amorphous solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice#Known_phases" title="Phases of ice">Crystalline phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_ice#Ice_XVIII_(superionic_water)" title="Phases of ice">Superionic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor_ice" title="Anchor ice">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">Cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cave" title="Ice cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_dune" title="Ice dune">Dune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_field" title="Ice field">Field</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glacier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">Iceberg</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ice_calving" title="Ice calving">calving</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icicle" title="Icicle">Icicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_jam" title="Ice jam">Jam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">Sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_spike" title="Ice spike">Spike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalactite#Ice_stalactites" title="Stalactite">Stalactites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_volcano" title="Ice volcano">Volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice%E2%80%93albedo_feedback" title="Ice–albedo feedback">Albedo feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_ice" title="Black ice">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_circle" title="Ice circle">Circle or disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_ice" title="Clear ice">Clear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_crystals" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice crystals">Crystals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firn" title="Firn">Firn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_fog" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice fog">Fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frazil_ice" title="Frazil ice">Frazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost" title="Frost">Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_flower" title="Frost flower">Frost flower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Frost_flower_(sea_ice)" title="Frost flower (sea ice)">sea ice</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaze_(ice)" title="Glaze (ice)">Glaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_ice" title="Hair ice">Hair ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_jacking" title="Ice jacking">Jacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9v%C3%A9" title="Névé">Névé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_ice" title="Needle ice">Needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_nucleus" title="Ice nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rime_ice" title="Rime ice">Rime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_shove" title="Ice shove">Shove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuga_(ice)" title="Shuga (ice)">Shuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slurry_ice" title="Slurry ice">Slurry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slush" title="Slush">Slush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Storm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ice-related<br />activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_bath" title="Ice bath">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_blasting" title="Ice blasting">Blasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_blocking" title="Ice blocking">Blocking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_climbing" title="Ice climbing">Climbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_fishing" title="Ice fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_rafting" title="Ice rafting">Rafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_sculpture" title="Ice sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_skating" title="Ice skating">Skating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Winter_sports" title="Winter sports">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandy" title="Bandy">Bandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceboat" title="Iceboat">Iceboating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cricket" title="Ice cricket">Cricket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">Curling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icetrack_cycling" title="Icetrack cycling">Cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_skating" title="Figure skating">Figure skating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_hockey" title="Ice hockey">Ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_racing" title="Ice racing">Ice racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_skating" title="Speed skating">Speed skating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short-track_speed_skating" title="Short-track speed skating">Short-track speed skating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_skating" title="Tour skating">Tour skating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constructions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_bar" title="Ice bar">Bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_bridge" title="Ice bridge">Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_hotel" title="Ice hotel">Hotel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igloo" title="Igloo">Igloo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_palace" title="Ice palace">Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pier" title="Ice pier">Pier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pykrete" title="Pykrete">Pykrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_rink" title="Ice rink">Rink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_road" title="Ice road">Road</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Work</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cutting" title="Ice cutting">Cutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icebox" title="Icebox">Icebox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_house_(building)" title="Ice house (building)">Icehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceman_(occupation)" title="Iceman (occupation)">Iceman (occupation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pick" title="Ice pick">Pick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_trade" title="Ice trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakhch%C4%81l" title="Yakhchāl">Yakhchāl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other uses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_chips" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice chips">Chips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cream" title="Ice cream">Cream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cube" title="Ice cube">Cube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pack" title="Ice pack">Pack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Water_ice" title="Category:Water ice">Category</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ice" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ice">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wiktionary page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ice" class="extiw" title="wikt:ice">Wiktionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png/19px-The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png/29px-The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png/38px-The_Matterhorn_as_seen_from_Zermatt.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="994" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mountains" title="Portal:Mountains">Mountains</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35666#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35666#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35666#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Gletscher"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4137668-7">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85055066">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Glaciers"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11935616q">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Glaciers"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11935616q">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563845">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ledovce"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph166364&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007531334005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/007772">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=59722">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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93.753 2 Template:IPAc-en"," 6.77% 93.531 18 Template:Cite_book"," 6.17% 85.253 3 Template:Cite_news"," 5.21% 71.961 6 Template:Sfn"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.829","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":25010956,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBennEvans1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennEvans1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennettGlasser1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBindschadlerScambos1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoulton2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown,_Molly_ElizabethOuyang,_HuaHabib,_ShahidShrestha,_Basanta2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasper2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke,_G._K._C.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke,_Garry_K.C.1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaviesBinghamKingSmith2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDusto2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDühnforthAndersonWardStock2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEasterbrook1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrickerScambosBindschadlerPadman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreve,_R.Blatter,_H.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHambrey1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHambreyAlean2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuggett2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellerer-PirklbauerBodinDelaloyeLambiel2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKessler,_Mark_A.AndersonBriner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKincaidKlein,_Andrew_G.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleman,_John2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnight1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoppesHalletRignotMouginot2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLakdawalla2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorrainFitzsimons2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKinnon2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaterson1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaulKääbMaischKellenberger2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPostLaChapelle2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRounceHockMaussionHugonnet2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoof2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSummerfield1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUmurhan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity_of_Wisconsin,_Department_of_Geography_and_Geology2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalley1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWendlederBramboeckIzzardErbertseder2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWunderlingWilleitDongesWinkelmann2020\"] = 1,\n [\"Glacial_valleys\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 5,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 18,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 34,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 17,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 2,\n [\"Details\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Glaciers\"] = 1,\n [\"Global warming\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Ice\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 2,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"SPATRAcite\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 6,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n [\"Wikibooks\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-5btnt","timestamp":"20241125095643","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Glacier","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glacier","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q35666","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q35666","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-08-18T03:45:42Z","dateModified":"2024-11-14T22:32:12Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d3\/Geikie_Plateau_Glacier.JPG","headline":"large persistent body of 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