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<span>Parental care</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parental_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parent-offspring_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parent-offspring_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Parent-offspring conflict</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Parent-offspring_conflict-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Parent-offspring conflict subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Parent-offspring_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maternal-offspring_conflict_in_investment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternal-offspring_conflict_in_investment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Maternal-offspring conflict in investment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternal-offspring_conflict_in_investment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alloparental_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alloparental_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Alloparental care</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alloparental_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Offspring_and_situation_direction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Offspring_and_situation_direction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Offspring and situation direction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Offspring_and_situation_direction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trivers'_parental_investment_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trivers'_parental_investment_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Trivers' parental investment theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Trivers'_parental_investment_theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Trivers' parental investment theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Trivers'_parental_investment_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_parental_investment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_parental_investment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Human parental investment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_parental_investment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Males_as_the_more_investing_sex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Males_as_the_more_investing_sex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Males as the more investing sex</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Males_as_the_more_investing_sex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>International politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sexual selection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parental_investment_in_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parental_investment_in_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Parental investment in humans</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Parental_investment_in_humans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Parental investment in humans subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Parental_investment_in_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maternal_investment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternal_investment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Maternal investment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternal_investment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paternal_investment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paternal_investment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Paternal investment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paternal_investment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Investment_as_predictor_of_mating_strategies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investment_as_predictor_of_mating_strategies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Investment as predictor of mating strategies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Investment_as_predictor_of_mating_strategies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concealed_ovulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concealed_ovulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Concealed ovulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concealed_ovulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mating_orientations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mating_orientations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Mating orientations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mating_orientations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polygyny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polygyny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.3</span> <span>Polygyny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polygyny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_demographic_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_demographic_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>The demographic transition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_demographic_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Parental investment</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A" title="استثمار أبوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="استثمار أبوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9%C4%8De_o_potomstvo" title="Péče o potomstvo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Péče o potomstvo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elternaufwand" title="Elternaufwand – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elternaufwand" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inversi%C3%B3n_parental" title="Inversión parental – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Inversión parental" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patra_investado" title="Patra investado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Patra investado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86" title="سرمایه‌گذاری والدین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سرمایه‌گذاری والدین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investissement_parental" title="Investissement parental – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Investissement parental" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investimento_parental" title="Investimento parental – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Investimento parental" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investasi_orang_tua" title="Investasi orang tua – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Investasi orang tua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investimento_parentale" title="Investimento parentale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Investimento parentale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="अभिभावकीय लगानी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अभिभावकीय लगानी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%AA%E3%81%AE%E6%8A%95%E8%B3%87" title="親の投資 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="親の投資" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yngelpleie" title="Yngelpleie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Yngelpleie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inwestycje_rodzicielskie" title="Inwestycje rodzicielskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Inwestycje rodzicielskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investimento_parental" title="Investimento parental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Investimento parental" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Родительский вклад – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Родительский вклад" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentaalinen_investointi" title="Parentaalinen investointi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Parentaalinen investointi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Батьківський внесок – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Батьківський внесок" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%B2%E4%BB%A3%E6%8A%95%E8%B5%84" title="亲代投资 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="亲代投资" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q526071#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calliope-nest_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Calliope-nest_edit.jpg/220px-Calliope-nest_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Calliope-nest_edit.jpg/330px-Calliope-nest_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Calliope-nest_edit.jpg/440px-Calliope-nest_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption>A female <a href="/wiki/Calliope_hummingbird" title="Calliope hummingbird">calliope hummingbird</a> feeding her chicks</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Popi.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Popi.JPG/150px-Popi.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Popi.JPG/225px-Popi.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Popi.JPG/300px-Popi.JPG 2x" data-file-width="373" data-file-height="485" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> mother feeding her child</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Parental investment</b>, in <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>, is any parental expenditure (e.g. time, energy, resources) that benefits <a href="/wiki/Offspring" title="Offspring">offspring</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Clutton-Brock1991_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clutton-Brock1991-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Trivers1972_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trivers1972-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parental investment may be performed by both males and females (called <i>biparental care</i>), females alone (<i>exclusive maternal care</i>) or males alone (<i>exclusive <a href="/wiki/Paternal_care" title="Paternal care">paternal care</a></i>). Care can be provided at any stage of the offspring's life, from pre-natal (e.g. egg guarding and <a href="/wiki/Egg_incubation" title="Egg incubation">incubation</a> in birds, and placental nourishment in mammals) to post-natal (e.g. food provisioning and protection of offspring). </p><p>Parental investment theory, a term coined by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Trivers" title="Robert Trivers">Robert Trivers</a> in 1972, predicts that the sex that invests more in its offspring will be more selective when choosing a mate, and the less-investing sex will have intra-sexual competition for access to mates. This theory has been influential in explaining sex differences in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mate_preference" class="mw-redirect" title="Mate preference">mate preferences</a>, throughout the animal kingdom and in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Trivers1972_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trivers1972-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> is an evolutionary concept that has been used to explain why, in some species, male and female individuals behave differently in selecting mates. In 1930, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/The_Genetical_Theory_of_Natural_Selection" title="The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection">The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which he introduced the modern concept of parental investment, introduced the <a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">sexy son hypothesis</a>, and introduced <a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a>. </p><p>In 1948, <a href="/wiki/Angus_John_Bateman" title="Angus John Bateman">Angus John Bateman</a> published an influential study of fruit flies in which he concluded that because female gametes are more costly to produce than male gametes, the reproductive success of females was limited by the ability to produce ovum, and the reproductive success of males was limited by access to females.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1972, <a href="/wiki/Trivers" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivers">Robert Trivers</a> continued this line of thinking with his proposal of parental investment theory, which describes how parental investment affects sexual behavior. He concluded that whichever sex has higher parental investment will be more selective when choosing a mate, while the sex with lower investment will compete intra-sexually for mating opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-Trivers1972_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trivers1972-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1974, Trivers extended parental investment theory to explain parent–offspring conflict, the conflict between the amount of investment that is optimal from the parent's perspective, versus from the offspring's perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parental_care">Parental care</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Parental care"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parental_care" title="Parental care">Parental care</a></div> <p>Parental investment theory is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Life_history_theory" title="Life history theory">life history theory</a>. The earliest consideration of parental investment is given by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> in his 1930 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Genetical_Theory_of_Natural_Selection" title="The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection">The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wherein Fisher argued that parental expenditure on both sexes of offspring should be equal. Clutton-Brock expanded the concept of parental investment to include costs to any other component of parental fitness.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Male <a href="/wiki/Dunnock" title="Dunnock">dunnocks</a> tend to not discriminate between their own young and those of another male in <a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_animals" title="Polyandry in animals">polyandrous</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polygynandrous" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygynandrous">polygynandrous</a> systems. They increase their own <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_success" title="Reproductive success">reproductive success</a> through feeding the offspring in relation to their own access to the female throughout the mating period, which is generally a good predictor of <a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">paternity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This indiscriminative parental care by males is also observed in <a href="/wiki/Ophioblennius_atlanticus" title="Ophioblennius atlanticus">redlip blennies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pholcid_and_spiderlings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Pholcid_and_spiderlings.jpg/220px-Pholcid_and_spiderlings.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Pholcid_and_spiderlings.jpg/330px-Pholcid_and_spiderlings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Pholcid_and_spiderlings.jpg/440px-Pholcid_and_spiderlings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Pholcidae" title="Pholcidae">cellar spider</a> defending spiderlings.</figcaption></figure><p>In some insects, male parental investment is given in the form of a nuptial gift. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Utetheisa_ornatrix" title="Utetheisa ornatrix">ornate moth</a> females receive a spermatophore containing nutrients, sperm and defensive toxins from the male during copulation. This gift, which can account for up to 10% of the male's body mass, constitutes the total parental investment the male provides.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some species, such as humans and many birds, the offspring are <a href="/wiki/Altriciality" class="mw-redirect" title="Altriciality">altricial</a> and unable to fend for themselves for an extended period of time after birth. In these species, males invest more in their offspring than do the male parents of <a href="/wiki/Precociality" class="mw-redirect" title="Precociality">precocial</a> species, since reproductive success would otherwise suffer. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv/220px--Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="13" data-mwtitle="Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0d/Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv/Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0d/Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv/Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0d/Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv/Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0d/Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv/Surf-and-turf-predation-by-egg-eating-snakes-has-led-to-the-evolution-of-parental-care-in-a-srep22207-s2.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>A female lizard defending her clutch against an egg-eating snake.</figcaption></figure> <p>The benefits of parental investment to the offspring are large and are associated with the effects on condition, growth, survival, and ultimately on reproductive success of the offspring. For example, in the cichlid fish <i><a href="/wiki/Tropheus_moorii#Buccal_feeding" title="Tropheus moorii">Tropheus moorii</a></i>, a female has very high parental investment in her young because she <a href="/wiki/Mouthbrood" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouthbrood">mouthbroods</a> the young and while mouthbrooding, all nourishment she takes in goes to feed the young and she effectively starves herself. In doing this, her young are larger, heavier, and faster than they would have been without it. These benefits are very advantageous since it lowers their risk of being eaten by predators and size is usually the determining factor in conflicts over resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Schürch&Taborsky_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schürch&Taborsky-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, such benefits can come at the cost of parent's ability to reproduce in the future e.g., through increased risk of injury when defending offspring against predators, loss of mating opportunities whilst rearing offspring, and an increase in the time interval until the next reproduction. </p><p>A special case of parental investment is when young do need nourishment and protection, but the genetic parents do not actually contribute in the effort to raise their own offspring. For example, in <i><a href="/wiki/Bombus_terrestris" title="Bombus terrestris">Bombus terrestris</a></i>, oftentimes sterile female workers will not reproduce on their own, but will raise their mother's brood instead. This is common in social <a href="/wiki/Hymenopteran" class="mw-redirect" title="Hymenopteran">Hymenoptera</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">haplodiploidy</a>, whereby males are haploid and females are diploid. This ensures that sisters are more related to each other than they ever would be to their own offspring, incentivizing them to help raise their mother's young over their own.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overall, parents are selected to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will be likely to evolve when the benefits exceed the costs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parent-offspring_conflict">Parent-offspring conflict</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Parent-offspring conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></div> <p>Reproduction is costly. Individuals are limited in the degree to which they can devote time and resources to producing and raising their young, and such expenditure may also be detrimental to their future condition, survival, and further reproductive output. However, such expenditure is typically beneficial to the offspring, since it enhances their condition, survival, and reproductive success. These differences may lead to <a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">parent-offspring conflict</a>. Parents are naturally selected to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will tend to exist when the benefits are substantially greater than the costs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Parents are equally related to all offspring, and so in order to optimize their fitness and chance of reproducing their genes, they should distribute their investment equally among current and future offspring. However, any single offspring is more related to themselves (they have 100% of their DNA in common with themselves) than they are to their siblings (siblings usually share 50% of their DNA), so it is best for the offspring's fitness if the parent(s) invest more in them. To optimize fitness, a parent would want to invest in each offspring equally, but each offspring would want a larger share of parental investment. The parent is selected to invest in the offspring up until the point at which investing in the current offspring is costlier than investing in future offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Semelparity_and_iteroparity" title="Semelparity and iteroparity">iteroparous</a> species, where individuals may go through several reproductive bouts during their lifetime, a tradeoff may exist between investment in current offspring and future reproduction. Parents need to balance their offspring's demands against their own self-maintenance. This potential negative effect of parental care was explicitly formalized by Trivers in 1972, who originally defined the term parental investment to mean "any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offspring's chance of surviving (and hence <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_success" title="Reproductive success">reproductive success</a>) at the cost of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring".<sup id="cite_ref-Trivers1972_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trivers1972-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_penguin_and_a_chick.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/King_penguin_and_a_chick.JPG/220px-King_penguin_and_a_chick.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/King_penguin_and_a_chick.JPG/330px-King_penguin_and_a_chick.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/King_penguin_and_a_chick.JPG/440px-King_penguin_and_a_chick.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption>King penguin and a chick</figcaption></figure> <p>Penguins are a prime example of a species that drastically sacrifices their own health and well-being in exchange for the survival of their offspring. This behavior, one that does not necessarily benefit the individual, but the genetic code from which the individual arises, can be seen in the King Penguin. Although some animals do exhibit altruistic behaviors towards individuals that are not of direct relation, many of these behaviors appear mostly in parent-offspring relationships. While breeding, males remain in a fasting-period at the breeding site for five weeks, waiting for the female to return for her own incubation shift. However, during this time period, males may decide to abandon their egg if the female is delayed in her return to the breeding grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It shows that these penguins initially show a trade-off of their own health, in hopes of increasing the survivorship of their egg. But there comes a point where the male penguin's costs become too high in comparison to the gain of a successful breeding season. Olof Olsson investigated the correlation between how many experiences in breeding an individual has and the duration an individual will wait until abandoning his egg. He proposed that the more experienced the individual, the better that individual will be at replenishing his exhausted body reserves, allowing him to remain at the egg for a longer period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The males' sacrifice of their body weight and possible survivorship, in order to increase their offspring's chance of survival is a trade-off between current reproductive success and the parents' future survival.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This trade-off makes sense with other examples of kin-based altruism and is a clear example of the use of altruism in an attempt to increase overall fitness of an individual's genetic material at the expense of the individual's future survival. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maternal-offspring_conflict_in_investment">Maternal-offspring conflict in investment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Maternal-offspring conflict in investment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The maternal-offspring conflict has also been studied in animals species and humans. One such case has been documented in the mid-1970s by ethologist <a href="/wiki/Wulf_Schiefenh%C3%B6vel" title="Wulf Schiefenhövel">Wulf Schiefenhövel</a>. Eipo women of West New Guinea engage in a cultural practice in which they give birth just outside the village. Following the birth of their child, each woman weighed whether or not she should keep the child or leave the child in the brush nearby, inevitably ending in the death of the child.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likelihood of survival and availability of resources within the village were factors that played into this decision of whether or not to keep the baby. During one illustrated birth, the mother felt the child was too ill and would not survive, so she wrapped the child up, preparing to leave the child in the brush; however, upon seeing the child moving, the mother unwrapped the child and brought it into the village, demonstrating a shift of life and death.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This conflict between the mother and the child resulted in detachment behaviors in Brazil, seen in Scheper-Hughes work as "many Alto babies remain[ed] not only unchristened but unnamed until they begin to walk or talk",<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or if a medical crisis arose and the baby needed an emergency <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a>. This conflict between survival, both emotional and physical, prompted a shift in cultural practices, thus resulting in new forms of investment from the mother towards the child. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alloparental_care">Alloparental care</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Alloparental care"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Allomothering" title="Allomothering">Alloparental care</a> also referred to as 'Allomothering,' is when a member of a community, apart from the biological parents of the infant, partake in offspring care provision.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A range of behaviors fall under the term alloparental care, some of which are: carrying, feeding, watching over, protecting, and grooming. Through alloparental care stress on parents, especially the mother, can be reduced, therefore reducing the negative effects of the parent-offspring conflict on the mother.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The apparent altruistic nature of the behavior may seem at odds with Darwin's theory of natural selection, as taking care of offspring which are not one's own would not increase one's direct fitness, while taking time, energy and resources away from raising one's own offspring. However, the behavior can be explained evolutionarily as increasing indirect fitness, as the offspring is likely to be non-descendent kin, therefore carrying some of the genetics of the alloparent.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Offspring_and_situation_direction">Offspring and situation direction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Offspring and situation direction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parental investment behavior enhances the chances of survival of offspring, and it does not require underlying mechanisms to be compatible with empathy applicable to adults, or situations involving unrelated offspring, and it does not require the offspring to reciprocate the altruistic behavior in any way.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parentally investing individuals are not more vulnerable to being exploited by other adults. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trivers'_parental_investment_theory"><span id="Trivers.27_parental_investment_theory"></span>Trivers' parental investment theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Trivers' parental investment theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parental investment as defined by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Trivers" title="Robert Trivers">Robert Trivers</a> in 1972<sup id="cite_ref-auto_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the investment in offspring by the parent that increases the offspring's chances of surviving and hence <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_success" title="Reproductive success">reproductive success</a> at the expense of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring. A large parental investment largely decreases the parents' chances of investing in other offspring. Parental investment can be split into two main categories: mating investment and rearing investment. Mating investment consist of the sexual act and the sex cells invested. The rearing investment is the time and energy expended to raise the offspring after conception. In most species, the female's parental investment in both mating and rearing efforts greatly surpasses that of the male. In terms of sex cells (egg and sperms cells), the female's investment is typically a larger portion of both genetic material and overall virility, while typically males produce thousands of <a href="/wiki/Sperm_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm cells">sperm cells</a> on a daily basis. Trivers' believed that this theory explained <a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">sexual jealousy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A criticism of the theory comes from Thornhill and Palmer's analysis of it in <i><a href="/wiki/A_Natural_History_of_Rape:_Biological_Bases_of_Sexual_Coercion" class="mw-redirect" title="A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion">A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion</a></i>, as it seems to rationalise rape and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_coercion" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual coercion">sexual coercion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thornhill and Palmer claimed rape is an evolved technique for obtaining mates in an environment where women choose mates. As PIT claims males seek to copulate with as many fertile females as possible, the choice women have could result in a negative effect on the male's reproductive success. If women did not choose their mates, Thornhill and Palmer claim there would be no rape. This ignores a variety of sociocultural factors, such as the fact that not only fertile females are raped – 34% of underage rape victims are under 12,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which means they are not of fertile age, thus there is no evolutionary advantage in raping them. 14% of rapes in England are committed on males,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who cannot increase a man's reproductive success as there will be no conception.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Statistics should be used by a reliable source to contextualize these statistics instead of the statistics themselves. (November 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Trivers' theory does not account for women having short-term relationships such as one-night stands, and that not all men behave promiscuously. An alternative explanation to parental investment theory and mate preferences would be Buss and Schmitt's <a href="/wiki/Sexual_strategies_theory" title="Sexual strategies theory">sexual strategies theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buss,_D._M._1993_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buss,_D._M._1993-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_parental_investment">Human parental investment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Human parental investment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human women have a fixed supply of around 400 <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ova</a>, while sperm cells in men are supplied at a rate of twelve million per hour.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">gestation</a> occur in women, investments which outweigh the man's investment of a single effective sperm cell. Furthermore, for women, one act of sexual intercourse could result in a 38-week commitment of human gestation and subsequent commitments related to rearing such as <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a>. From Trivers' theory of parental investment, several implications follow. The first implication is that women are often but not always the more investing sex. The fact that they are often the more investing sex leads to the second implication that evolution favors females who are more selective of their mates to ensure that intercourse would not result in unnecessary or wasteful costs. The third implication is that because women invest more and are essential for the reproductive success of their offspring, they are a valuable resource for men; as a result, males often compete for sexual access to females. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Males_as_the_more_investing_sex">Males as the more investing sex</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Males as the more investing sex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For many species the only type of male investment received is that of sex cells. In those terms, the female investment greatly exceeds that of male investment as previously mentioned. However, there are other ways in which males invest in their offspring. For example, the male can find food as in the example of balloon flies.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He may find a safe environment for the female to feed or lay her eggs as exemplified in many birds.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He may also protect the young and provide them with opportunities to learn as young, as is the case with many wolves. Overall, the main role that males overtake is that of protection of the female and their young. That often can decrease the discrepancy of investment caused by the initial investment of sex cells. There are some species such as the <a href="/wiki/Mormon_cricket" title="Mormon cricket">Mormon cricket</a>, pipefish seahorse and Panamanian poison arrow frog males invest more. Among the species where the male invests more, the male is also the pickier sex, placing higher demands on their selected female. For example, the female that they often choose usually contain 60% more eggs than rejected females.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_politics">International politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: International politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parental investment theory is not only used to explain evolutionary phenomena and human behavior but describes recurrences in international politics as well. Specifically, parental investment is referred to when describing competitive behaviors between states and determining aggressive nature of foreign policies. The parental investment hypothesis states that the size of coalitions and the physical strengths of its male members determines whether its activities with its foreign neighbors are aggressive or amiable.<sup id="cite_ref-Lopez,_McDermott,_Petersen2011_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lopez,_McDermott,_Petersen2011-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Trivers, men have had relatively low parental investments, and were therefore forced into fiercer competitive situations over limited reproductive resources. <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> naturally took place and men have evolved to address its unique reproductive problems. Among other adaptations, men's psychology has also developed to directly aid men in such intra-sexual competition.<sup id="cite_ref-Lopez,_McDermott,_Petersen2011_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lopez,_McDermott,_Petersen2011-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One essential psychological developments involved decision-making of whether to take flight or actively engage in warfare with another rivalry group. The two main factors that men referred to in such situations were (1) whether the coalition they are a part of is larger than its opposition and (2) whether the men in their coalition have greater physical strength than the other. The male psychology conveyed in the ancient past has been passed on to modern times causing men to partly think and behave as they have during ancestral wars. According to this theory, leaders of international politics were not an exception. For example, the United States expected to win the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> due to its greater military capacity when compared to its enemies. Yet victory, according to the traditional rule of greater coalition size, did not come about because the U.S. did not take enough consideration to other factors, such as the perseverance of the local population.<sup id="cite_ref-Lopez,_McDermott,_Petersen2011_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lopez,_McDermott,_Petersen2011-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The parental investment hypothesis contends that male physical strength of a coalition still determines the aggressiveness of modern conflicts between states. While this idea may seem unreasonable upon considering that male physical strength is one of the least determining aspects of today's warfare, human psychology has nevertheless evolved to operate on this basis. Moreover, although it may seem that mate seeking motivation is no longer a determinant, in modern wars sexuality, such as rape, is undeniably evident in conflicts even to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-Lopez,_McDermott,_Petersen2011_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lopez,_McDermott,_Petersen2011-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crested_auklet_pair_(5944746087).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Crested_auklet_pair_%285944746087%29.jpg/220px-Crested_auklet_pair_%285944746087%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Crested_auklet_pair_%285944746087%29.jpg/330px-Crested_auklet_pair_%285944746087%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Crested_auklet_pair_%285944746087%29.jpg/440px-Crested_auklet_pair_%285944746087%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="699" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption>Pair of crested auklets</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_selection">Sexual selection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sexual selection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></div> <p>In many species, males can produce a larger number of offspring over the course of their lives by minimizing parental investment in favor of investing time impregnating any reproductive-age female who is fertile. In contrast, a female can have a much smaller number of offspring during her reproductive life, partly due to higher obligate parental investment. Females will be more selective ("choosy") of mates than males will be, choosing males with good fitness (e.g., genes, high status, resources, etc.), so as to help offset any lack of direct parental investment from the male, and therefore increase reproductive success. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Trivers" title="Robert Trivers">Robert Trivers</a>' theory of parental investment predicts that the <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sex</a> making the largest investment in <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a>, nurturing, and protecting offspring will be more discriminating in <a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">mating</a>; and that the sex that invests less in offspring will compete via <a href="/wiki/Intrasexual_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrasexual selection">intrasexual selection</a> for access to the higher-investing sex (see <a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>In species where both sexes invest highly in parental care, mutual choosiness is expected to arise. An example of this is seen in <a href="/wiki/Crested_auklet" title="Crested auklet">crested auklets</a>, where parents share equal responsibility in incubating their single egg and raising the chick. In crested auklets, both sexes are ornamented.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parental_investment_in_humans">Parental investment in humans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Parental investment in humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Humans have evolved increasing levels of parental investment, both biologically and behaviorally. The fetus requires high investment from the mother, and the altricial newborn requires high investment from a community. Species whose newborn young are unable to move on their own and require parental care have a high degree of <a href="/wiki/Altriciality" class="mw-redirect" title="Altriciality">altriciality</a>. Human children are born unable to care for themselves and require additional parental investment post-birth in order to survive.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maternal_investment">Maternal investment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Maternal investment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trivers (1972)<sup id="cite_ref-Trivers1972_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trivers1972-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hypothesized that greater biologically obligated investment will predict greater voluntary investment. Mothers invest an impressive amount in their children before they are even born. The time and nutrients required to develop the fetus, and the risks associated with both giving these nutrients and undergoing childbirth, are a sizable investment. To ensure that this investment is not for nothing, mothers are likely to invest in their children after they are born, to be sure that they survive and are successful. Relative to most other species, human mothers give more resources to their offspring at a higher risk to their own health, even before the child is born. This is associated with the evolution of a slower life history, in which fewer, larger offspring are born after longer intervals, requiring increased parental investment.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Placenta_system.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Placenta_system.svg/220px-Placenta_system.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Placenta_system.svg/330px-Placenta_system.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Placenta_system.svg/440px-Placenta_system.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="389" data-file-height="358" /></a><figcaption>The placenta attaches to the uterine wall, and the umbilical cord connects it to the fetus.</figcaption></figure><p>The developing human fetus––and especially the brain––requires nutrients to grow. In the later weeks of gestation, the fetus requires increasing nutrients as the growth of the brain increases.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rodents and primates have the most invasive placenta phenotype, the hemochorial placenta, in which the chorion erodes the uterine epithelium and has direct contact with maternal blood. The other placental phenotypes are separated from the maternal bloodstream by at least one layer of tissue. The more invasive placenta allows for a more efficient transfer of nutrients between the mother and fetus, but it comes with risks as well. The fetus is able to release hormones directly into the mother's bloodstream to “demand” increased resources. This can result in health problems for the mother, such as <a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">pre-eclampsia</a>. During childbirth, the detachment of the placental chorion can cause excessive bleeding.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_dilemma" title="Obstetrical dilemma">obstetrical dilemma</a> also makes birth more difficult and results in increased maternal investment. Humans have evolved both bipedalism and large brain size. The evolution of bipedalism altered the shape of the pelvis, and shrunk the birth canal at the same time brains were evolving to be larger. The decreasing birth canal size meant that babies are born earlier in development, when they have smaller brains. Humans give birth to babies with brains 25% developed, while other primates give birth to offspring with brains 45-50% developed.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second possible explanation for the early birth in humans is the energy required to grow and sustain a larger brain. Supporting a larger brain gestationally requires energy the mother may be unable to invest.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The obstetrical dilemma makes birth challenging, and a distinguishing trait of humans is the need for assistance during childbirth. The altered shape of the bipedal pelvis requires that babies leave the birth canal facing away from the mother, contrary to all other primate species. This makes it more difficult for the mother to clear the baby's breathing passageways, to make sure the umbilical cord is not wrapped around the neck, and to pull the baby free without bending its body the wrong way.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The human need to have a birth attendant also requires <a href="/wiki/Sociality" title="Sociality">sociality</a>. In order to guarantee the presence of a birth attendant, humans must aggregate in groups. It has been controversially claimed that humans have <a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">eusociality</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> like ants and bees, in which there is relatively high parental investment, cooperative care of young, and division of labor. It is unclear which evolved first; sociality, bipedalism, or birth attendance. <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">Bonobos</a>, our closest living relatives alongside <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, have high female sociality and births among bonobos are also social events.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sociality may have been a prerequisite for birth attendance, and bipedalism and birth attendance could have evolved as long as five million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baby_Mother_Grandmother_and_Great_Grandmother.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Baby_Mother_Grandmother_and_Great_Grandmother.jpg/220px-Baby_Mother_Grandmother_and_Great_Grandmother.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Baby_Mother_Grandmother_and_Great_Grandmother.jpg/330px-Baby_Mother_Grandmother_and_Great_Grandmother.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Baby_Mother_Grandmother_and_Great_Grandmother.jpg/440px-Baby_Mother_Grandmother_and_Great_Grandmother.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2350" /></a><figcaption>A baby, mother, grandmother, and great-grandmother. In humans, grandparents often help to raise a child.</figcaption></figure><p>As female primates age, their ability to reproduce decreases. The <a href="/wiki/Grandmother_hypothesis" title="Grandmother hypothesis">grandmother hypothesis</a> describes the evolution of menopause, which may or may not be unique to humans among primates.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As women age, the costs of investing in additional reproduction increase and the benefits decrease. At menopause, it is more beneficial to stop reproduction and begin investing in grandchildren. Grandmothers are certain of their genetic relation to their grandchildren, especially the children of their daughters, because maternal certainty of their own children is high, and their daughters are certain of their maternity to their children as well. It has also been theorized that grandmothers preferentially invest in the daughters of their daughters because X chromosomes carry more DNA and their granddaughters are most closely related to them.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paternal_investment">Paternal investment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Paternal investment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Paternal_care" title="Paternal care">Paternal care</a></div> <p>As altriciality increased, investment from individuals other than the mother became more necessary. High sociality meant that female relatives were present to help the mother, but paternal investment increased as well. Paternal investment increases as it becomes more difficult to have additional children, and as the effects of investment on offspring fitness increase.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Men are more likely than women to give no parental investment to their children, and the children of low-investing fathers are more likely to give less parental investment to their own children. Father absence is a risk factor for both early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ellis,_B._J._2003_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ellis,_B._J._2003-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Father absence raises children's stress levels, which are linked to earlier onset of sexual activity and increased short-term mating orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Daughters of absent fathers are more likely to seek short-term partners, and one theory explains this as a preference for outside (non-partner) social support because of the perceived uncertain future and uncertain availability of committing partners in a high-stress environment.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Investment_as_predictor_of_mating_strategies">Investment as predictor of mating strategies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Investment as predictor of mating strategies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pregnancy_chance_by_day_near_ovulation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pregnancy_chance_by_day_near_ovulation.jpg/220px-Pregnancy_chance_by_day_near_ovulation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pregnancy_chance_by_day_near_ovulation.jpg/330px-Pregnancy_chance_by_day_near_ovulation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pregnancy_chance_by_day_near_ovulation.jpg/440px-Pregnancy_chance_by_day_near_ovulation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2286" data-file-height="1943" /></a><figcaption>Chance of <a href="/wiki/Human_fertilization" title="Human fertilization">fertilization</a> by <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">menstrual cycle</a> day relative to <a href="/wiki/Ovulation" title="Ovulation">ovulation</a>, with data from two different studies.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Concealed_ovulation">Concealed ovulation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Concealed ovulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></div> <p>Women can only get pregnant while ovulating. Human ovulation is concealed, or not signaled externally. Concealed ovulation decreases paternity certainty because men are unsure when women ovulate.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evolution of concealed ovulation has been theorized to be a result of altriciality and increased need for paternal investment—if men are unsure of the time of ovulation, the best way to successfully reproduce would be to repeatedly mate with a woman throughout her cycle, which requires pair bonding, which in turn increases paternal investment.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mating_orientations">Mating orientations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mating orientations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Human mating strategies</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sociosexual_orientation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociosexual orientation">Sociosexuality</a> was first described by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kinsey" title="Alfred Kinsey">Alfred Kinsey</a> as a willingness to engage in casual and uncommitted sexual relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sociosexual orientation describes sociosexuality on a scale from unrestricted to restricted. Individuals with an unrestricted sociosexual orientation have higher openness to sex in less committed relationships, and individuals with a restricted sociosexual orientation have lower openness to casual sexual relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto2_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, today it is acknowledged that sociosexuality does not in reality exist on a one-dimensional scale. Individuals who are less open to casual relationships are not always seeking committed relationships, and individuals who are less interested in committed relationships are not always interested in casual relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Short- and long-term mating orientations are the modern descriptors of openness to uncommitted and committed relationships, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parental investment theory, as proposed by Trivers, argues that the sex with higher obligatory investment will be more selective in choosing sex partners, and the sex with lower obligatory investment will be less selective and more interested in "casual" mating opportunities. The more investing sex cannot reproduce as frequently, causing the less investing sex to compete for mating opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In humans, women have higher obligatory investment (<a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> and childbirth), than men (<a href="/wiki/Sperm_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm production">sperm production</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Buss,_D._M._1993_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buss,_D._M._1993-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women are more likely to have higher long-term mating orientations, and men are more likely to have higher short-term mating orientations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Short- and long-term mating orientations influence women's preferences in men. Studies have found that women put great emphasis on career-orientation, ambition and devotion only when considering a long-term partner.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When marriage is not involved, women put greater emphasis on physical attractiveness.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, women prefer men who are likely to perform high parental investment and have good genes. Women prefer men with good financial status, who are more committed, who are more athletic, and who are healthier.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some inaccurate theories have been inspired by parental investment theory. The "structural powerlessness hypothesis"<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposes that women strive to find mates with access to high levels of resources because as women, they are excluded from these resources directly. However, this hypothesis has been disproved by studies which found that financially successful women place an even greater importance on financial status, social status, and possession of professional degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Polygyny">Polygyny</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Polygyny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Decreased polygyny is associated with increased paternal investment.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_demographic_transition">The demographic transition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The demographic transition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">demographic transition</a> describes the modern decrease in both birth and death rates. From a Darwinian perspective, it does not make sense that families with more resources are having fewer children. One explanation for the demographic transition is the increased parental investment required to raise children who will be able to maintain the same level of resources as their parents.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Parental_care_in_animals" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Parental care in animals">Parental care in animals</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_raising_a_child" title="Cost of raising a child">Cost of raising a child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_desertion" title="Mate desertion">Mate desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_care_in_birds" title="Parental care in birds">Parental care in birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precociality_and_altriciality" title="Precociality and altriciality">Precociality and altriciality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Clutton-Brock1991-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clutton-Brock1991_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clutton-Brock, T.H. 1991. <i>The Evolution of Parental Care</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton U. Press. pg. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trivers1972-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trivers1972_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trivers1972_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trivers1972_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trivers1972_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trivers1972_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Trivers, R.L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campbell (Ed.), <i>Sexual selection and the descent of man</i>, 1871-1971 (pp. 136–179). 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"Sexual Dimorphism in Mammals: Avian Models and Unanswered Questions". <i>The American Naturalist</i>. <b>111</b> (981): 917–938. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F283223">10.1086/283223</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0147">0003-0147</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38569769">38569769</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Sexual+Dimorphism+in+Mammals%3A+Avian+Models+and+Unanswered+Questions&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=981&rft.pages=917-938&rft.date=1977-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38569769%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0003-0147&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F283223&rft.aulast=Ralls&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParental+investment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorgerhoff_Mulder1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Monique_Borgerhoff_Mulder" title="Monique Borgerhoff Mulder">Borgerhoff Mulder, Monique</a> (July 1998). "The demographic transition: are we any closer to an evolutionary explanation?". <i>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>13</b> (7): 266–270. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998TEcoE..13..266B">1998TEcoE..13..266B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0169-5347%2898%2901357-3">10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01357-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-5347">0169-5347</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21238295">21238295</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+demographic+transition%3A+are+we+any+closer+to+an+evolutionary+explanation%3F&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=266-270&rft.date=1998-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0169-5347%2898%2901357-3&rft.issn=0169-5347&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21238295&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998TEcoE..13..266B&rft.aulast=Borgerhoff+Mulder&rft.aufirst=Monique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParental+investment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parental_investment&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Clutton-Brock, T.H. and C. Godfray. 1991. "Parental investment," in <i>Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach</i>. Edited by J.R. Krebs and N.B. Davies, pp. 234–262. Boston: Blackwell.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuss1989" class="citation journal cs1">Buss, David M. (March 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X00023992">"Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures"</a>. <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X00023992">10.1017/S0140525X00023992</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Sex+differences+in+human+mate+preferences%3A+Evolutionary+hypotheses+tested+in+37+cultures&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=1989-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X00023992&rft.aulast=Buss&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0140525X00023992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParental+investment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelskySteinbergDraper1991" class="citation journal cs1">Belsky J, Steinberg L, Draper P (August 1991). "Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: and evolutionary theory of socialization". <i>Child Development</i>. <b>62</b> (4): 647–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8624.1991.tb01558.x">10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01558.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1935336">1935336</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Child+Development&rft.atitle=Childhood+experience%2C+interpersonal+development%2C+and+reproductive+strategy%3A+and+evolutionary+theory+of+socialization&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=647-70&rft.date=1991-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8624.1991.tb01558.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1935336&rft.aulast=Belsky&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Steinberg%2C+L&rft.au=Draper%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParental+investment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodwardRichards2005" class="citation journal cs1">Woodward, Kevin; Richards, Miriam H. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbeheco%2Farh121">"The parental investment model and minimum mate choice criteria in humans"</a>. <i>Behavioral Ecology</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 57–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbeheco%2Farh121">10.1093/beheco/arh121</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Ecology&rft.atitle=The+parental+investment+model+and+minimum+mate+choice+criteria+in+humans&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57-61&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbeheco%2Farh121&rft.aulast=Woodward&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft.au=Richards%2C+Miriam+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fbeheco%252Farh121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParental+investment" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_C._Geary" title="David C. Geary">Geary, D. C.</a> (2005). Evolution of paternal investment. In <a href="/wiki/David_Buss" title="David Buss">D. M. Buss</a> (Ed.), <i>The handbook of evolutionary psychology</i> (pp. 483–505). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.missouri.edu/~gearyd/paternalinvest%5BChapFINAL%5D.pdf">Full text</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191220194815/http://web.missouri.edu/~gearyd/paternalinvest%5BChapFINAL%5D.pdf">Archived</a> 2019-12-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br />genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_impacts_of_cars" title="Societal impacts of cars">Societal impacts of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Category:Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Parenting" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Parenting" title="Template:Parenting"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Parenting" title="Template talk:Parenting"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Parenting" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Parenting"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Parenting" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">Parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father" title="Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">Adoptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloparenting" title="Alloparenting">Alloparenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coparenting" title="Coparenting">Coparenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">Extended family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">Foster care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noncustodial_parent" title="Noncustodial parent">Noncustodial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">Nuclear family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan" title="Orphan">Orphaned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_parenting" title="Shared parenting">Shared parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_parent" title="Single parent">Single parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepfamily" title="Stepfamily">Blended family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrogacy" title="Surrogacy">Surrogacy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_loco_parentis" title="In loco parentis">In loco parentis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories <b>·</b> Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">Child development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_human_body" title="Development of the human body">Human development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Identity formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introjection" title="Introjection">Introjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">Maternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">Paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_emotional_development" title="Social emotional development">Social emotional development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parenting_styles" title="Parenting styles">Styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achievement_ideology" title="Achievement ideology">Achievement ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_personality" title="Atlas personality">Atlas personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_parenting" title="Attachment parenting">Attachment parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_talk" title="Baby talk">Baby talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-like_mindset" title="Buddha-like mindset">Buddha-like parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concerted_cultivation" title="Concerted cultivation">Concerted cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enmeshment" title="Enmeshment">Enmeshment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-range_parenting" title="Free-range parenting">Free-range parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeper_parent" title="Gatekeeper parent">Gatekeeper parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter_parent" title="Helicopter parent">Helicopter parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurturant_parent_model" title="Nurturant parent model">Nurturant parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_parenting" title="Slow parenting">Slow parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soccer_mom" title="Soccer mom">Soccer mom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_father_model" title="Strict father model">Strict father model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taking_Children_Seriously" title="Taking Children Seriously">Taking children seriously</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theybie" class="mw-redirect" title="Theybie">Theybie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_parenting" title="Tiger parenting">Tiger parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_at_home_parent" title="Work at home parent">Work at home parent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/After-school_activity" title="After-school activity">After-school activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allowance_(money)#Allowances_for_children" title="Allowance (money)">Allowance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedtime" title="Bedtime">Bedtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-sleeping" title="Co-sleeping">Co-sleeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dishabituation" title="Dishabituation">Dishabituation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">Habituation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identification_(psychology)" title="Identification (psychology)">Identification (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introjection" title="Introjection">Introjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kommune_1" title="Kommune 1">Kommune 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latchkey_kid" title="Latchkey kid">Latchkey kid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_development" title="Moral development">Moral development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_social_influence" title="Normative social influence">Normative social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent_management_training" title="Parent management training">Parent management training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">Play</a> (<a href="/wiki/Play_date" title="Play date">date</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_model" title="Role model">Role model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk (race)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_birds_and_the_bees" title="The birds and the bees">The talk (sex education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy" title="Toy">Toy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Educational_toy" title="Educational toy">educational</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_P_(parenting_program)" title="Triple P (parenting program)">Positive Parenting Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Child_discipline" title="Child discipline">Child discipline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blanket_training" title="Blanket training">Blanket training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment_in_the_home" title="Corporal punishment in the home">Corporal punishment in the home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curfew" title="Curfew">Curfew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grounding_(discipline_technique)" title="Grounding (discipline technique)">Grounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_discipline" title="Positive discipline">Positive discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_treatment" title="Silent treatment">Tactical ignoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-out_(parenting)" title="Time-out (parenting)">Time-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Abuse</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences" title="Adverse childhood experiences">Adverse childhood experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">Child abandonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_neglect" title="Child neglect">Child neglect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codependency" title="Codependency">Codependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysfunctional_family" title="Dysfunctional family">Dysfunctional family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_domestic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of domestic violence">Effects of domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissistic_parent" title="Narcissistic parent">Narcissistic parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_abuse_by_children" title="Parental abuse by children">Parental abuse by children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_in_early_childhood" title="Stress in early childhood">Stress in early childhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal and<br />social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_custody" title="Child custody">Child custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_support" title="Child support">Child support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_raising_a_child" title="Cost of raising a child">Cost of raising a child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deadbeat_parent" title="Deadbeat parent">Deadbeat parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disownment" title="Disownment">Disownment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_disruption" title="Family disruption">Family disruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_family_life" title="Right to family life">Right to family life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_domestic_violence" title="Management of domestic violence">Management of domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_alienation" title="Parental alienation">Parental alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_responsibility_(access_and_custody)" title="Parental responsibility (access and custody)">Parental responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents%27_rights_movement" title="Parents' rights movement">Parents' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternity_law" title="Paternity law">Paternity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_parenting" title="Shared parenting">Shared parenting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth" title="Mary Ainsworth">Mary Ainsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">John Bowlby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._Berry_Brazelton" title="T. Berry Brazelton">T. Berry Brazelton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Dreikurs" title="Rudolf Dreikurs">Rudolf Dreikurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Elkind" title="David Elkind">David Elkind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Frost" title="Jo Frost">Jo Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haim_Ginott" title="Haim Ginott">Haim Ginott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gordon_(psychologist)" title="Thomas Gordon (psychologist)">Thomas Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_E._Kazdin" title="Alan E. Kazdin">Alan E. Kazdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truby_King" title="Truby King">Truby King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annette_Lareau" title="Annette Lareau">Annette Lareau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penelope_Leach" title="Penelope Leach">Penelope Leach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Sanders_(parenting_researcher)" title="Matthew Sanders (parenting researcher)">Matthew Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sears_(physician)" title="William Sears (physician)">William Sears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Spock" title="Benjamin Spock">Benjamin Spock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Families_Need_Fathers" title="Families Need Fathers">Families Need Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mothers_Apart_from_Their_Children" title="Mothers Apart from Their Children">Mothers Apart from Their Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mothers%27_Union" title="Mothers' Union">Mothers' Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Childbirth_Trust" title="National Childbirth Trust">National Childbirth Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Fatherhood_Initiative" title="National Fatherhood Initiative">National Fatherhood Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Parents_Organization" title="National Parents Organization">National Parents Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93teacher_association" title="Parent–teacher association">Parent–teacher association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents_Against_Child_Exploitation" title="Parents Against Child Exploitation">Parents Against Child Exploitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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