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You could also send an email to the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Stewards" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/Stewards">stewards</a> <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/VRT" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/VRT">VRT</a> queue at <kbd>stewards@wikimedia.org</kbd> including all above details.</div></div><hr /> <p>Cewch weld a chopïo côd y dudalen: </p><textarea readonly="" accesskey="," id="wpTextbox1" cols="80" rows="25" style="" class="mw-editfont-monospace" lang="cy" dir="ltr" name="wpTextbox1">{{Pethau| fetchwikidata = ALL | image = File:OttomanEmpireIn1683-cy.svg }} Gwladwriaeth [[Twrci|Dwrcaidd]] yn [[y Dwyrain Canol]] yn cynnwys [[Anatolia]] (neu [[Asia Leiaf]]), a rhannau o dde-orllewin [[Asia]], [[Gogledd Affrica]] a de-ddwyrain [[Ewrop]] oedd '''yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd'''. Fe'i sefydlwyd gan y [[Tyrciaid Oghuz]], llwyth Tyrcaidd o orllewin Anatolia, yn [[14eg ganrif|y bedwaredd ganrif ar ddeg]] ac fe'i diddymwyd ar ddechrau'r [[20fed ganrif|ugeinfed ganrif]] yn sgîl [[y Rhyfel Byd Cyntaf]] ac esgyniad [[Kemal Atatürk]] i rym yn Nhwrci. Yn ystod yr [[16eg ganrif|unfed ganrif ar bymtheg]] a'r [[17eg ganrif|ail ganrif ar bymtheg]] roedd hi'n un o'r ymerodraethau mwyaf nerthol yn y byd ac roedd gwledydd Ewrop yn wyliadwrus ohoni oherwydd ei bod yn dal i ehangu ei thiriogaethau ar orynys y [[Balcanau]]. Sefydlwyd yr ymerodraeth gan [[Osman I]] (''Uthmān,'' yn [[Arabeg]]; sail yr enw ''Ottoman''). O'r flwyddyn [[1453]] ymlaen [[Caergystennin]], a ddaeth i'w galw'n [[İstanbul]]) ar ôl hynny, oedd prifddinas yr ymerodraeth. Roedd yn ymerodraeth a oedd yn rheoli llawer o [[De Ddwyrain Ewrop|Dde-ddwyrain Ewrop]], [[De-orllewin Asia|Gorllewin Asia]], a [[Gogledd Affrica]] rhwng y [[14g]] a dechrau'r [[20g]]. Fe'i sefydlwyd ar ddiwedd y 13g yng ngogledd-orllewin [[Asia Leiaf|Anatolia]] yn nhref Söğüt (Talaith Bilecik heddiw) gan arweinydd y Tyrcaidd<ref>{{Cite book|last=A ́goston|first=Ga ́bor|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|last2=Masters|first2=Bruce Alan|date=2008|publisher=Infobase Publishing, NY|isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1|page=444}}</ref><ref name="principality">{{Cite web|title=Osman I|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>, Osman I.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Finkel|first=Caroline|title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923|url=https://archive.org/details/osmansdreamstory0000fink|date=2006-02-13|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-02396-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/osmansdreamstory0000fink/page/2 2], 7}}</ref> Ar ôl 1354, croesodd yr Otomaniaid i Ewrop a, gyda choncwest y [[Balcanau]], trawsnewidiwyd y beylik Otomanaidd yn ymerodraeth draws-gyfandirol. Daeth yr [[Yr Ymerodraeth Fysantaidd|Ymerodraeth Fysantaidd]] i ben gan yr Otomaniaid gyda [[Cwymp Caergystennin|choncwest Caergystennin]] yn 1453 gan Mehmed y Gorchfygwr.<ref name="Quataert2005">{{Cite book|last=Quataert|first=Donald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OX3lsOrXJGcC|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83910-5|edition=2|page=4}}</ref> O dan deyrnasiad [[Swleiman I|Suleiman I]], gwelodd yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd anterth ei phwer a'i ffyniant, megis datblygiad ei systemau llywodraethu, cymdeithasol ac economaidd.<ref>{{Cite web|date=6 May 2008|title=Ottoman Empire|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3|access-date=26 August 2010|publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online|archive-date=2012-05-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525072847/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ar ddechrau'r [[17g]], roedd yr ymerodraeth yn cynnwys 32 o daleithiau a nifer o wladwriaethau caeth. Ymgorfforwyd rhai o'r rhain yn ddiweddarach gan yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd, tra rhoddwyd gwahanol fathau o ymreolaeth i eraill dros y canrifoedd. Gyda Chaercystennin ([[Istanbul|Istanbwl]] heddiw) yn brifddinas ac yn rheoli tiroedd o amgylch Basn Môr y Canoldir, roedd yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd yn ganolbwynt i'r holl rhyngweithio rhwng y [[Y Dwyrain Canol|Dwyrain Canol]] ac [[Ewrop]] am chwe chanrif. Er y credwyd ar un adeg i'r ymerodraeth ddechrau dirywio yn dilyn marwolaeth Suleiman y Gogoneddus, nid yw'r farn hon bellach yn cael ei chefnogi gan y mwyafrif o haneswyr academaidd.<ref name="decline">{{Cite book|last=Hathaway|first=Jane|title=The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800|url=https://archive.org/details/arablandsunderot0000hath|date=2008|publisher=Pearson Education Ltd.|isbn=978-0-582-41899-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/arablandsunderot0000hath/page/8 8]|quote=historians of the Ottoman Empire have rejected the narrative of decline in favor of one of crisis and adaptation}}</ref> Mae'r consensws academaidd bellach yn awgrymu bod yr ymerodraeth wedi parhau i gynnal economi, cymdeithas a byddin hyblyg a chryf trwy gydol yr 17g ac am lawer o'r 18g.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ágoston|first=Gábor|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|date=2009|editor-last=Ágoston|editor-first=Gábor|page=xxxii|chapter=Introduction|editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}</ref> Fodd bynnag, yn ystod cyfnod hir o heddwch rhwng 1740 a 1768, syrthiodd y system filwrol Otomanaidd y tu ôl i system ei chystadleuwyr Ewropeaidd, yr ymerodraethau [[Y Frenhiniaeth Hapsbwrgaidd|Habsburg]] a [[Ymerodraeth Rwsia|Rwsia]].<ref name="AksanOW" /> O ganlyniad, dioddefodd yr Otomaniaid orchfygiadau milwrol difrifol ar ddiwedd y [[18g]] a dechrau'r 19g. Daeth Rhyfel Annibyniaeth llwyddiannus Groeg i ben gyda dad-[[Datrefedigaethu|drefedigaethu]] Gwlad Groeg yn dilyn Protocol Llundain (1830) a Chytundeb Caercystennin (1832). Arweiniodd hyn a gorchfygiadau eraill y wladwriaeth Otomanaidd i gychwyn proses gynhwysfawr o ddiwygio a moderneiddio a elwir yn Tanzimat . Felly, yn ystod y 19g, daeth y wladwriaeth Otomanaidd yn llawer mwy pwerus a threfnus yn fewnol, er gwaethaf dioddef colledion tiriogaethol pellach, yn enwedig yn y Balcanau, lle daeth nifer o daleithiau newydd i'r amlwg.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Quataert|first=Donald|title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57456-3|editor-last=İnalcık|editor-first=Halil|volume=2|page=762|chapter=The Age of Reforms, 1812–1914|editor-last2=Donald Quataert}}</ref> Sefydlodd y Pwyllgor Uno a Chynnydd (CUP) (''İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti)'' yr ail Gyfansoddiadol yn yr hyn a elwir yn Chwyldro Twrcaidd Ifanc ym 1908, gan droi'r Ymerodraeth yn frenhiniaeth gyfansoddiadol, a gynhaliodd etholiadau amlbleidiol cystadleuol. Fodd bynnag, ar ôl [[Rhyfeloedd y Balcanau|Rhyfeloedd trychinebus y Balcanau]], yn 1913, cymerodd y CUP (a oedd erbyn hynny yn radicalaidd a chenedlaetholgar) awenau'r llywodraeth mewn ''[[coup d'état]]'', gan greu cyfundrefn un blaid. Ymunodd y CUP â'r Ymerodraeth gyda'r Almaen yn y [[Y Rhyfel Byd Cyntaf|Rhyfel Byd Cyntaf]] ar ochr y Pwerau Canolog.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Findley|first=Carter Vaughn|title=Turkey, Islam, Nationalism and Modernity: A History, 1789–2007|date=2010|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-15260-9|location=New Haven|page=200}}</ref> Roedd yr Ymerodraeth yn cael trafferth gydag anghytuno mewnol parhaus, yn enwedig gyda'r [[Y Gwrthryfel Arabaidd|Gwrthryfel Arabaidd]]. Yn ystod y cyfnod hwn, arweiniodd llywodraeth yr Otomaniaid hil-[[Hil-laddiad|laddiad]] yn erbyn yr [[Hil-laddiad Armenia|Armeniaid]], yr Asyriaid, a'r Groegiaid.<ref>{{•}} {{Cite book|last=Quataert|first=Donald|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition)|page=186}}</ref>Gorchfygwyd hi gan Bwerau'r Cynghreiriaid yn dilyn y Rhyfel Byd Cyntaf a chipiwyd ei thiriogaethau yn y Dwyrain Canol gan y Deyrnas Unedig a Ffrainc. Arweiniodd Rhyfel Annibyniaeth llwyddiannus Twrci, dan arweiniad [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] yn erbyn y Cynghreiriaid at ymddangosiad [[Twrci|Gweriniaeth Twrci]] ym mherfeddwlad Anatolian a diddymwyd y frenhiniaeth Otomanaidd.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Howard|first=Douglas A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e57eDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA318|title=A History of the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2016|isbn=978-1-108-10747-1|page=318}}</ref> == Enw == Addasiad hanesyddol o'r enw Osman I, sylfaenydd yr Ymerodraeth yw'r gair ''Otoman''. Tarddodd Osman o'r ffurf Twrcaidd ar yr enw Arabaidd ''Uthmān'' ({{Lang|ota-Arab|عثمان}}). Yn Nhwrci Otomanaidd, cyfeiriwyd at yr ymerodraeth fel {{Lang|tr|Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿO<u>s</u>mānīye}} ({{Lang|ota-Arab|دولت عليه عثمانیه}}), yn llythrennol "Y Goruchaf Wladwriaeth Otomanaidd", neu fel arall {{Lang|tr|O<u>s</u>mānlı Devleti}} ({{Lang|ota-Arab|عثمانلى دولتى}}). Mewn [[Tyrceg|Twrceg Modern]], fe'i gelwir yn {{Lang|tr|Osmanlı İmparatorluğu}} ("Yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd") neu {{Lang|tr|Osmanlı Devleti}} ("Y Wladwriaeth Otomanaidd"). Cyfeiriodd y gair Twrcaidd "Osmanli" yn wreiddiol at ddilynwyr llwythol Osman yn y [[14g]]. Daeth y gair wedyn i gael ei ddefnyddio i gyfeirio at elît milwrol-gweinyddol yr ymerodraeth. Mewn cyferbyniad, mae'r term "Twrc" ({{Lang|tr|Türk}}) yn cyfeirio at y boblogaeth werinol a llwythol Anatolaidd ac yn cael ei ystyried yn derm dilornus o'i gymhwyso at unigolion trefol, addysgedig.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ágoston|first=Gábor|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|date=2009|editor-last=Ágoston|editor-first=Gábor|page=xxvi|chapter=Introduction|editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}</ref> Yn y [[Cyfnod Modern Cynnar|cyfnod modern cynnar]], yn aml byddai siaradwr Twrcaidd addysgedig, trefol nad oedd yn aelod o'r dosbarth milwrol-gweinyddol yn cyfeirio ato'i hun fel {{Lang|tr|Rūmī}} ({{Lang|ota-Arab|رومى}}), neu "Rufeinig", sy'n golygu un o drigolion tiriogaeth yr hen [[Yr Ymerodraeth Fysantaidd|Ymerodraeth Fysantaidd]] yn y Balcanau ac Anatolia. Mae'r term {{Lang|tr|Rūmī}} yn cael ei ddefnyddio hefyd i gyfeirio at siaradwyr Tyrceg gan bobloedd Mwslemaidd eraill yr ymerodraeth a thu hwnt.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kafadar|first=Cemal|date=2007|title=A Rome of One's Own: Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum|journal=Muqarnas|volume=24|page=11}}</ref> Dechreuodd y term hwn ddod i ben ar ddiwedd yr [[17g]], a daeth yn fwyfwy cysylltiedig â phoblogaeth Groeg yr ymerodraeth, ystyr sy'n parhau yn Nhwrci heddiw.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Greene|first=Molly|title=The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1453 to 1768|date=2015|page=51}}</ref> Yng Ngorllewin Ewrop, roedd yr enwau Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd, yr Ymerodraeth '''Twrcaidd''' yn aml yn cael eu defnyddio'n gyfnewidiol, gyda Thwrci yn cael ei ffafrio fwyfwy mewn sefyllfaoedd ffurfiol ac anffurfiol. Daeth y ddeuoliaeth hon i ben yn swyddogol ym 1920-1923, pan ddewisodd [[Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Mawr Twrci|llywodraeth]] Twrci a oedd newydd ei sefydlu yn [[Ankara]] un enw, "Twrci" fel yr unig enw swyddogol. Ers hynny mae'r rhan fwyaf o haneswyr ysgolheigaidd yn osgoi'r termau "Twrci", "Twrciaid", a "Thwrceg" wrth gyfeirio at yr Otomaniaid, oherwydd cymeriad amlwladol ac amlhiliol yr ymerodraeth.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Soucek|first=Svat|title=Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700|date=2015|publisher=The Isis Press|isbn=978-975-428-554-3|location=Istanbul|page=8|quote=The scholarly community specializing in Ottoman studies has of late virtually banned the use of "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" from acceptable vocabulary, declaring "Ottoman" and its expanded use mandatory and permitting its "Turkish" rival only in linguistic and philological contexts.}}</ref> === Cyfraith === Derbyniodd y system gyfreithiol Otomanaidd gyfraith crefydd. Ar yr un pryd roedd y ''Qanun'' (neu ''Kanun''), y gyfraith ddynastig, yn cydfodoli â chyfraith grefyddol y Sharia.<ref name="otmkanun">{{Cite web|title=Balancing Sharia: The Ottoman Kanun|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24365067|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009012204/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24365067|archivedate=9 October 2013|access-date=5 October 2013|publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref>Washbrook, D. and Cohn, H., Law in the Ottoman Empire: Shari'a Law, Dynastic Law, Legal Institutions.</ref> Roedd yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd bob amser wedi'i threfnu o amgylch system o [[Cyfreitheg|gyfreitheg]] leol. Roedd gweinyddiaeth gyfreithiol yn yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd yn rhan o gynllun mwy o gydbwyso awdurdod canolog a lleol.<ref name="Benton 109-110" /> Roedd pŵer yr Otomaniaid yn ymwneud â gweinyddu’r hawliau i dir, a roddodd le i’r awdurdod lleol ddatblygu anghenion y [[millét]] lleol.<ref name="Benton 109-110" /> Nod yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd oedd caniatáu integreiddio grwpiau diwylliannol a chrefyddol gwahanol.<ref name="Benton 109-110" /> Roedd gan y system Otomanaidd dair system llys: un ar gyfer Mwslimiaid, un ar gyfer pobl nad oeddent yn Fwslimiaid, yn cynnwys Iddewon penodedig a Christnogion yn rheoli eu cymunedau crefyddol priodol, a'r "llys masnach". Rheoleiddiwyd y system gyfan oddi uchod trwy gyfrwng y ''Qanun'' gweinyddol, hy, deddfau, system yn seiliedig ar y Tyrcig ''Yassa'' a ''Töre'', a ddatblygwyd yn y cyfnod cyn-Islamaidd. [[Delwedd:1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png|chwith|bawd|Darlun o lys barn Otomanaidd, 1877]] Fodd bynnag, nid oedd y categorïau llys mor ddu a gwyn; er enghraifft, gellid defnyddio'r llysoedd Islamaidd, sef prif lysoedd yr Ymerodraeth, hefyd i setlo gwrthdaro masnachol neu anghydfod rhwng ymgyfreithwyr o wahanol grefyddau, ac roedd Iddewon a Christnogion yn aml yn mynd atyn nhw i gael dyfarniad mwy grymus ar fater. Roedd y wladwriaeth Otomanaidd yn tueddu i beidio ag ymyrryd â systemau cyfraith grefyddol nad oedd yn Fwslimaiddl. Roedd system gyfraith Islamaidd ''Sharia'' wedi'i datblygu o gyfuniad o'r [[Y Corân|Qur'an]]; yr [[Hadith]], neu eiriau'r proffwyd Muhammad; ''ijmā''', neu gonsensws aelodau'r [[Umma|gymuned Fwslimaidd]]; qiyas, system o ymresymu analogaidd o gynseiliau cynharach; ac arferion lleol. Dysgwyd y ddwy system yn ysgolion cyfraith yr Ymerodraeth, a oedd yn [[Istanbul]] a [[Bursa]]. Sefydlwyd y system gyfreithiol Islamaidd-Otomanaidd yn wahanol i lysoedd Ewropeaidd traddodiadol. Byddai ''Qadi'', neu farnwr, yn llywyddu ar lysoedd Islamaidd. Canolbwyntiodd ''Qadis'' ledled yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd lai ar gynsail cyfreithiol, a mwy ar arferion a thraddodiadau lleol yn yr ardaloedd yr oeddent yn eu gweinyddu.<ref name="Benton 109-110">{{Cite book|last=Benton|first=Lauren|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rZtjR9JnwYwC&pg=109|title=Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900|date=3 December 2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00926-3|pages=109–110|access-date=11 February 2013}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFBenton2001">Benton, Lauren (3 December 2001). </cite></ref> Fodd bynnag, nid oedd gan system y llysoedd Otomanaidd strwythur apeliadol, gan arwain at strategaethau achos awdurdodaethol lle gallai cwynwr fynd â’u anghydfod o un system lysoedd i’r llall nes iddynt gyflawni dyfarniad a oedd o’u plaid. Ar ddiwedd y 19g, diwygiwyd y system gyfreithiol Otomanaidd yn sylweddol. Dechreuodd y broses hon o foderneiddio cyfreithiol gydag Edict Gülhane ym 1839.<ref name="review-niza">{{Cite web|last=Selçuk Akşin Somel|title=Review of "Ottoman Nizamiye Courts. Law and Modernity"|url=http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/19475/1/Avi_Rubin_Ottoman_Nizamiye_Courts_Somel.pdf|publisher=Sabancı Üniversitesi|page=2}}</ref> Roedd y diwygiadau hyn yn cynnwys "treialon teg a chyhoeddus pawb a gyhuddwyd waeth beth fo'u crefydd", creu system o "gymwyseddau ar wahân, crefyddol a sifil", a dilysu tystiolaeth ar bobl nad oeddent yn Fwslimiaid.<ref name="int-handbook" /> Deddfwyd codau tir penodol (1858), codau sifil (1869–1876), a chod gweithdrefn sifil hefyd.<ref name="int-handbook">{{Cite web|last=Epstein|first=Lee|last2=O'Connor|first2=Karen|last3=Grub|first3=Diana|title=Middle East|url=http://epstein.usc.edu/research/MiddleEast.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525015655/http://epstein.usc.edu/research/MiddleEast.pdf|archivedate=25 May 2013|website=Legal Traditions and Systems: an International Handbook|publisher=Greenwood Press|pages=223–224}}</ref> Roedd y diwygiadau hyn wedi'u seilio'n helaeth ar fodelau o Ffrainc, fel y nodwyd gan fabwysiadu system llysoedd tair haen. Estynnwyd y system hon (y Nizamiye) i lefel ynadon lleol gyda chyhoeddi'r Mecelle, cod sifil a oedd yn rheoleiddio priodas, ysgariad, alimoni, ewyllys, a materion eraill o statws personol.<ref name="int-handbook" />Mewn ymgais i egluro rhaniad cymwyseddau barnwrol, gosododd cyngor gweinyddol fod llysoedd crefyddol i gael eu trin gan lysoedd crefyddol, a llysoedd Nizamiye i ymdrin â materion statud.<ref name="int-handbook" /> == Hanes (crynodeb) == Sefydlwyd yr ymerodraeth gan [[Osman I]] ym [[1281]]. Cipiodd y Swltan [[Mehmed II]] Gaergystennin ([[Istanbul]] heddiw) ym [[1453]] a datblygodd ei deyrnas i fod yn ymerodraeth enfawr. Roedd ei ffiniau ar ei ehangaf yn ystod tyernasiad [[Suleiman y Godidog]] yn yr 16g, pan yr oedd yn cynnwys yr holl dir rhwng [[Gwlff Persia]] yn y dwyrain a [[Hwngari]] yn y gorllewin, ac o'r [[Yr Aifft|Aifft]] yn y de i'r [[Cawcasws]] yn y gogledd. Ym [[1683]] gorchfygwyd yr ymerodraeth ym [[Brwydr Fienna|Mrwydr Fienna]] ac yn sgîl hynny dirywiodd yn araf cyn cael ei gorchfygu yn derfynol yn y Rhyfel Byd Cyntaf. Ymranwyd yr Ymerodraeth gan Bwerau'r Cynghreiriaid (Prydain, Ffrainc, UDA, Yr Eidal, Gwlad Groeg ac eraill) yn gyntaf gan [[Cytundeb Sèvres|Gytundeb Sèvres]] yn 1920 ac yna, wedi [[Rhyfel Annibyniaeth Twrci]] o dan arweiniad [[Kemal Atatürk]] a ad-enillodd beth o diriogaeth yr hen Ymerodraeth yn [[Anatolia]] gan [[Cytundeb Lausanne|Gytundeb Lausanne]] yn 1923. == Strwythr yr ymerodraeth == Pen y hierarchaeth oedd y swltan. O dan y swltan yr oedd [[fisier]]au, swyddogwyr llys eraill ac arweinwyr milwrol. Rhannwyd a gweindyddwyd yr Ymerodraeth drwy daleithiau neu [[Vilayet]] a allai, fel unrhyw drefn o reoli, amrywio mewn maint, nifer a thiriogaeth dros amser. == Diwylliant == Er iddi fod yn wlad grefyddol iawn yn y dechrau gan fod y rheolwyr yn ''Gazi'' (Rhyfelwyr Sanctaidd) ac yn cymryd rhan mewn [[Jihad]] (Rhyfel Sanctaidd) yn erbyn [[Cristnogaeth]], ar ôl chwalu'r [[Bysantiaid]] o Anatolia a'u gyrru i [[Ewrop]], roedd yr ymerodraeth yn oddefgar iawn. Yn ystod y cyfnod pan ehangodd ei thiriogaeth i'r gorllewin, cymhathodd y diwyllianau Groeg a Balcanaidd ac roedd arweinwyr Twrci ei hunain yn derbyn rhan o'r diwylliant gorllewinol. Fel hynny, creuasant ddiwylliant Ottoman arbennig. Ar ôl cipio [[Caergystennin]] ym [[1453]] ni ddinistriwyd yr eglwysi a dim ond nifer fach ohonynt a drowyd yn [[Mosg|fosgiau]] (er enghraifft [[Hagia Sophia]] yn Istanbul). Roedd bywyd y llys Ottoman fel bywyd [[Shah]]au [[Persia]], ond roedd yna ddylanwad Ewropeaidd (Groegaidd yn bennaf), yn ogystal. Am ganrifoedd bu [[Iddewon]] Ewrop yn ffoi i'r Ymerodraeth Ottoman am noddfa. Amsugnodd yr Otomaniaid rai o'r traddodiadau, celfyddyd y gwledydd a orchfygwyd ganddynt gan ychwanegu dimensiynau newydd iddynt. Mabwysiadodd y Tyrciaid Otomanaidd nifer o draddodiadau a nodweddion diwylliannol ymerodraethau blaenorol (mewn meysydd fel pensaernïaeth, bwyd, cerddoriaeth, hamdden a llywodraeth) gan eu datblygu'n ffurfiau newydd, gan arwain at hunaniaeth ddiwylliannol Otomanaidd newydd a nodedig. Er mai [[Tyrceg]] oedd prif iaith lenyddol yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd, [[Perseg]] oedd y cyfrwng dewisol ar gyfer taflunio delwedd imperialaidd. Fel Lloegr, roedd caethwasiaeth yn rhan o'r gymdeithas Otomanaidd,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Halil Inalcik|title=Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire|url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911101051/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html|archivedate=11 September 2009|access-date=26 August 2010|publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref> gyda'r rhan fwyaf o gaethweision yn cael eu cyflogi fel gweision domestig. Roedd caethwasiaeth amaethyddol, fel yr hyn a oedd yn gyffredin yn America, yn gymharol brin. Yn wahanol i systemau [[Caethwasiaeth|caethwasiaeth enfawr]], nid oedd caethweision o dan gyfraith Islamaidd yn cael eu hystyried yn eiddo symudol, a ganwyd plant caethweision benywaidd yn rhydd yn gyfreithiol. Roedd caethweision benywaidd yn dal i gael eu gwerthu yn yr Ymerodraeth mor ddiweddar â 1908.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml|access-date=26 August 2010|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Yn ystod y [[19g]] daeth yr Ymerodraeth dan bwysau gan wledydd Gorllewin Ewrop i wahardd yr arferiad. Roedd polisïau a ddatblygwyd gan wahanol syltaniaid trwy gydol y 19g yn ceisio cwtogi ar y fasnach gaethweision Otomanaidd ond roedd gan gaethwasiaeth ganrifoedd o gefnogaeth a sancsiwn crefyddol ac felly ni ddiddymwyd caethwasiaeth yn yr Ymerodraeth.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Syed|first=Muzaffar Husain|title=A Concise History of Islam|date=2011|publisher=Vij Books India|isbn=978-93-81411-09-4|location=New Delhi|page=97}}</ref> Parhaodd y pla drwy'r gymdeithas Otomanaidd tan ail chwarter y 19g. “Rhwng 1701 a 1750, cofnodwyd 37 epidemig heb sôn am y rhai a gafwyd yn Istanbul; cafwyd 31 pla rhwng 1751 a 1801”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Faroqhi|first=Suraiya|date=1998|title=Migration into Eighteenth-century 'Greater Istanbul' as Reflected in the Kadi Registers of Eyüp|url=https://secure.peeters-leuven.be/POJ/purchaseform.php?id=2004296&sid=|journal=Turcica|location=Louvain|publisher=Éditions Klincksieck|volume=30|page=165|doi=10.2143/TURC.30.0.2004296}}{{Dolen marw|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Mabwysiadodd yr Otomaniaid draddodiadau a diwylliant biwrocrataidd Persia. Gwnaeth y syltaniaid gyfraniad pwysig hefyd yn natblygiad llenyddiaeth Bersaidd.<ref>''[[Halil İnalcık]], [https://www.academia.edu/38228665/Halil_İnalcık_-_Has_Bağçede_Ayş_u_Tarab.pdf "Has-bahçede 'Ayş u Tarab"] {{Webarchive}}, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları (2011)''</ref> === Llenyddiaeth === Y ddwy brif ffrwd o lenyddiaeth ysgrifenedig Otomanaidd yw barddoniaeth a [[rhyddiaith]]. Barddoniaeth oedd y brif ffrwd o bell ffordd. Hyd at y 19eg ganrif, nid oedd rhyddiaith Otomanaidd yn cynnwys unrhyw enghreifftiau o ffuglen: nid oedd unrhyw gymar i, er enghraifft, y [[rhamant]] Ewropeaidd, y stori fer, na'r nofel. Er hynny, yr oedd genres analog yn bodoli mewn llenyddiaeth werin Twrcaidd ac mewn barddoniaeth Difan. Roedd barddoniaeth Otomanaidd Divan yn ffurf gelfyddyd hynod ddefodol a symbolaidd. O'r farddoniaeth Bersaidd a'i hysbrydolodd i raddau helaeth, etifeddodd gyfoeth o symbolau y rhagnodwyd eu hystyron a'u cydberthnasau. Cyfansoddwyd barddoniaeth Divan trwy gyfosod llawer o ddelweddau o'r fath yn gyson o fewn fframwaith mydryddol caeth, gan ganiatáu i nifer o ystyron posibl ddod i'r amlwg. Telynegol ei natur oedd mwyafrif helaeth barddoniaeth [[Telyneg|Difan]]: naill ai ''gazels'' (sef y rhan fwyaf o ''repertoire'' y traddodiad), neu ''kasîdes''. Fodd bynnag, yr oedd genres cyffredin eraill, ee y ''mesnevî'', math o [[Rhamant|ramant ar benillion]] ac felly amrywiaeth o farddoniaeth naratif; y ddwy enghraifft fwyaf nodedig o'r ffurf hon yw ''Leyli'' a ''Majnun'' o ''[[Fuzûlî]]'' a'r ''Hüsn ü Aşk'' o Şeyh Gâlib. Mae ''Seyahatnâme'' Evliya Çelebi (1611–1682) yn enghraifft ragorol o lenyddiaeth am deithio. === Addysg === [[Delwedd:Beyazıt_State_Library_(14667026514).jpg|bawd| Sefydlwyd Llyfrgell Talaith Beyazıt ym 1884.]] Yn yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd, sefydlodd pob [[Millét]] system addysg i wasanaethu ei haelodau.<ref name="StraussPT194195">Strauss, Johann. </ref> Rhannwyd addysg, fel yng Nghymru, yn ôl crefydd ac ethnigrwydd: ychydig o bobl nad oeddent yn Fwslimiaid a fynychai ysgolion ar gyfer myfyrwyr Mwslimaidd ac i’r gwrthwyneb. Roedd y rhan fwyaf o sefydliadau a wasanaethodd yr holl grwpiau ethnig a chrefyddol yn cael eu haddysgu mewn Ffrangeg neu ieithoedd eraill.<ref name="StraussPT195">Strauss, Johann. </ref> == Strwythr milwrol == Roedd strwythr milwrol yr ymerodraeth yn gymhleth iawn. Roedd y gwŷr meirch ysgafn yn bwysicaf, ac roedd ganddynt ffiffau o'r enw ''timar''. Roeddynt yn defnyddio bwâu, cleddyfau ac yn ymladd â thactegau cyffelyb i rheini [[Ymerodraeth y Mongoliaid]]; hwy hefyd oedd y lluoedd cyntaf i ddefnyddio musgedi. Roedd llu y [[Janisariaid]] yn enwog fel llu arbennig y swltan. [[Delwedd:Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg|chwith|bawd| Sipahis Otomanaidd mewn brwydr, yn dal baner y cilgant (gan Józef Brandt )]] Roedd uned filwrol gyntaf y Wladwriaeth Otomanaidd yn fyddin a drefnwyd gan Osman I o'r llwythau a drigai ar fryniau gorllewin Anatolia ar ddiwedd y 13g. Daeth y gyfundrefn filwrol yn sefydliad dyrys gyda dyfodiad yr Ymerodraeth. Roedd y fyddin Otomanaidd yn system gymhleth o recriwtio a chynnal. Roedd prif gorfflu'r Fyddin Otomanaidd yn cynnwys Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı a Mehterân. Ar un adeg roedd y fyddin Otomanaidd ymhlith y lluoedd ymladd mwyaf datblygedig yn y byd, gan fod yn un o'r rhai cyntaf i ddefnyddio [[Mysgedwr|mysgedi]] a [[Canon (arf)|chanonau]]. Dechreuodd y Tyrciaid Otomanaidd ddefnyddio ''falconets'', sef canonau byr ond llydan, yn ystod Gwarchae Caergystennin. Roedd y marchoglu Otomanaidd yn dibynnu ar gyflymder yn hytrach nag arfwisgoedd trwm, gan ddefnyddio bwâu a chleddyfau byr ar geffylau cyflym,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Milner|first=Mordaunt|title=The Godolphin Arabian: The Story of the Matchem Line|publisher=Robert Hale Limited|date=1990|isbn=978-0-85131-476-1|pages=3–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Wall|first=John F|title=Famous Running Horses: Their Forebears and Descendants|isbn=978-1-163-19167-5|page=8}}</ref> ac yn aml yn cymhwyso tactegau tebyg i rai [[Ymerodraeth y Mongol]], fel esgus cilio wrth amgylchynu lluoedd y gelyn y tu mewn i ffurfiant siâp cilgant ac yna gwneud yr ymosodiad go iawn. Parhaodd y fyddin Otomanaidd i fod yn rym ymladd effeithiol trwy gydol yr17g a dechrau'r 18g,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Murphey|first=Rhoads|title=Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700|url=https://archive.org/details/ottomanwarfare150000murp|date=1999|publisher=UCL Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/ottomanwarfare150000murp/page/n33 10]}}</ref> gan ddisgyn y tu ôl i gystadleuwyr Ewropeaidd yr ymerodraeth yn ystod cyfnod hir o heddwch yn unig o 1740 hyd 1768.<ref name="AksanOW">{{Cite book|last=Aksan|first=Virginia|title=Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged|date=2007|publisher=Pearson Education Ltd.|isbn=978-0-582-30807-7|pages=130–135}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFAksan2007">Aksan, Virginia (2007). </cite></ref> [[Delwedd:Nizami-cedid-ordusu.jpg|bawd| Selim III yn gwylio gorymdaith ei fyddin newydd, milwyr ''Nizam-ı Cedid'' (y Drefn Newydd), yn 1793]] Dechreuodd y gwaith o foderneiddio'r Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd yn y 19g gyda'r fyddin. Ym 1826 diddymodd Sultan Mahmud II y corfflu Janissary a sefydlodd y fyddin Otomanaidd fodern. Bedyddiwyd hwy yn Nizam-ı Cedid (y Drefn Newydd). Y fyddin Otomanaidd hefyd oedd y sefydliad cyntaf i logi arbenigwyr tramor ac anfon ei swyddogion am hyfforddiant yng ngwledydd gorllewin Ewrop. O ganlyniad, dechreuodd Mudiad y Tyrciaid Ifanc pan ddychwelodd y dynion newydd eu hyfforddi yn llawn gwybodaeth filwrol. == Taleithiau == Pan oedd tiriogaeth yr ymerodraeth ar ei ehangaf, roedd hi'n cynnwys 29 o [[Vilayet|daleithiau]], tair talaith deyrnngedol a thalaith ddeiliad [[Transylfania]], teyrnas yr oedd ei llywodraethwyr wedi tyngu llw o deyrngarwch i'r swltan. Galwyd y taleithiau yn [[Vilayet]]. Gellir eu priodili heddiw i drefn [[Llywodraethiaeth|llywodraethiaethau]] a ddefnyddir o hyd yn y gwledydd [[Arabeg|Arabaidd]]. == Swltaniaid == [[Delwedd:Suleiman I. after 1560.jpg|250px|bawd|chwith|Swltan Suleiman I (Amgueddfa [[Topkapi]] Seraia, Istanbul)]]Y [[swltan]] oedd unig lywodraethwr yr ymerodraeth ac ef ei hun oedd y llywodraeth swyddogol. Enw teuluol y swltans oedd [[Osmanli]]. Ond yn y dechrau, nid swltans ond [[bey]]s oeddynt. <table border="0"><tr><td> * [[Osman I]] ([[1299]]-[[1326]]; ''bey'') * [[Orhan I]] ([[1326]]-[[1359]]; ''bey'') * [[Murad I]] ([[1359]]-[[1389]]; swltan ers [[1383]]) * [[Beyazid I]] ([[1389]]-[[1402]]) * [[Mehmed I]] ([[1403]]-[[1421]]) * [[Murad II]] ([[1421]]-[[1451]]) * [[Mehmed II]] (y Cwncwerwr) ([[1451]]-[[1481]]) * [[Beyazid II]] ([[1481]]-[[1512]]) * [[Selim I]] ([[1512]]-[[1520]]) * [[Suleiman I]] (y Godidog) ([[1520]]-[[1566]]) * [[Selim II]] ([[1566]]-[[1574]]) * [[Murat III]] ([[1574]]-[[1595]]) * [[Mehmed III]] ([[1595]]-[[1603]]) * [[Ahmed I]] ([[1603]]-[[1617]]) * [[Mustafa I]] ([[1617]]-[[1618]]) * [[Osman II]] ([[1618]]-[[1622]]) * [[Mustafa I]] ([[1622]]-[[1623]]) * [[Murat IV]] ([[1623]]-[[1640]]) * [[Ibrahim I]] ([[1640]]-[[1648]]) </td><td> * [[Mehmed IV]] ([[1648]]-[[1687]]) * [[Suleiman II]] ([[1687]]-[[1691]]) * [[Ahmed II]] ([[1691]]-[[1695]]) * [[Mustafa II]] ([[1695]]-[[1703]]) * [[Ahmed III]] ([[1703]]-[[1730]]) * [[Mahmud I]] ([[1730]]-[[1754]]) * [[Osman III]] ([[1754]]-[[1757]]) * [[Mustafa III]] ([[1757]]-[[1774]]) * [[Abd-ul-Hamid I]] ([[1774]]-[[1789]]) * [[Selim III]] ([[1789]]-[[1807]]) * [[Mustafa IV]] ([[1807]]-[[1808]]) * [[Mahmud II]] ([[1808]]-[[1839]]) * [[Abd-ul-Mejid]] ([[1839]]-[[1861]]) * [[Abd-ul-Aziz]] ([[1861]]-[[1876]]) * [[Murat V]] ([[1876]]) * [[Abd-ul-Hamid II]] ([[1876]]-[[1909]]) * [[Mehmed V]] (Resad) ([[1909]]-[[1918]]) * [[Mehmed VI]] (Vahdettin) ([[1918]]-[[1922]]) * [[Abdul Mejid II]], fel [[Caliph]] ([[1922]] - [[1924]]). </td></tr></table> ==Cyfeiriadau== {{cyfeiriadau}} {{refbegin}} * {{Citation |last1=Atasoy |first1=Nurhan |first2=Julian |last2=Raby |title= Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey |editor-first=Yanni |editor-last=Petsopoulos |date=1989 |isbn=9780500973745}} * {{Cite book|last1=Blair|first1=Sheila S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3|title=The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800|last2=Bloom|first2=Jonathan M.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780300064650}} * {{cite book|last=Freely|first=John|title=A History of Ottoman Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgp46TUFK7wC|year=2011|publisher=WIT Press|isbn=978-1-84564-506-9}} * {{Citation |last=Itzkowitz |first=Norman |title=Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition |date=1980 |isbn=9780226388069}} * {{Citation |last=Kinross |first=Lord |title=The Ottoman centuries: the rise and fall of the Turkish empire |date=1979 |isbn=9780688080938 |url=https://archive.org/details/ottomancenturies00kinr/page/n4}} popular history espouses old "decline" thesis *{{Cite book|last=Kuban|first=Doğan|title=Ottoman Architecture|publisher=Antique Collectors' Club|year=2010|isbn=9781851496044|translator-last=Mill|translator-first=Adair}} * {{Citation |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1908 |date=1983 |author-link=Donald Quataert}} * {{Citation |last1=Quataert |first1=Donald |author1-link=Donald Quataert |last2=Spivey |first2=Diane M. |title=Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550-1922 |date=2000 |isbn=9780791444313}} * {{Cite book |last=Rogan |first=Eugene |title=The Arabs: A History |publisher=Penguin |date=2011 |isbn=9780465032488 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Arabs/16U0mEbf4nAC?hl=en&gbpv=1}} {{refend}} == Darllen pellach == === Cyffredinol === {{Refbegin}} * [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-turkey/EC9B3B62272E26DA30A7090DEE934DC9 ''The Cambridge History of Turkey'' online] ** Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009. ** Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012. ** Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006. ** Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008. * Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters, eds. ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' (2008) * [[Suraiya Faroqhi|Faroqhi, Suraiya]]. ''The Ottoman Empire: A Short History'' (2009) 196pp * {{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 |url=https://archive.org/details/osmansdreamstory0000fink |date=2005 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-02396-7 }} * {{Cite book |last=Hathaway |first=Jane |title=The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800 |url=https://archive.org/details/arablandsunderot0000hath |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-582-41899-8 }} * {{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Douglas A. |title=A History of the Ottoman Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman0000howa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-521-72730-3 |location=Cambridge }} * {{Cite Q|Q19097235}} * Koller, Markus (2012), [http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/from-the-turkish-menace-to-orientalism/markus-koller-ottoman-history-of-south-east-europe?set_language=en&-C= ''Ottoman History of South-East Europe''], [http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ EGO - European History Online], Mainz: [http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php Institute of European History], retrieved: March 25, 2021 ([http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2011121258 pdf]). * {{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |date=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-57451-9 |edition=2 |location=New York}} * {{Cite book |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |editor-last2=[[Donald Quataert]]}} Two volumes. * Kia, Mehrdad, ed. ''The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia'' (2 vol 2017) * McCarthy, Justin. ''The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923.'' (1997) [https://archive.org/details/ottomanturksintr0000mcca The Ottoman Turks : an introductory history to 1923] online[ * Mikaberidze, Alexander. ''Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia'' (2 vol 2011) * Miller, William. ''The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922'' (2nd ed 1927) [https://archive.org/details/ottomanempireitsmill online], strong on foreign policy * [[Donald Quataert|Quataert, Donald]]. ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922.'' 2005. {{ISBN|0-521-54782-2}}. * Şahin, Kaya. "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century." ''Renaissance Quarterly'' (2017) 70#1: 220–234 [http://www.academia.edu/download/52257343/RQ_review_essay.pdf online]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * Somel, Selcuk Aksin. ''Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire'' (2003). pp.&nbsp;399 [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Ottoman-Dictionaries-Civilizations/dp/0810843323 excerpt] * [[L. S. Stavrianos|Stavrianos, L. S.]] ''The Balkans since 1453'' (1968; new preface 1999) [https://archive.org/details/balkanssince145300lsst online] * Tabak, Faruk. ''The Waning of the Mediterranean, 1550–1870: A Geohistorical Approach'' (2008) === Y cyfnod cynnar === * {{Cite book |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |title=Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State |url=https://archive.org/details/betweentwoworlds0000kafa |publisher=U California Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-520-20600-7 }} * {{Cite book |last=Lindner |first=Rudi P. |title=Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia |url=https://archive.org/details/nomadsottomansin0000lind |publisher=Indiana UP |date=1983 |isbn=978-0-933070-12-7 |location=Bloomington }} * {{Cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath |title=The Nature of the Early Ottoman State |publisher=SUNY Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-7914-5636-1 |location=Albany}} === Diplomataeth a militaraidd === * {{Cite journal |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |date=2014 |title=Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800 |journal=Journal of World History |volume=25 |pages=85–124 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2014.0005 |s2cid=143042353}} * {{Cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia |title=Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson Education Limited |isbn=978-0-582-30807-7}} * Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman Military Matters." ''Journal of Early Modern History'' 6.1 (2002): 52–62, historiography; [https://www.academia.edu/download/53818952/Aksan_Ottoman_MIlitary_Matters.pdf online]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * Aksan, Virginia H. "Mobilization of Warrior Populations in the Ottoman Context, 1750–1850." in ''Fighting for a Living: A Comparative Study of Military Labour: 1500–2000'' ed. by Erik-Jan Zürcher (2014)[https://www.academia.edu/download/35001786/Chapter-11-Aksan-Mobilization_of_warrior_populations-1.pdf online]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. * Aksan, Virginia. "Breaking the spell of the Baron de Tott: Reframing the question of military reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1760–1830." ''International History Review'' 24.2 (2002): 253–277 [https://www.academia.edu/download/46384567/Aksan_BreakingtheSpelloftheBarondeTottReframingtheQuesti_retrieved_2016-06-10_.pdf online]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. * Aksan, Virginia H. "The Ottoman military and state transformation in a globalizing world." ''[[Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East]]'' 27.2 (2007): 259–272 [http://www.academia.edu/download/53818899/Aksan_Ottoman_MIlitary_and_State_Transformation_in__Globalizing_CSSAAMEAksan.pdf online]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. * Aksan, Virginia H. "Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman War." ''War in History'' 5.1 (1998): 23–36 [https://web.archive.org/web/20200228231453/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f9d7/c3a29abba101ebeb7705e2a733f2a8076187.pdf online]. * Albrecht-Carrié, René. ''A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna'' (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 [https://archive.org/details/diplomatichistor0000albr_b4c1 online free to borrow] * Çelik, Nihat. "Muslims, Non-Muslims and Foreign Relations: Ottoman Diplomacy." ''International Review of Turkish Studies'' 1.3 (2011): 8–30. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nihat_Celik2/publication/263369634_Muslims_Non-Muslims_and_Foreign_Relations_Ottoman_Diplomacy/links/0f31753aad5432da58000000.pdf online] * Fahmy, Khaled. '' All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt'' (Cambridge University Press. 1997) * Gürkan, Emrah Safa (2011), [http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/emrah-safa-gurkan-christian-allies-of-the-ottoman-empire?set_language=en&-C= ''Christian Allies of the Ottoman Empire''], [http://www.ieg-ego.eu EGO - European History Online], Mainz: [http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php Institute of European History], retrieved: March 25, 2021 ([https://d-nb.info/1020549114/34 pdf]). * Hall, Richard C. ed. ''War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia'' (2014) * [[Hurewitz, Jacob C.]] "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." ''Middle East Journal'' 15.2 (1961): 141–152. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4323345 online] * [[Merriman, Roger Bigelow]]. ''Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566'' (Harvard University Press, 1944) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.87496 online] * Miller, William. ''The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922'' (2nd ed 1927) [https://archive.org/details/ottomanempireitsmill online], strong on foreign policy * Minawi, Mustafa. ''The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy an the Sahara and the Hijaz'' (2016) [https://archive.org/details/kaoikaprophe007_gmail_20180922 online] * Nicolle, David. ''Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774'' (Osprey Publishing, 1983) * Palmer, Alan. ''The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire'' (1994). * {{Cite book |last=Rhoads |first=Murphey |title=Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700 |date=1999 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-1-85728-389-1}} * {{Cite book |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700 |date=2015 |publisher=The Isis Press |isbn=978-975-428-554-3 |location=Istanbul}} * {{Cite book |last1=Uyar |first1=Mesut |title=A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk |last2=Erickson |first2=Edward |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-275-98876-0}} === Astudiaeth pellach === * Baram, Uzi and Lynda Carroll, editors. ''A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground'' (Plenum/Kluwer Academic Press, 2000) * Barkey, Karen. ''Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective.'' (2008) 357pp [https://www.amazon.com/Empire-Difference-Ottomans-Comparative-Perspective/dp/0521715334/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1240307430&sr=1-7 Amazon.com], excerpt and text search * Davison, Roderic H. ''Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876'' (New York: Gordian Press, 1973) * Deringil, Selim. ''The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909'' (London: IB Tauris, 1998) * Findley, Carter V. ''Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922'' (Princeton University Press, 1980) * McMeekin, Sean. ''The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power'' (2010) * Mikhail, Alan. ''God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Gods-Shadow-Sultan-Ottoman-Empire/dp/163149239X excerpt] on [[Selim I]] (1470–1529) * Pamuk, Sevket. ''A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire'' (1999). pp.&nbsp;276 * Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp.&nbsp;86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 {{ISBN|0-297-84913-1}}. * Yaycioglu, Ali. ''Partners of the empire: The crisis of the Ottoman order in the age of revolutions'' (Stanford University Press, 2016), covers 1760–1820 [https://doi.org/10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716 online review]. === Hanes === * Aksan, Virginia H. "What's Up in Ottoman Studies?" ''Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association'' 1.1–2 (2014): 3–21. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.3 online] ** [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.2.1.215 comment by Ehud R. Toledano] and [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/745216/summary reply by Aksan] * Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman political writing, 1768–1808." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' 25.1 (1993): 53–69 [http://www.academia.edu/download/35157878/Aksan_OttomanPOlitical_WritingIJMES_1993.pdf online]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. * Finkel, Caroline. "Ottoman history: whose history is it?." ''International Journal of Turkish Studies'' 14.1/2 (2008). * Gerber, Haim. "Ottoman Historiography: Challenges of the Twenty-First Century." ''Journal of the American Oriental Society,'' 138#2 (2018), p.&nbsp;369+. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A551496598/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=04b4884e online] * Hartmann, Daniel Andreas. "Neo-Ottomanism: The Emergence and Utility of a New Narrative on Politics, Religion, Society, and History in Turkey" (PhD Dissertation, Central European University, 2013) [http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2013/hartmann_daniel.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514063633/http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2013/hartmann_daniel.pdf |date=2022-05-14 }}. * Eissenstat, Howard. "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies" ''Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association'' 1#1 (2014), pp.&nbsp;23–35 DOI: 10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 online] * {{Cite journal |last=Kayalı |first=Hasan |date=December 2017 |title=The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends |journal=The Journal of Modern History |language=en |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=875–907 |doi=10.1086/694391 |issn=0022-2801 |s2cid=148953435}} * Lieven, Dominic. ''Empire: The Russian Empire and its rivals'' (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Habsburg empires. [https://www.amazon.com/Empire-Russian-Its-Rivals/dp/0300097263 excerpt] * Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn," ''Comparative Studies in Society & History'' (2012) 54#4 pp.&nbsp;721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodisation, and political transformation * Olson, Robert, "Ottoman Empire" in {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA892 |title=Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=1999 |isbn=978-1-884964-33-6 |editor-last=Kelly Boyd |pages=892–896 }} * [[Donald Quataert|Quataert, Donald]]. "Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline.'" ''History Compass'' 1 (2003): 1–9. * Yaycıoğlu, Ali. "Ottoman Early Modern." ''Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association'' 7.1 (2020): 70–73 [http://www.academia.edu/download/64051313/Ali%20Yaycioglu%20-%20Ottoman%20Early%20Modern.pdf online]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. * Yılmaz, Yasir. "Nebulous Ottomans vs. Good Old Habsburgs: A Historiographical Comparison." ''Austrian History Yearbook'' 48 (2017): 173–190. [https://www.academia.edu/download/52736768/Yilmaz__Yasir__-_nebulous_ottomans_vs_good_old_habsburgs_a_historiographical_comparison.pdf Online]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{Refend}} == Dolenni allanol == * [http://courses.washington.edu/otap Prosiect Archif Testun Otomanaidd - Prifysgol Washington] * [https://www.wikilala.com/ Testunau Otomanaidd chwiliadwy - Wikilala] * [http://www.shapell.org/journeys.aspx?american-travelers-to-the-holy-land-in-the-19th-century Teithwyr Americanaidd i'r Wlad Sanctaidd yn Sefydliad Llawysgrif Shapell o'r 19eg Ganrif] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523113237/http://www.shapell.org/journeys.aspx?american-travelers-to-the-holy-land-in-the-19th-century |date=2013-05-23 }} * [http://www.umich.edu/~turkish/ottemp.html Yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd: Adnoddau - Prifysgol Michigan] * [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11770 Twrci yn Asia], 1920 {{DEFAULTSORT:Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd}} 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