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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types of pollinators</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_pollinators-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of pollinators subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_pollinators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Insects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Insects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Bees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Butterflies_and_moths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Butterflies_and_moths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Butterflies and moths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Butterflies_and_moths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Flies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_insects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_insects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Other insects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_insects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Other invertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Vertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Floral_and_non-floral_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Floral_and_non-floral_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Floral and non-floral resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Floral_and_non-floral_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollinator_population_declines_and_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollinator_population_declines_and_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Pollinator population declines and conservation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pollinator_population_declines_and_conservation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Pollinator population declines and conservation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Pollinator_population_declines_and_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pesticide_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pesticide_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Pesticide usage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pesticide_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Strategy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>South America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Global</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure_of_plant-pollinator_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure_of_plant-pollinator_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Structure of plant-pollinator networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure_of_plant-pollinator_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opra%C5%A1iva%C4%8D" title="Oprašivač – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Oprašivač" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C2%B7linitzador" title="Pol·linitzador – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pol·linitzador" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opylova%C4%8D" title="Opylovač – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Opylovač" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polinizador" title="Polinizador – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Polinizador" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polenigisto" title="Polenigisto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Polenigisto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86" title="گرده‌افشان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گرده‌افشان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinisateur" title="Pollinisateur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pollinisateur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polinizador" title="Polinizador – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Polinizador" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%BD%83%EA%B0%80%EB%A3%A8_%EB%A7%A4%EA%B0%9C%EC%9E%90" title="꽃가루 매개자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="꽃가루 매개자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyerbuk" title="Penyerbuk – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penyerbuk" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insetti_pronubi" title="Insetti pronubi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Insetti pronubi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendebunga" title="Pendebunga – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pendebunga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%81%E7%B2%89%E8%80%85" title="送粉者 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="送粉者" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinat%C3%B8r" title="Pollinatør – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pollinatør" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polinizador" title="Polinizador – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Polinizador" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pollinator" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polinator" title="Polinator – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Polinator" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B6lytt%C3%A4j%C3%A4" title="Pölyttäjä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pölyttäjä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinat%C3%B6r" title="Pollinatör – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pollinatör" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mambubulo" title="Mambubulo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mambubulo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF" title="மகரந்தக்காவி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மகரந்தக்காவி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1141466#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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</div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the album by <a href="/wiki/Blondie_(band)" title="Blondie (band)">Blondie</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Pollinator_(album)" title="Pollinator (album)">Pollinator (album)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eristalinus_October_2007-6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Eristalinus_October_2007-6.jpg/250px-Eristalinus_October_2007-6.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Eristalinus_October_2007-6.jpg/375px-Eristalinus_October_2007-6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Eristalinus_October_2007-6.jpg/500px-Eristalinus_October_2007-6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1777" data-file-height="2062" /></a><figcaption>A syrphid fly (<i><a href="/wiki/Eristalinus_taeniops" title="Eristalinus taeniops">Eristalinus taeniops</a></i>) pollinating a <a href="/wiki/Common_hawkweed" class="mw-redirect" title="Common hawkweed">common hawkweed</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv/250px--Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="250" height="142" data-durationhint="19" data-mwtitle="Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="480" data-height="272" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/35/Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv/Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="272" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/35/Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv/Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="254" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/35/Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv/Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="424" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Andrena" title="Andrena">mining bee</a> (<i>Andrena lonicerae</i>) pollinating a <a href="/wiki/Honeysuckle" title="Honeysuckle">honeysuckle</a> (<i>Lonicera gracilipes</i>).</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>pollinator</b> is an animal that moves <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> from the male <a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">anther</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flower</a> to the female <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">stigma</a> of a flower.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This helps to bring about <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">ovules</a> in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains. </p><p>Insects are the major pollinators of most plants, and insect pollinators include all families of <a href="/wiki/Bees" class="mw-redirect" title="Bees">bees</a> and most families of <a href="/wiki/Aculeata" title="Aculeata">aculeate wasps</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>; many families of <a href="/wiki/Flies" class="mw-redirect" title="Flies">flies</a>; many <a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">lepidopterans</a> (both <a href="/wiki/Butterflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterflies">butterflies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moths" class="mw-redirect" title="Moths">moths</a>); and many families of <a href="/wiki/Beetles" class="mw-redirect" title="Beetles">beetles</a>. Vertebrates, mainly bats and birds, but also some non-bat mammals (<a href="/wiki/Monkey" title="Monkey">monkeys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lemur" title="Lemur">lemurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phalangeriformes" title="Phalangeriformes">possums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>) and some <a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a> pollinate certain plants. Among the pollinating birds are <a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">hummingbirds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honeyeaters" class="mw-redirect" title="Honeyeaters">honeyeaters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunbirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunbirds">sunbirds</a> with long beaks; they pollinate a number of deep-throated flowers. Humans may also carry out <a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">artificial pollination</a>. </p><p>A pollinator is different from a <a href="/wiki/Pollenizer" title="Pollenizer">pollenizer</a>, a plant that is a source of pollen for the <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a> process. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plants fall into <a href="/wiki/Pollination_syndrome" title="Pollination syndrome">pollination syndromes</a> that reflect the type of pollinator being attracted. These are characteristics such as: overall flower size, the depth and width of the corolla, the color (including patterns called <a href="/wiki/Nectar_guides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nectar guides">nectar guides</a> that are visible only in <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light), the <a href="/wiki/Odor" title="Odor">scent</a>, amount of nectar, composition of nectar, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, birds visit red flowers with long, narrow tubes and much nectar, but are not as strongly attracted to wide flowers with little nectar and copious pollen, which are more attractive to beetles. When these characteristics are experimentally modified (altering colour, size, orientation), pollinator visitation may decline.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid18707369_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18707369-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although non-bee pollinators have been seen to be less effective at depositing pollen than bee pollinators<sup id="cite_ref-:02_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one study showed that non-bees made more visits than bees resulting in non-bees performing 38% of visits to crop flowers, outweighing the ineffectiveness of their ability to pollinate.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has recently been discovered that <a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">cycads</a>, which are not <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>, are also pollinated by insects.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016, researchers showed evidence of pollination occurring underwater, which was previously thought not to happen.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_pollinators">Types of pollinators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of pollinators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insects">Insects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Insects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Entomophily" title="Entomophily">Entomophily</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bees">Bees</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lipotriches_sp..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Lipotriches_sp..jpg/220px-Lipotriches_sp..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Lipotriches_sp..jpg/330px-Lipotriches_sp..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Lipotriches_sp..jpg/440px-Lipotriches_sp..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Lipotriches" title="Lipotriches">Lipotriches</a></i> sp. bee pollinating flowers</figcaption></figure> <p>The most recognized pollinators are the various species of <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are plainly adapted to pollination. Bees typically are fuzzy and carry an <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic">electrostatic</a> charge. Both features help pollen grains adhere to their bodies, but they also have specialized pollen-carrying structures; in most bees, this takes the form of a structure known as the <a href="/wiki/Scopa_(biology)" title="Scopa (biology)">scopa</a>, which is on the hind legs of most bees, and/or the lower abdomen (e.g., of <a href="/wiki/Megachilidae" title="Megachilidae">megachilid</a> bees), made up of thick, plumose <a href="/wiki/Seta" title="Seta">setae</a>. <a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">Honey bees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bumblebee" title="Bumblebee">bumblebees</a>, and their relatives do not have a scopa, but the hind leg is modified into a structure called the corbicula (also known as the "<a href="/wiki/Pollen_basket" title="Pollen basket">pollen basket</a>"). Most bees gather <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a>, a concentrated energy source, and pollen, which is high <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> food, to nurture their young, and transfer some among the flowers as they are working.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Euglossini" title="Euglossini">Euglossine</a> bees pollinate orchids, but these are male bees collecting floral scents rather than females gathering nectar or pollen. Female orchid bees act as pollinators, but of flowers other than orchids. <a href="/wiki/Eusocial" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusocial">Eusocial</a> bees such as honey bees need an abundant and steady <a href="/wiki/Pollen_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollen source">pollen source</a> to multiply. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PrunusCerasifera0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/PrunusCerasifera0.jpg/170px-PrunusCerasifera0.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/PrunusCerasifera0.jpg/255px-PrunusCerasifera0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/PrunusCerasifera0.jpg/340px-PrunusCerasifera0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2081" data-file-height="2601" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">Honey bee</a> pollinating a plum tree. Bees are the most effective insect pollinators.</figcaption></figure> <p>Honey bees travel from flower to flower, collecting nectar (later converted to <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>), and pollen grains. The bee collects the pollen by rubbing against the anthers. The pollen collects on the hind legs, in a structure referred to as a "pollen basket". As the bee flies from flower to flower, some of the pollen grains are transferred onto the stigma of other flowers. Nectar provides the energy for bee <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutrition</a>; pollen provides the <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>. When bees are rearing large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Brood_(honey_bee)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood (honey bee)">brood</a> (beekeepers say hives are "building"), bees deliberately gather pollen to meet the nutritional needs of the brood. </p><p>Good pollination management seeks to have bees in a "building" state during the bloom period of the crop, thus requiring them to gather pollen, and making them more efficient pollinators. Thus, the management techniques of a <a href="/wiki/Beekeeper" title="Beekeeper">beekeeper</a> providing pollination services are different from, and to some extent in tension with, those of a beekeeper who is trying to produce honey. Millions of <a href="/wiki/Beehive_(beekeeping)" class="mw-redirect" title="Beehive (beekeeping)">hives</a> of honey bees are <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contracted</a> out as pollinators by <a href="/wiki/Beekeeping" title="Beekeeping">beekeepers</a>, and honey bees are by far the most important commercial pollinating agents, but many other kinds of pollinators, from blue bottle flies, to bumblebees, <a href="/wiki/Orchard_mason_bee" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchard mason bee">orchard mason bees</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alfalfa_leafcutter_bee" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfalfa leafcutter bee">leaf cutter bees</a> are cultured and sold for <a href="/wiki/Pollination_management" title="Pollination management">managed pollination</a>. </p><p>Other species of bees differ in various details of their behavior and pollen-gathering habits, and honey bees are not native to the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a>; all pollination of native plants in the Americas and Australia historically has been performed by various native bees. It has also been found that non-native plants may have positive effects on native bee pollinators while also influencing their foraging patterns and bee–plant networks.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Butterflies_and_moths">Butterflies and moths</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Butterflies and moths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_painted_lady_feeding_closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Australian_painted_lady_feeding_closeup.jpg/170px-Australian_painted_lady_feeding_closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Australian_painted_lady_feeding_closeup.jpg/255px-Australian_painted_lady_feeding_closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Australian_painted_lady_feeding_closeup.jpg/340px-Australian_painted_lady_feeding_closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Australian_painted_lady" title="Australian painted lady">Australian painted lady</a> feeding on nectar</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">Lepidoptera</a> (<a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">moths</a>) may also pollinate to various degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are not major pollinators of <a href="/wiki/Food_crop" class="mw-redirect" title="Food crop">food crops</a>, but various moths are important pollinators of other commercial crops such as <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>. Pollination by certain moths may be important, however, or even crucial, for some wildflowers mutually adapted to specialist pollinators. Spectacular examples include orchids such as <i><a href="/wiki/Angraecum_sesquipedale" title="Angraecum sesquipedale">Angraecum sesquipedale</a></i>, dependent on a particular <a href="/wiki/Sphingidae" title="Sphingidae">hawk moth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xanthopan_morganii" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthopan morganii">Morgan's sphinx</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Yucca" title="Yucca">Yucca</a></i> species provide other examples, being fertilised in elaborate ecological interactions with particular species of <a href="/wiki/Prodoxidae" title="Prodoxidae">yucca moths</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flies">Flies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Flies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Bombyliidae" title="Bombyliidae">bee flies</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Horse-fly" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse-fly">Tabanidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nemestrinidae" title="Nemestrinidae">Nemestrinidae</a> are particularly adapted to pollinating <a href="/wiki/Fynbos" title="Fynbos">fynbos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karoo" title="Karoo">Karoo</a> plants with narrow, deep <a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">corolla tubes</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Lapeirousia" title="Lapeirousia">Lapeirousia</a></i> species. Part of the adaptation takes the form of remarkably long probosces. This also applies to empidine dance flies (<a href="/wiki/Empidinae" title="Empidinae">Empidinae</a>) that visit a wide range of flowering plants, some species of which can pollinate the <a href="/wiki/Geranium_sylvaticum" title="Geranium sylvaticum">woodland geranium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geranium_sylvaticum" title="Geranium sylvaticum"><i>Geranium sylvaticum</i> L.</a>) as effectively as <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goudoogdaas_zijaanzicht_2009_08_23.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Goudoogdaas_zijaanzicht_2009_08_23.png/220px-Goudoogdaas_zijaanzicht_2009_08_23.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Goudoogdaas_zijaanzicht_2009_08_23.png/330px-Goudoogdaas_zijaanzicht_2009_08_23.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Goudoogdaas_zijaanzicht_2009_08_23.png/440px-Goudoogdaas_zijaanzicht_2009_08_23.png 2x" data-file-width="2281" data-file-height="1284" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Horse-fly" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse-fly">Tabanid</a> fly on a <a href="/wiki/Thistle" title="Thistle">thistle</a> flower</figcaption></figure> <p>Carrion flies and flesh flies in families such as <a href="/wiki/Calliphoridae" title="Calliphoridae">Calliphoridae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flesh-fly" class="mw-redirect" title="Flesh-fly">Sarcophagidae</a> are important for some species of plants whose flowers <a href="/wiki/Carrion_flower" title="Carrion flower">exude a fetid odor</a>. The plants' ecological strategy varies; several species of <i><a href="/wiki/Stapelia" title="Stapelia">Stapelia</a></i>, for example, attract carrion flies that futilely lay their eggs on the flower, where their larvae promptly starve for lack of <a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">carrion</a>. Other species do decay rapidly after ripening, and offer the visiting insects large masses of food, as well as pollen and sometimes seed to carry off when they leave. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hoverfly" title="Hoverfly">Hoverflies</a> are important pollinators of flowering plants worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-Larson_2001_439–465_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larson_2001_439–465-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often hoverflies are considered to be the second most important pollinators after wild bees.<sup id="cite_ref-Larson_2001_439–465_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larson_2001_439–465-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although hoverflies as a whole are generally considered to be nonselective pollinators, some species have more specialized relationships. The orchid species <i>Epipactis veratrifolia</i> mimics alarm <a href="/wiki/Pheromones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pheromones">pheromones</a> of aphids to attract hover flies for pollination.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another plant, the <a href="/wiki/Slipper_orchid" class="mw-redirect" title="Slipper orchid">slipper orchid</a> in southwest China, also achieves pollination by deceit by exploiting the <a href="/wiki/Innate" title="Innate">innate</a> yellow colour preference of syrphids.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some male <a href="/wiki/Dacini" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacini">dacine fruit flies</a> are exclusive pollinators of some wild <i><a href="/wiki/Bulbophyllum" title="Bulbophyllum">Bulbophyllum</a></i> orchids that lack nectar and have a specific chemical attractant and reward (methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone or zingerone) present in their floral fragrances.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_insects">Other insects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other insects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unidentified_Scoliidae_foraging_2012_02_26_3034s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Unidentified_Scoliidae_foraging_2012_02_26_3034s.jpg/220px-Unidentified_Scoliidae_foraging_2012_02_26_3034s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Unidentified_Scoliidae_foraging_2012_02_26_3034s.jpg/330px-Unidentified_Scoliidae_foraging_2012_02_26_3034s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Unidentified_Scoliidae_foraging_2012_02_26_3034s.jpg/440px-Unidentified_Scoliidae_foraging_2012_02_26_3034s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2373" data-file-height="1803" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Scoliid_wasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Scoliid wasp">Scoliid wasp</a> (<i>Scolia chrysotricha</i>) foraging</figcaption></figure> <p>Many insects other than bees accomplish pollination by visiting flowers for nectar or pollen, or commonly both. Many do so adventitiously, but the most important pollinators are specialists for at least parts of their life cycles for at least certain functions. </p><p>Prominent among Hymenoptera other than bees are predatory aculeate wasps (especially <a href="/wiki/Crabronidae" title="Crabronidae">Crabronidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sphecidae" title="Sphecidae">Sphecidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vespidae" title="Vespidae">Vespidae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pompilidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompilidae">Pompilidae</a>). The term "<a href="/wiki/Pollen_wasp" title="Pollen wasp">pollen wasps</a>", in particular, is widely applied to the Masarinae, a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">subfamily</a> of the Vespidae; they are remarkable among <a href="/wiki/Hunting_wasp" title="Hunting wasp">solitary wasps</a> in that they specialise in gathering pollen for feeding their larvae, carried internally and regurgitated into a mud chamber prior to oviposition. Also, males of many species of bees and wasps, though they do not gather pollen, rely on flowers as sources of energy (in the form of nectar) and also as territories for meeting fertile females that visit the flowers. </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Diptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Diptera">Diptera</a> (flies) may be the main pollinators at higher elevations of mountains,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas <a href="/wiki/Bumblebee" title="Bumblebee">bumblebee</a> species are typically the only other pollinators in alpine regions at timberline and beyond. </p><p>Some adult <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a>, if they feed on nectar, may act as pollinators; <i>Aedes communis</i>, a species found in North America, is known to pollinate <i><a href="/wiki/Platanthera_obtusata" title="Platanthera obtusata">Platanthera obtusata</a></i>, commonly referred as the blunt-leaved orchid.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">Beetles</a> of species that specialise in eating pollen, nectar, or flowers themselves, may be important cross-pollinators of some plants such as members of the <a href="/wiki/Araceae" title="Araceae">Araceae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zamiaceae" title="Zamiaceae">Zamiaceae</a>, that produce prodigious amounts of pollen. Others, for example the <a href="/wiki/Hopliini" class="mw-redirect" title="Hopliini">Hopliini</a>, specialise on flowers of <a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aizoaceae" title="Aizoaceae">Aizoaceae</a>. </p><p>Minute <a href="/wiki/Midge" title="Midge">midges</a> and flower-<a href="/wiki/Thrips" title="Thrips">thrips</a> can occur in vast numbers, moving between flowers and plant individuals, enabling some species to contribute to the pollination of tree-crops such as cacao, <i><a href="/wiki/Theobroma_cacao" title="Theobroma cacao">Theobroma cacao</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> L. (Malvaceae) and elderflower <i><a href="/wiki/Sambucus_nigra" title="Sambucus nigra">Sambucus nigra</a></i> L. (Adoxaceae).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">Ants</a> also pollinate some kinds of flowers, but for the most part they are parasites, consuming nectar and/or pollen without conveying useful amounts of pollen to a stigma. Other insect orders are rarely pollinators, and then typically only incidentally (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Hemiptera" title="Hemiptera">Hemiptera</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Anthocoridae" title="Anthocoridae">Anthocoridae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miridae" title="Miridae">Miridae</a>). </p><p>A strategy of great biological interest is that of sexual deception, where plants, generally <a href="/wiki/Orchidaceae#Pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchidaceae">orchids, produce remarkably complex combinations of pheromonal attractants and physical mimicry</a> that induce male <a href="/wiki/Apidae" title="Apidae">bees</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tiphiidae" title="Tiphiidae">wasps</a> to attempt to mate with them, conveying <a href="/wiki/Pollinium" title="Pollinium">pollinia</a> in the process. Examples are known from all continents apart from <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, though Australia appears to be exceptionally rich in examples.<sup id="cite_ref-OrchSex_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OrchSex-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whole groups of plants, such as certain <a href="/wiki/Fynbos" title="Fynbos">fynbos</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Moraea" title="Moraea">Moraea</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Erica_(plant)" title="Erica (plant)">Erica</a></i> species produce flowers on sticky <a href="/wiki/Peduncle_(botany)" title="Peduncle (botany)">peduncles</a> or with sticky <a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">corolla</a> tubes that only permit access to flying pollinators, whether bird, bat, or insect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_invertebrates">Other invertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Experimental evidence has shown invertebrates (mostly small <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a><sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) acting as pollinators in underwater environments. Beds of <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrass</a> have been shown to reproduce this way in the absence of currents. It is not yet known how important invertebrate pollinators might be for other species.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <i><a href="/wiki/Idotea_balthica" title="Idotea balthica">Idotea balthica</a></i> was discovered to help <i><a href="/wiki/Gracilaria" title="Gracilaria">Gracilaria</a> gracilis</i> reproduce – the first known case of an animal helping <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> reproduce.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tacca_chantrieri172799839.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tacca_chantrieri172799839.jpg/220px-Tacca_chantrieri172799839.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tacca_chantrieri172799839.jpg/330px-Tacca_chantrieri172799839.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tacca_chantrieri172799839.jpg/440px-Tacca_chantrieri172799839.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>Tropical flowers like <i><a href="/wiki/Tacca_chantrieri" title="Tacca chantrieri">Tacca chantrieri</a></i> are <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bat</a>-pollinated.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colibri_thalassinus_Curicancha_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Colibri_thalassinus_Curicancha_02.jpg/220px-Colibri_thalassinus_Curicancha_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Colibri_thalassinus_Curicancha_02.jpg/330px-Colibri_thalassinus_Curicancha_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Colibri_thalassinus_Curicancha_02.jpg/440px-Colibri_thalassinus_Curicancha_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2666" data-file-height="2666" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Green_violetear" title="Green violetear">Green violetear</a> with pollen on bill, <a href="/wiki/Curi_Cancha_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Curi Cancha Wildlife Refuge">Curi Cancha Wildlife Refuge</a>, Costa Rica</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">Bats</a> are important pollinators of some tropical flowers, visiting to take nectar.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birds, particularly <a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">hummingbirds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honeyeaters" class="mw-redirect" title="Honeyeaters">honeyeaters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunbirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunbirds">sunbirds</a> also accomplish much pollination, especially of deep-throated flowers. Other <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Kinkajou" title="Kinkajou">kinkajous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monkey" title="Monkey">monkeys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lemur" title="Lemur">lemurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phalangeriformes" title="Phalangeriformes">possums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been recorded pollinating some plants. </p><p>Humans can be pollinators, as many <a href="/wiki/Gardener" title="Gardener">gardeners</a> have discovered that they must <a href="/wiki/Hand_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand pollination">hand pollinate</a> garden <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a>, whether because of <a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">pollinator decline</a> or simply to keep a strain genetically pure. This can involve using a small brush or <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> swab to move pollen, or to simply tap or shake <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a> blossoms to release the pollen for the <a href="/wiki/Self-pollinating" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-pollinating">self-pollinating</a> flowers. Tomato blossoms are self-fertile, but (with the exception of potato-leaf varieties) have the pollen inside the <a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">anther</a>, and the flower requires shaking to release the pollen through <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pore" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:pore">pores</a>. This can be done by wind, by humans, or by a <a href="/wiki/Buzz_pollination" title="Buzz pollination">sonicating</a> bee (one that vibrates its wing muscles while perched on the flower), such as a bumblebee. Sonicating bees are extremely efficient pollinators of tomatoes, and colonies of bumblebees are quickly replacing humans as the primary pollinators for <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouse</a> tomatoes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Floral_and_non-floral_resources">Floral and non-floral resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Floral and non-floral resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pollinators require a variety of resources. Most native bees in North America are solitary, ground-nesting species that collect a variety of natural resources including pollen, nectar, leaves, petals and resins to be used as sources of food, supplies for their larva, or nest linings.<sup id="cite_ref-:82_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:82-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Floral diet diversity has been seen to increase immunocompetence levels in honeybees (Apis mellifera) where diets that consisted of a wide variety of flowering species induced higher glucose oxidase activity, which honeybees' produce to sterilize their colony.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 30% of global bee species depend on non-floral resources for nest building, protection, health, pest resistance, and alternative food sources.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-floral resources include leaves, soil, plant resins and secretions, and are often provided by woody-vegetation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pollinator_population_declines_and_conservation">Pollinator population declines and conservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pollinator population declines and conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">Pollinator decline</a></div> <p>Pollinators provide a key <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem service</a> vital to the maintenance of both wild and agricultural plant communities. In 1999 the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> issued the São Paulo Declaration on Pollinators, recognizing the critical role that these species play in supporting and maintaining terrestrial productivity as well as the survival challenges they face due to anthropogenic change. Today pollinators are considered to be in a state of decline;<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some species, such as Franklin's bumble bee (<i><a href="/wiki/Bombus_franklini" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombus franklini">Bombus franklini</a></i>) have been red-listed and are in danger of extinction. Although managed bee hives are increasing worldwide, these can not compensate for the loss of wild pollinators in many locations. </p><p>A 2017 report done for the Center of Biological Diversity utilized data documented in the United States on native bee species and found that nearly 1 in 4 (347 species of 1,437 species) is imperiled and at increasing risk of extinction. More than half of the native bee species is in decline and 40% of global insect pollinators (primarily native bees) are highly threatened.<sup id="cite_ref-:82_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:82-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Declines in the health and population of pollinators pose what could be a significant threat to the integrity of biodiversity, to global food webs, and to human health. At least 80% of our world's crop species require pollination to set seed. A 2021 study estimated that without pollinators, fertility would be reduced by 80% in half all wild plant species and one-third of all wild plant species would fail to produce any seeds at all.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An estimated one out of every three bites of food comes to us through the work of animal pollinators. The quality of pollinator service has declined over time and this had led to concerns that pollination will be less resistant to extinction in the future. </p><p>A 2022 study concludes that the decline of pollinator populations is responsible for 500,000 early human deaths per year by reducing the supply of healthy foods. A decline of pollinators has caused 3-5% loss of fruits, vegetables and nuts. Lower consumption of these healthy foods translates to 1% of all deaths, according to the authors.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pesticide_usage">Pesticide usage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Pesticide usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neonicotinoids (Neonics) are a class of synthetic insecticides that are the most widely applied pesticides today due to its water solubility and ability to treat a wide variety of pests. Neonics are highly environmentally persistent, and may contaminate terrestrial and aquatic habitats for as much as six years. Exposed honeybees' (Apis mellifera) have been seen to have lower reproductive output, reduction in nest building or failed to build nests, reduced foraging abilities, and weakened immunity.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategy">Strategy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Strategy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Pollinator" title="Talk:Pollinator">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Researchers are still trying to determine how to scientifically best restore and maintain the diverse pollinator habitats found around the world. Many studies conclude that restoration and conservation are key to maintaining biodiversity and pollinator populations. According to the Kansas National Park Service, native tallgrass prairie was widespread through North America and home to over 300 species of flowering plants. This habitat is crucial to wild pollinators and now only covers 4% of its original 170-million acre range.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By restoring wild pollinators natural habitat and maintaining Earth's biodiversity, populations are assumed to increase. In recent times, environmental groups have put pressure on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> to ban <a href="/wiki/Neonicotinoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Neonicotinoids">neonicotinoids</a>, a type of insecticide. </p><p>On June 20, 2014, President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> issued a presidential memorandum entitled "Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The President's memorandum established a Pollinator Health Task Force, to be co-chaired by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture" title="United States Secretary of Agriculture">Secretary of Agriculture</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Administrator_of_the_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency">Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency</a>. The memorandum stated: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Pollinators contribute substantially to the economy of the United States and are vital to keeping fruits, nuts, and vegetables in our diets. Honey bee pollination alone adds more than $15 billion in value to agricultural crops each year in the United States. Over the past few decades, there has been a significant loss of pollinators, including honey bees, native bees, birds, bats, and butterflies, from the environment. The problem is serious and requires immediate attention to ensure the sustainability of our food production systems, avoid additional economic impact on the agricultural sector, and protect the health of the environment.<br /><br /> Pollinator losses have been severe. The number of migrating <a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly" title="Monarch butterfly">Monarch butterflies</a> sank to the lowest recorded population level in 2013-14, and there is an imminent risk of failed migration. The continued loss of commercial honey bee colonies poses a threat to the economic stability of commercial beekeeping and pollination operations in the United States, which could have profound implications for agriculture and food. Severe yearly declines create concern that bee colony losses could reach a point from which the commercial pollination industry would not be able to adequately recover. The loss of native bees, which also play a key role in pollination of crops, is much less studied, but many native bee species are believed to be in decline. Scientists believe that bee losses are likely caused by a combination of stressors, including poor bee nutrition, loss of forage lands, parasites, pathogens, lack of genetic diversity, and exposure to pesticides.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In May 2015, the Pollinator Health Task Force issued a "National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The national strategy outlined a comprehensive approach to tackling and reducing the impact of multiple stressors on pollinator health, including pests and pathogens, reduced habitat, lack of nutritional resources, and exposure to pesticides.<sup id="cite_ref-strategy_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strategy-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Newswire_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newswire-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The national strategy laid out federal actions to achieve three goals: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <ul><li>Honey Bees: Reduce honey bee colony losses during winter (overwintering mortality) to no more than 15% within 10 years.</li> <li>Monarch Butterflies: Increase the Eastern population of the monarch butterfly to 225 million butterflies occupying an area of approximately 15 acres (6 hectares) in the overwintering grounds in Mexico, through domestic/international actions and public-private partnerships, by 2020.</li> <li>Pollinator Habitat Acreage: Restore or enhance 7 million acres of land for pollinators over the next 5 years through Federal actions and public/private partnerships.<sup id="cite_ref-strategy_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strategy-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Newswire_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newswire-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></blockquote> <p>Many of the priority projects that the national strategy identified focused on the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_35" title="Interstate 35">I-35</a> corridor, which extends for 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from Texas to Minnesota. The area through which that highway travels provides spring and summer breeding habitats in the United States' key monarch migration corridor.<sup id="cite_ref-strategy_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strategy-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Newswire_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newswire-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Pollinator Health Task Force simultaneously issued a "Pollinator Research Action Plan". The Plan outlined five main action areas, covered in ten subject-specific chapters. The action areas were: (1) Setting a Baseline; (2) Assessing Environmental Stressors; (3) Restoring Habitat; (4) Understanding and Supporting Stakeholders; (5) Curating and Sharing Knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Newswire_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newswire-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2016, the Task Force issued a "Pollinator Partnership Action Plan". That Plan provided examples of past, ongoing, and possible future collaborations between the federal government and non-federal institutions to support pollinator health under each of the national strategy's goals.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_America">North America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The North American Pollinator Protection Campaign (NAPPC) aims to promote pollinator health across the North America and has organized annual conferences since 1997, creates task forces to implement specific objectives that includes public education and policy research, and is developing strategic plans for conservation that looks to establish partnership between government entities. 11 pollinator-protection agreements have been signed between NAPCC and federal government agencies, responsible for more than 1.5 billion acres of land protections and management.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Along with the <a href="/wiki/European_Green_Deal" title="European Green Deal">European Green Deal</a>, which contains initiatives that support pollinator populations, the European Union has implemented the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 which includes the EU Pollinators Initiative that sets long-term objectives to reverse pollinator decline in diversity and numbers by 2030. This initiative includes: (1) improving knowledge of pollinator decline, its causes and consequences; (2) tackling the causes of pollinator decline; and (3) raising awareness, engaging society-at-large and promoting collaboration.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_America">South America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Healthy Hives Latin America 2020 (Salud Apícola 2020 Latinoamérica) program is a collaboration between the Bayer Bee Care Center and the Fraunhofer Chile Research Foundation, that works alongside local researchers at universities and beekeepers' associations. The program focuses on increasing the number of healthy worker bees and their colonies by monitoring honey bee health and the contributing factors. This includes educating beekeepers and research collaborations to jointly work on honey bee health. Founded in 2015 with a preliminary project in Chile, the program has expanded to Colombia, Argentina, and Costa Rica.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Global">Global</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Global"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ‘Coalition of the Willing on Pollinators' (Promote Pollinators) was initiated in 2016 during the Convention on Biological Diversity's Conference of the Parties (CBD COP13) and is a growing alliance of countries and observers who support the notion that country-led politics can lead to policy measures and innovative action to protect pollinators'. Their supporters are growing steadily, in which 30 countries currently participate.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure_of_plant-pollinator_networks">Structure of plant-pollinator networks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Structure of plant-pollinator networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pollination_syndrome" title="Pollination syndrome">Pollination syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_crop_plants_pollinated_by_bees" title="List of crop plants pollinated by bees">List of crop plants pollinated by bees</a></div> <p>Wild pollinators often visit many plant species and plants are visited by many pollinator species. All these relations together form a network of interactions between plants and pollinators. Surprising similarities were found in the structure of networks consisting out of the interactions between plants and pollinators. This structure was found to be similar in very different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12881488_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12881488-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The structure of plant-pollinator networks may have large consequences for the way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. Mathematical models, examining the consequences of this network structure for the stability of pollinator communities suggest that the specific way in which plant-pollinator networks are organized minimizes competition between pollinators<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19396144_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19396144-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and may even lead to strong indirect facilitation between pollinators when conditions are harsh.<sup id="cite_ref-Lever_et_al_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lever_et_al-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows pollinator species to survive together under harsh conditions. But it also means that pollinator species collapse simultaneously when conditions pass a critical point. This simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Lever_et_al_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lever_et_al-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such a community-wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh conditions pass a critical point and recovery from such a collapse might not be easy. The improvement in conditions needed for pollinators to recover, could be substantially larger than the improvement needed to return to conditions at which the pollinator community collapsed.<sup id="cite_ref-Lever_et_al_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lever_et_al-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self-pollination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator_Partnership" title="Pollinator Partnership">Pollinator Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">Pollinator-mediated selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polli:Nation" title="Polli:Nation">Polli:Nation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/pollinators/what-is-a-pollinator.htm">"Pollinator"</a>. <i>What is a pollinator?</i>. 3 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=What+is+a+pollinator%3F&rft.atitle=Pollinator&rft.date=2021-02-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fsubjects%2Fpollinators%2Fwhat-is-a-pollinator.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollinator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFægrivan_der_Pijl1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Knut_F%C3%A6gri" title="Knut Fægri">Fægri K</a>, van der Pijl L (1979). <i>The Principles of Pollination Ecology</i>. 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"The sudden collapse of pollinator communities". <i>Ecology Letters</i>. <b>17</b> (3): 350–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014EcolL..17..350L">2014EcolL..17..350L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fele.12236">10.1111/ele.12236</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F91808">10261/91808</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24386999">24386999</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Letters&rft.atitle=The+sudden+collapse+of+pollinator+communities&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=350-9&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10261%2F91808&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24386999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fele.12236&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014EcolL..17..350L&rft.aulast=Lever&rft.aufirst=JJ&rft.au=van+Nes%2C+EH&rft.au=Scheffer%2C+M&rft.au=Bascompte%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollinator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSprengel1793" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Christian_Konrad_Sprengel" title="Christian Konrad Sprengel">Sprengel CK</a> (1793). <i>Das entdeckte Geheimnis der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen</i> [<i>The discovered secret of nature in the construction and fertilization of flowers</i>] (in German). 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New York: Pergamon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Pollination+Ecology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=F%C3%A6gri&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=van+der+Pijl%2C+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollinator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPercival1965" class="citation book cs1">Percival MS (1965). <i>Floral Biology</i>. New York: Pergamon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Floral+Biology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Percival&rft.aufirst=MS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollinator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReal1983" class="citation book cs1">Real L (1983). <i>Pollination Biology</i>. New York: Academic Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pollination+Biology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Real&rft.aufirst=L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollinator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBascompteJordanoMeliánOlesen2003" class="citation journal cs1">Bascompte J, Jordano P, Melián CJ, Olesen JM (August 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC170927">"The nested assembly of plant-animal mutualistic networks"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>100</b> (16): 9383–7. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PNAS..100.9383B">2003PNAS..100.9383B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1633576100">10.1073/pnas.1633576100</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC170927">170927</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12881488">12881488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=The+nested+assembly+of+plant-animal+mutualistic+networks&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=9383-7&rft.date=2003-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC170927%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12881488&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1633576100&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003PNAS..100.9383B&rft.aulast=Bascompte&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Jordano%2C+P&rft.au=Meli%C3%A1n%2C+CJ&rft.au=Olesen%2C+JM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC170927&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollinator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBastollaFortunaPascual-GarcíaFerrera2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bastolla U, Fortuna MA, Pascual-García A, Ferrera A, Luque B, Bascompte J (April 2009). "The architecture of mutualistic networks minimizes competition and increases biodiversity". <i>Nature</i>. <b>458</b> (7241): 1018–20. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.458.1018B">2009Natur.458.1018B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07950">10.1038/nature07950</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19396144">19396144</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4395634">4395634</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+architecture+of+mutualistic+networks+minimizes+competition+and+increases+biodiversity&rft.volume=458&rft.issue=7241&rft.pages=1018-20&rft.date=2009-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature07950&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4395634%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19396144&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Natur.458.1018B&rft.aulast=Bastolla&rft.aufirst=U&rft.au=Fortuna%2C+MA&rft.au=Pascual-Garc%C3%ADa%2C+A&rft.au=Ferrera%2C+A&rft.au=Luque%2C+B&rft.au=Bascompte%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollinator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevervan_NesSchefferBascompte2014" class="citation journal cs1">Lever JJ, van Nes EH, Scheffer M, Bascompte J (March 2014). "The sudden collapse of pollinator communities". <i>Ecology Letters</i>. <b>17</b> (3): 350–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014EcolL..17..350L">2014EcolL..17..350L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fele.12236">10.1111/ele.12236</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F91808">10261/91808</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24386999">24386999</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Letters&rft.atitle=The+sudden+collapse+of+pollinator+communities&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=350-9&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10261%2F91808&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24386999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fele.12236&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014EcolL..17..350L&rft.aulast=Lever&rft.aufirst=JJ&rft.au=van+Nes%2C+EH&rft.au=Scheffer%2C+M&rft.au=Bascompte%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollinator" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Botany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Botany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Botany" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" 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