CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Miskito people - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"1c97ef3d-38cb-40a3-9c18-64538c4a740e","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Miskito_people","wgTitle":"Miskito people","wgCurRevisionId":1258540027,"wgRevisionId":1258540027,"wgArticleId":675781,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with Spanish-language sources (es)","Articles with French-language sources (fr)","CS1 maint: unfit URL","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from July 2020","\"Related ethnic groups\" needing confirmation","Articles using infobox ethnic group with image parameters","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020", "Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018","Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021","Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2007","All articles containing potentially dated statements","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2022","Inconsistent wikidata for Commons category","Miskito people","Miskito","Circum-Caribbean tribes","Ethnic groups in Nicaragua","North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region","African diaspora in Honduras","Indigenous peoples of Central America","Indigenous peoples in Nicaragua","African–Native American relations"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Miskito_people","wgRelevantArticleId":675781,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia", "wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q332976","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false, "wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader", "ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/MiskitoPeople.JPG/1200px-MiskitoPeople.JPG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="900"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/MiskitoPeople.JPG/800px-MiskitoPeople.JPG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="600"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/MiskitoPeople.JPG/640px-MiskitoPeople.JPG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="480"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Miskito people - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito_people"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito_people"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Miskito_people rootpage-Miskito_people skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Miskito+people" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Miskito+people" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Miskito+people" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Miskito+people" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Important_Miskito_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Important_Miskito_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Important Miskito communities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Important_Miskito_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miskito_Eras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miskito_Eras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Miskito Eras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miskito_Eras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British-Miskito_alliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British-Miskito_alliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>British-Miskito alliance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British-Miskito_alliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independence_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independence_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Independence era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independence_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Early 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_conflict_in_the_1980s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_conflict_in_the_1980s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Political conflict in the 1980s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_conflict_in_the_1980s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Declaration_of_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Declaration_of_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Declaration of independence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Declaration_of_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_of_recent_hurricanes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_recent_hurricanes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>Impact of recent hurricanes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_recent_hurricanes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Applicability_of_the_term_"ethnic_group"_to_Miskito_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applicability_of_the_term_"ethnic_group"_to_Miskito_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Applicability of the term "ethnic group" to Miskito people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applicability_of_the_term_"ethnic_group"_to_Miskito_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subgroups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subgroups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Subgroups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subgroups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Geography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nicaragua" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nicaragua"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Nicaragua</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nicaragua-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honduras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honduras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Honduras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honduras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miskito_Gods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miskito_Gods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Miskito Gods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miskito_Gods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shamanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shamanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Shamanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shamanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moravian_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moravian_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Moravian Church</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moravian_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.3</span> <span>Catholicism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Institutions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Institutions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Political structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>English influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th_century_self-rule_in_the_Miskito_kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_century_self-rule_in_the_Miskito_kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>18th century self-rule in the Miskito kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th_century_self-rule_in_the_Miskito_kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Re-incorporation_in_the_nineteenth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Re-incorporation_in_the_nineteenth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.3</span> <span>Re-incorporation in the nineteenth century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Re-incorporation_in_the_nineteenth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twentieth_century_mobilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twentieth_century_mobilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.4</span> <span>Twentieth century mobilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twentieth_century_mobilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Gender relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-contact_subsistence_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-contact_subsistence_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1</span> <span>Pre-contact subsistence economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-contact_subsistence_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-contact_mixed_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-contact_mixed_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.2</span> <span>Post-contact mixed economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-contact_mixed_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_trade_and_English_buccaneers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_trade_and_English_buccaneers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.2.1</span> <span>Early trade and English buccaneers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_trade_and_English_buccaneers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balancing_commercial_and_subsistence_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balancing_commercial_and_subsistence_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.2.2</span> <span>Balancing commercial and subsistence activities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balancing_commercial_and_subsistence_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_company_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_company_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.2.3</span> <span>The company period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_company_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_lobster_economy_and_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_lobster_economy_and_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.2.4</span> <span>The lobster economy and controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_lobster_economy_and_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.2.4.1</span> <span>The industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.2.4.2</span> <span>Controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_Miskitos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_Miskitos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notable Miskitos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_Miskitos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Miskito people</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">39 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9A%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%AA%E1%89%B6" title="ሚስኪቶ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሚስኪቶ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8_%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%88" title="شعب ميسكيتو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شعب ميسكيتو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Міскіта – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Міскіта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskitos" title="Miskitos – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Miskitos" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo_misquito" title="Pueblo misquito – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pueblo misquito" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskitoj" title="Miskitoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Miskitoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitos" title="Mosquitos – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mosquitos" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobo_miskito" title="Pobo miskito – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pobo miskito" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EC%8A%A4%ED%82%A4%ED%86%A0%EC%A1%B1" title="미스키토족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미스키토족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ADskito" title="Mískito – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mískito" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suku_Miskito" title="Suku Miskito – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Suku Miskito" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%98%D7%95" title="מיסקיטו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מיסקיטו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D" title="მისკიტო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მისკიტო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Мискито – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мискито" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskitai" title="Miskitai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Miskitai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8_%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%88" title="شعب ميسكيتو – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="شعب ميسكيتو" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9F%E3%82%B9%E3%82%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E6%97%8F" title="ミスキート族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ミスキート族" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito-folket" title="Miskito-folket – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Miskito-folket" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskitoar" title="Miskitoar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Miskitoar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misquitos" title="Misquitos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Misquitos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskitu" title="Miskitu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Miskitu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Мискито – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мискито" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskitot" title="Miskitot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Miskitot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskito" title="Miskito – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Miskito" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miskitolar" title="Miskitolar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Miskitolar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Міскіто – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Міскіто" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E6%89%98%E4%BA%BA" title="米斯基托人 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="米斯基托人" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E6%89%98%E4%BA%BA" title="米斯基托人 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="米斯基托人" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q332976#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Miskito_people" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Miskito_people" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Miskito_people"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Miskito_people"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Miskito_people" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Miskito_people" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&oldid=1258540027" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Miskito_people&id=1258540027&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMiskito_people"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMiskito_people"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Miskito_people&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Miskitos_people" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q332976" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Indigenous people of Central America</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Miskito</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above nickname" style="font-size:115%; font-weight:normal;"><div>Miskitu Uplica Nani</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:MiskitoPeople.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/MiskitoPeople.JPG/220px-MiskitoPeople.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/MiskitoPeople.JPG/330px-MiskitoPeople.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/MiskitoPeople.JPG/440px-MiskitoPeople.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Miskito people changing a bus tire between <a href="/wiki/Bilwi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilwi">Bilwi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Krukira" title="Krukira">Krukira</a>, Nicaragua</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">700,000–800,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/35px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/46px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg/23px-Flag_of_Honduras.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg/35px-Flag_of_Honduras.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg/46px-Flag_of_Honduras.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miskito_language" title="Miskito language">Miskito</a></li><li>Spanish</li><li>English</li><li><a href="/wiki/Miskito_Coast_Creole" title="Miskito Coast Creole">Miskito Coast Creole</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Moravianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Moravianism">Moravianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mayangna_people" title="Mayangna people">Mayangna</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cacaopera_people" title="Cacaopera people">Cacaopera</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Garifuna" title="Garifuna">Garifuna</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maroon_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maroon (people)">Maroons</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Caribbean" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Caribbean">Afro-Caribbeans</a></li></ul></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Miskitos</b> are a native people in <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>. Their territory extends from <a href="/wiki/Cabo_Camar%C3%B3n" title="Cabo Camarón">Cape Camarón</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>, to <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Grande_de_Matagalpa" title="Río Grande de Matagalpa">Río Grande de Matagalpa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, along the <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Mosquito Coast</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Caribbean_zone" title="Western Caribbean zone">Western Caribbean zone</a>. Their population was estimated in 2024 as 535,225, with 456,000 living in Nicaragua.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Miskito people speak the <a href="/wiki/Miskito_language" title="Miskito language">Miskito language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miskito_Coast_Creole" title="Miskito Coast Creole">Miskito Coast Creole</a>. Most also speak other languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>. Spanish is the language of education and government, but some families educate their children in English, German, or Miskito. Miskito Coast Creole, an English-based <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole language</a>, came about through frequent contact with the British for trading, as they predominated along this coast from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Many Miskitos are Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-Stonich2001_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stonich2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 1987 peace agreement afforded them land rights over traditional lands. However, despite significant political struggles throughout their history, today the Miskito face human rights violations over land rights disputes, as recognized by the Inter-American Commission for Human Rights.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>“Miskito” derives from the term <i>Miskut uplikanan</i> ("people of Miskut"). Miskut was a legendary Miskito patriarch or great leader.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Important_Miskito_communities">Important Miskito communities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Important Miskito communities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bluefields" title="Bluefields">Bluefields, Nicaragua</a> (first capital city)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_Islands" title="Corn Islands">Corn Islands, Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gracias_a_Dios_Department" title="Gracias a Dios Department">Gracias a Dios, Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caribbean_Coast_Autonomous_Region" title="North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region">North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Caribbean_Coast_Autonomous_Region" title="South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region"> South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region, Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Cabezas" title="Puerto Cabezas">Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua</a> (current capital city)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Miskito_Eras">Miskito Eras</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Miskito Eras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Pre-Monarchic (from the origin of Miskito people until the 16th century): the era of the Miskito Gods.</li> <li>Monarchic (16th – 19th centuries): the era of the Miskito kings and European influence.</li> <li>Post-Monarchic (20th century): The end of the Miskito Kingdom, and invasion of the Miskito territories by <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>.</li> <li>Modern (21st century): the current Miskito Nation, on the Atlantic coast of Honduras and Nicaragua.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicaragua,_Mosquito_Reservation,_Indian_hut_at_mouth_of_Rama_River.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Nicaragua%2C_Mosquito_Reservation%2C_Indian_hut_at_mouth_of_Rama_River.jpg/220px-Nicaragua%2C_Mosquito_Reservation%2C_Indian_hut_at_mouth_of_Rama_River.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Nicaragua%2C_Mosquito_Reservation%2C_Indian_hut_at_mouth_of_Rama_River.jpg/330px-Nicaragua%2C_Mosquito_Reservation%2C_Indian_hut_at_mouth_of_Rama_River.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Nicaragua%2C_Mosquito_Reservation%2C_Indian_hut_at_mouth_of_Rama_River.jpg/440px-Nicaragua%2C_Mosquito_Reservation%2C_Indian_hut_at_mouth_of_Rama_River.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2198" data-file-height="1323" /></a><figcaption>Miskito hut in Nicaragua</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Mosquito Coast</a></div> <p>Before the arrival of Europeans in the region in the early 16th century, the area was divided into numerous small egalitarian native American groups speaking old <a href="/wiki/Miskito_language" title="Miskito language">Miskito language</a>. The Spanish listed 30 nations in <a href="/wiki/Taguzgalpa" title="Taguzgalpa">Taguzgalpa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tologalpa" title="Tologalpa">Tologalpa</a>, as the Spanish understood their geography. Karl Offen's analysis of this historic data suggests there were about a half dozen entities, groups who were distinct by their language dialects, who were situated in the river basins.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua and Honduras remained free from Spanish authority during the 16th century. The region became a haven for Dutch, English and Welsh privateers (for example <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan" title="Henry Morgan">Henry Morgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Montbars" title="Daniel Montbars">Daniel Montbars</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Dampier" title="William Dampier">William Dampier</a>) during the early 17th century. </p><p>Some African people arrived at the <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Mosquito Coast</a> from wrecked <a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">slave ships</a> in the mid-17th century. These people, along with escaped slaves from the <a href="/wiki/Providence_Island_colony" title="Providence Island colony">Providence Island colony</a>, settled around <a href="/wiki/Gracias_a_Dios_Department" title="Gracias a Dios Department">Cape Gracias a Dios</a> and intermarried with the indigenous people.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish referred to these mixed-race descendants as <a href="/wiki/Miskito_Sambu" title="Miskito Sambu">"Mosquito Zambo"</a> (<i>Mosquito</i> was their transliteration of Miskito). Those living in the southern (Nicaraguan) region were less racially mixed. Modern scholars have classified them as <a href="/wiki/Tawira_Miskito" title="Tawira Miskito">Tawira Miskito</a>. Rivalries between these two groups and competition for territory often led to wars, which were divisive in the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British-Miskito_alliance">British-Miskito alliance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: British-Miskito alliance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_king_of_the_Mosquito_tribe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_king_of_the_Mosquito_tribe.jpg/220px-The_king_of_the_Mosquito_tribe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_king_of_the_Mosquito_tribe.jpg/330px-The_king_of_the_Mosquito_tribe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_king_of_the_Mosquito_tribe.jpg/440px-The_king_of_the_Mosquito_tribe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="1124" /></a><figcaption>Drawing of a Miskito King (1869)</figcaption></figure> <p>English privateers working through the <a href="/wiki/Providence_Island_Company" title="Providence Island Company">Providence Island Company</a> made informal alliances with the Miskito. These English began to crown Miskito leaders as kings (or <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">chiefs</a>); their territory was called the Miskito Kingdom (the English adopted the Spanish term for the indigenous people). A 1699 written account of the kingdom described it as spread out in various communities along the coast but not including all the territory. It probably did not include the settlements of English traders.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The king did not have total power. The 1699 description noted that the kings and governors had no power except in war time, even in matters of justice. Otherwise the people were all equal.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their superior leaders were named by the English as the king, a <a href="/wiki/Governor" title="Governor">governor</a>, a <a href="/wiki/General" class="mw-redirect" title="General">general</a> and, by the 1750s, an <a href="/wiki/Admiral" title="Admiral">admiral</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historical information on kings is often obscure as many of the kings were semi-mythical. These "kings" were not recognized by the Native American Tawira Miskito. </p><p>In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, Miskitos began a series of raids attacking Spanish-held territories and the still independent indigenous groups in the area. Miskito raiders reached as far north as the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Yucatán">Yucatán</a>, and as far south as <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>. Many of their captives were sold into slavery to European slave traders (even as the Zambo were originally slaves themselves), and many of them ended up working on <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Jamaica" title="Colony of Jamaica">Jamaican</a> sugar <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, from 1720 onwards, the Jamaican colonial authorities commissioned the Miskito to capture <a href="/wiki/Maroon_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maroon (people)">Maroons</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Mountains_(Jamaica)" title="Blue Mountains (Jamaica)">Blue Mountains</a>, as they were effective trackers.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Zambos were one of the primary drivers of slave-based depopulation of the area. </p><p>The Zambo Miskito leader and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> concluded a formal <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">Treaty of Friendship and Alliance</a> in 1740. The British appointed John Hodgson as Superintendent of the Shore.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British established a <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> over the Miskito Nation, often called the <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Mosquito Coast</a> (related to the original Spanish name). </p><p>The Miskito kingdom aided Britain during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American War of Independence</a> by attacking Spanish colonies to draw off their forces. It gained several victories alongside the British. But, at the conclusion of the peace in 1783, Britain had to cede control over the coast to Spain. The British withdrawal was completed at the end of June 1787. To compensate their Miskito supporters, the British re-settled 537 Zambo Africans often misnamed Miskitos, together with their 1,677 Native American slaves, from Mosquitia to the Bay settlement in <a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">British Honduras</a>, present-day <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their official withdrawal, Britain maintained an unofficial protectorate over the kingdom. They often intervened to protect Miskito interests against Spanish encroachments.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Mosquito_Monarchy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Mosquito_Monarchy.svg/220px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Mosquito_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Mosquito_Monarchy.svg/330px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Mosquito_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Mosquito_Monarchy.svg/440px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Mosquito_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="287" /></a><figcaption>Shield of the Misquito royal house.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independence_era">Independence era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Independence era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to the area's geographic isolation, the Miskito military capacity and British support allowed the people to retain their independence when Spain controlled the Pacific side of Central America. The Miskito Coast remained independent throughout much of the period of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Central_America" title="Federal Republic of Central America">Federal Republic of Central America</a>, but Nicaragua finally absorbed the territory in 1894.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once the Central American republics became independent in the early- to mid-19th century, they had less power in relation to other nations than did Spain, and struggled to protect their own territorial interests against <a href="/wiki/Filibuster_(military)" title="Filibuster (military)">filibusters</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">United States government</a>, which took an increasing strategic interest in the area.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> took an interest in the affairs on the Mosquito Coast, as it had trade positions in Belize/British Honduras and Jamaica. In addition, US trading interests began to develop in the region. British governors in Belize began issuing commissions and appointments to Miskito kings and other officials, such as King Robert Charles Frederick, crowned in Belize in 1825. British officials regularly officially recognized the various Miskito offices; it worked to protect Miskito interests against the Central American republics and against the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Squier_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Squier-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The latter contested British influence as per the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a>. The United States involvement in war with Mexico prevented it from enforcing the doctrine. As Britain gradually became less interested in its commissioning of Miskito nobility, the Miskito effectively began to operate as an independent state.<sup id="cite_ref-Squier_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Squier-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> economic interest in Central America (particularly <a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">British Honduras</a>, now <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>), they regularly traded with the Miskito.<sup id="cite_ref-Squier_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Squier-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Nicaragua declared independence in 1821, combined Miskito-Zambo raiders began to attack <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduran</a> settlements. They sometimes rescued enslaved Miskito before they could transported beyond their reach. They also enslaved women from other tribes for use as sexual partners.<sup id="cite_ref-Squier_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Squier-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Their society allowed <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a>. The Miskito population boomed as the men had more children with their slave women. These raids continued for many years after animosity between Britain and Spain ended at the international level. For a long time, the Miskito considered themselves superior to other indigenous tribes of the area, whom they referred to as "wild". The Miskito commonly adopted European dress and English names.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Squier_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Squier-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the middle of the nineteenth century, British interest in the region began to wane. At the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Managua" title="Treaty of Managua">Treaty of Managua</a> in 1860, the United Kingdom allowed Nicaragua to have uncontested claim over the Mosquito Coast. The treaty provided for a Miskito Reserve, a self-governing entity that enjoyed semi-sovereign rights. Nicaraguan forces occupied the area in 1894 and took over the state. The British restored the Miskito Reserve in July, but Nicaraguan forces reoccupied in August 1894 and ended its independence. </p><p>Various major American fruit companies (such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Fruit_Company" title="United Fruit Company">United Fruit Company</a>, which had begun large-scale production of bananas in the Miskito Reserve) supported Nicaragua's takeover of power in the area. The American companies preferred Nicaraguan authority to the Miskito, especially as the Miskito elite was more prepared to protect the rights of small landholders than was the Nicaragua government.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Family_of_Miskito_people_along_the_Prinzapolka_river,_Nicaragua_-_c._1957%E2%80%931961.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Family_of_Miskito_people_along_the_Prinzapolka_river%2C_Nicaragua_-_c._1957%E2%80%931961.jpg/220px-Family_of_Miskito_people_along_the_Prinzapolka_river%2C_Nicaragua_-_c._1957%E2%80%931961.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Family_of_Miskito_people_along_the_Prinzapolka_river%2C_Nicaragua_-_c._1957%E2%80%931961.jpg/330px-Family_of_Miskito_people_along_the_Prinzapolka_river%2C_Nicaragua_-_c._1957%E2%80%931961.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Family_of_Miskito_people_along_the_Prinzapolka_river%2C_Nicaragua_-_c._1957%E2%80%931961.jpg/440px-Family_of_Miskito_people_along_the_Prinzapolka_river%2C_Nicaragua_-_c._1957%E2%80%931961.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A family of Miskito people living along the <a href="/wiki/Prinzapolka" title="Prinzapolka">Prinzapolka</a> river in Nicaragua</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_20th_century">Early 20th century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Miskito who lived in the <a href="/wiki/Jinotega_Department" title="Jinotega Department">Jinotega Department</a>, west of the <a href="/wiki/North_Caribbean_Coast_Autonomous_Region" title="North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region">North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region</a>, were much different from the Miskito who lived along the Caribbean coast. The Miskito in Jinotega were <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> as a result of Spanish colonial influence, were not allied with the British, and often traded with the Spanish-speaking <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizos</a> from the Pacific coast. </p><p>During the conflict in 1927–1933 between <a href="/wiki/Augusto_C%C3%A9sar_Sandino" title="Augusto César Sandino">Augusto César Sandino</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> over the <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Nicaragua" title="United States occupation of Nicaragua">United States occupation of Nicaragua</a>, both sides tried to enlist the Miskito in providing food and transport. In 1926, many Miskito in the Jinotega region joined Augusto Sandino and his troops. The Miskito of Jinotega had closer ties with Sandino and the <a href="/wiki/Sandinista_National_Liberation_Front" title="Sandinista National Liberation Front">Sandinista National Liberation Front</a>, which organized agricultural cooperatives and built schools and health centers in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1960s and the 1970s, Nicaragua began to <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">expropriate</a> native-held land for nationalization. During these decades, the mainstream of Nicaraguan national politics recognized the Miskito only when asking them to vote for the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicaraguan_National_Liberal_Party&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicaraguan National Liberal Party (page does not exist)">Nicaraguan National Liberal Party</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosquito_Indians.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Mosquito_Indians.jpg/220px-Mosquito_Indians.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Mosquito_Indians.jpg/330px-Mosquito_Indians.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Mosquito_Indians.jpg/440px-Mosquito_Indians.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Miskito family outside their house in Nicaragua</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_conflict_in_the_1980s">Political conflict in the 1980s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Political conflict in the 1980s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1980s, the Sandinista government extended their influence over the region via its <i>Comités de Defensa Sandinista</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In response, several Miskito groups formed counter-revolutionary squads, who carried on <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_terrorism" title="Right-wing terrorism">terrorist</a> attacks against the revolutionary government. On 25 February 1982, Steadman Fagoth, one of the counter-revolutionary leaders, took <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refuge</a> in <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> along with 3000 Miskito.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the Sandinistas began to denounce the activities of the <a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Coco_River" title="Coco River">Coco River</a> zone. In 1983, the government proclaimed a <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a> in the Río Coco zone, which was maintained until 1988.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 1986 documentary called <i><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua_Was_Our_Home" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicaragua Was Our Home">Nicaragua Was Our Home</a></i> documented the persecution of the Miskito at the hands of the Nicaraguan government. The film features interviews with Miskito Indian people and some non-Miskito clergy who lived among them; they recounted actions of the government against them, including bombing of villages, shootings, and forced removal of people from their homes.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The film was shown on some <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> stations<sup id="cite_ref-envio_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-envio-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at the 1986 <a href="/wiki/Sundance_Film_Festival" title="Sundance Film Festival">Sundance Film Festival</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 1987, the Nicaraguan legislature passed a statute providing autonomy to the Miskito. This essentially defused Miskito resistance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1990s">1990s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1990 the Sandinistas were defeated in national elections. The Miskito signed an agreement with the newly appointed Minister of the Interior, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carlos_Hurtado_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carlos Hurtado (politician) (page does not exist)">Carlos Hurtado</a>, to create "security zones," prepare the return of the national police forces to the region, and integrate 50 Miskito into the police force. </p><p>Brooklyn Rivera, one of the Miskito guerrilla leaders, became the director of the INDERA (Nicaraguan Institute of Development of Autonomous Regions), an illegal structure under the 1987 law on autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government suppressed the INDERA a few years later, allegedly because of conflict between the Miskito and other native groups<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the 1987 peace agreement affording the Miskito people substantial territory, conflict over land rights remains. Increasing waves of settlers have relocated to ancestral Miskito lands as a result of drought and attraction to gold and timber. Illegal purchases of indigenous lands afforded the settling farmers void land rights. Violence between settlers and Miskito, Rama, and Ulwa people have led to the burning of villages, rape of women, kidnappings and the death of at least 30.<sup id="cite_ref-Galanova_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galanova-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 600 indigenous people have fled to Honduras.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both sides acknowledge that the Nicaraguan government has not worked to ameliorate this conflict. The Inter-American Commission for Human Rights repeatedly called for action in order to protect the Miskitos, to no governmental response.<sup id="cite_ref-Galanova_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galanova-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ortega" title="Daniel Ortega">Daniel Ortega</a> has acknowledged that Miskito land claims are legitimate, and any land sales were not legal. The government arrested various public notaries for the authorization of illegal land sales, and created a special commission over the issue under the prosecutor general. However, the government has not addressed the violence. The public officials implicated in illegal land sales were Sandinistas, members of Ortega's own party.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Declaration_of_independence">Declaration of independence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Declaration of independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In April 2009 a group of Miskito elders <a href="/wiki/Unilateral_declaration_of_independence" title="Unilateral declaration of independence">declared independence</a> from Nicaragua under the name <b>Community Nation of Moskitia</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This declaration has not been met with any formal response from the government of Nicaragua nor has it been recognised by any other state. The independence movement is led by Hector Williams, who is described as the leader of the Miskito and uses the title <i>Wihta Tara,</i> or Great Judge. They cited as reasons for their renewed desire for independence the serious economic problems damaging their traditional fishing industry and the recent election of <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ortega" title="Daniel Ortega">Daniel Ortega</a> as president of Nicaragua. Many of them had fought as Contras against him during the Nicaraguan Civil War and still opposed him. Thus, many Miskito who supported the independence movement were those who had suffered greatly economically.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Impact_of_recent_hurricanes">Impact of recent hurricanes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Impact of recent hurricanes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1998, <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Mitch" title="Hurricane Mitch">Hurricane Mitch</a> heavily damaged coastal regions where the Miskito live. On 4 September 2007, Category 5 <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Felix" title="Hurricane Felix">Hurricane Felix</a> with peak sustained winds of 160 mph struck the coast near <a href="/wiki/Punta_Gorda_River" title="Punta Gorda River">Punta Gorda River</a>, Nicaragua. Damage and death toll estimates are around 100 at this time<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> but are likely to be higher.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Towards the end of the record-breaking <a href="/wiki/2020_Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="2020 Atlantic hurricane season">2020 Atlantic hurricane season</a>, the Miskito Coast experienced the landfall of two major hurricanes within two weeks, breaking several Atlantic and Nicaraguan records. Slow-moving <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Eta" title="Hurricane Eta">Hurricane Eta</a> landed on November 3 just south of the region's major city <a href="/wiki/Bilwi,_North_Caribbean_Coast_Autonomous_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilwi, North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region">Bilwi</a>, and after one day turned west-northwest towards <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> and then north back into the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Iota" title="Hurricane Iota">Hurricane Iota</a> landed on November 16 only 25 km south of Eta's landing, and continued west through northern Nicaragua in the direction of <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>. Both hurricanes were strong Category 4s upon landfall. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applicability_of_the_term_"ethnic_group"_to_Miskito_people"><span id="Applicability_of_the_term_.22ethnic_group.22_to_Miskito_people"></span>Applicability of the term "ethnic group" to Miskito people</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Applicability of the term "ethnic group" to Miskito people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, the Miskito were not recognized as a singular "people" until their population grew in the area beyond being categorized as "sparsely populated".<sup id="cite_ref-:32_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subgroups">Subgroups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Subgroups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a result of the ethnic heterogeneity present in the Miskito people, various ethnic subgroups exist within the larger Miskito identity. A major ethnic distinction exists between the Miskitos; Mam, Tawira and Wangki. The Miskito Wangki constitute a large ethnic representation in the nation in the Cabo Gracias a Dios area. The Miskito Wangki would go on to form strong relationships with the British. The Wangki Miskito speak the <i>Wanki Bila</i> dialect of Miskito.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Tawira Miskito, in contrast, have greater native ethnic representation and speak the <i>Kabo Bila</i> dialect of Miskito. According to Meringer, historical records reference the Tawira as "pure Indians". In order to counter their subjugation by the Zambo Miskito, the Tawira Miskito would seek out Spanish allies in the eighteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Nicaragua"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to European contact, Miskitos were scattered along the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua, inhabiting interior mountainous areas with numerous rivers and forests.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central point of Miskito territory is known as the <a href="/wiki/Coco_River" title="Coco River">Coco River</a> or Wangks River, which also serves as a border between Nicaragua and Honduras. </p><p>Today, around 150,000 Miskito people live in Nicaragua. They are distributed among over 300 communities in 23 territories throughout Nicaragua’s <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Lowlands" title="Caribbean Lowlands">Caribbean Lowlands</a> and the Mosquito Coast.<sup id="cite_ref-Miranda2029_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miranda2029-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The town of <a href="/wiki/Awastara" title="Awastara">Awastara</a> is a major population centre and historical site for the Miskito people.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Honduras">Honduras</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Honduras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victor_Trapp_Manuel01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Victor_Trapp_Manuel01.JPG/170px-Victor_Trapp_Manuel01.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Victor_Trapp_Manuel01.JPG/255px-Victor_Trapp_Manuel01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Victor_Trapp_Manuel01.JPG/340px-Victor_Trapp_Manuel01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3872" /></a><figcaption>Victor Trapp Manuel represents the Misquito people in Honduras in a congress at the National Autonomous <a href="/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_Honduras" title="Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras">University of Honduras</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Prior to the 1859 Wyke-Cruz treaty with Britain, Miskito people inhabited the Cape of Gracias a Dios on the Caribbean coast and Honduran side of the Nicaragua-Honduras border. Despite the Wyke-Cruz treaty giving the Miskito authority over the land, it was ignored by the Honduran authorities. However, their autonomy has been preserved as a result of their geographic isolation.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013, the Honduran granted five Miskito communities land titles to their traditional land, totaling about 6,500 square kilometres (1.6 million acres). 100 villages exist in this area, containing a population of approximately 22,000.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of Miskitos speak their native <a href="/wiki/Miskito_language" title="Miskito language">Miskito language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Miskito language is a part of the <a href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan language</a> family.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some villages also speak Sumu, a closely related language within these ethnic groups. In addition, many Miskitos have adopted figures of speech from English and Spanish largely resulting from increased instances of bilingualism. The Caribbean areas of <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Andr%C3%A9s_(island)" title="San Andrés (island)">San Andrés</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isla_de_Providencia" class="mw-redirect" title="Isla de Providencia">Providence, Colombia</a> share linguistic commonalities with the Miskito Coast population, likely stemming from the mixture of native languages, African languages, as well as colonial languages.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Christianity: </p><p>Moravian and Catholicism. </p><p>Old Miskito religion: </p><p>Polytheism (Katidawanka, laptadawanka, etc.). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miskito_Gods">Miskito Gods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Miskito Gods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Miskito people were polytheist in the Pre-monarchic era. However, there are no records of human sacrifices like the Mayan or Incas in America. Their gods were Lapta (god of the sun), Kati (god of the moon), Slilma (god of the stars), Alwani (god of thunder), Imyula (god of lightning), Dusdawanka (god of trees and plants), Lidawanka (god of ocean, lakes and rivers), Rayakadawanka (god of living creatures), Sinslakadawanka (god of wisdom), Disangdawanka (god of fertility) Rakidawan (god of healing), Lasadawanka (god of dead souls) and Pruradawanka (god of death). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shamanism">Shamanism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Shamanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to contact, Miskito people practiced a type of <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a> where the shaman (known as Sukya) was seen as a healer by the community. The Sukya discovered cures by dreaming about them, and blowing smoke on the affected area. Group traditions included ritual dancing and drinking of a beverage known as mishla. Funeral traditions included a commemorative ceremony one year after death called Sikro. Only one leading shaman, known as Supreme Sukya or Okuli, could exist at a time and was revered by neighboring tribes as well. The Okuli exists as a representative to evil spirits, called Lasas. In the 1980s, shamans and group ceremonies took place in private.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Moravian_Church">Moravian Church</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Moravian Church"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian Church</a> attempted to proselytize the Miskito beginning in 1849, after attempting to provide a religious institution for a nearby <a href="/wiki/German_diaspora" title="German diaspora">German</a> community which later failed. The Moravian Church represents a small branch of Protestantism that emphasizes community unity and simple living. By 1894, the Moravian Church had become a major interest group in the Atlantic coast area during the Nicaraguan reincorporation of the area through the establishment of missions. In the 20th century, the Moravian Church furthered its institutional presence through schools and production of religious materials and services in the Miskito native language. They did little to quell hostilities between the Miskito and Spanish Catholics. By the 1960s, the Moravian Church seemed to play a central role in Miskito communities for anthropologists studying the area.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Catholicism">Catholicism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Catholicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> converts existed in the Miskito region as early as the 1930s. Because of poor resources to send properly trained parsons and pastors, Miskito Catholics practice several "innovations" specific to the Miskito Coast. The lack of institutional Catholic presence led to many Moravian practices shared by Catholic leaders in the area. As a result, many Miskitos view differences in religions as institutionally based rather than theologically based. Churches in the area hold sanctity when occupied by the community, and are not revered as buildings in and of themselves. Further, Miskito experience divinity through dreams and discussions of good, bad, and human spirits. Shamans known as prapit or pasa yapti are the only individuals who physically experience divinity. Thus, Miskito Catholicism departs significantly from traditional Spaniard Catholicism as practiced by the majority of Nicaragua as it contains dimensions of a spiritual realm of divinity which humans can sometimes access.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Miskito share <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folktales</a> called kisi for entertainment. Kisi often include tales of a trickster rabbit named Tibang or Bangbang as well as kings, overall serving themes of authority and human nature and general.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some stories include myths of Duhindu, creatures similar to <a href="/wiki/Gnome" title="Gnome">gnomes</a> that sometimes kidnap children.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to researchers Ken Decker and Andy Keener, the Miskito share poems and stories, but do not have largely disseminated pieces of literature nor has anything been published. Media that appears in the area is largely in Spanish, with some programming in English and in regional languages.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts">Arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Miskito have musical traditions including <a href="/wiki/Round_dance" title="Round dance">round dances</a> and traditional songs, as well as theatrical pieces including the symbol of the Miskito king. Regarding decorative arts, funeral ceremonies involve wooden masks.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutions">Institutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_structure">Political structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Political structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Miskito political structure has been profoundly shaped via its interactions with other cultures including Hispanicized Nicaragua as well as the British, acting on their perception of colonial power dynamics at any given time.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English_influence">English influence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: English influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beginning with the English arrival in the geographical area, the Miskito kingdom and political structure as a whole reflected the English political structure. The Miskito-English political dynamics would change with time but the two entities would remain operating in conjunction for approximately 250 years. Miskito kings were crowned by some of the first English settlers. Those recognized as kings by the British maintained the political structure as contact between mainland British and Miskitos increased.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Officially, the British government claimed political oversight of Miskito territory from 1740 to 1786—however, the British colonists inhabiting Miskito territory maintained the power dynamics established by the government even after their official evacuation. From 1860 to 1894, the Miskito Reserve period maintained centralized rule under a pro-British Miskito chief. Importantly, the Nicaraguan government recognized this leader as Hereditary Chief but granted him authority over land separate from Miskito-inhabited land. Thus, through the Miskito Reserve the Miskito people were granted <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>" but remained under the influence of a British political system through the designated chief.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British ultimately largely failed in attempts to create fully functioning centralized political structures for the Miskito largely as a result of the heterogeneity within the Miskito population. However, their establishment of a singular political leader did allow that individual to gain favor with the British and allow for continued contact between the two societies.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="18th_century_self-rule_in_the_Miskito_kingdom">18th century self-rule in the Miskito kingdom</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: 18th century self-rule in the Miskito kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the presence of the British political ideology of centralized power, the political structure in the Miskito kingdom proved more tribal in nature. Late seventeenth century accounts of the Miskito describe them as an "egalitarian society" that was "sparsely populated." As the Miskito population grew over time, the political structure effectively transformed into autonomous regional chiefdoms with vaguely defined social classes. Leaders at the time would rule over a given number of villages, with their political power bound to their recognized villages. This structure served to limit any single Miskito king's power over the Miskito as a whole, instead playing up the Miskito king's role in interacting with the British.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_45-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Re-incorporation_in_the_nineteenth_century">Re-incorporation in the nineteenth century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Re-incorporation in the nineteenth century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Meringer, Miskito people enjoyed peak levels of autonomy in the nineteenth century after British colonists were forced out of the Mosquito Coast. The Miskito people themselves rose to power in the absence of the British, enjoying ethnic preeminence and little to no threats to their power. However, as the Honduran government began to become increasingly assertive in the region, the Miskito lost much of their officially recognized political power to African Creoles on representative governmental bodies. The Creoles would grow increasingly in power, overcoming the Miskito chief, and politically and culturally isolating the chief from the Miskito people at large. By the time of Re-incorporation, Miskito autonomy had already been threatened and substantially deconstructed by increases in Creole power.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_45-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, during Re-incorporation, Nicaraguan government officials targeted Creole rulers rather than Miskito Indians. Later, Miskito took this opportunity to further Miskito autonomy and political authority in the region through a <i>Decree of Re-incorporation</i> which allowed representatives from the Miskito community to freely adhere to Nicaraguan laws and authorities while also granting Miskito people self-governance rights at the village level among other rights. This decree allowed previously marginalized Miskito to reclaim rights denied them by the ascendance of Creole elites earlier in the nineteenth century and allowed the population to unify.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_45-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Twentieth_century_mobilization">Twentieth century mobilization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Twentieth century mobilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In response to the <i><a href="/wiki/Indigenismo" title="Indigenismo">indigenismo</a></i> policies adopted throughout Latin America in the twentieth century, the Miskito people organized through activism to advocate for policies promoting political, social, and cultural assimilation. Specifically for the Miskito people, the activism in response to indigenismo policies encompassed a movement promoting integration and civil rights. Prior to the notable activist movements of the 1980s, the Miskito prioritized integration into state political structures and civil rights under the liberal Nicaraguan constitution. The movements of the 1960s and 1970s proved largely integrationist and was led by completely separate leaders than those after the Sandinista Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_45-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As early as the 1950s, Miskitos worked to confront the large and small injustices their community faced. By integrating into the Nicaraguan state via land titles, the Miskito were able to participate in the larger economy of the country and hold the state accountable to their local interests. This larger political participation fed into the Miskito locales, affording local representatives more power regarding territorial disputes in general, allowing for increased political involvement from Miskitos not directly tied to political processes.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_45-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regarding indigenismo, Nicaraguan officials viewed these policies as an opportunity to become more involved with the Mosquito Coast, which had previously been largely left alone. Miskito people were able to claim benefits at a larger governmental level that previously did not exist including technical training in medicine and agriculture, as well as increased access to education and more schoolhouses. For the Miskito in Nicaragua, indigenismo represented an opportunity to increase rapport with the government and greater access to previously inaccessible state resources rather than an affront to ethnic identity.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_45-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_relations">Gender relations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Gender relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Miskito people have maintained the same cultural traits that they acquired during the pre-colonial and colonial era. Contact with the English has created the position of a king who is seen as the figurehead of the tribes; however, the modern king has little power and generally does not affect the different tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The gender roles within the Miskito culture are affected more by the "boom and bust" of the local economy than by any ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When there are few job opportunities men rely on agricultural work and they spend time within their respective communities. There is evidence that the society followed a patriarchal setup during these "bust" times; however, when the economy is "booming", men generally get jobs that force them to travel.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the 1990s men have been traveling as a result of an increase in job opportunities, and they spend significant amounts of time away from their villages.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most men work on fishing boats diving for lobsters.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since men spend eight months out of the year away from their families, communities have a <a href="/wiki/Matrilocal_residence" title="Matrilocal residence">matrilocal</a> arrangement.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically men over age 13 are rarely present during daily life in a village. </p><p>Men are considered the breadwinners of a household and contribute the majority of a family’s income, but women have the ability to make all economic decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some women do housekeeping or sell small crafts to make extra money, but it is not enough by itself to support a family. Girls inherit the right to settle on their mother’s land, and although men clear farmland, women have full ownership of it.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is extremely difficult for women to find jobs, and most rely on men and their incomes to support their children. Many women practice <i>magia amorosa</i> (love magic), and they believe that it helps attract men and their money.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This love magic can also be used to help save one’s marriage. Women have the greatest input in how their households are run, but they are unable to do anything without the money that their husbands provide. Love magic highlights the importance of keeping a man interested within Miskito society. </p><p>Women usually begin forming relationships at age 15, and most become mothers by 18. Most women have six to eight children with their husband, but since men are not around that often there are high <a href="/wiki/Family_abandonment" class="mw-redirect" title="Family abandonment">abandonment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divorce_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Divorce rate">divorce rates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men often feel no moral obligation to take care of children because of a high <a href="/wiki/Illegitimacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegitimacy">illegitimacy</a> rate. <a href="/wiki/Abandoned_children" class="mw-redirect" title="Abandoned children">Abandoned children</a> are generally adopted by women within the child's matrilocal group and taken care of by an aunt or grandmother. As women become older they also gain status within their community. In each society women who are respected elders, <i>kukas</i>, are considered local experts and enforcers of correct behavior in their village.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy">Economy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-contact_subsistence_economy">Pre-contact subsistence economy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Pre-contact subsistence economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V45_D177_Miskito_indians.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/PSM_V45_D177_Miskito_indians.jpg/220px-PSM_V45_D177_Miskito_indians.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/PSM_V45_D177_Miskito_indians.jpg/330px-PSM_V45_D177_Miskito_indians.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/PSM_V45_D177_Miskito_indians.jpg/440px-PSM_V45_D177_Miskito_indians.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2279" data-file-height="1692" /></a><figcaption>1894 photograph of a group of Miskito people</figcaption></figure> <p>Miskito oral tradition states that many centuries ago a tribe emigrated from northern South America and settled on the coast at a site called Sitawala – possibly near present-day <a href="/wiki/Cabo_Gracias_a_Dios" title="Cabo Gracias a Dios">Cabo Gracias a Dios</a>. They were led by a warrior chief named Miskut, and called themselves the <i>Miskut uplika nani</i> (people of Miskut). The tradition states that neighboring tribes found it difficult to pronounce this name, and so shortened it to Miskito. After the death of Miskut, the tribe divided into three groups. One group ascended the Río Coco and became known as the river people. The other two groups moved north and south into present day <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> and around present day <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sandy_Bay_Nicaragua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sandy Bay Nicaragua (page does not exist)">Sandy Bay, Nicaragua</a>. These people became known as the beach people.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest European accounts of the Miskito are from <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritan</a> colonists in 1633 and English and French <a href="/wiki/Buccaneer" title="Buccaneer">buccaneers</a> during the late 1600s-early 1700s. These early accounts claim that Miskito tribes ranged along the Caribbean coast from the <a href="/wiki/Wawa_River_(Nicaragua)" title="Wawa River (Nicaragua)">Wawa River</a>, south of present-day <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Cabezas" title="Puerto Cabezas">Bilwi, Nicaragua</a>, to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cabo_Camar%C3%B3n,_Honduras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cabo Camarón, Honduras (page does not exist)">Cabo Camarón, Honduras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These early colonists, explorers and buccaneers described the Miskito as skilled maritime people adept a seafaring, fishing, and the hunting of turtle, manatee, as well as land animals such as deer.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Work conducted around <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Lagoon" title="Pearl Lagoon">Pearl Lagoon</a> in Nicaragua by archaeologist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_W._Magnus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard W. Magnus (page does not exist)">Richard W. Magnus</a> suggests that pre-contact coastal settlements were most likely temporary shellfish collection and salt manufacturing stations. <a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metates</a> and other agricultural tools have been found in these coastal sites, however there is little evidence of permanent settlement, in-situ agriculture, nor specialized tools that would suggest adaptation to the marine environment. Furthermore, the lowland coastal soils are of poor agricultural quality and likely would not have supported permanent settlements.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Magnus and others working in Honduran sites on the Río Tinto, these peoples were most likely <a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">riparian</a> in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological sites inland show more signs of permanent settlement including house sites, animal/fish bones, hearths, and agricultural plots. It is suggested that these riverine people traveled temporarily to the coast to make salt and subsidize their agricultural diet with shellfish, but that their overall orientation was inland and not coastal .<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite a dearth of contact era reports, this theory of seasonal coastal migration is supported by the English buccaneer "M.W." in 1732 who observed inland tribes who seasonally arrived at the coast to make salt before travelling back up river.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropologist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mary_W._Helms&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mary W. Helms (page does not exist)">Mary W. Helms</a> and Geographer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bernard_Nietschmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bernard Nietschmann (page does not exist)">Bernard Nietschmann</a> argue that the coastal orientation of the modern Miskito was precipitated by contact and subsequent social, economic and political involvement with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post-contact_mixed_economy">Post-contact mixed economy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Post-contact mixed economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Early_trade_and_English_buccaneers">Early trade and English buccaneers</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Early trade and English buccaneers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cape_Gracias_a_Dios.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Cape_Gracias_a_Dios.jpg/290px-Cape_Gracias_a_Dios.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="464" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Cape_Gracias_a_Dios.jpg/435px-Cape_Gracias_a_Dios.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Cape_Gracias_a_Dios.jpg/580px-Cape_Gracias_a_Dios.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Cabo Gracias a Dios and the estuary of the Río Coco (Wanks)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Providence_Island_colony" title="Providence Island colony">colony of Providence Island</a> was established off the coast on present day Nicaragua by the <a href="/wiki/Providence_Island_Company" title="Providence Island Company">English Providence Island Company</a> in 1630, which precipitated the formation of settlements around 1633 on the Miskito Coast at Cabo Gracias a Dios, and further south at present day Bluefields, Nicaragua.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first known proto-Miskito contact with the English occurred around 1634 at the Cabo trading post.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The English regularly traded with the proto-Miskito for turtle shells, meat, lumber, hides, and other items in return, for beads, rum, clothing, food, livestock, and firearms.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these items were acquired by the coastal tribes through barter with inland tribes. As time passed, the proto-Miskito, in contrast to the inland peoples, mixed openly with the <a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English</a> and adopted some of their <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_England" title="Culture of England">cultural traits</a>, incorporating <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> words into <a href="/wiki/Miskito_language" title="Miskito language">their vocabulary</a> and adopting European tools, food, clothing, and firearms – becoming the contact culture known today as the Miskito.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to periodic trade, the Miskito were involved with English <a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">buccaneers</a> of the 17th century. The buccaneers adopted Miskito communities as their bases and employed the Miskito in their cause. The buccaneers regularly employed local Miskito men to accompany them on their voyages as fishermen, hunters, navigators, and fighters.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through these experiences, the Miskito became adept raiders and raiding became a part of their local economy. With the support of the English and modern firearms, the Miskito expanded out of their cultural hearth near Cabo Gracias a Dios, and settled widely along the Miskito Coast.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the decline of buccaneering at the end of the 17th century, many of the buccaneers turned to more legal ways of making money including cash crop production, and contraband. Sugar, Dye wood and contraband made up the majority of the local economy and wage labor became more common.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Balancing_commercial_and_subsistence_activities">Balancing commercial and subsistence activities</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Balancing commercial and subsistence activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Miskito culture and economy is a product of intermixing between coastal indigenous tribes, European buccaneers, traders, and settlers and escaped slaves. The Moskito Coast, since colonial times, has been an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Economic_frontier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Economic frontier (page does not exist)">economic frontier</a> characterized by <a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">barter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boom/bust_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Boom/bust cycle">boom/bust</a> economies where markets develop to exploit specific resources, such as <a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle" title="Sea turtle">turtles</a>, precious lumber, <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">rubber</a>, bananas, and <a href="/wiki/Haematoxylum_campechianum" title="Haematoxylum campechianum">logwood</a> and collapse when the world market busts leaving little long-term development.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, there has always been a commercial component to the economy, however, due to the inevitability of economic busts and their isolation from national powers, the Miskito have maintained their subsistence culture without being absorbed into the full-time <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> – what anthropologist Mary Helms refers to as a ‘<a href="/w/index.php?title=Purchase_society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Purchase society (page does not exist)">purchase society</a>’. A purchase society is a power dynamic in which the indigenous are not subjugated as <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a>, but still interact with a <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">merchant or elite class</a> via trade – retaining their autonomy and identity.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Green_sea_turtle_at_Batu_Bolong.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Green_sea_turtle_at_Batu_Bolong.JPG/170px-Green_sea_turtle_at_Batu_Bolong.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Green_sea_turtle_at_Batu_Bolong.JPG/255px-Green_sea_turtle_at_Batu_Bolong.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Green_sea_turtle_at_Batu_Bolong.JPG/340px-Green_sea_turtle_at_Batu_Bolong.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2258" data-file-height="3011" /></a><figcaption>Green sea turtle</figcaption></figure> <p>The Miskito subsistence economy was based primarily on hunting, fishing, and some limited agriculture and <a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">silviculture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nature of the economy was one of <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(cultural_anthropology)" title="Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)">subsistence and reciprocity.</a> Subsistence activities were traditionally divided by gender. Women tended to the agriculture, while the men cleared land, hunted, fished, and worked in wage labor when it was available.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Geographer Bernard Nietschmann highlights, there was a complex system of meat reciprocity which served as a sort of <a href="/wiki/Social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Social security">social security system</a> for the society. If a hunter or fisherman was successful, they would gift some of the catch to their extended family and 'sell' it to their friends with the expectation that the favor would be returned.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, there was a balance between subsistence and commercial activities. When commercial goods were in demand Miskito labor shifted towards commercial activities and subsistence activities were neglected. Upon the decline of the commercial activities, the Miskito fell back on their subsistence skills. However, the rise of the company economy precipitated a fundamental shift in the Miskito economy away from these short term/seasonal economic relationships to more regular long-term employment of contract wage labor and exploitation of communal resources for commercial gain.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_64-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major challenge to the Miskito system of meat reciprocity was the commercialization of the green sea turtle, a staple of the Miskito diet </p><p>The Miskito have hunted <a href="/wiki/Green_turtle" class="mw-redirect" title="Green turtle">green turtles</a> as part of their traditional subsistence economy since at least the contact era. Much of the Miskito subsistence system, and settlement patterns were based around the seasonal appearance of the green sea turtle.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 17th century, the <a href="/wiki/Buccaneer" title="Buccaneer">buccaneer</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Dampier" title="William Dampier">William Dampier</a> wrote that the Moskito Indians were "esteemed and coveted by all privateers" because of their skill at hunting turtle and <a href="/wiki/Manatee" title="Manatee">manatee</a>, "for one or two of them [the animals] in a ship will maintain 100 men".<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The traditional method of capture was the <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a>. The harpoon was eight to ten feet in length and attached to a strong line. the turtle hunters traveled in small, seagoing <a href="/wiki/Canoe" title="Canoe">canoes</a>, using complex mental maps and systems of navigation to locate the turtles. A hunting party consisted of two men: a "strikerman" in the bow, and the "captain" in the stern. The hunters intercepted the turtles in the area between their sleeping <a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">shoals</a> and feeding banks as they surfaced for air. After being harpooned, the turtle was capable of pulling a canoe along at high speeds until eventually tiring. The hunters could then pull the turtle alongside the canoe and kill it. Once killed, the turtle was returned to the community where the meat was divided among family and friends. </p><p>In general, no more turtles were hunted than could satisfy the community's meat needs. However, increased demand from international markets during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries led to changes in hunting methods. The activities became market-focused instead of subsistence-focused. Foreign companies established commercial enterprises and hired Miskito turtlemen to facilitate intensive harvesting of green turtles to support sugar plantation labor, but also European palates.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_64-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exploitation was so intense that sea turtle populations in the greater <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> basin had been decimated by the mid-1800s, and villagers were confronted with rising social tensions due to increased dependence on a scarce resource.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_58-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the present day, sea turtle populations have recovered to a point, but the Miskito now balance a desire for turtle products with the forces of local, national, and international conservation goals.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_64-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_company_period">The company period</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: The company period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muelle_de_Bilwi,_Puerto_Cabezas_(RAAN).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Muelle_de_Bilwi%2C_Puerto_Cabezas_%28RAAN%29.jpg/220px-Muelle_de_Bilwi%2C_Puerto_Cabezas_%28RAAN%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Muelle_de_Bilwi%2C_Puerto_Cabezas_%28RAAN%29.jpg/330px-Muelle_de_Bilwi%2C_Puerto_Cabezas_%28RAAN%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Muelle_de_Bilwi%2C_Puerto_Cabezas_%28RAAN%29.jpg/440px-Muelle_de_Bilwi%2C_Puerto_Cabezas_%28RAAN%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="661" /></a><figcaption>The Bilwi pier was originally constructed by the Bragman's Bluff Company to facilitate shipment of lumber and bananas.</figcaption></figure> <p>The establishment of European control, and later American <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> on the Miskito Coast opened up the region for foreign business interests and the introduction of wage labor. The period between the turn of the 20th century and the 1960s became known as the company period, and was defined by large foreign enterprises, company run communities, and wage labor in the extraction of natural resources.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, lumbering of <a href="/wiki/Mahogany" title="Mahogany">mahogany</a> and other valuable trees, cash cropping of sugar and other products, which had existed in reduced form since the 17th century, expanded into large commercial enterprises. In terms of lumber, companies hired Miskito men to find, cut, and deliver desirable trees or tree products to the coast where they were then exported to Europe or the United States. By the end of the 1800s, lumber and rubber were major employers of male Miskito labor and foreign investment was high. The effects of this influx of money could be seen in the Miskito community of Bilwi.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to 1921, the community of <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Cabezas" title="Puerto Cabezas">Bilwi (Puerto Cabezas), Nicaragua</a> was little more than a small fishing village, but starting in this year a consortium of business from the United States, including the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bragman%E2%80%99s_Bluff_Lumber_and_Fruit_Company&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bragman’s Bluff Lumber and Fruit Company (page does not exist)">Bragman’s Bluff Lumber and Fruit Company</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Standard_Fruit_Company" title="Standard Fruit Company">Standard Fruit</a> began developing the community into their base of operation and main export port.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The companies together outfitted the community with a lumber mill, pier and port facilities, and a regional railroad system for the extraction of lumber and bananas. By 1926 Bragman’s Bluff Lumber was the largest employer in Nicaragua, with over 2000 workers.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_69-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:11_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pine lumbering persisted with periodic booms and busts through the 1960s. Bragman’s Lumber recorded its largest shipment of lumber at Bilwi in 1960 with just over 28.4 million linear board feet.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The other major boom market for this period was in <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">bananas</a>. The banana boom, with its plantation employment, lasted from the 1890s −1930s – peaking in the 1931. At the port of Bilwi, Standard Fruit recorded it all-time high production of 6.1 million <i>racimos</i> (clusters) in 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of <a href="/wiki/Depression_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Depression (economics)">economic depression</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Panama_disease" title="Panama disease">soil fungus outbreak</a>, the banana economy quickly busted. By the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">WWII</a> exports at Bilwi were down to 99,685 racimos and by 1960 the number was down to 9,753.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gold-mining and pine lumbering also began in the late 1800s and persisted with periodic booms and busts through the 1960s. Seafood, including shrimp and lobster, has been the most recent boom market in the region since the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overall, the company period was known for its boom and bust economies. Massive hirings during economic upswings were followed by massive layoffs. During boom times, skilled and unskilled workers would flood into town, only to return to their homes after the price of lumber, bananas, or ores dropped leaving ghost towns, and abandoned infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the company period, it was common for the Miskito men to leave their communities and families for up to a year at a time, to work in the various industries.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_58-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They would send back money as replacement for the subsistence goods that they would have traditionally produced. Without their husbands and male family members, the women were increasingly forced to purchase food (especially meat) on the cash market and hire farm hands to clear and tend agricultural plots.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_58-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This employment dynamic led to the large-scale introduction of the money-based economy, and the replacement of subsistence goods with relatively inexpensive commissary goods. This shift created a dependency on commercial goods and cash earning employment.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_58-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_lobster_economy_and_controversy">The lobster economy and controversy</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: The lobster economy and controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="The_industry">The industry</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: The industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Painted_Spiny_Lobster_(14467353995).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Painted_Spiny_Lobster_%2814467353995%29.jpg/220px-Painted_Spiny_Lobster_%2814467353995%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Painted_Spiny_Lobster_%2814467353995%29.jpg/330px-Painted_Spiny_Lobster_%2814467353995%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Painted_Spiny_Lobster_%2814467353995%29.jpg/440px-Painted_Spiny_Lobster_%2814467353995%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3579" data-file-height="2386" /></a><figcaption>Spiny Lobster</figcaption></figure> <p>Increasing demand in the United States led to a boom in commercial exploitation of <a href="/wiki/Spiny_lobster" title="Spiny lobster">spiny lobster</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Moskito Coast</a> beginning in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lobster, like products of past booms, has become a major source of cash income for the Miskito and the great majority of the population either directly or indirectly depends on lobster income.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 2011, the industry employed around 3500 people on 44 boats in Honduras alone.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Nicaragua, it has been estimated that commercial lobster diving employs over 5,000 people and affects the livelihoods of 50,000 men, women and children.<sup id="cite_ref-mylobster_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mylobster-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these people work as divers, using scuba equipment to dive and catch lobster. </p><p>The vast majority of fishing operations are controlled by <a href="/wiki/Ladino_people" title="Ladino people">ladino</a> boat owners based in the Bay Islands of Honduras and Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua. These owners employ local recruiters or <i>sacabuzos</i> in coastal communities to organize crews of dive teams, as well as other boat hands.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A dive team consists of a diver and <i>cayuquero</i>; a diver apprentices who follows the diver in a canoe allowing the diver to offload his catch.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to 18–20 dive teams, a boat employs additional support staff to cook, clean, and manage the diving equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the beginning of a fishing trip, the lobster boats travel the coast picking up recruited dive teams and boat hands. They then search for lobster at known lobster banks between Honduras and Colombia, often illegally and usually over the course of 12–16 days.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The divers are paid by the pound for lobster tails alone. In the early days of the boom, lobster tails of 1–2 pound were common whereas by the early 1990s a diver needed 2–3 lobsters to make the same weight. At that time, the average diver brought in, per trip, 150–180 pounds of lobster. By 2011 the estimated average was down to 74 pounds/trip.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the catch, the boats return the crew members to their communities, and the catch is processed in the Bay Islands or Puerto Cabezas before being shipped to primarily the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Controversy">Controversy</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_11209_Diver_catching_a_rock_lobster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/CSIRO_ScienceImage_11209_Diver_catching_a_rock_lobster.jpg/220px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_11209_Diver_catching_a_rock_lobster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/CSIRO_ScienceImage_11209_Diver_catching_a_rock_lobster.jpg/330px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_11209_Diver_catching_a_rock_lobster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/CSIRO_ScienceImage_11209_Diver_catching_a_rock_lobster.jpg/440px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_11209_Diver_catching_a_rock_lobster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1980" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption>Free-diving lobster diver</figcaption></figure> <p>Since the 1960s, the Miskito have used free-diving techniques to <a href="/wiki/Harvest" title="Harvest">harvest</a> <a href="/wiki/Lobster" title="Lobster">lobsters</a> as their primary source of income.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12508972_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12508972-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early years of the lobster boom, large and plentiful lobster were found close to shore in shallow waters, and could be accessed easily by <a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">free-diving</a>. Lobster production peaked, however, around 1985, and these resources were quickly depleted.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">Scuba diving</a> techniques were introduced around 1980 to enable the Miskito to expand their area for harvesting into deeper waters.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid12508972_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12508972-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stonich_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stonich-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Declining returns have forced divers to dive more often, deeper, and for longer, using pressurized tanks to maintain their income.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to declining lobster populations, the governments of Honduras and Nicaragua implemented a fishing season – restricting lobster exploitation to between 1 March and 30 July.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal was to reduce pressure on lobster populations, but the result has also increased pressure on lobster divers. It is not uncommon for divers to make 12–16 dives per day to depths of 100–120 ft. in an effort to maintain their incomes.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result has been an increase in the number of cases of <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">decompression sickness</a> and decompression related deaths. Around 2013, Honduras had the highest number of decompression related deaths and sickness in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates at that time put the number of injured somewhere over 2000, while over 300 others have died since the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The divers almost universally lack formal dive training, and the push to maintain their incomes leads divers to dive too much and stay down too long. In response to activist outcries, several large lobster importers in the United States announced in 2015 that they will no longer purchase dive caught lobster, however, similar efforts by Red Lobster in 1993 failed to disrupt the industry.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_77-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2009 both Honduras and Nicaragua agreed on regional regulations to prohibit lobster diving. Regional agreement <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tsc.gob.hn/leyes/Reglamento%20OSP-02-09%20para%20el%20Ordenamiento%20Regional%20de%20la%20Pesqueria%20de%20Langosta%20del%20Caribe.pdf">OSP-02-2009 – <i>Reglamento para el Ordenamiento Regional de la Pesquería de Langonsta del Caribe</i></a> was signed by the nations of Central America on 21 May 2009 and was to prohibit tank assisted lobster diving within two years.<sup id="cite_ref-mylobster_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mylobster-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These regulations, however, have not been enforced, partly because of political pressure from the fishing industry and a lack of viable economic alternatives in on the Miskito Coast.<sup id="cite_ref-mylobster_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mylobster-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2011 census of Honduran lobster divers, 36% of injured divers continued to dive after their first accident and 50% of divers had considered quitting due to the risks, but continued, because of the lack of viable economic alternatives.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What part of this situation is actually controversial? (July 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The 2012 documentary film <i>My Village, My Lobster</i><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> examines the individuals and communities involved in this fishing industry. The film features testimony from divers who have been injured, boat owners and captains who are responsible for the divers' safety, and a <a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_medicine" title="Hyperbaric medicine">hyperbaric medicine</a> specialist who treats injured divers. The film includes footage from aboard a commercial lobster diving vessel and from the remote Miskito Keys (or <a href="/wiki/Miskito_Cays" title="Miskito Cays">Miskito Cays</a>), the noted <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtle</a>-hunting grounds of the Miskito.<sup id="cite_ref-mylobster_74-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mylobster-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_Miskitos">Notable Miskitos</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Notable Miskitos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Miskito Kings </p> <ul><li>c. 1650–c. 1687 <a href="/wiki/Oldman_(king)" title="Oldman (king)">Oldman</a></li> <li>c. 1687–1720 <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_I" title="Jeremy I">Jeremy I</a></li> <li>1720–1728 <a href="/wiki/Majesty" title="Majesty">H.M.</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_II" title="Jeremy II">Jeremy II</a></li> <li>1729–1739 H.M. <a href="/wiki/Peter_I_of_the_Miskito_nation" title="Peter I of the Miskito nation">Peter I</a></li> <li>1739–1755 H.M. <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_(Moskito)" title="Edward I (Moskito)">Edward I</a></li> <li>1755–1776 H.M. <a href="/wiki/George_I_(Miskito)" title="George I (Miskito)">George I</a></li> <li>1777–1800 H.M. <a href="/wiki/George_II_Frederic" title="George II Frederic">George II Frederic</a></li> <li>1800–1816 H.M. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prince_Stephen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prince Stephen (page does not exist)">Prince Stephen</a> (King Regent)</li> <li>1816–1824 H.M. <a href="/wiki/George_Frederic_Augustus_I" title="George Frederic Augustus I">George Frederic Augustus I</a></li> <li>1825–1842 H.M. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_Frederic" title="Robert Charles Frederic">Robert Charles Frederic</a></li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_George_Augustus_Frederick.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/King_George_Augustus_Frederick.jpg/170px-King_George_Augustus_Frederick.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/King_George_Augustus_Frederick.jpg/255px-King_George_Augustus_Frederick.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/King_George_Augustus_Frederick.jpg/340px-King_George_Augustus_Frederick.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>King of the Mosquito Nation</figcaption></figure>1842–1864 H.M. <a href="/wiki/George_Augustus_Frederic_II" title="George Augustus Frederic II">George Augustus Frederic II</a></li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_William_Henry_Clarence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Chief_William_Henry_Clarence.jpg/170px-Chief_William_Henry_Clarence.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Chief_William_Henry_Clarence.jpg/255px-Chief_William_Henry_Clarence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Chief_William_Henry_Clarence.jpg/340px-Chief_William_Henry_Clarence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Hereditary Chief of the Mosquito Reservation</figcaption></figure>1865–1879 <a href="/wiki/Excellency" title="Excellency">H.E.</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Clarence" title="William Henry Clarence">William Henry Clarence</a>, Hereditary Chief of Miskitu</li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_George_William_Albert_Hendy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Chief_George_William_Albert_Hendy.jpg/170px-Chief_George_William_Albert_Hendy.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Chief_George_William_Albert_Hendy.jpg/255px-Chief_George_William_Albert_Hendy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Chief_George_William_Albert_Hendy.jpg/340px-Chief_George_William_Albert_Hendy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Hereditary Chief of the Mosquito Reservation</figcaption></figure>1879–1888 H.E. <a href="/wiki/George_William_Albert_Hendy" title="George William Albert Hendy">George William Albert Hendy</a>, Hereditary Chief of Miskitu</li> <li>1888–1889 H.E. <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hendy" title="Andrew Hendy">Andrew Hendy</a>, Hereditary Chief of Miskitu</li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Jonathan_Charles_Frederick.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Chief_Jonathan_Charles_Frederick.jpg/170px-Chief_Jonathan_Charles_Frederick.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Chief_Jonathan_Charles_Frederick.jpg/255px-Chief_Jonathan_Charles_Frederick.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Chief_Jonathan_Charles_Frederick.jpg/340px-Chief_Jonathan_Charles_Frederick.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Hereditary Chief of the Mosquito Reservation</figcaption></figure>1889–1890 H.E. <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Charles_Frederick" title="Jonathan Charles Frederick">Jonathan Charles Frederick</a>, Hereditary Chief of Miskitu</li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Robert_Henry_Clarence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Chief_Robert_Henry_Clarence.jpg/170px-Chief_Robert_Henry_Clarence.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Chief_Robert_Henry_Clarence.jpg/255px-Chief_Robert_Henry_Clarence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Chief_Robert_Henry_Clarence.jpg/340px-Chief_Robert_Henry_Clarence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Hereditary Chief of the Mosquito Reservation</figcaption></figure>1891–1908 H.E. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Henry_Clarence" title="Robert Henry Clarence">Robert Henry Clarence</a>, Hereditary Chief of Miskitu</li></ul> <p>Other important figures </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lottie_Cunningham_Wren" title="Lottie Cunningham Wren">Lottie Cunningham Wren</a> (born 1959), lawyer, environmentalist, and Native American rights activist from Nicaragua.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrna_Cunningham" title="Myrna Cunningham">Myrna Cunningham</a>, politician.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudel_Calero" title="Rudel Calero">Rudel Calero</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar%C3%ADfuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Garífuna">Garífuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grisi_siknis" title="Grisi siknis">Grisi siknis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KISAN" class="mw-redirect" title="KISAN">KISAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Mosquitia_(Honduras)" title="La Mosquitia (Honduras)">La Mosquitia (Honduras)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilocal_residence" title="Matrilocal residence">Matrilocal residence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskito_Sambu" title="Miskito Sambu">Miskito Sambu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Mosquito Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua_Was_Our_Home" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicaragua Was Our Home">Nicaragua Was Our Home</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.peoplegroups.org/Explore/groupdetails.aspx?peid=24798">"People Name: Miskito of Nicaragua"</a>. <i>peoplegroups.org</i>. 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=peoplegroups.org&rft.atitle=People+Name%3A+Miskito+of+Nicaragua&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.peoplegroups.org%2FExplore%2Fgroupdetails.aspx%3Fpeid%3D24798&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stonich2001-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stonich2001_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStonich2001" class="citation book cs1">Stonich, Susan C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/endangeredpeople00ston/page/91"><i>Endangered peoples of Latin America: struggles to survive and thrive</i></a>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 91–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-30856-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-30856-X"><bdi>0-313-30856-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Endangered+peoples+of+Latin+America%3A+struggles+to+survive+and+thrive&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=91-94&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-313-30856-X&rft.aulast=Stonich&rft.aufirst=Susan+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fendangeredpeople00ston%2Fpage%2F91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:15-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:15_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobles2016" class="citation news cs1">Robles, Frances (16 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/17/world/americas/nicaragua-dispute-over-indigenous-land-erupts-in-wave-of-killings.html">"Nicaragua Dispute Over Indigenous Land Erupts in Wave of Killings"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nicaragua+Dispute+Over+Indigenous+Land+Erupts+in+Wave+of+Killings&rft.date=2016-10-16&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Robles&rft.aufirst=Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F10%2F17%2Fworld%2Famericas%2Fnicaragua-dispute-over-indigenous-land-erupts-in-wave-of-killings.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Offen, "The Sambu and Tawira Miskitu: The Colonial Origins of Intra-Miskitu Differentiation in Eastern Nicaragua and Honduras," <i>Ethnohistory</i> 49/2 (2002) 328-33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPineda2006" class="citation book cs1">Pineda, Baron (5 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Urj3envNnwoC&pg=PA5"><i>Shipwrecked Identities: Navigating Race on Nicaragua's Mosquito Coast</i></a>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813539430" title="Special:BookSources/9780813539430"><bdi>9780813539430</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shipwrecked+Identities%3A+Navigating+Race+on+Nicaragua%27s+Mosquito+Coast&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2006-04-05&rft.isbn=9780813539430&rft.aulast=Pineda&rft.aufirst=Baron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUrj3envNnwoC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Letter of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Benito_Garret_y_Arlovi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Benito Garret y Arlovi (page does not exist)">Benito Garret y Arlovi</a> to King of Spain, 30 November 1711, in Manuel de Peralta, ed., <i>Costa Rica y Costa de Mosquitos. Documentos para la historia de la jurisdicción territorial de Costa Rica y Colombia</i> (Paris, 1898), pp. 57–58 Garret y Arlovi had gotten his information from missionaries near Segovia and Chontales, who reported what the indigenous people said. In addition, he interviewed Juan Ramón, an ancient African (negro). By these sources, Garret y Arlovi dated the shipwreck to 1641.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Offen (2002), <i>Sambu and Tawira Miskitu</i>, pp. 337–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. W. "The Mosqueto Indian and His Golden River," in <a href="/wiki/Awnsham_Churchill" title="Awnsham Churchill">Awnsham Churchill</a>, <i>A Collection of Voyages and Travels</i> (6 vols., London, 1728) vol. 6 pp. 285–290.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. W. "Mosketo Indian" p. 293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Olien, "General, Governor and Admiral: Three Miskito Lines of Succession," <i>Ethnohistory</i> 45/2 (1998): 278–318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Helms, "Miskito Slaving and Culture Contact: Ethnicity and Opportunity in an Expanding Population," <i>Journal of Anthropological Research</i> 39/2 (1983): 179–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gérman Romero Vargas, <i>Las sociedades del Atlántico de Nicaragua en los siglos XVII y XVIII,</i> (Managua, 1995), pp. 165–66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_13-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Floyd, T.S. 1967. <i>The Anglo-Spanish Struggle for Mosquitia</i>. The University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque, NM.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolfgang Gabbert, "In the Shadow of Empire – The Emergence of Afro-Creole Societies in Belize and Nicaragua," <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iai.spk-berlin.de/en/publications/indiana.html">Indiana</a></i> 24 (2007): 49 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iai.spk-berlin.de/fileadmin/dokumentenbibliothek/Indiana/Indiana_24/D_03_Gabbert_korr.pdf">online</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Floyd, <i>Anglo-Spanish Struggle</i>, pp. 119–140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll2006" class="citation news cs1">Carroll, Rory (26 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/famine/story/0,,1957257,00.html">"Nicaragua's green lobby is leaving rainforest people 'utterly destitute'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Guardian Unlimited</i>. London<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Guardian+Unlimited&rft.atitle=Nicaragua%27s+green+lobby+is+leaving+rainforest+people+%27utterly+destitute%27&rft.date=2006-11-26&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Rory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ffamine%2Fstory%2F0%2C%2C1957257%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Squier-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Squier_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Squier_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Squier_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Squier_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Squier_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">E. George Squier, <i>Adventures on the Mosquito Shore</i> (New York, 1891) pp. 346–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gabbert, "Shadow of Empire," pp. 52–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/2706">"Jinotega's Miskitos and Sumus: Little Noted Victims of the Contra War"</a>. <i>Revista Envío</i>. Central American University – UCA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+Env%C3%ADo&rft.atitle=Jinotega%27s+Miskitos+and+Sumus%3A+Little+Noted+Victims+of+the+Contra+War&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.envio.org.ni%2Farticulo%2F2706&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">*Asleson, Vern, <i>Nicaragua: Those Passed By</i>, Galde Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931942-16-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-931942-16-1">1-931942-16-1</a>, 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gilles Bataillon, " Cambios culturales y sociopolíticos en las comunidades Mayangnas y Miskitos del río Bocay y del alto río Coco, Nicaragua (1979–2000) ", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_de_la_Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Am%C3%A9ricanistes" title="Journal de la Société des Américanistes">Journal de la Société des Américanistes</a></i>, 2001, tome 87, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jsa.revues.org/document1238.html">On line</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE5D9173BF93AA15754C0A960948260&sec=&pagewanted=print">ON 13, SANDINISTAS VS. MISKITOS</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i>, 29 July 1986</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-envio-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-envio_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/3245">"How to Read the Reagan Administration: The Miskito Case"</a>. Envio.org.ni<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+to+Read+the+Reagan+Administration%3A+The+Miskito+Case&rft.pub=Envio.org.ni&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.envio.org.ni%2Farticulo%2F3245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1555">Public TV Tilts Toward Conservatives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fairness_%26_Accuracy_in_Reporting" title="Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting">Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Sundance_Film_Festival/1986">Sundance Film Festival: 1986</a>, <a href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.humanite.fr/journal/1992-02-27/1992-02-27-648703">"Il y a Miskitos et Miskitos"</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Humanit%C3%A9" title="L'Humanité">L'Humanité</a></i>, 27 February 1992 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/A.50.18,paras.499-541.Fr?Opendocument">Observations finales du Comité pour l'élimination de la discrimination raciale : Nicaragua. 22/09/95.</a>, <a href="/wiki/UNHCR" class="mw-redirect" title="UNHCR">UNHCR</a>, 1995</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galanova-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galanova_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galanova_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalanova2017" class="citation news cs1">Galanova, Mira (1 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/mar/01/lush-heartlands-of-nicaragua-miskito-people-spark-deadly-land-disputes">"Lush heartlands of Nicaragua's Miskito people spark deadly land disputes"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Lush+heartlands+of+Nicaragua%27s+Miskito+people+spark+deadly+land+disputes&rft.date=2017-03-01&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Galanova&rft.aufirst=Mira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2F2017%2Fmar%2F01%2Flush-heartlands-of-nicaragua-miskito-people-spark-deadly-land-disputes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:14_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8181209.stm">"Nicaragua's Miskitos seek independence"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 3 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Nicaragua%27s+Miskitos+seek+independence&rft.date=2009-08-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Famericas%2F8181209.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thestar.com/news/2007/09/07/felixs_dead_wash_ashore.html">"Nicaraguan Indians sought refuge in canoes from Category 5 hurricane, others sucked out of homes"</a>. <i>Toronto Star</i>. 7 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Toronto+Star&rft.atitle=Nicaraguan+Indians+sought+refuge+in+canoes+from+Category+5+hurricane%2C+others+sucked+out+of+homes&rft.date=2007-09-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestar.com%2Fnews%2F2007%2F09%2F07%2Ffelixs_dead_wash_ashore.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:32-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:32_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sites.dartmouth.edu/bhimani_lacs20_fa15/about-nicaragua/an-overview-of-the-miskito-natives/">"An Overview of the Miskito Natives | A Journey Through Nicaragua 2015"</a>. <i>sites.dartmouth.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sites.dartmouth.edu&rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+the+Miskito+Natives+%7C+A+Journey+Through+Nicaragua+2015&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsites.dartmouth.edu%2Fbhimani_lacs20_fa15%2Fabout-nicaragua%2Fan-overview-of-the-miskito-natives%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:22_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeringer2007" class="citation book cs1">Meringer, Eric Rodrigo (2007). <i>MISKITU TAKAIA: MISKITO IDENTITY AND TRANSFORMATION 1600 – 1979</i>. Ann Arbor: Arizona State University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780549309680" title="Special:BookSources/9780549309680"><bdi>9780549309680</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MISKITU+TAKAIA%3A+MISKITO+IDENTITY+AND+TRANSFORMATION+1600+%E2%80%93+1979&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=Arizona+State+University&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780549309680&rft.aulast=Meringer&rft.aufirst=Eric+Rodrigo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miranda2029-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Miranda2029_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiranda2020" class="citation web cs1">Miranda, Wilfredo (5 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://latindispatch.com/2020/06/05/indigenous-territories-in-nicaragua-face-violent-attacks/">"INDIGENOUS TERRITORIES IN NICARAGUA FACE VIOLENT ATTACKS"</a>. <i>Latindispatch.com</i>. Latin America News Dispatch<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Latindispatch.com&rft.atitle=INDIGENOUS+TERRITORIES+IN+NICARAGUA+FACE+VIOLENT+ATTACKS&rft.date=2020-06-05&rft.aulast=Miranda&rft.aufirst=Wilfredo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flatindispatch.com%2F2020%2F06%2F05%2Findigenous-territories-in-nicaragua-face-violent-attacks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennis2010" class="citation book cs1">Dennis, Philip A. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8iLlAgAAQBAJ&q=The+Miskito+People+of+Awastara&pg=PA294"><i>The Miskitu People of Awastara</i></a>. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 294. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780292789449" title="Special:BookSources/9780292789449"><bdi>9780292789449</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Miskitu+People+of+Awastara&rft.place=Austin%2C+Texas&rft.pages=294&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780292789449&rft.aulast=Dennis&rft.aufirst=Philip+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8iLlAgAAQBAJ%26q%3DThe%2BMiskito%2BPeople%2Bof%2BAwastara%26pg%3DPA294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170410051335/http://firstpeoples.org/wp/miskito-indians-of-honduras-finally-granted-over-1-million-acres-of-traditional-land/">"Miskito Indians of Honduras Finally Granted Over 1 Million Acres of Traditional Land"</a>. <i>First Peoples Worldwide</i>. 24 September 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://firstpeoples.org/wp/miskito-indians-of-honduras-finally-granted-over-1-million-acres-of-traditional-land/">the original</a> on 10 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=First+Peoples+Worldwide&rft.atitle=Miskito+Indians+of+Honduras+Finally+Granted+Over+1+Million+Acres+of+Traditional+Land&rft.date=2013-09-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffirstpeoples.org%2Fwp%2Fmiskito-indians-of-honduras-finally-granted-over-1-million-acres-of-traditional-land%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/hondurass-gift-to-indigenous-miskito-people-q30ssjbc3rn">"Honduras's gift to indigenous Miskito people"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Honduras%27s+gift+to+indigenous+Miskito+people&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Farticle%2Fhondurass-gift-to-indigenous-miskito-people-q30ssjbc3rn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/miq">"Mískito"</a>. <i>Ethnologue</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnologue&rft.atitle=M%C3%ADskito&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Flanguage%2Fmiq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/miq">"Mískito"</a>. <i>Ethnologue</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnologue&rft.atitle=M%C3%ADskito&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Flanguage%2Fmiq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDecker1998" class="citation web cs1">Decker, Ken (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-01.sil.org/silesr/2001/004/SILESR2001-004.pdf">"A Report on the English-Lexifier Creole of Nicaragua, also known as Miskito Coast Creole, with special reference to Bluefields and the Corn Islands"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Summer Institute of Linguistics</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Summer+Institute+of+Linguistics&rft.atitle=A+Report+on+the+English-Lexifier+Creole+of+Nicaragua%2C+also+known+as+Miskito+Coast+Creole%2C+with+special+reference+to+Bluefields+and+the+Corn+Islands&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Decker&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-01.sil.org%2Fsilesr%2F2001%2F004%2FSILESR2001-004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlair_Stiffler1981" class="citation web cs1">Blair Stiffler, David (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/folkways/FW04237.pdf">"Music of the Miskito Indians of Honduras & Nicaragua"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ethnic Folkways Records</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ethnic+Folkways+Records&rft.atitle=Music+of+the+Miskito+Indians+of+Honduras+%26+Nicaragua&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Blair+Stiffler&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.smithsonianfolkways.org%2Fliner_notes%2Ffolkways%2FFW04237.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamieson2010" class="citation journal cs1">Jamieson, Mark (1 January 2010). "A journey into symbolic disorder: Miskitu reactions to Mestizo Catholic ritual in Nicaragua". <i>Ethnography</i>. <b>11</b> (3): 409–424. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1466138110370415">10.1177/1466138110370415</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24047985">24047985</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145000854">145000854</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnography&rft.atitle=A+journey+into+symbolic+disorder%3A+Miskitu+reactions+to+Mestizo+Catholic+ritual+in+Nicaragua&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=409-424&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145000854%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24047985%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1466138110370415&rft.aulast=Jamieson&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennisOlien1984" class="citation journal cs1">Dennis, Philip A.; Olien, Michael D. (1 January 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060">"Kingship among the Miskito"</a>. <i>American Ethnologist</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 718–737. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060">10.1525/ae.1984.11.4.02a00060</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/644402">644402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Ethnologist&rft.atitle=Kingship+among+the+Miskito&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=718-737&rft.date=1984-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F644402%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dennis&rft.aufirst=Philip+A.&rft.au=Olien%2C+Michael+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.native-languages.org/miskito-legends.htm">"Miskito Legends, Myths, and Traditional Indian Stories (Miskitu)"</a>. <i>www.native-languages.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.native-languages.org&rft.atitle=Miskito+Legends%2C+Myths%2C+and+Traditional+Indian+Stories+%28Miskitu%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.native-languages.org%2Fmiskito-legends.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/places/latin-america-and-caribbean/nicaragua-political-geography/miskito">"Miskito facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Miskito"</a>. <i>www.encyclopedia.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Miskito+facts%2C+information%2C+pictures+%7C+Encyclopedia.com+articles+about+Miskito&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fplaces%2Flatin-america-and-caribbean%2Fnicaragua-political-geography%2Fmiskito&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:23_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_45-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_45-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_45-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_45-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_45-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_45-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeringer2007" class="citation book cs1">Meringer, Eric Rodrigo (2007). <i>MISKITU TAKAIA: MISKITO IDENTITY AND TRANSFORMATION 1600 – 1979</i>. Ann Arbor: Arizona State University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780549309680" title="Special:BookSources/9780549309680"><bdi>9780549309680</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MISKITU+TAKAIA%3A+MISKITO+IDENTITY+AND+TRANSFORMATION+1600+%E2%80%93+1979&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=Arizona+State+University&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780549309680&rft.aulast=Meringer&rft.aufirst=Eric+Rodrigo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennisOlien1984" class="citation journal cs1">Dennis, Philip A.; Olien, Michael D. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060">"Kingship among the Miskito"</a>. <i>American Ethnologist</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 718. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060">10.1525/ae.1984.11.4.02a00060</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Ethnologist&rft.atitle=Kingship+among+the+Miskito.&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=718&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060&rft.aulast=Dennis&rft.aufirst=Philip+A.&rft.au=Olien%2C+Michael+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2007" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 133.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Matrifocality+and+Women%27s+Power+on+the+Miskito+Coast&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=133&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2007" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 133–149.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Matrifocality+and+Women%27s+Power+on+the+Miskito+Coast&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=133-149&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merrill, Tim L., <i>Honduras: a country study</i>, page 100, 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2007" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 136.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Matrifocality+and+Women%27s+Power+on+the+Miskito+Coast&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=136&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2006" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2006). "Sexual Magic and Money: Miskitu women's Strategies in Northern Honduras". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 144.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Sexual+Magic+and+Money%3A+Miskitu+women%27s+Strategies+in+Northern+Honduras.&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=144&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2006" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2006). "Sexual Magic and Money: Miskitu women's Strategies in Northern Honduras". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 145.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Sexual+Magic+and+Money%3A+Miskitu+women%27s+Strategies+in+Northern+Honduras.&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=145&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2006" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2006). "Sexual Magic and Money: Miskitu women's Strategies in Northern Honduras". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 154.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Sexual+Magic+and+Money%3A+Miskitu+women%27s+Strategies+in+Northern+Honduras.&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=154&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2006" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2006). "Sexual Magic and Money: Miskitu women's Strategies in Northern Honduras". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 143–159.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Sexual+Magic+and+Money%3A+Miskitu+women%27s+Strategies+in+Northern+Honduras.&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=143-159&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2007" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 139–140.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Matrifocality+and+Women%27s+Power+on+the+Miskito+Coast.&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=139-140&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2007" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 135.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Matrifocality+and+Women%27s+Power+on+the+Miskito+Coast.&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=135&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietschmann1995" class="citation journal cs1">Nietschmann, Bernard (1995). "Conservación, autodeterminación y el Area Protegida Costa Miskita, Nicaragua". <i>Mesoamérica</i> (29).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mesoam%C3%A9rica&rft.atitle=Conservaci%C3%B3n%2C+autodeterminaci%C3%B3n+y+el+Area+Protegida+Costa+Miskita%2C+Nicaragua&rft.issue=29&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Nietschmann&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_58-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_58-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_58-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_58-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_58-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietchmann1973" class="citation book cs1">Nietchmann, Bernard (1973). <i>Between land and Water: The subsistence ecology of the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua</i>. New York: Seminar Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0128802502" title="Special:BookSources/0128802502"><bdi>0128802502</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+land+and+Water%3A+The+subsistence+ecology+of+the+Miskito+Indians%2C+Eastern+Nicaragua&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Seminar+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0128802502&rft.aulast=Nietchmann&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Magnus, R.W. 1978. The Prehistoric and Modern Subsistence Patterns of the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua: A Comparison. In: <i>Prehistoric Coastal Adaptations: The economy and ecology of maritime Middle America</i>. Eds. B.L. Stark and B. Voorhies. Academic Press: New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clark, C.M., F.G. Dawson, and J.C. Drake. 1982. <i>Archaeology of the Mosquito Coast: A reconnaissance of the Pre-Columbian and Historic Settlement along the Río Tinto</i>. Center of Latin American Studies: University of Cambridge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12551097">12551097</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:7_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helms, M.W. 1978. Coastal Adaptations and Contact Phenomena among the Miskito and Cuna Indians of Lower Central America. In: <i>Prehistoric Coastal Adaptations: The economy and ecology of maritime Middle America.</i> Eds: B.L Stark and B. Voorhies. Academic Press: New York</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, C., & H. P. Brignoli. 2003. Historical Atlas of Central America. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Helms, M. 1971. <i>Culture Contact in a Miskito Community</i>. University of Florida Press: Gainesville, FL.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_64-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_64-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_64-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_64-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nietschmann, B. 1979. When the Turtle Collapses, The World Ends. In: <i>Caribbean Edge: The Coming of Modern Times to Isolated People and Wildlife</i>. Pp. 173–189. The Bobbs-Merril Company Inc.: New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelms1969" class="citation journal cs1">Helms, M (1969). "The Cultural Ecology of a Colonial Tribe". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 76–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3772938">10.2307/3772938</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3772938">3772938</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=The+Cultural+Ecology+of+a+Colonial+Tribe&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=76-84&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3772938&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3772938%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Helms&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gold, J.N. 2009. Indigenous Honduras (Chapter 2). In: <i>Culture and Customs of Honduras</i>. Green Wood Press, Westport, CT</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dampier, W. (1697) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks05/0500461h.html"><i>A New Voyage Round the World</i>.</a> A Project Gutenberg of Australia eBook.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nietschmann, B. (1997). "Subsistence and Market: When the Turtle Collapses", in James Spradley and David McCurdy (eds) <i>Conformity and Conflict: Readings in Cultural Anthropology</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_69-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pineda, B. 2006. Shipwrecked Identities: Navigating race on Nicaragua's Mosquito Coast. Rutgers University Press: New Jersey.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_70-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCenteroCuthbert2004" class="citation journal cs1">Centero, A.N.; Cuthbert, D.W. (2004). "Notas para una historia económica de municipio de Puerto Cabezas". <i>Wani Revista del Caribe Nicaragüense</i>. <b>36</b>: 39–46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wani+Revista+del+Caribe+Nicarag%C3%BCense&rft.atitle=Notas+para+una+historia+econ%C3%B3mica+de+municipio+de+Puerto+Cabezas&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=39-46&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Centero&rft.aufirst=A.N.&rft.au=Cuthbert%2C+D.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dodds1998-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds1998_71-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodds,_David_J1998" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, David J (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jpe.library.arizona.edu/volume_5/4dodd.pdf"><i>Lobster in the Rain Forest: The Political Ecology of Miskito Wage Labor and Agricultural Deforestation</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lobster+in+the+Rain+Forest%3A+The+Political+Ecology+of+Miskito+Wage+Labor+and+Agricultural+Deforestation&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Dodds%2C+David+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjpe.library.arizona.edu%2Fvolume_5%2F4dodd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_72-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Herlihy, P. H. and L. Hobson-Herlihy. 1992. La Herencia Cultural de la Reserva de la Biósfera del Río Plátano: Un Area De Confluencias Étnicas En La Mosquitia. In <i>La Reserva de la Biósfera del Río Plátano: Herencia de Nuestro Pasado.</i> Ed. Vicente Murphy, Pp. 9–13. Tegucigalpa.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bonilla, S. and S. Box. 2012. <i>Censo de Buzos de Gracias a Dios, Honduras</i>. Centro de Estudios Marinos: Tegucigalpa.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mylobster-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mylobster_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mylobster_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mylobster_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mylobster_74-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelobsterfilm.com/"><i>MY VILLAGE, MY LOBSTER</i></a> Nomading Films and Fall Line Pictures.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid12508972-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid12508972_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid12508972_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunfordMejiaSalbadorGerth2002" class="citation journal cs1">Dunford RG, Mejia EB, Salbador GW, Gerth WA, Hampson NB (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130415200506/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/3905">"Diving methods and decompression sickness incidence of Miskito Indian underwater harvesters"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Undersea_%26_Hyperbaric_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine">Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine</a></i>. <b>29</b> (2): 74–85. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12508972">12508972</a>. Archived from the original on 15 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Undersea+%26+Hyperbaric+Medicine&rft.atitle=Diving+methods+and+decompression+sickness+incidence+of+Miskito+Indian+underwater+harvesters&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=74-85&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12508972&rft.aulast=Dunford&rft.aufirst=RG&rft.au=Mejia%2C+EB&rft.au=Salbador%2C+GW&rft.au=Gerth%2C+WA&rft.au=Hampson%2C+NB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.rubicon-foundation.org%2F3905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stonich-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stonich_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStonich,_Susan_C.2001" class="citation book cs1">Stonich, Susan C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/endangeredpeople00ston"><i>Endangered peoples of Latin America: struggles to survive and thrive</i></a>. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-30856-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-30856-X"><bdi>0-313-30856-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Endangered+peoples+of+Latin+America%3A+struggles+to+survive+and+thrive&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-313-30856-X&rft.au=Stonich%2C+Susan+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fendangeredpeople00ston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_77-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_77-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBest2013" class="citation web cs1">Best, Barbara (September–October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2012-2017.usaid.gov/news-information/frontlines/open-development-development-defense/lobsters-reefs-and-livelihoods">"Lobsters, Reefs and Livelihoods"</a>. <i>FrontLines (2012–2017.usaid.gov)</i>. <a href="/wiki/U.S._Agency_for_International_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Agency for International Development">U.S. Agency for International Development</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FrontLines+%282012%E2%80%932017.usaid.gov%29&rft.atitle=Lobsters%2C+Reefs+and+Livelihoods&rft.date=2013-09%2F2013-10&rft.aulast=Best&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F2012-2017.usaid.gov%2Fnews-information%2Ffrontlines%2Fopen-development-development-defense%2Flobsters-reefs-and-livelihoods&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elheraldo.hn/alfrente/816234-209/empresas-de-ee-uu-ya-no-comprarán-langosta-extraída-por-buceo">"Empresas de EE UU ya no comprarán langosta extraída por buceo"</a>. <i>Diario El Heraldo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Diario+El+Heraldo&rft.atitle=Empresas+de+EE+UU+ya+no+comprar%C3%A1n+langosta+extra%C3%ADda+por+buceo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elheraldo.hn%2Falfrente%2F816234-209%2Fempresas-de-ee-uu-ya-no-comprar%C3%A1n-langosta-extra%C3%ADda-por-buceo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalkin2011" class="citation news cs1">Malkin, Elisabeth (9 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/10/world/americas/10honduras.html">"A Doctor Devoted to Keeping Honduras's Lobster Divers Alive"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Doctor+Devoted+to+Keeping+Honduras%27s+Lobster+Divers+Alive&rft.date=2011-09-09&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Malkin&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F09%2F10%2Fworld%2Famericas%2F10honduras.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelobsterfilm.com/"><i>My Village, My Lobster</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1880290/"><i>My Village, My Lobster</i> (2012).</a> IMDb.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Cwik Christian, "The Africanization of Amerindians in the Greater Caribbean: The Wayuu and Miskito, Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries". In: Franklin Knight and Ruth Iyob (eds.), Dimensions of Diaspora. (Kingston: University of the West Indies Press, 2014) 298–329.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennisOlien1984" class="citation journal cs1">Dennis, Philip A.; Olien, Michael D. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060">"Kingship among the Miskito"</a>. <i>American Ethnologist</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 718–737. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060">10.1525/ae.1984.11.4.02a00060</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Ethnologist&rft.atitle=Kingship+among+the+Miskito&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=718-737&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060&rft.aulast=Dennis&rft.aufirst=Philip+A.&rft.au=Olien%2C+Michael+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Fae.1984.11.4.02a00060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2007" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2007). "Matrifocality and Women's Power on the Miskito Coast". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 133–149.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Matrifocality+and+Women%27s+Power+on+the+Miskito+Coast&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=133-149&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy2006" class="citation journal cs1">Herlihy, Laura Hobson (2006). "Sexual Magic and Money: Miskitu women's Strategies in Northern Honduras". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 143–159.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Sexual+Magic+and+Money%3A+Miskitu+women%27s+Strategies+in+Northern+Honduras&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=143-159&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Laura+Hobson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiskito+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Merrill, Tim L., ed. Honduras: a country study. 3rd ed., 1995.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bell, C. Napier; <i>Tangweera: Life and Adventures among Gentle Savages.</i> Austin: University of Texas Press. Reprinted 1989; published originally in 1895. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-78066-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-292-78066-4">0-292-78066-4</a>.</li> <li>Baily, John. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7306/">Central America; Describing Each of the States of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica</a></i>. London: Trelawney Saunders (1850).</li> <li>Helms, M.W. Helms. 1971. Culture Contact in a Miskito Community. University of Florida Press: Gainesville, FL. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8130-0298-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8130-0298-2">0-8130-0298-2</a></li> <li>Herlihy, L.H. 2012. The Mermaid and the Lobster Diver: Gender, Sexuality, and Money on the Miskito Coast. University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque, NM. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0826350930" title="Special:BookSources/978-0826350930">978-0826350930</a></li> <li>Nietschmann, B. 1973. Between Land and Water: The subsistence ecology of the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua. Seminar Press: New York. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0128802502" title="Special:BookSources/978-0128802502">978-0128802502</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Category:Miskito_people" class="extiw" title="commons:Special:Search/Category:Miskito people">Miskito people</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060218094441/http://www.athenapub.com/damp2.htm">The Miskito Indians, described by William Dampier</a>, <i>Athena Review</i>, Vol.1, no.2 (1681 account by <a href="/wiki/William_Dampier" title="William Dampier">William Dampier</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nmai.si.edu/searchcollections/results.aspx?regid=326">Miskito artwork</a>, National Museum of the American Indian</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_world_by_continent" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:khaki; padding-top:0.1em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_peoples_by_continent" title="Template:Indigenous peoples by continent"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_peoples_by_continent" title="Template talk:Indigenous peoples by continent"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_peoples_by_continent" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous peoples by continent"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_world_by_continent" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a> of the <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> by <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continent</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Africa" title="Location of Africa"><img alt="Location of Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Africa" title="Indigenous peoples of Africa">Africa</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Eurasia" title="Location of Eurasia"><img alt="Location of Eurasia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples#Eurasia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">Eurasia</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America" title="Location of North America"><img alt="Location of North America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#North_America" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">North America</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Location of Oceania"><img alt="Location of Oceania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">Oceania</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="Location of South America"><img alt="Location of South America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="Indigenous peoples of South America">South America</a> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:khaki;"><div><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples by geographic regions</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #FFDD99"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Template:Indigenous peoples of the Americas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Template talk:Indigenous peoples of the Americas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous peoples of the Americas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Pre-history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_the_Americas" title="Archaeology of the Americas">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean_hypothesis" title="Solutrean hypothesis">Solutrean hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Americas_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/120px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/180px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/240px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Mythology/Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Mythologies</a>‎ <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_deities" title="List of Native American deities">List of deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="Human sacrifice in pre-Columbian cultures">Human sacrifice</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arborglyph" title="Arborglyph">Arborglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_World_(mythology)" title="Fifth World (mythology)">Fifth World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">Medicine man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_wheel" title="Medicine wheel">Medicine wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_red_road" title="The red road">The red road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totem_pole" title="Totem pole">Totem pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle_Island" title="Turtle Island">Turtle Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">Mesoamerica</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">Common</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_cosmovision" title="Mesoamerican cosmovision">Cosmovision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_creation_myths" title="Mesoamerican creation myths">Creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_world_tree" title="Mesoamerican world tree">World tree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">Variations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_religion" title="Muisca religion">Muisca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="List of pre-Columbian cultures">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">Andes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_cultures_of_Colombia" title="Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Ecuador" title="Pre-Columbian Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization_of_pre-Columbian_Peru" title="Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru">Peru</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Art" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art" title="Pre-Columbian art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_North_America" title="Indigenous music of North America">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Painting_in_the_Americas_before_European_colonization" title="Painting in the Americas before European colonization">Painting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_artists_of_the_Americas" title="List of Indigenous artists of the Americas">Artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_writers_of_the_Americas" title="List of Indigenous writers of the Americas">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">European<br />colonization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Modern groups<br />by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#North_America" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#Belize" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Costa_Rica" title="Indigenous peoples of Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago" title="Kalinago">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipil_people" title="Pipil people">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Inuit" title="Greenlandic Inuit">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Honduras" title="Indigenous peoples of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Jamaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Nicaragua" title="Indigenous peoples of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Panama" title="Indigenous peoples of Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa_First_Peoples_Community" title="Santa Rosa First Peoples Community">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="Indigenous peoples of South America">South America</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="List of Indigenous peoples of South America">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Argentina" title="Indigenous peoples in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Bolivia" title="Indigenous peoples in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Indigenous peoples in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Chile" title="Indigenous peoples in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Colombia" title="Indigenous peoples in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Ecuador" title="Indigenous peoples in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Guyana" title="Indigenous peoples in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Paraguay" title="Indigenous peoples in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Peru" title="Indigenous peoples of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Suriname" title="Indigenous peoples in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Uruguay" title="Indigenous peoples in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Venezuela" title="Indigenous peoples in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_ethnobotany" title="Native American ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_ethnobotany" title="Cherokee ethnobotany">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_ethnobotany" title="Iroquois ethnobotany">Iroquois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_ethnobotany" title="Navajo ethnobotany">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_ethnobotany" title="Zuni ethnobotany">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_movements_in_the_Americas" title="Indigenous movements in the Americas">Movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deerskin_trade" title="Deerskin trade">Deerskin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_popular_culture" title="Native Americans in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #FFDD99"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Category:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nicaragua_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nicaragua_topics" title="Template:Nicaragua topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nicaragua_topics" title="Template talk:Nicaragua topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nicaragua_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nicaragua topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nicaragua_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Nicaragua-related_articles" title="Index of Nicaragua-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nicaragua" title="History of Nicaragua">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicarao_(cacique)" title="Nicarao (cacique)">Nicarao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Spanish conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_America_under_Mexican_rule" title="Central America under Mexican rule">Mexican rule (1822–1823)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Central_America" title="Federal Republic of Central America">Federal Republic of Central America (1823–1838)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Mosquito Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Nicaragua" title="United States occupation of Nicaragua">United States occupation (1912–1933)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somoza_family" title="Somoza family">Somoza Family (1936–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandinista_National_Liberation_Front" title="Sandinista National Liberation Front">Sandinistas</a> <a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">v. Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nicaragua_(1979%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Nicaragua (1979–1990)">Sandinista period (1979–1990)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nicaragua#Post-Sandinista_period_(1990-)" title="History of Nicaragua">Post-Sandinista period (1990–)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Nicaragua" title="Geography of Nicaragua">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Nicaragua" title="Climate change in Nicaragua">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Nicaragua" title="List of earthquakes in Nicaragua">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Nicaragua" title="List of ecoregions in Nicaragua">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Nicaragua" title="Fauna of Nicaragua">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Nicaragua" title="List of islands of Nicaragua">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes#Nicaragua" title="List of lakes">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Nicaragua" title="Category:Mountains of Nicaragua">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Nicaragua" title="Municipalities of Nicaragua">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Nicaragua" title="Protected areas of Nicaragua">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Nicaragua" title="List of rivers of Nicaragua">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Nicaragua" title="List of volcanoes in Nicaragua">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_management_in_Nicaragua" title="Water resources management in Nicaragua">Water resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Nicaragua" title="Politics of Nicaragua">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Departments_of_Nicaragua" title="Departments of Nicaragua">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Nicaragua" title="Constitution of Nicaragua">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Nicaragua" title="Elections in Nicaragua">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Nicaragua" title="Foreign relations of Nicaragua">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Nicaragua" title="Government of Nicaragua">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_rights_in_Nicaragua" title="Category:Human rights in Nicaragua">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Nicaragua" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Nicaragua">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Nicaragua" title="Law enforcement in Nicaragua">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Armed_Forces" title="Nicaraguan Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Nicaragua)" title="National Assembly (Nicaragua)">National Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Nicaragua" title="List of political parties in Nicaragua">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Nicaragua" title="Politics of Nicaragua">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Nicaragua" title="President of Nicaragua">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_disputes_of_Nicaragua" title="Territorial disputes of Nicaragua">Territorial disputes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Nicaragua" title="Economy of Nicaragua">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Nicaragua" title="Agriculture in Nicaragua">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Nicaragua" title="Banking in Nicaragua">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Nicaragua" title="Central Bank of Nicaragua">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_c%C3%B3rdoba" title="Nicaraguan córdoba">Córdoba <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Nicaragua" title="Economic history of Nicaragua">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Nicaragua" title="Electricity sector in Nicaragua">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_build_a_canal_across_Nicaragua" title="Attempts to build a canal across Nicaragua">Nicaragua Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolsa_de_Valores_de_Nicaragua" title="Bolsa de Valores de Nicaragua">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nicaragua" title="Telecommunications in Nicaragua">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Nicaragua" title="Tourism in Nicaragua">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Nicaragua" title="Transport in Nicaragua">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Nicaragua" title="Category:Society of Nicaragua">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Nicaragua" title="Corruption in Nicaragua">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Nicaragua" title="Demographics of Nicaragua">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nicaragua" title="Education in Nicaragua">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Nicaragua" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Nicaragua">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nicaragua" title="Languages of Nicaragua">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Nicaragua" title="Health in Nicaragua">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Nicaragua" title="Water supply and sanitation in Nicaragua">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Nicaragua" title="Culture of Nicaragua">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_cuisine" title="Nicaraguan cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nicaraguan_films" title="List of Nicaraguan films">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_literature" title="Nicaraguan literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Nicaragua" title="Music of Nicaragua">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Nicaragua" title="Mass media in Nicaragua">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Nicaragua" title="List of museums in Nicaragua">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Nicaragua" title="National symbols of Nicaragua">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Nicaragua" title="Public holidays in Nicaragua">Public holidays</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Nicaragua" title="Outline of Nicaragua">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Nicaragua-related_articles" title="Index of Nicaragua-related articles">Index</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Nicaragua" title="Bibliography of Nicaragua">Bibliography</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nicaragua" title="Category:Nicaragua">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nicaragua" title="Portal:Nicaragua">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Ancestry_and_ethnicity_in_Nicaragua" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancestry_and_ethnicity_in_Nicaragua" title="Template:Ancestry and ethnicity in Nicaragua"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancestry_and_ethnicity_in_Nicaragua" title="Template talk:Ancestry and ethnicity in Nicaragua"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancestry_and_ethnicity_in_Nicaragua" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancestry and ethnicity in Nicaragua"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Ancestry_and_ethnicity_in_Nicaragua" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/35px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/46px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Nicaragua#Ethnic_groups" title="Demographics of Nicaragua">Ancestry and ethnicity</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Nicaragua" title="Indigenous peoples of Nicaragua">Indigenous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicarao_people" title="Nicarao people">Nicarao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_people" title="Rama people">Rama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumo people">Sumo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awas_Tingni" title="Awas Tingni">Awas Tingni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garifuna" title="Garifuna">Garifuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Nicaraguans" title="Afro-Nicaraguans">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Nicaraguans" title="Chinese Nicaraguans">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Nicaraguan" class="mw-redirect" title="White Nicaraguan">White</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_settlement_in_Nicaragua" title="English settlement in Nicaragua">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Nicaraguan" title="German Nicaraguan">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nicaragua" title="History of the Jews in Nicaragua">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Nicaraguan" title="Palestinian Nicaraguan">Palestinian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nicaragua" title="Portal:Nicaragua">Portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332976#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332976#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332976#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4039559-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85087475">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11967087p">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11967087p">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Miskitové"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph907898&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007546051105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/273f9a0d-318d-47b8-9ad5-1f087c8be0ac">MusicBrainz</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&oldid=1258540027">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&oldid=1258540027</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Miskito_people" title="Category:Miskito people">Miskito people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Miskito" title="Category:Miskito">Miskito</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Circum-Caribbean_tribes" title="Category:Circum-Caribbean tribes">Circum-Caribbean tribes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Nicaragua" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Nicaragua">Ethnic groups in Nicaragua</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:North_Caribbean_Coast_Autonomous_Region" title="Category:North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region">North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African_diaspora_in_Honduras" title="Category:African diaspora in Honduras">African diaspora in Honduras</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_of_Central_America" title="Category:Indigenous peoples of Central America">Indigenous peoples of Central America</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_in_Nicaragua" title="Category:Indigenous peoples in Nicaragua">Indigenous peoples in Nicaragua</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African%E2%80%93Native_American_relations" title="Category:African–Native American relations">African–Native American relations</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Spanish-language_sources_(es)" title="Category:Articles with Spanish-language sources (es)">Articles with Spanish-language sources (es)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:Articles with French-language sources (fr)">Articles with French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">CS1 maint: unfit URL</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_July_2020" title="Category:Use dmy dates from July 2020">Use dmy dates from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%22Related_ethnic_groups%22_needing_confirmation" title="Category:"Related ethnic groups" needing confirmation">"Related ethnic groups" needing confirmation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_using_infobox_ethnic_group_with_image_parameters" title="Category:Articles using infobox ethnic group with image parameters">Articles using infobox ethnic group with image parameters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2012" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2007" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2007">Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2007</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements" title="Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements">All articles containing potentially dated statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_July_2022" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2022">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Inconsistent_wikidata_for_Commons_category" title="Category:Inconsistent wikidata for Commons category">Inconsistent wikidata for Commons category</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 November 2024, at 07:42<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miskito_people&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b8d669998-5wzx5","wgBackendResponseTime":170,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.343","walltime":"1.795","ppvisitednodes":{"value":9035,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":209017,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":20020,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":31,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":253471,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1516.037 1 -total"," 38.00% 576.136 1 Template:Reflist"," 11.94% 181.064 2 Template:Short_description"," 9.54% 144.669 1 Template:Infobox_ethnic_group"," 9.11% 138.106 2 Template:In_lang"," 8.76% 132.754 10 Template:Cite_web"," 8.64% 130.996 19 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.99% 105.911 8 Template:Citation_needed"," 6.81% 103.232 26 Template:Main_other"," 6.16% 93.376 1 Template:Commons_category-inline"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.776","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":27142638,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-tlb8r","timestamp":"20241128020145","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Miskito people","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Miskito_people","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q332976","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q332976","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-05-24T00:36:05Z","dateModified":"2024-11-20T07:42:23Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1b\/MiskitoPeople.JPG","headline":"native ethnic group in Central America with some African ancestry"}</script> </body> </html>