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href="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sparks.svg"/><link rel="preload" as="image" href="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/rocket.svg"/><link rel="preload" as="image" href="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/rss-feed.svg"/><link rel="preload" as="image" href="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/chat-lines.svg"/><link rel="preload" as="image" href="/_next/static/media/anonymous-author.9fb47b5c.webp"/><title>Introduction to Trino Cost-Based Optimizer | Starburst</title><meta name="description" content="Trino Cost-based optimizer makes decisions based on several factors, including shape of the query, filters and table statistics."/><meta name="facebook-domain-verification" content="8pp85eyur61kj2mywwvmldhbve10sf"/><meta property="og:title" content="Introduction to Trino Cost-Based Optimizer | Starburst"/><meta property="og:description" content="Trino Cost-based 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src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/trophy.svg" alt="Why Starburst" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Why Starburst</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Learn our benefits</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/starburst-vs-trino/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/intersect.svg" alt="Starburst vs Trino" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Starburst vs Trino</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Compare Starburst</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div><div class="col-span-2 flex flex-col space-y-4"><div class="text-lg font-medium"><p class="ps-2 text-sm text-gray-600">Customers</p></div><ul class="flex-1 grid lg:grid-cols-2 lg:gap-x-8"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/customers/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/city-1.svg" alt="Customers at Starburst" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Customers at Starburst</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Client solutions</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/about/security/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/shield-check.svg" alt="Security & Trust" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Security & Trust</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Data safety focus</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/resources/?category=case-study"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/suggestion.svg" alt="Customer Stories" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Customer Stories</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Success tales</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/professional-services/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/suitcase.svg" alt="Professional Services" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Professional Services</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Expert solutions</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/learn/support/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/support.svg" alt="Support" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Support</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Get help 24/7</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/customers/starburst-data-rebels/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/rebels.svg" alt="Starburst Data Rebels" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Starburst Data Rebels</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Empowering innovation</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></div></div></li><li class="group/mega dropdown dropdown-bottom dropdown-hover static shrink-0 rounded-lg p-2 outline-1 has-[:focus-visible]:outline has-[:focus-visible]:outline-white" data-menu-item="Products"><div tabindex="0" role="button" class="text-white transition-colors duration-200 group-hover/mega:text-purple">Products</div><div class="pointer-events-none fixed left-0 right-0 mt-6 h-screen opacity-0 backdrop-blur-sm transition-opacity !duration-300 group-hover/mega:opacity-100"></div><div class="dropdown-content absolute !top-0 left-0 !mt-[3.5rem] w-full !scale-100 pt-2 !duration-0 xl:!mt-[5rem] xl:pt-6"><div class="shadow opacity-0 transition-opacity !duration-300 group-hover/mega:opacity-100"><div class="container relative mx-auto px-4 md:px-8 xl:px-24"><div class="relative w-full overflow-hidden rounded-box bg-smokeyBlack p-14 shadow-[inset_0_0_0_1px_rgba(255,255,255,0.1),inset_0_0_0_1px_rgba(255,255,255,0.1)]"><div class="absolute inset-0 -top-20 z-0 h-14 w-28 flex-none flex-grow-0 bg-purple blur-[1.75rem] transition-all duration-300" style="top:-10rem;left:0"></div><div class="flex gap-8"><div class="flex-1 space-y-4 card"><div class="text-lg font-medium h-full"><a class="group flex h-full w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-2xl bg-gray-900 p-2 p-6 py-10 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-[#424242]" href="/starburst-galaxy/"><div class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><div class="flex flex-col justify-between lg:min-h-40 xl:min-h-48"><span class="block text-white text-display-sm xl:w-1/2">Starburst Galaxy</span><div class="flex items-end justify-between"><span class="block text-sm text-gray-600 lg:w-3/4 xl:w-2/3">Fully managed lakehouse from data ingestion to data sharing</span><span class="material-symbols-rounded text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600">arrow_right_alt</span></div></div></div></a></div></div><div class="flex-1 space-y-4 card"><div class="text-lg font-medium h-full"><a class="group flex h-full w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-2xl bg-gray-900 p-2 p-6 py-10 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-[#424242]" href="/starburst-enterprise/"><div class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><div class="flex flex-col justify-between lg:min-h-40 xl:min-h-48"><span class="block text-white text-display-sm xl:w-1/2">Starburst Enterprise</span><div class="flex items-end justify-between"><span class="block text-sm text-gray-600 lg:w-3/4 xl:w-2/3">Self-managed lakehouse with 7x more horsepower than OS Trino</span><span class="material-symbols-rounded text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600">arrow_right_alt</span></div></div></div></a></div></div><div class="flex-1 space-y-4 card"><div class="text-lg font-medium h-full"><a class="group flex h-full w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-2xl bg-gray-900 p-2 p-6 py-10 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-[#424242]" href="/dell/"><div class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><div class="flex flex-col justify-between lg:min-h-40 xl:min-h-48"><span class="block text-white text-display-sm xl:w-1/2">Dell Data Lakehouse</span><div class="flex items-end justify-between"><span class="block text-sm text-gray-600 lg:w-3/4 xl:w-2/3">Modern on-premises storage, SQL engine, and compute for on-prem and hybrid lakehouses</span><span class="material-symbols-rounded text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600">arrow_right_alt</span></div></div></div></a></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></li><li class="group/mega dropdown dropdown-bottom dropdown-hover static shrink-0 rounded-lg p-2 outline-1 has-[:focus-visible]:outline has-[:focus-visible]:outline-white" data-menu-item="Solutions"><div tabindex="0" role="button" class="text-white transition-colors duration-200 group-hover/mega:text-purple">Solutions</div><div class="pointer-events-none fixed left-0 right-0 mt-6 h-screen opacity-0 backdrop-blur-sm transition-opacity !duration-300 group-hover/mega:opacity-100"></div><div class="dropdown-content absolute !top-0 left-0 !mt-[3.5rem] w-full !scale-100 pt-2 !duration-0 xl:!mt-[5rem] xl:pt-6"><div class="shadow opacity-0 transition-opacity !duration-300 group-hover/mega:opacity-100"><div class="container relative mx-auto px-4 md:px-8 xl:px-24"><div class="relative w-full overflow-hidden rounded-box bg-smokeyBlack p-14 shadow-[inset_0_0_0_1px_rgba(255,255,255,0.1),inset_0_0_0_1px_rgba(255,255,255,0.1)]"><div class="absolute inset-0 -top-20 z-0 h-14 w-28 flex-none flex-grow-0 bg-purple blur-[1.75rem] transition-all duration-300" style="top:-10rem;left:0"></div><div class="flex gap-8"><div class="flex flex-col space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-1/3"><div class="text-lg font-medium"><p class="ps-2 text-sm text-gray-600">Use cases</p></div><ul class="flex-1 flex flex-col"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/solutions/open-data-lakehouse/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Open Data Lakehouse</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/platform/icehouse/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Icehouse Architecture</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/info/distributed-data-mesh-resource-center/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Data Mesh</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/solutions/ai/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Artificial Intelligence</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/solutions/elt-data-processing/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span><span class="text-md block text-white">ELT Data Processing</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/solutions/data-applications/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Data Applications</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/solutions/data-migrations/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Data Migrations</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/solutions/data-products/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Data Products</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/federal/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Starburst Enterprise for Government</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/solutions/data-migrations/hadoop-modernization/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Hadoop Modernization</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div><div class="flex flex-col space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-1/3"><div class="text-lg font-medium"><p class="ps-2 text-sm text-gray-600">Industry</p></div><ul class="flex-1 flex flex-col"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/solutions/industry/financial-services/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/lot-of-cash.svg" alt="Financial Services" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Financial Services</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Data-driven banking</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/solutions/industry/healthcare-and-life-sciences/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/healthcare.svg" alt="Healthcare & Life Sciences" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Healthcare & Life Sciences</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Innovations in care</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/solutions/industry/retail-consumer-packaged-goods/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/shop.svg" alt="Retail & CPG" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Retail & CPG</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Insights for growth</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/platform/starburst-enterprise/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/industry.svg" alt="Manufacturing" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Manufacturing</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Smarter production</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div><div class="flex flex-col space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-1/3"><div class="text-lg font-medium"><p class="ps-2 text-sm text-gray-600">Partners</p></div><ul class="flex-1 flex flex-col"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/partner-listing/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/list.svg" alt="Partner Listing" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Partner Listing</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Meet Our Partners</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="https://accounts.skilljar.com/accounts/login/?t=32rio14maro27&d=2z7ddtjqi09es&next=%2Fauth%2Fendpoint%2Flogin%2Fresult%3Fnext%3D%252F%26d%3D2z7ddtjqi09es"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/planet.svg" alt="Starburst Orbit" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Starburst Orbit</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Learning Portal</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/partners/become-a-partner/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/settings-profiles.svg" alt="Become a Partner" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Become a Partner</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Join our network</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="https://partners.starburstdata.com/?__hstc=81614408.a0528845c6a3bab6567bb0ba56ca3b08.1688053347051.1689974773529.1689983551853.46&__hssc=81614408.6.1689983551853&__hsfp=3812163218"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/log-in.svg" alt="Partner Login" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Partner Login</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Partner portal access</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/dell/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/computer.svg" alt="Dell" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Dell</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Powered by Starburst</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></div></div></li><li class="group/mega dropdown dropdown-bottom dropdown-hover static shrink-0 rounded-lg p-2 outline-1 has-[:focus-visible]:outline has-[:focus-visible]:outline-white" data-menu-item="Pricing"><a class="text-white transition-colors duration-200 group-hover/mega:text-purple" href="/pricing/">Pricing</a></li><li class="group/mega dropdown dropdown-bottom dropdown-hover static shrink-0 rounded-lg p-2 outline-1 has-[:focus-visible]:outline has-[:focus-visible]:outline-white" data-menu-item="Resources"><div tabindex="0" role="button" class="text-white transition-colors duration-200 group-hover/mega:text-purple">Resources</div><div class="pointer-events-none fixed left-0 right-0 mt-6 h-screen opacity-0 backdrop-blur-sm transition-opacity !duration-300 group-hover/mega:opacity-100"></div><div class="dropdown-content absolute !top-0 left-0 !mt-[3.5rem] w-full !scale-100 pt-2 !duration-0 xl:!mt-[5rem] xl:pt-6"><div class="shadow opacity-0 transition-opacity !duration-300 group-hover/mega:opacity-100"><div class="container relative mx-auto px-4 md:px-8 xl:px-24"><div class="relative w-full overflow-hidden rounded-box bg-smokeyBlack p-14 shadow-[inset_0_0_0_1px_rgba(255,255,255,0.1),inset_0_0_0_1px_rgba(255,255,255,0.1)]"><div class="absolute inset-0 -top-20 z-0 h-14 w-28 flex-none flex-grow-0 bg-purple blur-[1.75rem] transition-all duration-300" style="top:-10rem;left:0"></div><div class="flex flex-col flex-wrap gap-8 lg:max-h-[30rem]"><div class=" space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-[calc(33.3%-1.33rem)]"><div class="text-lg font-medium"><p class="ps-2 text-sm text-gray-600">Events</p></div><ul class="flex-1 flex flex-col"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/datanova/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/center-align.svg" alt="Datanova" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Datanova</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Shaping the future of data</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/learn/events-webinars/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/calendar.svg" alt="Event Calendar" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Event Calendar</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Upcoming gatherings</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div><div class=" space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-[calc(33.3%-1.33rem)]"><div class="text-lg font-medium"><p class="ps-2 text-sm text-gray-600">Connect</p></div><ul class="flex-1 flex flex-col"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/community/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/group.svg" alt="Community" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Community</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Connect and share</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="https://www.starburst.io/community/forum/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multi-bubble.svg" alt="Forum" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Forum</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Discuss and discover</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div><div class=" space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-[calc(33.3%-1.33rem)]"><div class="text-lg font-medium"><p class="ps-2 text-sm text-gray-600">Documentation</p></div><ul class="flex-1 flex flex-col"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="https://docs.starburst.io/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/tools.svg" alt="Technical Overview" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Technical Overview</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Helpful materials</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="https://docs.starburst.io/starburst-galaxy/index.html"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/cloud.svg" alt="Starburst Galaxy" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Starburst Galaxy</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">User guides</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="https://docs.starburst.io/latest/index.html"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/database.svg" alt="Starburst Enterprise" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Starburst Enterprise</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">User guides</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="https://docs.starburst.io/clients/index.html"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/star.svg" alt="Clients" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Clients</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Trusted partnerships</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div><div class=" space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-[calc(33.3%-1.33rem)]"><div class="text-lg font-medium"><p class="ps-2 text-sm text-gray-600">Blog, Guides & Webinars</p></div><ul class="flex-1 flex flex-col"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/blog/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/white-flag.svg" alt="Blog" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Blog</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Insights and updates</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/data-glossary/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multi-window.svg" alt="Data Glossary" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Data Glossary</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Data definitions</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/resources/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/google-docs.svg" alt="Resources" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Resources</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Guides and tools</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div><div class=" space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-[calc(33.3%-1.33rem)]"><div class="text-lg font-medium"><p class="ps-2 text-sm text-gray-600">Training & Certification</p></div><ul class="flex-1 flex flex-col"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="https://academy.starburst.io/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/graduation-cap.svg" alt="Starburst Academy" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Starburst Academy</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Training and courses</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/tutorials/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/media-video.svg" alt="Tutorials" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Tutorials</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Step-by-step guides</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></div></div></li><li class="group/mega dropdown dropdown-bottom dropdown-hover static shrink-0 rounded-lg p-2 outline-1 has-[:focus-visible]:outline has-[:focus-visible]:outline-white" data-menu-item="About"><div tabindex="0" role="button" class="text-white transition-colors duration-200 group-hover/mega:text-purple">About</div><div class="pointer-events-none fixed left-0 right-0 mt-6 h-screen opacity-0 backdrop-blur-sm transition-opacity !duration-300 group-hover/mega:opacity-100"></div><div class="dropdown-content absolute !top-0 left-0 !mt-[3.5rem] w-full !scale-100 pt-2 !duration-0 xl:!mt-[5rem] xl:pt-6"><div class="shadow opacity-0 transition-opacity !duration-300 group-hover/mega:opacity-100"><div class="container relative mx-auto px-4 md:px-8 xl:px-24"><div class="relative w-full overflow-hidden rounded-box bg-smokeyBlack p-14 shadow-[inset_0_0_0_1px_rgba(255,255,255,0.1),inset_0_0_0_1px_rgba(255,255,255,0.1)]"><div class="absolute inset-0 -top-20 z-0 h-14 w-28 flex-none flex-grow-0 bg-purple blur-[1.75rem] transition-all duration-300" style="top:-10rem;left:0"></div><div class="flex gap-8"><div class=" space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-1/3"><ul class="flex-1 flex flex-col"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/about/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sparks.svg" alt="Company" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Company</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">About us</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/careers/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/rocket.svg" alt="Careers" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Careers</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Join our team</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div><div class=" space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-1/3"><ul class="flex-1 flex flex-col"><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/about/newsroom/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/rss-feed.svg" alt="Newsroom" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Newsroom</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">News and events</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li><li><a class="group flex w-full items-center justify-between gap-4 rounded-lg bg-smokeyBlack p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out hover:bg-gray-900" href="/contact/"><span class="flex w-fit flex-row items-start gap-4"><span class="rounded-md bg-gray-900 p-2 transition-colors duration-100 ease-in-out group-hover:bg-smokeyBlack"><img src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/chat-lines.svg" alt="Contact Us" class="text-grey-600 max-w-[20px] text-[1.25rem]"/></span><span><span class="text-md block text-white">Contact Us</span><span class="text-md block text-gray-600">Get in touch</span></span></span><span class="material-symbols-rounded invisible text-[1.25rem] text-gray-600 group-hover:visible">arrow_right_alt</span></a></li></ul></div><div class=" space-y-4 border-t border-[#424242] pt-4 lg:w-1/3"><h4 class="text-display-xs xl:pe-16 2xl:pe-24 2xl:text-display-sm">Starburst’s mission is to free our customers to see the invisible and achieve the impossible</h4></div></div></div></div></div></div></li></ul><ul class="lg:text-base flex items-center gap-1 text-sm text-white 2xl:gap-6"><li class="group/mega dropdown dropdown-bottom 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focus-visible:outline-1 disabled:pointer-events-none focus-visible:outline-white disabled:bg-dark-action-disabled disabled:text-dark-text-invert bg-dark-action-primary text-white hover:bg-dark-action-primary-hover active:bg-dark-action-primary-hover px-[1.375rem] py-2 text-md !min-h-[1rem] !px-[1rem] !py-1 !text-sm xl:!min-h-[3rem] xl:!px-[1.375rem] xl:!py-2" href="/free-trial/">Start Free<svg width="12" height="12" viewBox="0 0 12 12" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path d="M1.50003 11.25L11.25 1.49997M11.25 1.49997V10.86M11.25 1.49997H1.89004" stroke="white" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"></path></svg></a></li></ul></nav></div><div class="relative z-10 mx-auto w-full bg-smokeyBlack px-4 py-5 lg:container md:px-8 xl:px-24 xl:py-10 peer flex justify-between gap-4 lg:hidden"><a class="me-3 min-w-[151px] shrink-0 rounded-lg py-1 focus-visible:outline focus-visible:outline-white xl:me-8" href="/"><img 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leading-[3.25rem] text-white prose-img:max-h-60 prose-img:w-full prose-img:max-w-lg md:text-[4rem] md:leading-[4.25rem]">Introduction to Trino Cost-Based Optimizer</h1><div class="flex items-start justify-between gap-6"><div><time class="text-sm text-gray-600">April 9, 2018</time></div><div class="block md:hidden"><ul class="flex flex-col gap-8"><li class="flex items-center gap-4"><img src="/_next/static/media/anonymous-author.9fb47b5c.webp" alt="Piotr Findeisen" class="block rounded-full border border-solid border-white" width="40" height="40"/><div class="flex max-w-56 flex-col"><p class="text-xs font-semibold text-white">Piotr Findeisen</p><p class="text-xs text-gray-600">Co-founder and Software Engineer</p><p class="text-xs text-gray-600">Starburst</p></div></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="hidden md:block"><ul class="flex flex-col gap-8"><li class="flex items-center gap-4"><img src="/_next/static/media/anonymous-author.9fb47b5c.webp" alt="Piotr Findeisen" class="block rounded-full border border-solid border-white" width="40" height="40"/><div class="flex max-w-56 flex-col"><p class="text-xs font-semibold text-white">Piotr Findeisen</p><p class="text-xs text-gray-600">Co-founder and Software Engineer</p><p class="text-xs text-gray-600">Starburst</p></div></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="relative bg-white -mt-32 md:-mt-48 xl:-mt-64"><div><div class="absolute left-2/4 top-0 h-auto w-[100%] -translate-x-2/4 overflow-hidden lg:left-0 lg:h-[15rem] lg:w-full lg:translate-x-0 xl:h-[20rem] 2xl:h-[25rem]"><img alt="" fetchPriority="high" width="2880" height="433" decoding="async" data-nimg="1" class="-ml-px h-auto w-[calc(100%_+_2px)] max-w-[calc(100%_+_2px)] object-contain lg:h-full lg:object-fill" style="color:transparent" srcSet="/_next/image/?url=%2F_next%2Fstatic%2Fmedia%2Feclipse-top.a338658d.png&w=1920&q=75&dpl=dpl_A1g8p84gwf9F5mZSQhNjs5ZvNRve 1x" 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style="background-color:transparent;border:none;padding:0;font:inherit;color:inherit;cursor:pointer"><img class="h-10 w-10 rounded-full border border-solid border-[#080808]" src="/_next/static/media/twitterx.eef7c637.svg" alt="Twitter icon" height="40" width="40"/></button></div></div><div><h4 class="color-[#757575] m-0 mb-5 mt-8 text-xl font-semibold">More deployment options</h4><ul class="flex flex-col gap-4"><li class="border-t border-solid border-t-[#080808] py-4"><a class="text-sm text-[#757575] hover:text-[rgba(117,117,117,0.6)]" href="/platform/starburst-enterprise/">Request Enterprise trial license key <span class="ml-1">→</span></a></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="col-span-12 flex max-w-full flex-col gap-4 border-t border-solid border-t-[#080808] pt-14 md:col-span-8 md:pt-6 lg:col-span-9"><div class="prose-sb-full min-w-full"><p>The <a href="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Presto-Cost-Based-Query-Optimizer-WP.pdf">Cost-Based Optimizer (CBO)</a> we have released just recently achieves stunning results in industry standard benchmarks (and not only in benchmarks)! The CBO makes decisions based on several factors, including shape of the query, filters and table statistics. I would like to tell you more about what the table statistics are in <a href="https://www.starburst.io/learn/trino/">Trino</a> and what information can be derived from them.</p> <h2>Background</h2> <p>Before diving deep into how Trino analyzes statistics, let’s set up a stage so that our considerations are framed in some context. Let’s consider a Data Scientist who wants to know which customers spend most dollars with the company, based on history of orders (probably to offer them some discounts). They would probably fire up a query like this:</p> <div class="hcb_wrap"> <pre class="prism line-numbers lang-sql" data-lang="SQL"><code>SELECT c.custkey, sum(l.price) FROM customer c, orders o, lineitem l WHERE c.custkey = o.custkey AND l.orderkey = o.orderkey GROUP BY c.custkey ORDER BY sum(l.price) DESC;</code></pre> </div> <p>Now, Trino needs to create an execution plan for this query. It does so by first transforming a query to a plan in the simplest possible way — here it will create CROSS JOINS for “FROM customer c, orders o, lineitem l” part of the query and FILTER for “WHERE c.custkey = o.custkey AND l.orderkey = o.orderkey”. The initial plan is very naïve — CROSS JOINS will produce humongous amounts of intermediate data. There is no point in even trying to execute such a plan and Trino won’t do that. Instead, it applies transformation to make the plan more what user probably wanted, as shown below. Note: for succinctness, only part of the query plan is drawn, without aggregation (“GROUP BY”) and sorting (“ORDER BY”).</p> <p><center><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class=" wp-image-18127 aligncenter" src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/trino-flow1-1024x494.png" alt="" width="564" height="272" srcset="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/trino-flow1-1024x494.png 1024w, https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/trino-flow1-300x145.png 300w, https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/trino-flow1.png 1386w" sizes="(max-width: 564px) 100vw, 564px" /></center> </p> <p>Indeed, this is much better than the CROSS JOINS. But we can do even better, if we consider <em>cost</em>.</p> <h2>Cost-Based Optimizer</h2> <p>Without going into database internals on how JOIN is implemented, let’s take for granted that it makes a big difference which table is right and which is left in the JOIN. (Simple explanation would be that the table on the right basically needs to be kept in the memory while JOIN result is calculated). Because of that, the following plans produce same result, but may have different execution time or memory requirements.</p> <p><img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-534" style="width: 549px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;" src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/starburst-data-cost-based-optimizer.png" alt="" width="549" /></p> <p>CPU time, memory requirements and network bandwidth usage are the three dimensions that contribute to query execution time, both in single query and concurrent workloads. These dimensions are captured as the <em>cost</em> in Trino.</p> <p>Our Data Scientist knows that most of the customers made at least one order and every order had at least one item (and many orders had many items), so “lineitem” is the biggest table, “orders” is medium and “customer” is the smallest. When joining “customer” and “orders”, having “orders” on the right side of the JOIN is not a good idea! However, how the planner can know that? In the real world, the query planner cannot reliably deduce information just from table <em>names</em>. This is where table statistics kick in.</p> <h3>Table statistics</h3> <p>Trino has <a href="https://docs.starburstdata.com/latest/connector.html">connector-based</a> <a href="https://docs.starburstdata.com/latest/develop/connectors.html">architecture</a>. A connector can provide table and column statistics:</p> <ul> <li>number of rows in a table,</li> <li>number of distinct values in a column,</li> <li>fraction of NULL values in a column,</li> <li>minimum/maximum value in a column,</li> <li>average data size for a column.</li> </ul> <p>Of course, if some information is missing — e.g. average text length in a varchar column is unknown — a connector can still provide other information and Cost-Based Optimizer will be able to use that.</p> <p>In our Data Scientist’s example, data sizes can look something like the following:</p> <p><img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-535" style="width: 600px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;" src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/starburst-data-table-statistics.png" alt="" width="600" /></p> <p>Having this knowledge, <a href="https://trino.io/docs/current/optimizer/cost-based-optimizations.html">Trino’s Cost-Based Optimizer</a> will come up with completely different join ordering in the plan.</p> <p><img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-533" style="width: 551px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;" src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/results.png" alt="" width="551" /></p> <h3>Filter statistics</h3> <p>As we saw, knowing the sizes of the tables involved in a query is fundamental to properly reordering the joins in the query plan. However, knowing just the sizes is not enough. Returning to our example, the Data Scientist might want to drill down into results of their previous query, to know which customers repeatedly bought and spent most money on a particular item (clearly, this must be some consumable, or a mobile phone). For this, they will use almost identical query as the original one, adding one more condition.</p> <div class="hcb_wrap"> <pre class="prism line-numbers lang-sql" data-lang="SQL"><code>SELECT c.custkey, sum(l.price) FROM customer c, orders o, lineitem l WHERE c.custkey = o.custkey AND l.orderkey = o.orderkey AND l.item = 106170 GROUP BY c.custkey ORDER BY sum(l.price) DESC;</code></pre> </div> <p>The additional FILTER might be applied after the JOIN or before. Obviously, filtering as early as possible is the best strategy, but this also means the actual size of the data involved in the JOIN will be different now. In our Data Scientist’s example, the join order will indeed be different.</p> <p><img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-529" style="width: 536px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;" src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/filter-statistics.png" alt="" width="536" /></p> <h2>Under the Hood</h2> <h3>Execution Time and Cost</h3> <p>From external perspective, only three things really matter:</p> <ul> <li>execution time,</li> <li>execution cost (in dollars),</li> <li>ability to run (sufficiently) many concurrent queries at a time.</li> </ul> <p>The execution time is often called “wall time” to emphasize that we’re not really interested in “CPU time” or number of machines/nodes/threads involved. Our Data Scientist’s clock on the wall is the ultimate judge. It would be nice if they were not forced to get coffee/eat lunch during each query they run. On the other hand, a CFO will be interested in keeping cluster costs at the lowest possible level (without, of course, impeding employees’ effectiveness). Lastly, a System Administrator needs to ensure that all cluster users can work at the same time. That is, that the cluster can handle many queries at a time, yielding enough throughput that “wall time” observed by each of the users is satisfactory.</p> <p><img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-537" style="width: 379px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;" src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/under-the-hood.png" alt="" width="379" /></p> <p>It is possible to optimize for only one of the above dimensions. For example, we can have single node cluster and CFO will be happy (but employees will go somewhere else). Contrarily, we may have thousand node cluster even if the company cannot afford that. Users will be (initially) happy, until the company goes bankrupt. Ultimately, however, we need to balance these trade-offs, which basically means that queries need to be executed as fast as possible, with as little resources as possible.</p> <p>In Trino, this is modeled with the concept of the cost, which captures properties like CPU cost, memory requirements and network bandwidth usage. Different variants of a query execution plan are explored, assigned a cost and compared. The variant with the least overall cost is selected for execution. This approach neatly balances the needs of cluster users, administrators and the CFO.</p> <p>The cost of each operation in the query plan is calculated in a way appropriate for the type of the operation, taking into account statistics of the data involved in the operation. Now, let’s see where the statistics come from.</p> <h3>Statistics</h3> <p>In our Data Scientist’s example, the row counts for tables were taken directly from table statistics, i.e. provided by a connector. But where did “~3K rows” come from? Let’s dive into some nitty-gritty details.</p> <p>A query execution plan is made of “building block” operations, including:</p> <ul> <li>table scans (reading the table; at runtime this is actually combined with a filter)</li> <li>filters (SQL’s WHERE clause or any other conditions deduced by the query planner)</li> <li>projections (i.e. computing output expressions)</li> <li>joins</li> <li>aggregations (in fact there are a few different “building blocks” for aggregations, but that’s a story for another time)</li> <li>sorting (SQL’s ORDER BY)</li> <li>limiting (SQL’s LIMIT)</li> <li>sorting and limiting combined (SQL’s ORDER BY .. LIMIT .. deserves specialized support)</li> <li>and a lot more!</li> </ul> <p>The way how the statistics are computed for most interesting “building blocks” is discussed below.</p> <h3>Table Scan statistics</h3> <p><img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-536" style="width: 488px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;" src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/table-scan-statistics.png" alt="" width="488" /></p> <p>As explained in “Table statistics” section, the connector which defines the table is responsible for providing the table statistics. Furthermore, the connector will be informed about any filtering conditions that are to be applied to the data read from the table. This may be important e.g. in the case of Hive partitioned table, where statistics are stored on per-partition basis. If the filtering condition excludes some (or many) partitions, the statistics will consider smaller data set (remaining partitions) and will be more accurate.</p> <p>To recall, a connector can provide the following table and column statistics:</p> <ul> <li>number of rows in a table,</li> <li>number of distinct values in a column,</li> <li>fraction of NULL values in a column,</li> <li>minimum/maximum value in a column,</li> <li>average data size for a column.</li> </ul> <h3>Filter statistics</h3> <p><img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-530" style="width: 472px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;" src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/filter-statistics2.png" alt="" width="472" /></p> <p>When considering a filtering operation, a filter’s condition is analyzed and the following estimations are calculated:</p> <ul> <li>what is the probability that data row will pass the filtering condition. From this, expected number of rows after the filter is derived,</li> <li>fraction of NULL values for columns involved in the filtering condition (for most conditions, this will simply be 0%),</li> <li>number of distinct values for columns involved in the filtering condition,</li> <li>number of distinct values for columns that were not part of the filtering condition, if their original number of distinct values was more than the expected number of data rows that pass the filter.</li> </ul> <p>For example, for a condition like “l.item = 106170” we can observe that:</p> <ul> <li>no rows with “l.item” being NULL will meet the condition,</li> <li>there will be only one distinct value of “l.item” (106170) after the filtering operation,</li> <li>on average, number of data rows expected to pass the filter will be equal to number_of_input_rows * fraction_of_non_nulls / distinct_values. (This assumes, of course, that users most often drill down in the data they really have, which is quite a reasonable assumption and also safe to make).</li> </ul> <h3>Projection statistics</h3> <p><img decoding="async" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-532" style="width: 201px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;" src="https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/projection-statistics.png" alt="" width="201" /></p> <p>Projections (“l.item – 1 AS iid”) are similar to filters, except that, of course, they do not impact the expected number of rows after the operation.</p> <p>For a projection, the following types of column statistics are calculated (if possible for given projection expression):</p> <ul> <li>number of distinct values produced by the projection,</li> <li>fraction of NULL values produced by the projection,</li> <li>minimum/maximum value produced by the projection.</li> </ul> <p>Naturally, if “iid” is only returned to the user, then these statistics are not useful. However, if it’s later used in filter or join operation, these statistics are important to correctly estimate the number of rows that meet the filter condition or are returned from the join.</p> <h2>Conclusion</h2> <p>Summing up, Trino’s Cost-Based Optimizer is conceptually a very simple thing. Alternative query plans are considered, the best plan is chosen and executed. Details are not so simple, though. Fortunately, to use <a href="https://www.starburst.io/learn/trino/">Trino</a>, one doesn’t need to know all these details. Of course, anyone with a technical inclination that like to wander in database internals is invited to study <a href="https://github.com/trinodb">the Trino code</a>! In the near future, we will be blogging more about stuff important for users and things that matter to database experts as well. Follow our blog or <a href="https://twitter.com/starburstdata/">@starburstdata</a> on Twitter. 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\u003ca href=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Presto-Cost-Based-Query-Optimizer-WP.pdf\"\u003eCost-Based Optimizer (CBO)\u003c/a\u003e we have released just recently achieves stunning results in industry standard benchmarks (and not only in benchmarks)! The CBO makes decisions based on several factors, including shape of the query, filters and table statistics. I would like to tell you more about what the table statistics are in \u003ca href=\"https://www.starburst.io/learn/trino/\"\u003eTrino\u003c/a\u003e and what information can be derived from them.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore diving deep into how Trino analyzes statistics, let’s set up a stage so that our considerations are framed in some context. Let\u0026#8217;s consider a Data Scientist who wants to know which customers spend most dollars with the company, based on history of orders (probably to offer them some discounts). They would probably fire up a query like this:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"hcb_wrap\"\u003e\n\u003cpre class=\"prism line-numbers lang-sql\" data-lang=\"SQL\"\u003e\u003ccode\u003eSELECT c.custkey, sum(l.price) \r\nFROM customer c, orders o, lineitem l \r\nWHERE c.custkey = o.custkey AND l.orderkey = o.orderkey \r\nGROUP BY c.custkey \r\nORDER BY sum(l.price) DESC;\u003c/code\u003e\u003c/pre\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNow, Trino needs to create an execution plan for this query. It does so by first transforming a query to a plan in the simplest possible way — here it will create CROSS JOINS for “FROM customer c, orders o, lineitem l” part of the query and FILTER for “WHERE c.custkey = o.custkey AND l.orderkey = o.orderkey”. The initial plan is very naïve — CROSS JOINS will produce humongous amounts of intermediate data. There is no point in even trying to execute such a plan and Trino won’t do that. Instead, it applies transformation to make the plan more what user probably wanted, as shown below. Note: for succinctness, only part of the query plan is drawn, without aggregation (“GROUP BY”) and sorting (“ORDER BY”).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ccenter\u003e\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-18127 aligncenter\" src=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/trino-flow1-1024x494.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"564\" height=\"272\" srcset=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/trino-flow1-1024x494.png 1024w, https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/trino-flow1-300x145.png 300w, https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/trino-flow1.png 1386w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 564px) 100vw, 564px\" /\u003e\u003c/center\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndeed, this is much better than the CROSS JOINS. But we can do even better, if we consider \u003cem\u003ecost\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCost-Based Optimizer\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithout going into database internals on how JOIN is implemented, let’s take for granted that it makes a big difference which table is right and which is left in the JOIN. (Simple explanation would be that the table on the right basically needs to be kept in the memory while JOIN result is calculated). Because of that, the following plans produce same result, but may have different execution time or memory requirements.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-534\" style=\"width: 549px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;\" src=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/starburst-data-cost-based-optimizer.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"549\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCPU time, memory requirements and network bandwidth usage are the three dimensions that contribute to query execution time, both in single query and concurrent workloads. These dimensions are captured as the \u003cem\u003ecost\u003c/em\u003e in Trino.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur Data Scientist knows that most of the customers made at least one order and every order had at least one item (and many orders had many items), so “lineitem” is the biggest table, “orders” is medium and “customer” is the smallest. When joining “customer” and “orders”, having “orders” on the right side of the JOIN is not a good idea! However, how the planner can know that? In the real world, the query planner cannot reliably deduce information just from table \u003cem\u003enames\u003c/em\u003e. This is where table statistics kick in.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTable statistics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTrino has \u003ca href=\"https://docs.starburstdata.com/latest/connector.html\"\u003econnector-based\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"https://docs.starburstdata.com/latest/develop/connectors.html\"\u003earchitecture\u003c/a\u003e. A connector can provide table and column statistics:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003enumber of rows in a table,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003enumber of distinct values in a column,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003efraction of NULL values in a column,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eminimum/maximum value in a column,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eaverage data size for a column.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOf course, if some information is missing — e.g. average text length in a varchar column is unknown — a connector can still provide other information and Cost-Based Optimizer will be able to use that.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn our Data Scientist’s example, data sizes can look something like the following:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-535\" style=\"width: 600px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;\" src=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/starburst-data-table-statistics.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHaving this knowledge, \u003ca href=\"https://trino.io/docs/current/optimizer/cost-based-optimizations.html\"\u003eTrino’s Cost-Based Optimizer\u003c/a\u003e will come up with completely different join ordering in the plan.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-533\" style=\"width: 551px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;\" src=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/results.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"551\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFilter statistics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs we saw, knowing the sizes of the tables involved in a query is fundamental to properly reordering the joins in the query plan. However, knowing just the sizes is not enough. Returning to our example, the Data Scientist might want to drill down into results of their previous query, to know which customers repeatedly bought and spent most money on a particular item (clearly, this must be some consumable, or a mobile phone). For this, they will use almost identical query as the original one, adding one more condition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"hcb_wrap\"\u003e\n\u003cpre class=\"prism line-numbers lang-sql\" data-lang=\"SQL\"\u003e\u003ccode\u003eSELECT c.custkey, sum(l.price) \r\nFROM customer c, orders o, lineitem l \r\nWHERE c.custkey = o.custkey AND l.orderkey = o.orderkey \r\nAND l.item = 106170 \r\nGROUP BY c.custkey \r\nORDER BY sum(l.price) DESC;\u003c/code\u003e\u003c/pre\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe additional FILTER might be applied after the JOIN or before. Obviously, filtering as early as possible is the best strategy, but this also means the actual size of the data involved in the JOIN will be different now. In our Data Scientist’s example, the join order will indeed be different.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-529\" style=\"width: 536px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;\" src=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/filter-statistics.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"536\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eUnder the Hood\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExecution Time and Cost\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom external perspective, only three things really matter:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eexecution time,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eexecution cost (in dollars),\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eability to run (sufficiently) many concurrent queries at a time.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe execution time is often called “wall time” to emphasize that we’re not really interested in “CPU time” or number of machines/nodes/threads involved. Our Data Scientist’s clock on the wall is the ultimate judge. It would be nice if they were not forced to get coffee/eat lunch during each query they run. On the other hand, a CFO will be interested in keeping cluster costs at the lowest possible level (without, of course, impeding employees’ effectiveness). Lastly, a System Administrator needs to ensure that all cluster users can work at the same time. That is, that the cluster can handle many queries at a time, yielding enough throughput that “wall time” observed by each of the users is satisfactory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-537\" style=\"width: 379px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;\" src=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/under-the-hood.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"379\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is possible to optimize for only one of the above dimensions. For example, we can have single node cluster and CFO will be happy (but employees will go somewhere else). Contrarily, we may have thousand node cluster even if the company cannot afford that. Users will be (initially) happy, until the company goes bankrupt. Ultimately, however, we need to balance these trade-offs, which basically means that queries need to be executed as fast as possible, with as little resources as possible.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Trino, this is modeled with the concept of the cost, which captures properties like CPU cost, memory requirements and network bandwidth usage. Different variants of a query execution plan are explored, assigned a cost and compared. The variant with the least overall cost is selected for execution. This approach neatly balances the needs of cluster users, administrators and the CFO.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe cost of each operation in the query plan is calculated in a way appropriate for the type of the operation, taking into account statistics of the data involved in the operation. Now, let’s see where the statistics come from.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStatistics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn our Data Scientist’s example, the row counts for tables were taken directly from table statistics, i.e. provided by a connector. But where did “~3K rows” come from? Let’s dive into some nitty-gritty details.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA query execution plan is made of “building block” operations, including:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003etable scans (reading the table; at runtime this is actually combined with a filter)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003efilters (SQL’s WHERE clause or any other conditions deduced by the query planner)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eprojections (i.e. computing output expressions)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ejoins\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eaggregations (in fact there are a few different “building blocks” for aggregations, but that’s a story for another time)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003esorting (SQL’s ORDER BY)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003elimiting (SQL’s LIMIT)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003esorting and limiting combined (SQL’s ORDER BY .. LIMIT .. deserves specialized support)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eand a lot more!\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe way how the statistics are computed for most interesting “building blocks” is discussed below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTable Scan statistics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-536\" style=\"width: 488px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;\" src=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/table-scan-statistics.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"488\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs explained in \u0026#8220;Table statistics\u0026#8221; section, the connector which defines the table is responsible for providing the table statistics. Furthermore, the connector will be informed about any filtering conditions that are to be applied to the data read from the table. This may be important e.g. in the case of Hive partitioned table, where statistics are stored on per-partition basis. If the filtering condition excludes some (or many) partitions, the statistics will consider smaller data set (remaining partitions) and will be more accurate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo recall, a connector can provide the following table and column statistics:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003enumber of rows in a table,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003enumber of distinct values in a column,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003efraction of NULL values in a column,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eminimum/maximum value in a column,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eaverage data size for a column.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFilter statistics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-530\" style=\"width: 472px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;\" src=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/filter-statistics2.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"472\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen considering a filtering operation, a filter’s condition is analyzed and the following estimations are calculated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ewhat is the probability that data row will pass the filtering condition. From this, expected number of rows after the filter is derived,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003efraction of NULL values for columns involved in the filtering condition (for most conditions, this will simply be 0%),\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003enumber of distinct values for columns involved in the filtering condition,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003enumber of distinct values for columns that were not part of the filtering condition, if their original number of distinct values was more than the expected number of data rows that pass the filter.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor example, for a condition like “l.item = 106170” we can observe that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eno rows with “l.item” being NULL will meet the condition,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ethere will be only one distinct value of “l.item” (106170) after the filtering operation,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eon average, number of data rows expected to pass the filter will be equal to number_of_input_rows * fraction_of_non_nulls / distinct_values. (This assumes, of course, that users most often drill down in the data they really have, which is quite a reasonable assumption and also safe to make).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProjection statistics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-532\" style=\"width: 201px; display: block; margin: 0px auto;\" src=\"https://live-starburst.pantheonsite.io/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/projection-statistics.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"201\" /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eProjections (“l.item \u0026#8211; 1 AS iid”) are similar to filters, except that, of course, they do not impact the expected number of rows after the operation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor a projection, the following types of column statistics are calculated (if possible for given projection expression):\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003enumber of distinct values produced by the projection,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003efraction of NULL values produced by the projection,\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eminimum/maximum value produced by the projection.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNaturally, if “iid” is only returned to the user, then these statistics are not useful. However, if it’s later used in filter or join operation, these statistics are important to correctly estimate the number of rows that meet the filter condition or are returned from the join.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSumming up, Trino’s Cost-Based Optimizer is conceptually a very simple thing. Alternative query plans are considered, the best plan is chosen and executed. Details are not so simple, though. Fortunately, to use \u003ca href=\"https://www.starburst.io/learn/trino/\"\u003eTrino\u003c/a\u003e, one doesn’t need to know all these details. Of course, anyone with a technical inclination that like to wander in database internals is invited to study \u003ca href=\"https://github.com/trinodb\"\u003ethe Trino code\u003c/a\u003e! In the near future, we will be blogging more about stuff important for users and things that matter to database experts as well. Follow our blog or \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/starburstdata/\"\u003e@starburstdata\u003c/a\u003e on Twitter. Last but not least, be sure to \u003ca href=\"https://www.starburst.io/platform/starburst-enterprise/\"\u003etake Trino with CBO for a spin\u003c/a\u003e today and let us know what is \u003cstrong\u003eyour\u003c/strong\u003e Trino experience!\u003c/p\u003e\n"])</script><script>self.__next_f.push([1,"d:[[\"$\",\"div\",null,{\"className\":\"container relative mx-auto px-4 md:px-8 xl:px-24 z-10 pb-[100px]\",\"children\":[\"$\",\"div\",null,{\"className\":\"mb-10 flex flex-col items-start justify-between gap-6 pt-12 md:flex-row lg:pt-24\",\"children\":[[\"$\",\"div\",null,{\"className\":\"flex flex-1 flex-col\",\"children\":[[\"$\",\"h1\",null,{\"className\":\"pb-12 text-[2.5rem] leading-[3.25rem] text-white prose-img:max-h-60 prose-img:w-full prose-img:max-w-lg md:text-[4rem] md:leading-[4.25rem]\",\"children\":\"Introduction to Trino Cost-Based Optimizer\"}],null,[\"$\",\"div\",null,{\"className\":\"flex items-start justify-between 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