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of plate boundaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_plate_boundaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Driving_forces_of_plate_motion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Driving_forces_of_plate_motion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Driving forces of plate motion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Driving_forces_of_plate_motion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Driving forces of plate motion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Driving_forces_of_plate_motion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Driving_forces_related_to_mantle_dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Driving_forces_related_to_mantle_dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Driving forces related to mantle dynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Driving_forces_related_to_mantle_dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plume_tectonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plume_tectonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Plume tectonics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plume_tectonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surge_tectonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surge_tectonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Surge tectonics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surge_tectonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Driving_forces_related_to_gravity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Driving_forces_related_to_gravity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Driving forces related to gravity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Driving_forces_related_to_gravity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Driving_forces_related_to_Earth_rotation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Driving_forces_related_to_Earth_rotation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Driving forces related to Earth rotation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Driving_forces_related_to_Earth_rotation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possible_tidal_effect_on_plate_tectonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_tidal_effect_on_plate_tectonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Possible tidal effect on plate tectonics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_tidal_effect_on_plate_tectonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Role of water</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relative_significance_of_each_driving_force_mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relative_significance_of_each_driving_force_mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Relative significance of each driving force mechanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relative_significance_of_each_driving_force_mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_the_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_the_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History of the theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_the_theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History of the theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_the_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Summary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continental_drift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continental_drift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Continental drift</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continental_drift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Floating_continents,_paleomagnetism,_and_seismicity_zones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Floating_continents,_paleomagnetism,_and_seismicity_zones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Floating continents, paleomagnetism, and seismicity zones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Floating_continents,_paleomagnetism,_and_seismicity_zones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-oceanic_ridge_spreading_and_convection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-oceanic_ridge_spreading_and_convection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Mid-oceanic ridge spreading and convection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid-oceanic_ridge_spreading_and_convection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetic_striping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_striping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Magnetic striping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_striping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definition_and_refining_of_the_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition_and_refining_of_the_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Definition and refining of the theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition_and_refining_of_the_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implications_for_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implications_for_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Implications for life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implications_for_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plate_reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plate_reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Plate reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plate_reconstruction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Plate reconstruction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Plate_reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Defining_plate_boundaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defining_plate_boundaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Defining plate boundaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defining_plate_boundaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_plate_tectonics_and_past_plate_motions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_plate_tectonics_and_past_plate_motions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Emergence of plate tectonics and past plate motions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_plate_tectonics_and_past_plate_motions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation_and_break-up_of_continents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_and_break-up_of_continents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Formation and break-up of continents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_and_break-up_of_continents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_plates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_plates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Modern plates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_plates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_celestial_bodies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_celestial_bodies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Other celestial bodies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_celestial_bodies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other celestial bodies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_celestial_bodies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Venus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Venus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Venus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Venus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Mars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Icy_moons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Icy_moons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Icy moons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Icy_moons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exoplanets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exoplanets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Exoplanets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exoplanets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.2</span> <span>Articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Plate tectonics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 111 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-111" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">111 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaattektoniek" title="Plaattektoniek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Plaattektoniek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plattentektonik" title="Plattentektonik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Plattentektonik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الصفائح التكتونية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الصفائح التكتونية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonica_de_placas" title="Tectonica de placas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Tectonica de placas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%A6%9F%27%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F" title="টেক্‌ট'নিক প্লেট – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="টেক্‌ট'নিক প্লেট" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tect%C3%B3nica_de_plaques" title="Tectónica de plaques – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tectónica de plaques" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mba%27ekuaar%C3%A3_yvy%27ape_retepy_rehegua" title="Mba'ekuaarã yvy'ape retepy rehegua – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mba'ekuaarã yvy'ape retepy rehegua" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonik_plit%C9%99l%C9%99r" title="Tektonik plitələr – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tektonik plitələr" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="تکتونیک صفحه‌لر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تکتونیک صفحه‌لر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="ভূত্বকীয় পাত সংস্থান তত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূত্বকীয় পাত সংস্থান তত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1n-kho%C3%A0i_k%C3%B2%CD%98-ch%C5%8D" title="Pán-khoài kò͘-chō – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pán-khoài kò͘-chō" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lempeng_tektonik" title="Lempeng tektonik – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Lempeng tektonik" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Плиталар тектоникаһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Плиталар тектоникаһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82" title="Тэктоніка пліт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тэктоніка пліт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82" title="Тэктоніка пліт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Тэктоніка пліт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="प्लेट टेक्टॉनिक्स – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="प्लेट टेक्टॉनिक्स" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Тектоника на плочите – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Тектоника на плочите" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonika_plo%C4%8Da" title="Tektonika ploča – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Tektonika ploča" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonik_ar_plakenno%C3%B9" title="Tektonik ar plakennoù – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tektonik ar plakennoù" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tect%C3%B2nica_de_plaques" title="Tectònica de plaques – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tectònica de plaques" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Плитасен тектоники – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Плитасен тектоники" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskov%C3%A1_tektonika" title="Desková tektonika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Desková tektonika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectoneg_platiau" title="Tectoneg platiau – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Tectoneg platiau" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pladetektonik" title="Pladetektonik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pladetektonik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plattentektonik" title="Plattentektonik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Plattentektonik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laamtektoonika" title="Laamtektoonika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Laamtektoonika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Τεκτονικές πλάκες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τεκτονικές πλάκες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tect%C3%B3nica_de_placas" title="Tectónica de placas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tectónica de placas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platotektoniko" title="Platotektoniko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Platotektoniko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaken_tektonika" title="Plaken tektonika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Plaken tektonika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA_%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="زمین‌ساخت صفحه‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زمین‌ساخت صفحه‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Plate tectonics" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonique_des_plaques" title="Tectonique des plaques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tectonique des plaques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teicteonaic_phl%C3%A1ta%C3%AD" title="Teicteonaic phlátaí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teicteonaic phlátaí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tect%C3%B3nica_de_placas" title="Tectónica de placas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tectónica de placas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%90_%EA%B5%AC%EC%A1%B0%EB%A1%A0" title="판 구조론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="판 구조론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Սալերի տեկտոնիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սալերի տեկտոնիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="प्लेट विवर्तनिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्लेट विवर्तनिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonika_plo%C4%8Da" title="Tektonika ploča – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tektonika ploča" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plako-dinamiko" title="Plako-dinamiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Plako-dinamiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonika_lempeng" title="Tektonika lempeng – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tektonika lempeng" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flekakenningin" title="Flekakenningin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Flekakenningin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tettonica_delle_placche" title="Tettonica delle placche – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tettonica delle placche" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%97%D7%95%D7%AA" title="טקטוניקת הלוחות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טקטוניקת הלוחות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A8mp%C3%A8ng_t%C3%A8ktonik" title="Lèmpèng tèktonik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Lèmpèng tèktonik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%AB%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4" title="ಭೂಫಲಕ ಸಿದ್ಧಾಂತ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭೂಫಲಕ ಸಿದ್ಧಾಂತ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ფილების ტექტონიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფილების ტექტონიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Тақталар тектоникасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тақталар тектоникасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonieth_plattys" title="Tektonieth plattys – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Tektonieth plattys" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandunia" title="Gandunia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Gandunia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonik_plak" title="Tektonik plak – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Tektonik plak" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonik_di_s%C3%A9_plak" title="Tektonik di sé plak – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Tektonik di sé plak" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonica_laminarum" title="Tectonica laminarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Tectonica laminarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C4%81t%C5%86u_tektonika" title="Plātņu tektonika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Plātņu tektonika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plok%C5%A1%C4%8Di%C5%B3_tektonika" title="Plokščių tektonika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Plokščių tektonika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaattektoniek" title="Plaattektoniek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Plaattektoniek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemeztektonika" title="Lemeztektonika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Lemeztektonika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Тектоника на плочите – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Тектоника на плочите" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%82" title="ഫലകചലനസിദ്ധാന്തം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഫലകചലനസിദ്ധാന്തം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%83" title="بلات تكتونك – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بلات تكتونك" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plat_tektonik" title="Plat tektonik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Plat tektonik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Тектоник хавтан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Тектоник хавтан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platentektoniek" title="Platentektoniek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Platentektoniek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="प्लेट टेक्टोनिक्स – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्लेट टेक्टोनिक्स" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%97%E3%83%AC%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%86%E3%82%AF%E3%83%88%E3%83%8B%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9" title="プレートテクトニクス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="プレートテクトニクス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platetektonikk" title="Platetektonikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Platetektonikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platetektonikk" title="Platetektonikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Platetektonikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonica_de_las_placas" title="Tectonica de las placas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tectonica de las placas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algata_Jaardachee" title="Algata Jaardachee – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Algata Jaardachee" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangi_global_tektonika" title="Yangi global tektonika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yangi global tektonika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%98%E0%A8%BE%E0%A9%9C%E0%A8%A4" title="ਪੱਤਰੀ ਘਾੜਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪੱਤਰੀ ਘਾੜਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%B9_%D9%B9%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%D9%88%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="پلیٹ ٹیکٹونکس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پلیٹ ٹیکٹونکس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%81%D9%85%DA%A9%DB%90_%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%AC%D9%88%DA%93%DA%9A%D8%AA" title="د ځمکې د تختو جوړښت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ځمکې د تختو جوړښت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliet_tektanix" title="Pliet tektanix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Pliet tektanix" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet%C3%B2nica_a_plache" title="Tetònica a plache – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Tetònica a plache" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platentektonik" title="Platentektonik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Platentektonik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonika_p%C5%82yt" title="Tektonika płyt – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tektonika płyt" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tect%C3%B3nica_de_placas" title="Tectónica de placas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tectónica de placas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonica_pl%C4%83cilor" title="Tectonica plăcilor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tectonica plăcilor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonica_da_plattas" title="Tectonica da plattas – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Tectonica da plattas" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mast%27a_tiktunikukuna" title="Mast'a tiktunikukuna – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Mast'a tiktunikukuna" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Тектоника плит – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тектоника плит" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Plate tectonics" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pllaka_tektonike" title="Pllaka tektonike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Pllaka tektonike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%96%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%92_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="භූකාරක තැටි වාදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="භූකාරක තැටි වාදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Plate tectonics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plat%C5%88ov%C3%A1_tektonika" title="Platňová tektonika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Platňová tektonika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonika_plo%C5%A1%C4%8D" title="Tektonika plošč – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tektonika plošč" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%8E%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%86%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%95%DA%95%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="تێکتۆنیکی پەڕەیی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تێکتۆنیکی پەڕەیی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B0" title="Тектоника плоча – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Тектоника плоча" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonika_plo%C4%8Da" title="Tektonika ploča – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tektonika ploča" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelat_tektonik" title="Pelat tektonik – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Pelat tektonik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laattatektoniikka" title="Laattatektoniikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Laattatektoniikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plattektonik" title="Plattektonik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Plattektonik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonikong_plato" title="Tektonikong plato – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Tektonikong plato" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="தட்டுப் புவிப்பொறைக் கட்டமைப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தட்டுப் புவிப்பொறைக் கட்டமைப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%A3_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%82" title="పలక విరూపణ సిద్ధాంతం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పలక విరూపణ సిద్ధాంతం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9C%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84" title="การแปรสัณฐานแผ่นธรณีภาค – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การแปรสัณฐานแผ่นธรณีภาค" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr 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lithosphere</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tectonic plates" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_Plates_(film)" title="Tectonic Plates (film)"><i>Tectonic Plates</i> (film)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tectonic_plates_(2022).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg/300px-Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg/450px-Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg/600px-Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="975" /></a><figcaption>Map of Earth's 16 principal tectonic plates<br /> Divergent: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#a50f15 solid 2px;"> </span> Spreading center</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#e7298a solid 2px;"> </span> Extension zone</div> Convergent: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#08519c solid 2px;"> </span> Subduction zone</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#8c6bb1 solid 2px;"> </span> Collision zone</div> Transform: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#fe9929 solid 2px;"> </span> Dextral transform</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#006837 solid 2px;"> </span> Sinistral transform</div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_cutaway_schematic-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Earth_cutaway_schematic-en.svg/300px-Earth_cutaway_schematic-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Earth_cutaway_schematic-en.svg/450px-Earth_cutaway_schematic-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Earth_cutaway_schematic-en.svg/600px-Earth_cutaway_schematic-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the internal layering of Earth showing the 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="border:2px solid #BFB4A2;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Geology" title="Category:Geology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#D8B982;font-size:175%;padding:0.2em;font-weight:normal;"><b><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></b></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/100px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/150px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/200px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><b>Science of the solid Earth</b></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #FFFBF4;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" title="Index of geology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geology" title="Outline of geology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology" title="Category:Geology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geology" title="Timeline of geology">Timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">Rock</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">Igneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">Sedimentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">Metamorphic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">Sediment</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strata" class="mw-redirect" title="Strata">Strata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">Weathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)">Laws, principles, theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphic principles</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_original_horizontality" title="Principle of original horizontality">Principle of original horizontality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">Law of superposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_lateral_continuity" title="Principle of lateral continuity">Principle of lateral continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_cross-cutting_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of cross-cutting relationships">Principle of cross-cutting relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_faunal_succession" title="Principle of faunal succession">Principle of faunal succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_included_fragments" title="Law of included fragments">Principle of inclusions and components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Walther's law">Walther's law</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.2em;"><hr /> <ul><li><b>Composition</b></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">Sedimentology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Structure of Earth">Structure of Earth</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Landform structures</b></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_Geology" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural Geology">Structural Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology">Volcanology</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Geologic history</b></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #90db90;padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geology#Branches_of_geology" title="Outline of geology">Branches of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologist</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_geologists" title="List of geologists">List)</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Methods</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_survey" title="Geological survey">Geological survey</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)">Applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_geology" title="Mining geology">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geology" title="Military geology">Military</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_geological_features_of_the_Solar_System" title="Lists of geological features of the Solar System">Lists of geological features of the Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_solar_terrestrial_planets" title="Geology of solar terrestrial planets">Geology of solar terrestrial planets</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>By planet and body</b></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mercury" title="Geology of Mercury">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Venus" title="Geology of Venus">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon" title="Geology of the Moon">Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mars" title="Geology of Mars">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4_Vesta#Geology" title="4 Vesta"> Vesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Ceres" title="Geology of Ceres">Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)#Structure" title="Io (moon)">Io</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)#Surface_features" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Triton" title="Geology of Triton">Triton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Pluto" title="Geology of Pluto">Pluto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Charon" title="Geology of Charon">Charon</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.25em 0.25em 0.25em; display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #FFFBF4;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geology_sidebar" title="Template:Geology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Geology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Plate tectonics</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <i> <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tectonicus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:tectonicus">tectonicus</a></i></i>, from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:τεκτονικός">τεκτονικός</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>tektonikós</i></span>)</i> 'pertaining to building')<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittleFowlerCoulson1990_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittleFowlerCoulson1990-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> comprises a number of large <b>tectonic plates</b>, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Dhuime2012_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dhuime2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harrison2009_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison2009-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Windley2021_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Windley2021-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The model builds on the concept of <em><a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a></em>, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">geoscientists</a> after <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> was validated in the mid-to-late 1960s. The processes that result in plates and shape <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a> are called <i><a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">tectonics</a></i>. Tectonic plates also occur in other planets and moons. </p><p>Earth's lithosphere, the rigid outer shell of the planet including the <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upper_mantle" title="Upper mantle">upper mantle</a>, is fractured into seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates or "platelets". Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of <b>plate boundary</b> (or <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">fault</a>): <em><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent</a></em>, <em><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">divergent</a></em>, or <em><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">transform</a></em>. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReadWatson1975_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReadWatson1975-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Faults tend to be geologically active, experiencing <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic activity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mountain-building" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain-building">mountain-building</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trench</a> formation. </p><p>Tectonic plates are composed of the oceanic lithosphere and the thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent plate boundaries</a>, the process of <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> carries the edge of one plate down under the other plate and into the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a>. This process reduces the total surface area (crust) of the Earth. The lost surface is balanced by the formation of new <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> along divergent margins by seafloor spreading, keeping the total <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">surface area</a> constant in a tectonic "conveyor belt". </p><p>Tectonic plates are relatively <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical properties">rigid</a> and float across the ductile <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a> beneath. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">convection</a> currents, the slow creeping motion of Earth's solid mantle. At a seafloor <a href="/wiki/Spreading_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Spreading ridge">spreading ridge</a>, plates move away from the ridge, which is a <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topographic</a> high, and the newly formed crust cools as it moves away, increasing its <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> and contributing to the motion. At a <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zone, the relatively cold, dense oceanic crust sinks down into the mantle, forming the downward convecting limb of a <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">mantle cell</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is the strongest driver of plate motion.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConradLithgow-Bertelloni2002_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConradLithgow-Bertelloni2002-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relative importance and interaction of other proposed factors such as active convection, upwelling inside the mantle, and tidal drag of the Moon is still the subject of debate. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_principles">Key principles</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plate_tectonics" title="Special:EditPage/Plate tectonics">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Structure_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Structure of Earth">outer layers of Earth</a> are divided into the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a>. The division is based on differences in <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical properties">mechanical properties</a> and in the method for <a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">the transfer of heat</a>. The lithosphere is cooler and more rigid, while the asthenosphere is hotter and flows more easily. In terms of heat transfer, the lithosphere loses heat by <a href="/wiki/Heat_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat conduction">conduction</a>, whereas the asthenosphere also transfers heat by <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> and has a nearly <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic">adiabatic</a> temperature gradient. This division should not be confused with the <i>chemical</i> subdivision of these same layers into the mantle (comprising both the asthenosphere and the mantle portion of the lithosphere) and the crust: a given piece of mantle may be part of the lithosphere or the asthenosphere at different times depending on its temperature and pressure. </p><p>The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct <a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates" title="List of tectonic plates">tectonic plates</a>, which ride on the <a href="/wiki/Viscoelastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscoelastic">fluid-like solid</a> the <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a>. Plate motions range from 10 to 40 millimetres per year (0.4 to 1.6 in/year) at the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a> (about as fast as <a href="/wiki/Fingernail" class="mw-redirect" title="Fingernail">fingernails</a> grow), to about 160 millimetres per year (6.3 in/year) for the <a href="/wiki/Nazca_plate" title="Nazca plate">Nazca plate</a> (about as fast as <a href="/wiki/Hair" title="Hair">hair</a> grows).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhen_Shao1997_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhen_Shao1997-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHancockSkinnerDineley2000_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHancockSkinnerDineley2000-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tectonic lithosphere plates consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by one or two types of crustal material: <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> (in older texts called <i><a href="/wiki/Sima_(geology)" title="Sima (geology)">sima</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Sial" title="Sial">sial</a></i> from silicon and <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>). The distinction between oceanic crust and continental crust is based on their modes of formation. Oceanic crust is formed at sea-floor spreading centers. Continental crust is formed through <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">arc volcanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(geology)" title="Accretion (geology)">accretion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Terrane" title="Terrane">terranes</a> through plate tectonic processes. Oceanic crust is denser than continental crust because it has less silicon and more of the heavier <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">elements</a> than <a href="/wiki/Felsic" title="Felsic">continental crust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmidtHarbert1998_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmidtHarbert1998-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of this density difference, oceanic crust generally lies below <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>, while continental crust <a href="/wiki/Isostasy" title="Isostasy">buoyantly projects</a> above sea level. </p><p>Average oceanic lithosphere is typically 100 km (62 mi) thick.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurcotteSchubert20025_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurcotteSchubert20025-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its thickness is a function of its age. As time passes, it cools by conducting heat from below, and releasing it raditively into space. The adjacent mantle below is cooled by this process and added to its base. Because it is formed at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outwards, its thickness is therefore a function of its distance from the mid-ocean ridge where it was formed. For a typical distance that oceanic lithosphere must travel before being subducted, the thickness varies from about 6 km (4 mi) thick at mid-ocean ridges to greater than 100 km (62 mi) at <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zones. For shorter or longer distances, the subduction zone, and therefore also the mean, thickness becomes smaller or larger, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurcotteSchubert2002_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurcotteSchubert2002-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Continental lithosphere is typically about 200 km (120 mi) thick, though this varies considerably between basins, mountain ranges, and stable <a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">cratonic</a> interiors of continents. </p><p>The location where two plates meet is called a <i>plate boundary</i>. Plate boundaries are where geological events occur, such as <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> and the creation of topographic features such as <a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trenches</a>. The vast majority of the world's active volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, with the Pacific plate's <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Ring of Fire">Ring of Fire</a> being the most active and widely known. Some volcanoes occur in the interiors of plates, and these have been variously attributed to internal plate deformation<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoulger2010_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoulger2010-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to mantle plumes. </p><p>Tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, or both. For example, the <a href="/wiki/African_plate" title="African plate">African plate</a> includes the continent and parts of the floor of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian</a> Oceans. </p><p>Some pieces of oceanic crust, known as <a href="/wiki/Ophiolite" title="Ophiolite">ophiolites</a>, failed to be subducted under continental crust at destructive plate boundaries; instead these oceanic crustal fragments were pushed upward and were preserved within continental crust. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_plate_boundaries">Types of plate boundaries</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plate_interactions" title="List of tectonic plate interactions">List of tectonic plate interactions</a></div> <p>Three types of plate boundaries exist,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeissner2002100_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeissner2002100-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other. They are associated with different types of surface phenomena. The different types of plate boundaries are:<sup id="cite_ref-platetectonics.com_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-platetectonics.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-usgs.understanding.com_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs.understanding.com-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Continental-continental_constructive_plate_boundary.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Continental-continental_constructive_plate_boundary.svg/250px-Continental-continental_constructive_plate_boundary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Continental-continental_constructive_plate_boundary.svg/375px-Continental-continental_constructive_plate_boundary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Continental-continental_constructive_plate_boundary.svg/500px-Continental-continental_constructive_plate_boundary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2512" data-file-height="1507" /></a><figcaption>Divergent boundary</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundaries</a></i> (<i>constructive boundaries</i> or <i>extensional boundaries</i>). These are where two plates slide apart from each other. At zones of ocean-to-ocean rifting, divergent boundaries form by seafloor spreading, allowing for the formation of new <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">ocean basin</a>, e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</a>. As the ocean plate splits, the ridge forms at the spreading center, the ocean basin expands, and finally, the plate area increases causing many small volcanoes and/or shallow earthquakes. At zones of continent-to-continent rifting, divergent boundaries may cause new ocean basin to form as the continent splits, spreads, the central rift collapses, and ocean fills the basin, e.g., the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Rift" title="East African Rift">East African Rift</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Baikal_Rift_Zone" title="Baikal Rift Zone">Baikal Rift</a>, the <a href="/wiki/West_Antarctic_Rift" class="mw-redirect" title="West Antarctic Rift">West Antarctic Rift</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande_Rift" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio Grande Rift">Rio Grande Rift</a>.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Continental-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Continental-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg/250px-Continental-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Continental-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg/375px-Continental-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Continental-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg/500px-Continental-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2512" data-file-height="1537" /></a><figcaption>Convergent boundary</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundaries</a></i> (<i>destructive boundaries</i> or <i>active margins</i>) occur where two plates slide toward each other to form either a <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zone (one plate moving underneath the other) or a <a href="/wiki/Continental_collision" title="Continental collision">continental collision</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dd>Subduction zones are of two types: ocean-to-continent subduction, where the dense oceanic lithosphere plunges beneath the less dense continent, or ocean-to-ocean subduction where older, cooler, denser oceanic crust slips beneath less dense oceanic crust. Deep marine trenches are typically associated with subduction zones, and the basins that develop along the active boundary are often called "foreland basins".</dd> <dd>Earthquakes trace the path of the downward-moving plate as it descends into asthenosphere, a trench forms, and as the subducted plate is heated it releases volatiles, mostly water from <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">hydrous minerals</a>, into the surrounding mantle. The addition of water lowers the melting point of the mantle material above the subducting slab, causing it to melt. The magma that results typically leads to volcanism.<sup id="cite_ref-H2O_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-H2O-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>At zones of ocean-to-ocean subduction a deep trench to forms in an arc shape. The upper mantle of the subducted plate then heats and magma rises to form curving chains of volcanic islands e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arc</a>.</dd> <dd>At zones of ocean-to-continent subduction mountain ranges form, e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Range" title="Cascade Range">Cascade Range</a>.</dd> <dd>At continental collision zones there are two masses of continental lithosphere converging. Since they are of similar density, neither is subducted. The plate edges are compressed, folded, and uplifted forming mountain ranges, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>. Closure of ocean basins can occur at continent-to-continent boundaries.</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_opposite_directions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_opposite_directions.svg/250px-Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_opposite_directions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_opposite_directions.svg/375px-Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_opposite_directions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_opposite_directions.svg/500px-Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_opposite_directions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2637" data-file-height="1484" /></a><figcaption>Transform boundary</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform boundaries</a></i> (<i>conservative boundaries</i> or <i> strike-slip boundaries</i>) occur where plates are neither created nor destroyed. Instead two plates slide, or perhaps more accurately grind past each other, along <a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">transform faults</a>. The relative motion of the two plates is either <a href="/wiki/Sinistral_and_dextral" title="Sinistral and dextral">sinistral</a> (left side toward the observer) or <a href="/wiki/Sinistral_and_dextral" title="Sinistral and dextral">dextral</a> (right side toward the observer). Transform faults occur across a spreading center. Strong earthquakes can occur along a fault. The <a href="/wiki/San_Andreas_Fault" title="San Andreas Fault">San Andreas Fault</a> in California is an example of a transform boundary exhibiting dextral motion.</li> <li>Other <i>plate boundary zones</i> occur where the effects of the interactions are unclear, and the boundaries, usually occurring along a broad belt, are not well defined and may show various types of movements in different episodes.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Driving_forces_of_plate_motion">Driving forces of plate motion</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_plate_motion_2008-04-17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Global_plate_motion_2008-04-17.jpg/300px-Global_plate_motion_2008-04-17.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Global_plate_motion_2008-04-17.jpg/450px-Global_plate_motion_2008-04-17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Global_plate_motion_2008-04-17.jpg/600px-Global_plate_motion_2008-04-17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="495" /></a><figcaption>Plate motion based on <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> (GPS) satellite data from NASA <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sideshow.jpl.nasa.gov/mbh/series.html">JPL</a>. Each red dot is a measuring point and vectors show direction and magnitude of motion.</figcaption></figure> <p>Tectonic plates are able to move because of the relative density of <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_lithosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic lithosphere">oceanic lithosphere</a> and the relative weakness of the <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a>. <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_internal_heat_budget" title="Earth's internal heat budget">Dissipation of heat from the mantle</a> is the original source of the energy required to drive plate tectonics through convection or large scale upwelling and doming. As a consequence, a powerful source generating plate motion is the excess density of the oceanic lithosphere sinking in subduction zones. When the new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, this oceanic lithosphere is initially less dense than the underlying asthenosphere, but it becomes denser with age as it conductively cools and thickens. The greater <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> of old lithosphere relative to the underlying asthenosphere allows it to sink into the deep mantle at subduction zones, providing most of the driving force for plate movement. The weakness of the asthenosphere allows the tectonic plates to move easily towards a subduction zone.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Driving_forces_related_to_mantle_dynamics">Driving forces related to mantle dynamics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">Mantle convection</a></div> <p>For much of the first quarter of the 20th century, the leading theory of the driving force behind tectonic plate motions envisaged large scale convection currents in the upper mantle, which can be transmitted through the asthenosphere. This theory was launched by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Holmes" title="Arthur Holmes">Arthur Holmes</a> and some forerunners in the 1930s<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was immediately recognized as the solution for the acceptance of the theory as originally discussed in the papers of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a> in the early years of the 20th century. However, despite its acceptance, it was long debated in the scientific community because the leading theory still envisaged a static Earth without moving continents up until the major breakthroughs of the early sixties. </p><p>Two- and three-dimensional imaging of Earth's interior (<a href="/wiki/Seismic_tomography" title="Seismic tomography">seismic tomography</a>) shows a varying lateral density distribution throughout the mantle. Such density variations can be material (from rock chemistry), mineral (from variations in mineral structures), or thermal (through thermal expansion and contraction from heat energy). The manifestation of this varying lateral density is <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">mantle convection</a> from buoyancy forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETanimotoLay2000_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETanimotoLay2000-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>How mantle convection directly and indirectly relates to plate motion is a matter of ongoing study and discussion in <a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">geodynamics</a>. Somehow, this <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> must be transferred to the lithosphere for tectonic plates to move. There are essentially two main types of mechanisms that are thought to exist related to the dynamics of the mantle that influence plate motion which are primary (through the large scale convection cells) or secondary. The secondary mechanisms view plate motion driven by friction between the convection currents in the asthenosphere and the more rigid overlying lithosphere. This is due to the inflow of mantle material related to the downward pull on plates in subduction zones at ocean trenches. Slab pull may occur in a geodynamic setting where basal tractions continue to act on the plate as it dives into the mantle (although perhaps to a greater extent acting on both the under and upper side of the slab). Furthermore, slabs that are broken off and sink into the mantle can cause viscous mantle forces driving plates through slab suction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plume_tectonics">Plume tectonics</h4></div> <p>In the theory of <a href="/wiki/Plume_tectonics" title="Plume tectonics">plume tectonics</a> followed by numerous researchers during the 1990s, a modified concept of mantle convection currents is used. It asserts that super plumes rise from the deeper mantle and are the drivers or substitutes of the major convection cells. These ideas find their roots in the early 1930s in the works of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Belousov" title="Vladimir Belousov">Beloussov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reinout_Willem_van_Bemmelen" title="Reinout Willem van Bemmelen">van Bemmelen</a>, which were initially opposed to plate tectonics and placed the mechanism in a fixed frame of vertical movements. Van Bemmelen later modified the concept in his "Undation Models" and used "Mantle Blisters" as the driving force for horizontal movements, invoking gravitational forces away from the regional crustal doming.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Bemmelen1976_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Bemmelen1976-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Bemmelen1972_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Bemmelen1972-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theories find resonance in the modern theories which envisage <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hot spots</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantle plumes">mantle plumes</a> which remain fixed and are overridden by oceanic and continental lithosphere plates over time and leave their traces in the geological record (though these phenomena are not invoked as real driving mechanisms, but rather as modulators). </p><p>The mechanism is still advocated to explain the break-up of supercontinents during specific geological epochs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegev2002_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegev2002-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has followers amongst the scientists involved in the <a href="/wiki/Expanding_Earth" title="Expanding Earth">theory of Earth expansion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaruyama1994_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaruyama1994-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYuenMaruyamaKaratoWindley2007_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuenMaruyamaKaratoWindley2007-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWezel1988_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWezel1988-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Surge_tectonics">Surge tectonics</h4></div> <p>Another theory is that the mantle flows neither in cells nor large plumes but rather as a series of channels just below Earth's crust, which then provide basal friction to the lithosphere. This theory, called "surge tectonics", was popularized during the 1980s and 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyerhoffTanerMorrisAgocs1996_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerhoffTanerMorrisAgocs1996-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent research, based on three-dimensional computer modelling, suggests that plate geometry is governed by a feedback between mantle convection patterns and the strength of the lithosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallardColticeSetonMüller2016_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallardColticeSetonMüller2016-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Driving_forces_related_to_gravity">Driving forces related to gravity</h3></div> <p>Forces related to gravity are invoked as secondary phenomena within the framework of a more general driving mechanism such as the various forms of mantle dynamics described above. In modern views, gravity is invoked as the major driving force, through slab pull along subduction zones. </p><p>Gravitational sliding away from a spreading ridge is one of the proposed driving forces, it proposes plate motion is driven by the higher elevation of plates at ocean ridges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence1987_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1987-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhiteMcKenzie1989_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhiteMcKenzie1989-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As oceanic lithosphere is formed at spreading ridges from hot mantle material, it gradually cools and thickens with age (and thus adds distance from the ridge). Cool oceanic lithosphere is significantly denser than the hot mantle material from which it is derived and so with increasing thickness it gradually subsides into the mantle to compensate the greater load. The result is a slight lateral incline with increased distance from the ridge axis. </p><p>This force is regarded as a secondary force and is often referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Ridge_push_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Ridge push force">ridge push</a>". This is a misnomer as there is no force "pushing" horizontally, indeed tensional features are dominant along ridges. It is more accurate to refer to this mechanism as "gravitational sliding", since the topography across the whole plate can vary considerably and spreading ridges are only the most prominent feature. Other mechanisms generating this gravitational secondary force include <a href="/wiki/Lithospheric_flexure" title="Lithospheric flexure">flexural bulging</a> of the lithosphere before it dives underneath an adjacent plate, producing a clear topographical feature that can offset, or at least affect, the influence of topographical ocean ridges. <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">Mantle plumes</a> and hot spots are also postulated to impinge on the underside of tectonic plates. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a>: Scientific opinion is that the asthenosphere is insufficiently competent or rigid to directly cause motion by friction along the base of the lithosphere. Slab pull is therefore most widely thought to be the greatest force acting on the plates. In this understanding, plate motion is mostly driven by the weight of cold, dense plates sinking into the mantle at trenches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConradLithgow-Bertelloni2002_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConradLithgow-Bertelloni2002-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent models indicate that <a href="/wiki/Back-arc_basin" title="Back-arc basin">trench suction</a> plays an important role as well. However, the fact that the <a href="/wiki/North_American_plate" title="North American plate">North American plate</a> is nowhere being subducted, although it is in motion, presents a problem. The same holds for the African, <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_plate" title="Eurasian plate">Eurasian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_plate" title="Antarctic plate">Antarctic</a> plates. </p><p>Gravitational sliding away from mantle doming: According to older theories, one of the driving mechanisms of the plates is the existence of large scale asthenosphere/mantle domes which cause the gravitational sliding of lithosphere plates away from them (see the paragraph on Mantle Mechanisms). This gravitational sliding represents a secondary phenomenon of this basically vertically oriented mechanism. It finds its roots in the Undation Model of <a href="/wiki/Reinout_Willem_van_Bemmelen" title="Reinout Willem van Bemmelen">van Bemmelen</a>. This can act on various scales, from the small scale of one island arc up to the larger scale of an entire ocean basin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence1987_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1987-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhiteMcKenzie1989_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhiteMcKenzie1989-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegev2002_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegev2002-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Driving_forces_related_to_Earth_rotation">Driving forces related to Earth rotation</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a>, being a <a href="/wiki/Meteorologist" title="Meteorologist">meteorologist</a>, had proposed <a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">tidal forces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_force" title="Centrifugal force">centrifugal forces</a> as the main driving mechanisms behind <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a>; however, these forces were considered far too small to cause continental motion as the concept was of continents plowing through oceanic crust.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, Wegener later changed his position and asserted that convection currents are the main driving force of plate tectonics in the last edition of his book in 1929. </p><p>However, in the plate tectonics context (accepted since the <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> proposals of Heezen, Hess, Dietz, Morley, Vine, and Matthews (see below) during the early 1960s), the oceanic crust is suggested to be in motion <i>with</i> the continents which caused the proposals related to Earth rotation to be reconsidered. In more recent literature, these driving forces are: </p> <ol><li>Tidal drag due to the gravitational force the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> (and the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>) exerts on the crust of Earth<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Global deformation of the <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a> due to small displacements of the rotational pole with respect to Earth's crust</li> <li>Other smaller deformation effects of the crust due to wobbles and spin movements of Earth's rotation on a smaller timescale</li></ol> <p>Forces that are small and generally negligible are: </p> <ol><li>The <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a><sup id="cite_ref-Ricard_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ricard-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Glatzmaier2013_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glatzmaier2013-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_force" title="Centrifugal force">centrifugal force</a>, which is treated as a slight modification of gravity<sup id="cite_ref-Ricard_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ricard-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Glatzmaier2013_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glatzmaier2013-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 249">: 249 </span></sup></li></ol> <p>For these mechanisms to be overall valid, systematic relationships should exist all over the globe between the orientation and kinematics of deformation and the geographical <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudinal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitudinal</a> grid of Earth itself. These systematic relations studies in the second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century underline exactly the opposite: that the plates had not moved in time, that the deformation grid was fixed with respect to Earth's <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> and axis, and that gravitational driving forces were generally acting vertically and caused only local horizontal movements (the so-called pre-plate tectonic, "fixist theories"). Later studies (discussed below on this page), therefore, invoked many of the relationships recognized during this pre-plate tectonics period to support their theories (see reviews of these various mechanisms related to Earth rotation the work of van Dijk and collaborators).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possible_tidal_effect_on_plate_tectonics">Possible tidal effect on plate tectonics<span class="anchor" id="Tidal_effect"></span></h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tidal_triggering_of_earthquakes" title="Tidal triggering of earthquakes">Tidal triggering of earthquakes</a></div> <p>Of the many forces discussed above, tidal force is still highly debated and defended as a possible principal driving force of plate tectonics. The other forces are only used in global geodynamic models not using plate tectonics concepts (therefore beyond the discussions treated in this section) or proposed as minor modulations within the overall plate tectonics model. In 1973, George W. Moore<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore1973_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore1973-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">USGS</a> and R. C. Bostrom<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBostrom1971_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBostrom1971-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> presented evidence for a general westward drift of Earth's lithosphere with respect to the mantle, based on the steepness of the subduction zones (shallow dipping towards the east, steeply dipping towards the west). They concluded that tidal forces (the tidal lag or "friction") caused by Earth's rotation and the forces acting upon it by the Moon are a driving force for plate tectonics. As Earth spins eastward beneath the Moon, the Moon's gravity ever so slightly pulls Earth's surface layer back westward, just as proposed by Alfred Wegener (see above). Since 1990 this theory is mainly advocated by Doglioni and co-workers (<a href="#CITEREFDoglioni1990">Doglioni 1990</a>), such as in a more recent 2006 study,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScoppolaBoccalettiBevisCarminati2006_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScoppolaBoccalettiBevisCarminati2006-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where scientists reviewed and advocated these ideas. It has been suggested in <a href="#CITEREFLovett2006">Lovett (2006)</a> that this observation may also explain why <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> have no plate tectonics, as Venus has no moon and Mars' moons are too small to have significant tidal effects on the planet. In a paper by Torsvik et al.,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETorsvikSteinbergerGurnisGaina2010_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorsvikSteinbergerGurnisGaina2010-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was suggested that, on the other hand, it can easily be observed that many plates are moving north and eastward, and that the dominantly westward motion of the Pacific Ocean basins derives simply from the eastward bias of the Pacific spreading center (which is not a predicted manifestation of such lunar forces). In the same paper the authors admit, however, that relative to the lower mantle, there is a slight westward component in the motions of all the plates. They demonstrated though that the westward drift, seen only for the past 30 Ma, is attributed to the increased dominance of the steadily growing and accelerating Pacific plate. The debate is still open, and a recent paper by Hofmeister et al. (2022)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHofmeisterCrissCriss2022_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHofmeisterCrissCriss2022-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> revived the idea advocating again the interaction between the Earth's rotation and the Moon as main driving forces for the plates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_water">Role of water</h3></div> <p>The role of water has been proposed to be crucial in plate tectonics on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relative_significance_of_each_driving_force_mechanism">Relative significance of each driving force mechanism</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_vector" title="Euclidean vector">vector</a> of a plate's motion is a function of all the forces acting on the plate; however, therein lies the problem regarding the degree to which each process contributes to the overall motion of each tectonic plate. </p><p>The diversity of geodynamic settings and the properties of each plate result from the impact of the various processes actively driving each individual plate. One method of dealing with this problem is to consider the relative rate at which each plate is moving as well as the evidence related to the significance of each process to the overall driving force on the plate. </p><p>One of the most significant correlations discovered to date is that lithospheric plates attached to downgoing (subducting) plates move much faster than other types of plates. The Pacific plate, for instance, is essentially surrounded by zones of subduction (the so-called Ring of Fire) and moves much faster than the plates of the Atlantic basin, which are attached (perhaps one could say 'welded') to adjacent continents instead of subducting plates. It is thus thought that forces associated with the downgoing plate (slab pull and slab suction) are the driving forces which determine the motion of plates, except for those plates which are not being subducted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConradLithgow-Bertelloni2002_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConradLithgow-Bertelloni2002-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view however has been contradicted by a recent study which found that the actual motions of the Pacific plate and other plates associated with the East Pacific Rise do not correlate mainly with either slab pull or slab push, but rather with a mantle convection upwelling whose horizontal spreading along the bases of the various plates drives them along via viscosity-related traction forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Rowley-etal_2016_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowley-etal_2016-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The driving forces of plate motion continue to be active subjects of on-going research within <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">geophysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tectonophysics" title="Tectonophysics">tectonophysics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_theory">History of the theory</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plate_Tectonics_Revolution" title="Plate Tectonics Revolution">Plate Tectonics Revolution</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Summary">Summary</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tectonic_plates_boundaries_physical_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tectonic_plates_boundaries_physical_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg/300px-Tectonic_plates_boundaries_physical_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tectonic_plates_boundaries_physical_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg/450px-Tectonic_plates_boundaries_physical_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tectonic_plates_boundaries_physical_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg/600px-Tectonic_plates_boundaries_physical_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4903" data-file-height="2996" /></a><figcaption>Detailed map showing the tectonic plates with their movement vectors.</figcaption></figure> <p>The development of the theory of plate tectonics was the scientific and cultural change which occurred during a period of 50 years of scientific debate. The event of the acceptance itself was a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a> and can therefore be classified as a scientific revolution,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> now described as the <a href="/wiki/Plate_Tectonics_Revolution" title="Plate Tectonics Revolution">Plate Tectonics Revolution</a>. </p><p>Around the start of the twentieth century, various theorists unsuccessfully attempted to explain the many geographical, geological, and biological continuities between continents. In 1912, the meteorologist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a> described what he called continental drift, an idea that culminated fifty years later in the modern theory of plate tectonics.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wegener expanded his theory in his 1915 book <i>The Origin of Continents and Oceans</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWegener1929_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWegener1929-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting from the idea (also expressed by his forerunners) that the present continents once formed a single land mass (later called <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>), Wegener suggested that these separated and drifted apart, likening them to "icebergs" of low density <a href="/wiki/Sial" title="Sial">sial</a> floating on a sea of denser <a href="/wiki/Sima_(geology)" title="Sima (geology)">sima</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWegener1966_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWegener1966-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supporting evidence for the idea came from the dove-tailing outlines of South America's east coast and Africa's west coast <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Snider-Pellegrini" title="Antonio Snider-Pellegrini">Antonio Snider-Pellegrini</a> had drawn on his maps, and from the matching of the rock formations along these edges. Confirmation of their previous contiguous nature also came from the fossil plants <i><a href="/wiki/Glossopteris" title="Glossopteris">Glossopteris</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Gangamopteris" title="Gangamopteris">Gangamopteris</a></i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Therapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapsid">therapsid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mammal-like_reptile" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammal-like reptile">mammal-like reptile</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Lystrosaurus" title="Lystrosaurus">Lystrosaurus</a></i>, all widely distributed over South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia. The evidence for such an erstwhile joining of these continents was patent to field geologists working in the southern hemisphere. The South African <a href="/wiki/Alex_du_Toit" class="mw-redirect" title="Alex du Toit">Alex du Toit</a> put together a mass of such information in his 1937 publication <i>Our Wandering Continents</i>, and went further than Wegener in recognising the strong links between the <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> fragments. </p><p>Wegener's work was initially not widely accepted, in part due to a lack of detailed evidence but mostly because of the lack of a reasonable physically supported mechanism. Earth might have a solid crust and mantle and a liquid core, but there seemed to be no way that portions of the crust could move around. Many distinguished scientists of the time, such as <a href="/wiki/Harold_Jeffreys" title="Harold Jeffreys">Harold Jeffreys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Schuchert" title="Charles Schuchert">Charles Schuchert</a>, were outspoken critics of continental drift. </p><p>Despite much opposition, the view of continental drift gained support and a lively debate started between "drifters" or "mobilists" (proponents of the theory) and "fixists" (opponents). During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the former reached important milestones proposing that <a href="/wiki/Convection_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Convection current">convection currents</a> might have driven the plate movements, and that spreading may have occurred below the sea within the oceanic crust. Concepts close to the elements of plate tectonics were proposed by geophysicists and geologists (both fixists and mobilists) like Vening-Meinesz, Holmes, and Umbgrove. In 1941, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Ampferer" title="Otto Ampferer">Otto Ampferer</a> described, in his publication "Thoughts on the motion picture of the Atlantic region",<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> processes that anticipated <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the first pieces of geophysical evidence that was used to support the movement of lithospheric plates came from <a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">paleomagnetism</a>. This is based on the fact that rocks of different ages show a variable <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> direction, evidenced by studies since the mid–nineteenth century. The magnetic north and south poles reverse through time, and, especially important in paleotectonic studies, the relative position of the magnetic north pole varies through time. Initially, during the first half of the twentieth century, the latter phenomenon was explained by introducing what was called "polar wander" (see <a href="/wiki/Apparent_polar_wander" title="Apparent polar wander">apparent polar wander</a>) (i.e., it was assumed that the north pole location had been shifting through time). An alternative explanation, though, was that the continents had moved (shifted and rotated) relative to the north pole, and each continent, in fact, shows its own "polar wander path". During the late 1950s, it was successfully shown on two occasions that these data could show the validity of continental drift: by Keith Runcorn in a paper in 1956,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuncorn1956_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuncorn1956-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by Warren Carey in a symposium held in March 1956.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarey1958_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey1958-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second piece of evidence in support of continental drift came during the late 1950s and early 60s from data on the bathymetry of the deep <a href="/wiki/Ocean_floor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean floor">ocean floors</a> and the nature of the oceanic crust such as magnetic properties and, more generally, with the development of <a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">marine geology</a><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which gave evidence for the association of seafloor spreading along the <a href="/wiki/Mid-oceanic_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-oceanic ridge">mid-oceanic ridges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_reversal" title="Geomagnetic reversal">magnetic field reversals</a>, published between 1959 and 1963 by Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine & Matthews, and Morley.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Simultaneous advances in early <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">seismic</a> imaging techniques in and around <a href="/wiki/Wadati%E2%80%93Benioff_zone" title="Wadati–Benioff zone">Wadati–Benioff zones</a> along the trenches bounding many continental margins, together with many other geophysical (e.g., gravimetric) and geological observations, showed how the oceanic crust could disappear into the mantle, providing the mechanism to balance the extension of the ocean basins with shortening along its margins. </p><p>All this evidence, both from the ocean floor and from the continental margins, made it clear around 1965 that continental drift was feasible. The theory of plate tectonics was defined in a series of papers between 1965 and 1967. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences, explaining a diverse range of geological phenomena and their implications in other studies such as <a href="/wiki/Paleogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleogeography">paleogeography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleobiology" title="Paleobiology">paleobiology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continental_drift">Continental drift</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">Continental drift</a></div> <p>In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, geologists assumed that Earth's major features were fixed, and that most geologic features such as basin development and mountain ranges could be explained by vertical crustal movement, described in what is called the <a href="/wiki/Geosyncline" title="Geosyncline">geosynclinal theory</a>. Generally, this was placed in the context of a contracting planet Earth due to heat loss in the course of a relatively short geological time. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg/220px-Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg/330px-Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg/440px-Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Alfred Wegener in Greenland in the winter of 1912–13.</figcaption></figure> <p>It was observed as early as 1596 that the opposite <a href="/wiki/Coasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Coasts">coasts</a> of the Atlantic Ocean—or, more precisely, the edges of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental shelves">continental shelves</a>—have similar shapes and seem to have once fitted together.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiousTilling1996_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiousTilling1996-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since that time many theories were proposed to explain this apparent complementarity, but the assumption of a solid Earth made these various proposals difficult to accept.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankel1987_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankel1987-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> and its associated <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">heating</a> properties in 1895 prompted a re-examination of the apparent <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">age of Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoly1909_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoly1909-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This had previously been estimated by its cooling rate under the assumption that Earth's surface radiated like a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1863_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1863-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those calculations had implied that, even if it started at <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">red heat</a>, Earth would have dropped to its present temperature in a few tens of millions of years. Armed with the knowledge of a new heat source, scientists realized that Earth would be much older, and that <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's core">its core</a> was still sufficiently hot to be liquid. </p><p>By 1915, after having published a first article in 1912,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWegener1912_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWegener1912-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alfred Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea of continental drift in the first edition of <i>The Origin of Continents and Oceans</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWegener1929_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWegener1929-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that book (re-issued in four successive editions up to the final one in 1936), he noted how the east coast of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> and the west coast of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> looked as if they were once attached. Wegener was not the first to note this (<a href="/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius" title="Abraham Ortelius">Abraham Ortelius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Snider-Pellegrini" title="Antonio Snider-Pellegrini">Antonio Snider-Pellegrini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Suess" title="Eduard Suess">Eduard Suess</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mantovani" title="Roberto Mantovani">Roberto Mantovani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Bursley_Taylor" title="Frank Bursley Taylor">Frank Bursley Taylor</a> preceded him just to mention a few), but he was the first to marshal significant <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> and paleo-topographical and climatological evidence to support this simple observation (and was supported in this by researchers such as <a href="/wiki/Alex_du_Toit" class="mw-redirect" title="Alex du Toit">Alex du Toit</a>). Furthermore, when the rock <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> of the margins of separate continents are very similar it suggests that these rocks were formed in the same way, implying that they were joined initially. For instance, parts of <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> contain rocks very similar to those found in <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a>. Furthermore, the <a href="/wiki/Caledonian_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Caledonian Mountains">Caledonian Mountains</a> of Europe and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a> of North America are very similar in <a href="/wiki/Structural_geology" title="Structural geology">structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithology" title="Lithology">lithology</a>. </p><p>However, his ideas were not taken seriously by many geologists, who pointed out that there was no apparent mechanism for continental drift. Specifically, they did not see how continental rock could plow through the much denser rock that makes up oceanic crust. Wegener could not explain the force that drove continental drift, and his vindication did not come until after his death in 1930.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Floating_continents,_paleomagnetism,_and_seismicity_zones"><span id="Floating_continents.2C_paleomagnetism.2C_and_seismicity_zones"></span>Floating continents, paleomagnetism, and seismicity zones</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quake_epicenters_1963-98.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Quake_epicenters_1963-98.png/300px-Quake_epicenters_1963-98.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Quake_epicenters_1963-98.png/450px-Quake_epicenters_1963-98.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Quake_epicenters_1963-98.png/600px-Quake_epicenters_1963-98.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Global earthquake <a href="/wiki/Epicenter" title="Epicenter">epicenters</a>, 1963–1998. Most earthquakes occur in narrow belts that correspond to the locations of lithospheric plate boundaries.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_earthquakes_in_2016.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Map_of_earthquakes_in_2016.svg/300px-Map_of_earthquakes_in_2016.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Map_of_earthquakes_in_2016.svg/450px-Map_of_earthquakes_in_2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Map_of_earthquakes_in_2016.svg/600px-Map_of_earthquakes_in_2016.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="827" data-file-height="465" /></a><figcaption>Map of earthquakes in 2016</figcaption></figure> <p>As it was observed early that although <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a> existed on continents, seafloor seemed to be composed of denser <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, the prevailing concept during the first half of the twentieth century was that there were two types of crust, named "sial" (continental type crust) and "sima" (oceanic type crust). Furthermore, it was supposed that a static shell of strata was present under the continents. It therefore looked apparent that a layer of basalt (sial) underlies the continental rocks. </p><p>However, based on abnormalities in <a href="/wiki/Plumb_line_deflection" class="mw-redirect" title="Plumb line deflection">plumb line deflection</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a> in Peru, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bouguer" title="Pierre Bouguer">Pierre Bouguer</a> had deduced that less-dense mountains must have a downward projection into the denser layer underneath. The concept that mountains had "roots" was confirmed by <a href="/wiki/George_B._Airy" class="mw-redirect" title="George B. Airy">George B. Airy</a> a hundred years later, during study of <a href="/wiki/Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Himalaya">Himalayan</a> gravitation, and seismic studies detected corresponding density variations. Therefore, by the mid-1950s, the question remained unresolved as to whether mountain roots were clenched in surrounding basalt or were floating on it like an iceberg. </p><p>During the 20th century, improvements in and greater use of seismic instruments such as <a href="/wiki/Seismograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismograph">seismographs</a> enabled scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in specific areas, most notably along the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trenches" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic trenches">oceanic trenches</a> and spreading ridges. By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several prominent earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined 40–60° from the horizontal and extended several hundred kilometers into Earth. These zones later became known as Wadati–Benioff zones, or simply Benioff zones, in honor of the seismologists who first recognized them, <a href="/wiki/Kiyoo_Wadati" title="Kiyoo Wadati">Kiyoo Wadati</a> of Japan and <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Benioff" title="Hugo Benioff">Hugo Benioff</a> of the United States. The study of global seismicity greatly advanced in the 1960s with the establishment of the Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinWysession200926_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinWysession200926-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to monitor the compliance of the 1963 treaty banning above-ground testing of nuclear weapons. The much improved data from the WWSSN instruments allowed seismologists to map precisely the zones of earthquake concentration worldwide. </p><p>Meanwhile, debates developed around the phenomenon of polar wander. Since the early debates of continental drift, scientists had discussed and used evidence that polar drift had occurred because continents seemed to have moved through different climatic zones during the past. Furthermore, paleomagnetic data had shown that the magnetic pole had also shifted during time. Reasoning in an opposite way, the continents might have shifted and rotated, while the pole remained relatively fixed. The first time the evidence of magnetic polar wander was used to support the movements of continents was in a paper by <a href="/wiki/Keith_Runcorn" title="Keith Runcorn">Keith Runcorn</a> in 1956,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuncorn1956_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuncorn1956-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and successive papers by him and his students <a href="/wiki/Ted_Irving" class="mw-redirect" title="Ted Irving">Ted Irving</a> (who was actually the first to be convinced of the fact that paleomagnetism supported continental drift) and Ken Creer. </p><p>This was immediately followed by a symposium on continental drift in <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a> in March 1956 organised by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Warren_Carey" title="Samuel Warren Carey">S. Warren Carey</a> who had been one of the supporters and promotors of Continental Drift since the thirties<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this symposium, some of the participants used the evidence in the theory of an <a href="/wiki/Expanding_Earth" title="Expanding Earth">expansion of the global crust</a>, a theory which had been proposed by other workers decades earlier. In this hypothesis, the shifting of the continents is explained by a large increase in the size of Earth since its formation. However, although the theory still has supporters in science, this is generally regarded as unsatisfactory because there is no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of Earth. Other work during the following years would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius. </p><p>During the 1930s up to the late 1950s, works by <a href="/wiki/Felix_Andries_Vening_Meinesz" title="Felix Andries Vening Meinesz">Vening-Meinesz</a>, Holmes, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Herman_Frederik_Umbgrove" title="Johannes Herman Frederik Umbgrove">Umbgrove</a>, and numerous others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In particular, the English geologist <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Holmes" title="Arthur Holmes">Arthur Holmes</a> proposed in 1920 that plate junctions might lie beneath the <a href="/wiki/Sea" title="Sea">sea</a>, and in 1928 that convection currents within the mantle might be the driving force.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often, these contributions are forgotten because: </p> <ul><li>At the time, continental drift was not accepted.</li> <li>Some of these ideas were discussed in the context of abandoned fixist ideas of a deforming globe without continental drift or an expanding Earth.</li> <li>They were published during an episode of extreme political and economic instability that hampered scientific communication.</li> <li>Many were published by European scientists and at first not mentioned or given little credit in the papers on sea floor spreading published by the American researchers in the 1960s.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mid-oceanic_ridge_spreading_and_convection">Mid-oceanic ridge spreading and convection</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on Mid-ocean ridge: <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></div> <p>In 1947, a team of scientists led by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Ewing" title="Maurice Ewing">Maurice Ewing</a> utilizing the <a href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a>'s research vessel <i>Atlantis</i> and an array of instruments, confirmed the existence of a rise in the central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the layer of sediments consisted of basalt, not the granite which is the main constituent of continents. They also found that the oceanic crust was much thinner than continental crust. All these new findings raised important and intriguing questions.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new data that had been collected on the ocean basins also showed particular characteristics regarding the bathymetry. One of the major outcomes of these datasets was that all along the globe, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Global_Rift" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Global Rift">Great Global Rift</a>". This was described in the crucial paper of <a href="/wiki/Bruce_C._Heezen" title="Bruce C. Heezen">Bruce Heezen</a> (1960) based on his work with <a href="/wiki/Marie_Tharp" title="Marie Tharp">Marie Tharp</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeezen1960_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeezen1960-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which would trigger a real revolution in thinking. A profound consequence of seafloor spreading is that new crust was, and still is, being continually created along the oceanic ridges. For this reason, Heezen initially advocated the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Expanding_Earth" title="Expanding Earth">expanding Earth</a>" hypothesis of S. Warren Carey (see above). Therefore, the question remained as to how new crust could continuously be added along the oceanic ridges without increasing the size of Earth. In reality, this question had been solved already by numerous scientists during the 1940s and the 1950s, like Arthur Holmes, Vening-Meinesz, Coates and many others: The crust in excess disappeared along what were called the oceanic trenches, where so-called "subduction" occurred. Therefore, when various scientists during the early 1960s started to reason on the data at their disposal regarding the ocean floor, the pieces of the theory quickly fell into place. </p><p>The question particularly intrigued <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hammond_Hess" title="Harry Hammond Hess">Harry Hammond Hess</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> geologist and a Naval Reserve Rear Admiral, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Dietz" title="Robert S. Dietz">Robert S. Dietz</a>, a scientist with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_and_Geodetic_Survey" title="United States Coast and Geodetic Survey">United States Coast and Geodetic Survey</a> who coined the term <i>seafloor spreading</i>. Dietz and Hess (the former published the same idea one year earlier in <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDietz1961_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDietz1961-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but priority belongs to Hess who had already distributed an unpublished manuscript of his 1962 article by 1960)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess1962_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess1962-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were among the small number who really understood the broad implications of sea floor spreading and how it would eventually agree with the, at that time, unconventional and unaccepted ideas of continental drift and the elegant and mobilistic models proposed by previous workers like Holmes. </p><p>In the same year, <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Coats" title="Robert R. Coats">Robert R. Coats</a> of the U.S. Geological Survey described the main features of <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arc</a> subduction in the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoates1962_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoates1962-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His paper, though little noted (and sometimes even ridiculed) at the time, has since been called "seminal" and "prescient". In reality, it shows that the work by the European scientists on island arcs and mountain belts performed and published during the 1930s up until the 1950s was applied and appreciated also in the United States. </p><p>If Earth's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt–like motion. And, using the mobilistic concepts developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental margins where oceanic trenches—very deep, narrow canyons—are formed, e.g. along <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Ring of Fire">the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin</a>. The important step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the ocean crust was performed using Heezen's mechanism of spreading along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> was shrinking. As old oceanic crust is "consumed" in the trenches (like Holmes and others, he thought this was done by thickening of the continental lithosphere, not, as later understood, by underthrusting at a larger scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises and erupts along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins are perpetually being "recycled", with the forming of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained why Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetic_striping">Magnetic striping</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg/220px-Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg/330px-Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg/440px-Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Seafloor magnetic striping.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polarityshift.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Polarityshift.gif" decoding="async" width="192" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="192" data-file-height="144" /></a><figcaption>A demonstration of magnetic striping. (The darker the color is, the closer it is to normal polarity)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></div> <p>Beginning in the 1950s, scientists like <a href="/wiki/Victor_Vacquier" title="Victor Vacquier">Victor Vacquier</a>, using magnetic instruments (<a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">magnetometers</a>) adapted from airborne devices developed during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> to detect <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a>, began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor. This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely surprising because it was known that <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>—the iron-rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor—contains a strongly magnetic mineral (<a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a>) and can locally distort compass readings. This distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century. More importantly, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt measurable magnetic properties, these newly discovered magnetic variations provided another means to study the deep ocean floor. When newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials recorded <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> at the time. </p><p>As more and more of the seafloor was mapped during the 1950s, the magnetic variations turned out not to be random or isolated occurrences, but instead revealed recognizable patterns. When these magnetic patterns were mapped over a wide region, the ocean floor showed a <a href="/wiki/Zebra" title="Zebra">zebra</a>-like pattern: one stripe with normal polarity and the adjoining stripe with reversed polarity. The overall pattern, defined by these alternating bands of normally and reversely polarized rock, became known as magnetic striping, and was published by <a href="/wiki/Ron_G._Mason" title="Ron G. Mason">Ron G. Mason</a> and co-workers in 1961, who did not find, though, an explanation for these data in terms of sea floor spreading, like Vine, Matthews and Morley a few years later.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery of magnetic striping called for an explanation. In the early 1960s scientists such as Heezen, Hess and Dietz had begun to theorise that mid-ocean ridges mark structurally weak zones where the ocean floor was being ripped in two lengthwise along the ridge crest (see the previous paragraph). New <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> from deep within Earth rises easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. This process, at first denominated the "conveyer belt hypothesis" and later called seafloor spreading, operating over many millions of years continues to form new ocean floor all across the 50,000 km-long system of mid-ocean ridges. </p><p>Only four years after the maps with the "zebra pattern" of magnetic stripes were published, the link between sea floor spreading and these patterns was recognized independently by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Morley" title="Lawrence Morley">Lawrence Morley</a>, and by <a href="/wiki/Fred_Vine" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred Vine">Fred Vine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drummond_Matthews" title="Drummond Matthews">Drummond Matthews</a>, in 1963,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVineMatthews1963_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVineMatthews1963-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (the <a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a>). This hypothesis linked these patterns to geomagnetic reversals and was supported by several lines of evidence:<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>the stripes are symmetrical around the crests of the mid-ocean ridges; at or near the crest of the ridge, the rocks are very young, and they become progressively older away from the ridge crest;</li> <li>the youngest rocks at the ridge crest always have modern (normal) polarity;</li> <li>stripes of rock parallel to the ridge crest alternate in magnetic polarity (normal-reversed-normal, etc.), suggesting that they were formed during different epochs documenting the (already known from independent studies) normal and reversal episodes of Earth's magnetic field.</li></ol> <p>By explaining both the zebra-like magnetic striping and the construction of the mid-ocean ridge system, the seafloor spreading hypothesis (SFS) quickly gained converts and represented another major advance in the development of the plate-tectonics theory. Furthermore, the oceanic crust came to be appreciated as a natural "tape recording" of the history of the geomagnetic field reversals (GMFR) of Earth's magnetic field. Extensive studies were dedicated to the calibration of the normal-reversal patterns in the oceanic crust on one hand and known timescales derived from the dating of basalt layers in sedimentary sequences (<a href="/wiki/Magnetostratigraphy" title="Magnetostratigraphy">magnetostratigraphy</a>) on the other, to arrive at estimates of past spreading rates and plate reconstructions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition_and_refining_of_the_theory">Definition and refining of the theory</h3></div> <p>After all these considerations, plate tectonics (or, as it was initially called "New Global Tectonics") became quickly accepted and numerous papers followed that defined the concepts: </p> <ul><li>In 1965, <a href="/wiki/Tuzo_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuzo Wilson">Tuzo Wilson</a> who had been a promoter of the sea floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the very beginning<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1963_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1963-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> added the concept of <a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">transform faults</a> to the model, completing the classes of fault types necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe work out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1965_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1965-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A symposium on continental drift was held at the Royal Society of London in 1965 which must be regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community, and which abstracts are issued as <a href="#CITEREFBlackettBullardRuncorn1965">Blackett, Bullard & Runcorn (1965)</a>. In this symposium, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bullard" title="Edward Bullard">Edward Bullard</a> and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit".</li> <li>In 1966 Wilson published the paper that referred to previous plate tectonic reconstructions, introducing the concept of what became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Wilson_Cycle" title="Wilson Cycle">Wilson Cycle</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1966_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1966-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1967, at the <a href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union" title="American Geophysical Union">American Geophysical Union</a>'s meeting, <a href="/wiki/W._Jason_Morgan" title="W. Jason Morgan">W. Jason Morgan</a> proposed that Earth's surface consists of 12 rigid plates that move relative to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan1968_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1968-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Two months later, <a href="/wiki/Xavier_Le_Pichon" title="Xavier Le Pichon">Xavier Le Pichon</a> published a complete model based on six major plates with their relative motions, which marked the final acceptance by the scientific community of plate tectonics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Pichon1968_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Pichon1968-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the same year, <a href="/wiki/Dan_McKenzie_(geophysicist)" title="Dan McKenzie (geophysicist)">McKenzie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ladislav_Parker" title="Robert Ladislav Parker">Parker</a> independently presented a model similar to Morgan's using translations and rotations on a sphere to define the plate motions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKenzieParker1967_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKenzieParker1967-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>From that moment onwards, discussions have been focusing on the relative role of the forces driving plate tectonics, in order to evolve from a kinematic concept into a dynamic theory.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially these concepts were focused on mantle convection, in the footsteps of A. Holmes, and also introduced the importance of the gravitational pull of subducted slabs through the works of Elsasser, Solomon, Sleep, Uyeda and Turcotte. Other authors evoked external driving forces due to the tidal drag of the Moon and other celestial bodies, and, especially since 2000, with the emergence of computational models reproducing Earth's mantle behaviour to first order,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> following upon the older unifying concepts of van Bemmelen, authors re-evaluated the important role of mantle dynamics.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implications_for_life">Implications for life</h2></div> <p>According to a hypothesis proposed by Robert Stern and Taras Gerya, plate tectonics are a necessary criterion for a planet to be able to sustain complex life because of the role plate tectonics plays in regulating the carbon cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Continental drift theory helps biogeographers to explain the disjunct <a href="/wiki/Biogeographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeographic">biogeographic</a> distribution of present-day life found on different continents but having <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">similar ancestors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMossWilson1998_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMossWilson1998-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plate_reconstruction">Plate reconstruction</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plate_reconstruction" title="Plate reconstruction">Plate reconstruction</a></div> <p>Reconstruction is used to establish past (and future) plate configurations, helping determine the shape and make-up of ancient supercontinents and providing a basis for paleogeography. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defining_plate_boundaries">Defining plate boundaries</h3></div> <p>Active plate boundaries are defined by their seismicity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondie1997_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondie1997-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Past plate boundaries within existing plates are identified from a variety of evidence, such as the presence of <a href="/wiki/Ophiolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophiolites">ophiolites</a> that are indicative of vanished oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELliboutry2000_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELliboutry2000-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_of_plate_tectonics_and_past_plate_motions">Emergence of plate tectonics and past plate motions</h3></div> <p>The timing of the emergence of plate tectonics on Earth has been the subject of considerable controversy, with the estimated time varying wildly between researchers, spanning 85% of Earth's history.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors have suggested that during at least part of the <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> period (~4-2.5 billion years ago) the mantle was between 100 and 250 °C warmer than at present, which is thought to be incompatible with modern-style plate tectonics, and that Earth may have had a <a href="/wiki/Stagnant_lid" class="mw-redirect" title="Stagnant lid">stagnant lid</a> or other kinds of regimes. The increasingly <a href="/wiki/Felsic" title="Felsic">felsic</a> nature of preserved rocks between 3 and 2.5 billion years ago implies that subduction zones had emerged by this time, with preserved zircons suggesting that subduction may have begun as early as 3.8 billion years ago. Early subduction zones appear to have been temporary and localized, though to what degree is controversial. Modern plate tectonics are suggested to have emerged by at least 2.2 billion years ago with the formation of the first recognised supercontinent Columbia, though some authors have suggested that modern-style plate tectonics did not appear until 800 million years ago based on the late appearance of rock types like <a href="/wiki/Blueschist" title="Blueschist">blueschist</a> which require cold subducted material.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other authors have suggested that plate tectonics were already functional in the <a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a>, over 4 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm/350px--Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="350" height="210" data-durationhint="41" data-mwtitle="Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="800" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="800" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="400" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="600" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="600" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Animation of a full-plate tectonic model extended one billion years into the past <br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#ac1f25 solid 3px;"> </span> <span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span>Convergent boundary</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#a08eda solid 3px;"> </span> <span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span>Divergent boundary</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#000000 solid 3px;"> </span> <span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span>Transform boundary</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="border:none;background-color:#ffffff00;"><span style="display:inline-block; width:0; height:0;border-right: 1.25em solid #ac1f25;border-bottom: 1.25em solid #ffffff00;"> </span></span> <span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span>Arrows point to the upthrown side</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#b5b71f; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">Continental crust</a> (older crust)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#6f8ebf; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> Continental crust (younger crust)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffffff; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span> <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></div> </figcaption></figure> <p>Various types of quantitative and semi-quantitative information are available to constrain past plate motions. The geometric fit between continents, such as between west Africa and South America is still an important part of plate reconstruction. Magnetic stripe patterns provide a reliable guide to relative plate motions going back into the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tracks of hotspots give absolute reconstructions, but these are only available back to the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETorsvikSteinberger2008_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorsvikSteinberger2008-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older reconstructions rely mainly on <a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetic_pole" title="Paleomagnetic pole">paleomagnetic pole</a> data, although these only constrain the latitude and rotation, but not the longitude. Combining poles of different ages in a particular plate to produce apparent polar wander paths provides a method for comparing the motions of different plates through time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButler1992_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButler1992-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional evidence comes from the distribution of certain <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rock</a> types,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> faunal provinces shown by particular fossil groups, and the position of <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogenic belts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETorsvikSteinberger2008_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorsvikSteinberger2008-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Formation_and_break-up_of_continents">Formation and break-up of continents</h4></div> <p>The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a> that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Columbia_(supercontinent)" title="Columbia (supercontinent)">Columbia</a> or Nuna formed during a period of <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2000–1800">2,000 to 1,800</a> million years ago</span> and broke up about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=1500–1300">1,500 to 1,300</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhaoCawoodWildeSun2002_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhaoCawoodWildeSun2002-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhaoSunWildeLi2004_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhaoSunWildeLi2004-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a> is thought to have formed about 1<span class="nowrap"> </span>billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=600">600</a> million years ago</span>. The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>; Pangaea broke up into <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> (which became North America and Eurasia) and <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> (which became the remaining continents). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>, the world's tallest mountain range, are assumed to have been formed by the collision of two major plates. Before uplift, the area where they stand was covered by the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Ocean</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_plates">Modern plates</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates" title="List of tectonic plates">List of tectonic plates</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Plate_tectonics_map.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Plate tectonics map"><img alt="Plate tectonics map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Plate_tectonics_map.gif/440px-Plate_tectonics_map.gif" decoding="async" width="440" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Plate_tectonics_map.gif/660px-Plate_tectonics_map.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Plate_tectonics_map.gif/880px-Plate_tectonics_map.gif 2x" data-file-width="3380" data-file-height="2285" /></a><figcaption>Plate tectonics map</figcaption></figure> <p>Depending on how they are defined, there are usually seven or eight "major" plates: <a href="/wiki/African_plate" title="African plate">African</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_plate" title="Antarctic plate">Antarctic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_plate" title="Eurasian plate">Eurasian</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_American_plate" title="North American plate">North American</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_American_plate" title="South American plate">South American</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_plate" title="Pacific plate">Pacific</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Australian_plate" title="Indo-Australian plate">Indo-Australian</a>. The latter is sometimes subdivided into the <a href="/wiki/Indian_plate" title="Indian plate">Indian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australian_plate" title="Australian plate">Australian</a> plates. </p><p>There are dozens of smaller plates, the eight largest of which are the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_plate" title="Arabian plate">Arabian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_plate" title="Caribbean plate">Caribbean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_plate" title="Juan de Fuca plate">Juan de Fuca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocos_plate" title="Cocos plate">Cocos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nazca_plate" title="Nazca plate">Nazca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Sea_plate" title="Philippine Sea plate">Philippine Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotia_plate" title="Scotia plate">Scotia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Somali_plate" title="Somali plate">Somali</a>. </p><p>During the 2020s, new proposals have come forward that divide the Earth's crust into many smaller plates, called terranes, which reflects the fact that Plate reconstructions show that the larger plates have been internally deformed and oceanic and continental plates have been fragmented over time. This has resulted in the definition of roughly 1200 terranes inside the oceanic plates, continental blocks and the mobile zones (mountainous belts) that separate them.<sup id="cite_ref-Hasterok-etal_2022_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hasterok-etal_2022-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-van_Dijk_2023_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Dijk_2023-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The motion of the tectonic plates is determined by remote sensing satellite data sets, calibrated with ground station measurements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_celestial_bodies">Other celestial bodies</h2></div> <p>The appearance of plate tectonics on <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">terrestrial planets</a> is related to planetary mass, with <a href="/wiki/Super-Earth" title="Super-Earth">more massive planets than Earth</a> expected to exhibit plate tectonics. Earth may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water (silica and water form a deep <a href="/wiki/Eutectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic">eutectic</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEValenciaO'ConnellSasselov2007_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEValenciaO'ConnellSasselov2007-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Venus">Venus</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Venus" title="Geology of Venus">Geology of Venus</a></div> <p>Venus shows no evidence of active plate tectonics. There is debatable evidence of active tectonics in the planet's distant past; however, events taking place since then (such as the plausible and generally accepted hypothesis that the Venusian <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> has thickened greatly over the course of several hundred million years) has made constraining the course of its geologic record difficult. However, the numerous well-preserved <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">impact craters</a> have been used as a <a href="/wiki/Dating_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Dating methods">dating method</a> to approximately date the Venusian surface (since there are thus far no known samples of Venusian rock to be dated by more reliable methods). Dates derived are dominantly in the range <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=500–750">500 to 750</a> million years ago</span>, although ages of up to <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=1,200">1,200</a> million years ago</span> have been calculated. This research has led to the fairly well accepted hypothesis that Venus has undergone an essentially complete volcanic resurfacing at least once in its distant past, with the last event taking place approximately within the range of estimated surface ages. While the mechanism of such an impressive thermal event remains a debated issue in Venusian geosciences, some scientists are advocates of processes involving plate motion to some extent. </p><p>One explanation for Venus's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasting1988_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKasting1988-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earth's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of <a href="/wiki/Shear_zone" title="Shear zone">shear zones</a>. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mars">Mars</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mars" title="Geology of Mars">Geology of Mars</a></div> <p>Mars is considerably smaller than Earth and Venus, and there is evidence for ice on its surface and in its crust. </p><p>In the 1990s, it was proposed that <a href="/wiki/Martian_dichotomy" title="Martian dichotomy">Martian Crustal Dichotomy</a> was created by plate tectonic processes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESleep1994_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESleep1994-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists have since determined that it was created either by upwelling within the Martian <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> that thickened the crust of the Southern Highlands and formed <a href="/wiki/Tharsis" title="Tharsis">Tharsis</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhongZuber2001_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhongZuber2001-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or by a giant impact that excavated the <a href="/wiki/Vastitas_Borealis" title="Vastitas Borealis">Northern Lowlands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrews-HannaZuberBanerdt2008_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrews-HannaZuberBanerdt2008-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Valles_Marineris" title="Valles Marineris">Valles Marineris</a> may be a tectonic boundary.<sup id="cite_ref-tectonic_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tectonic-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Observations made of the magnetic field of Mars by the <i><a href="/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyor" title="Mars Global Surveyor">Mars Global Surveyor</a></i> spacecraft in 1999 showed patterns of magnetic striping discovered on this planet. Some scientists interpreted these as requiring plate tectonic processes, such as seafloor spreading.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, their data failed a "magnetic reversal test", which is used to see if they were formed by flipping polarities of a global magnetic field.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison2000_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison2000-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Icy_moons">Icy moons</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Tectonics_on_icy_moons#Plate_tectonics" title="Tectonics on icy moons">Tectonics on icy moons § Plate tectonics</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tectonics_on_icy_moons&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>Some of the <a href="/wiki/Galilean_satellites" class="mw-redirect" title="Galilean satellites">satellites</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> have features that may be related to plate-tectonic style deformation, although the materials and specific mechanisms may be different from plate-tectonic activity on Earth. On 8 September 2014, NASA reported finding evidence of plate tectonics on <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a>, a satellite of Jupiter—the first sign of subduction activity on another world other than Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_NASA-20140908_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_NASA-20140908-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a>, the largest moon of <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>, was reported to show tectonic activity in images taken by the <a href="/wiki/Huygens_(spacecraft)" title="Huygens (spacecraft)"><i>Huygens</i> probe</a>, which landed on Titan on January 14, 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> The mechanisms of plate tectonics on icy moons, particularly Earth-like plate tectonics are not widely agreed upon or well understood.<sup id="cite_ref-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics_on_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Plate tectonics on Earth">Plate tectonics on Earth</a> is hypothesized to be driven by “slab pull,” where the sinking of the more dense subducting plate provides the spreading force for mid-ocean ridges.<sup id="cite_ref-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> “Ridge push” is comparatively weak in Earth's plate tectonics.<sup id="cite_ref-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extensional features are abundant on icy moons, but compressional features are sparse.<sup id="cite_ref-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10_112-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, subducting less dense ice into a more dense fluid is difficult to explain.<sup id="cite_ref-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:9_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:9-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Force balance modeling suggests that subduction is likely to create large scale topographic forcing across icy moons, because the buoyant force is orders of magnitude greater than subducting forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10_112-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fracturing and plate-like motion is more easily explained by volume changes and ice-shell motion that is decoupled from interior motion.<sup id="cite_ref-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10_112-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tectonics_on_icy_moons_:10-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exoplanets">Exoplanets</h3></div> <p>On Earth-sized planets, plate tectonics is more likely if there are oceans of water. However, in 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger <a href="/wiki/Super-Earth" title="Super-Earth">super-Earths</a><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-earths even if the planet is dry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEValenciaO'ConnellSasselov2007_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEValenciaO'ConnellSasselov2007-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consideration of plate tectonics is a part of the <a href="/wiki/Search_for_extraterrestrial_intelligence" title="Search for extraterrestrial intelligence">search for extraterrestrial intelligence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life" title="Extraterrestrial life">extraterrestrial life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a> – Process which distributes thermal energy about the Earth's surface</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_angular_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of angular momentum">Conservation of angular momentum</a> – Conserved physical quantity; rotational analogue of linear momentum<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a> – The sequence of major geological events in Earth's past</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosyncline" title="Geosyncline">Geosyncline</a> – Obsolete geological concept to explain orogens</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPlates" title="GPlates">GPlates</a> – Open-source application software for interactive plate-tectonic reconstructions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics" title="Outline of plate tectonics">Outline of plate tectonics</a> – Hierarchical outline list of articles related to plate tectonics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_submarine_topographical_features" title="List of submarine topographical features">List of submarine topographical features</a> – Oceanic landforms and topographic elements.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercontinent_cycle" title="Supercontinent cycle">Supercontinent cycle</a> – Repeated joining and separation of Earth's continents</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">Tectonics</a> – Process of evolution of the Earth's crust</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <style 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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(1 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4810483">"Revolutionary Science"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/MBio" title="MBio">mBio</a></i>. <b>7</b> (2): e00158–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FmBio.00158-16">10.1128/mBio.00158-16</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4810483">4810483</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26933052">26933052</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=mBio&rft.atitle=Revolutionary+Science&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e00158-16&rft.date=2016-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4810483%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26933052&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FmBio.00158-16&rft.aulast=Casadevall&rft.aufirst=Arturo&rft.au=Fang%2C+Ferric+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4810483&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2001" class="citation web cs1">Hughes, Patrick (8 February 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Wegener/wegener_2.php">"Alfred Wegener (1880–1930): A Geographic Jigsaw Puzzle"</a>. <i>On the Shoulders of Giants</i>. Earth Observatory, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-26</span></span>. <q>... on January 6, 1912, Wegener... proposed instead a grand vision of drifting continents and widening seas to explain the evolution of Earth's geography.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=On+the+Shoulders+of+Giants&rft.atitle=Alfred+Wegener+%281880%E2%80%931930%29%3A+A+Geographic+Jigsaw+Puzzle&rft.date=2001-02-08&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearthobservatory.nasa.gov%2FFeatures%2FWegener%2Fwegener_2.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWegener1929-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWegener1929_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWegener1929_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWegener1929">Wegener 1929</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2001" class="citation web cs1">Hughes, Patrick (8 February 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Wegener/wegener_4.php">"Alfred Wegener (1880–1930): The origin of continents and oceans"</a>. <i>On the Shoulders of Giants</i>. Earth Observatory, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-26</span></span>. <q>By his third edition (1922), Wegener was citing geological evidence that some 300<span class="nowrap"> </span>million years ago all the continents had been joined in a supercontinent stretching from pole to pole. He called it Pangaea (all lands),...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=On+the+Shoulders+of+Giants&rft.atitle=Alfred+Wegener+%281880%E2%80%931930%29%3A+The+origin+of+continents+and+oceans&rft.date=2001-02-08&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearthobservatory.nasa.gov%2FFeatures%2FWegener%2Fwegener_4.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWegener1966-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWegener1966_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWegener1966">Wegener 1966</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Ampferer" title="Otto Ampferer">Otto Ampferer</a>: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/SBAWW_150_0019-0035.pdf">Thoughts on the motion picture of the Atlantic region</a>.</i> Sber. österr. Akad. Wiss., math.-naturwiss. KL, 150, 19–35, 6 figs., Vienna 1941.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDulloPfaffl2019" class="citation journal cs1">Dullo, Wolf-Christian; Pfaffl, Fritz A. (28 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/full/10.1139/cjes-2018-0157">"The theory of undercurrent from the Austrian alpine geologist Otto Ampferer (1875–1947): first conceptual ideas on the way to plate tectonics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Journal_of_Earth_Sciences" title="Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences">Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences</a></i>. <b>56</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1095–</span>1100. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019CaJES..56.1095D">2019CaJES..56.1095D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fcjes-2018-0157">10.1139/cjes-2018-0157</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:135079657">135079657</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Earth+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+theory+of+undercurrent+from+the+Austrian+alpine+geologist+Otto+Ampferer+%281875%E2%80%931947%29%3A+first+conceptual+ideas+on+the+way+to+plate+tectonics&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1095-%3C%2Fspan%3E1100&rft.date=2019-03-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A135079657%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fcjes-2018-0157&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019CaJES..56.1095D&rft.aulast=Dullo&rft.aufirst=Wolf-Christian&rft.au=Pfaffl%2C+Fritz+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdnsciencepub.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1139%2Fcjes-2018-0157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Krainer, Christoph Hauser: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.uibk.ac.at/downloads/c715/geoalp_sbd1_07/krainer_hauser.pdf">Otto Ampferer (1875-1947): pioneer in geology, mountaineer, collector and draughtsman</a></i>. In: Geo. Alp Sonderband 1, 2007, pp. 94–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuncorn1956-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuncorn1956_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuncorn1956_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuncorn1956">Runcorn 1956</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey1958-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarey1958_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarey1958">Carey 1958</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see for example the milestone paper of <a href="#CITEREFLymanFleming1940">Lyman & Fleming 1940</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKorgen1995">Korgen 1995</a>, <a href="#CITEREFSpiessKuperman2003">Spiess & Kuperman 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiousTilling1996-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiousTilling1996_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiousTilling1996">Kious & Tilling 1996</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankel1987-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankel1987_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrankel1987">Frankel 1987</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoly1909-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoly1909_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJoly1909">Joly 1909</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1863-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1863_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1863">Thomson 1863</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWegener1912-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWegener1912_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWegener1912">Wegener 1912</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap1-Pioneers-of-Plate-Tectonics/Alfred-Wegener">"Pioneers of Plate Tectonics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Geological_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="The Geological Society">The Geological Society</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180323155937/https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap1-Pioneers-of-Plate-Tectonics/Alfred-Wegener">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-03-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Geological+Society&rft.atitle=Pioneers+of+Plate+Tectonics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.geolsoc.org.uk%2FPlate-Tectonics%2FChap1-Pioneers-of-Plate-Tectonics%2FAlfred-Wegener&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinWysession200926-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinWysession200926_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteinWysession2009">Stein & Wysession 2009</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarey1958">Carey 1958</a>; see also <a href="#CITEREFQuiltyBanks2003">Quilty & Banks 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes1928">Holmes 1928</a>; see also <a href="#CITEREFHolmes1978">Holmes 1978</a>, <a href="#CITEREFFrankel1978">Frankel 1978</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLippsett2001">Lippsett 2001</a>, <a href="#CITEREFLippsett2006">Lippsett 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeezen1960-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeezen1960_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeezen1960">Heezen 1960</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDietz1961-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDietz1961_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDietz1961">Dietz 1961</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHess1962-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHess1962_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHess1962">Hess 1962</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoates1962-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoates1962_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoates1962">Coates 1962</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMasonRaff1961">Mason & Raff 1961</a>, <a href="#CITEREFRaffMason1961">Raff & Mason 1961</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVineMatthews1963-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVineMatthews1963_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVineMatthews1963">Vine & Matthews 1963</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See summary in <a href="#CITEREFHeirtzlerLe_PichonBaron1966">Heirtzler, Le Pichon & Baron 1966</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1963-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1963_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson1963">Wilson 1963</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1965-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1965_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson1965">Wilson 1965</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1966-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1966_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson1966">Wilson 1966</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1968-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan1968_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorgan1968">Morgan 1968</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Pichon1968-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Pichon1968_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLe_Pichon1968">Le Pichon 1968</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKenzieParker1967-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKenzieParker1967_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcKenzieParker1967">McKenzie & Parker 1967</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tharp M (1982) Mapping the ocean floor—1947 to 1977. 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(2011). "Plate tectonics on super-Earths: Equally or more likely than on Earth". <i><a href="/wiki/Earth_and_Planetary_Science_Letters" title="Earth and Planetary Science Letters">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a></i>. <b>310</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">252–</span>61. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011E&PSL.310..252V">2011E&PSL.310..252V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2011.07.029">10.1016/j.epsl.2011.07.029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.atitle=Plate+tectonics+on+super-Earths%3A+Equally+or+more+likely+than+on+Earth&rft.volume=310&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E252-%3C%2Fspan%3E61&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2011.07.029&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011E%26PSL.310..252V&rft.aulast=van+Heck&rft.aufirst=H.J.&rft.au=Tackley%2C+P.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'NeillLenardic2007" class="citation journal cs1">O'Neill, C.; Lenardic, A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2007GL030598">"Geological consequences of super-sized Earths"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_Research_Letters" title="Geophysical Research Letters">Geophysical Research Letters</a></i>. <b>34</b> (19): L19204. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007GeoRL..3419204O">2007GeoRL..3419204O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2007GL030598">10.1029/2007GL030598</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Geological+consequences+of+super-sized+Earths&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=L19204&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2007GL030598&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007GeoRL..3419204O&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Lenardic%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2007GL030598&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern2016" class="citation journal cs1">Stern, Robert J. (July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gsf.2015.12.002">"Is plate tectonics needed to evolve technological species on exoplanets?"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geoscience_Frontiers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geoscience Frontiers (page does not exist)">Geoscience Frontiers</a></i>. <b>7</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">573–</span>580. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016GeoFr...7..573S">2016GeoFr...7..573S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gsf.2015.12.002">10.1016/j.gsf.2015.12.002</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoscience+Frontiers&rft.atitle=Is+plate+tectonics+needed+to+evolve+technological+species+on+exoplanets%3F&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E573-%3C%2Fspan%3E580&rft.date=2016-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.gsf.2015.12.002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016GeoFr...7..573S&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.gsf.2015.12.002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Books">Books</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler1992" class="citation book cs1">Butler, Robert F. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100817084001/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/Paleomag/book/chap10.pdf">"Applications to paleogeography"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Paleomagnetism: Magnetic domains to geologic terranes</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86542-070-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86542-070-0"><bdi>978-0-86542-070-0</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geo.arizona.edu/Paleomag/book/chap10.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2010-08-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Applications+to+paleogeography&rft.btitle=Paleomagnetism%3A+Magnetic+domains+to+geologic+terranes&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-86542-070-0&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Robert+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geo.arizona.edu%2FPaleomag%2Fbook%2Fchap10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarey1958" class="citation book cs1">Carey, S.W. (1958). "The tectonic approach to continental drift". In Carey, S.W. (ed.). <i>Continental Drift – A symposium, held in March 1956</i>. Hobart, Tasmania: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tasmania" title="University of Tasmania">University of Tasmania</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">177–</span>363.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+tectonic+approach+to+continental+drift&rft.btitle=Continental+Drift+%E2%80%93+A+symposium%2C+held+in+March+1956&rft.place=Hobart%2C+Tasmania&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E177-%3C%2Fspan%3E363&rft.pub=University+of+Tasmania&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Carey&rft.aufirst=S.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span> Expanding Earth from pp. 311–49.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCondie1997" class="citation book cs1">Condie, K.C. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QfhGuFwi0DgC&pg=PA6"><i>Plate tectonics and crustal evolution</i></a> (4th ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-3386-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-3386-4"><bdi>978-0-7506-3386-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plate+tectonics+and+crustal+evolution&rft.pages=282&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-3386-4&rft.aulast=Condie&rft.aufirst=K.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQfhGuFwi0DgC%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoulger2010" class="citation book cs1">Foulger, Gillian R. (2010). <i>Plates vs Plumes: A Geological Controversy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6148-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6148-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-6148-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plates+vs+Plumes%3A+A+Geological+Controversy&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6148-0&rft.aulast=Foulger&rft.aufirst=Gillian+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankel1987" class="citation book cs1">Frankel, H. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lp_n-Ng-hhoC&pg=PA203">"The Continental Drift Debate"</a>. In H.T. Engelhardt Jr; A.L. Caplan (eds.). <i>Scientific Controversies: Case Studies in the Resolution and Closure of Disputes in Science and Technology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27560-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27560-6"><bdi>978-0-521-27560-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Continental+Drift+Debate&rft.btitle=Scientific+Controversies%3A+Case+Studies+in+the+Resolution+and+Closure+of+Disputes+in+Science+and+Technology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27560-6&rft.aulast=Frankel&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlp_n-Ng-hhoC%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHancockSkinnerDineley2000" class="citation book cs1">Hancock, Paul L.; Skinner, Brian J.; Dineley, David L. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hanc"><i>The Oxford Companion to The Earth</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-854039-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-854039-7"><bdi>978-0-19-854039-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+The+Earth&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-854039-7&rft.aulast=Hancock&rft.aufirst=Paul+L.&rft.au=Skinner%2C+Brian+J.&rft.au=Dineley%2C+David+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont00hanc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHess1962" class="citation book cs1">Hess, H.H. (November 1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Hess1962.pdf">"History of Ocean Basins"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In A.E.J. Engel; Harold L. James; B.F. Leonard (eds.). <i>Petrologic studies: a volume to honor of A.F. Buddington</i>. Boulder, CO: <a href="/wiki/Geological_Society_of_America" title="Geological Society of America">Geological Society of America</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">599–</span>620.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History+of+Ocean+Basins&rft.btitle=Petrologic+studies%3A+a+volume+to+honor+of+A.F.+Buddington&rft.place=Boulder%2C+CO&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E599-%3C%2Fspan%3E620&rft.pub=Geological+Society+of+America&rft.date=1962-11&rft.aulast=Hess&rft.aufirst=H.H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mantleplumes.org%2FWebDocuments%2FHess1962.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Holmes" title="Arthur Holmes">Holmes, Arthur</a> (1978). <i>Principles of Physical Geology</i> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">640–</span>41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-07251-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-07251-5"><bdi>978-0-471-07251-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Physical+Geology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E640-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-471-07251-5&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoly1909" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Joly" title="John Joly">Joly, John</a> (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GihJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA36"><i>Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History</i></a>. London: Archibald Constable & Company. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4021-3577-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4021-3577-4"><bdi>978-1-4021-3577-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radioactivity+and+Geology%3A+An+Account+of+the+Influence+of+Radioactive+Energy+on+Terrestrial+History&rft.place=London&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Archibald+Constable+%26+Company&rft.date=1909&rft.isbn=978-1-4021-3577-4&rft.aulast=Joly&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGihJAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoly1910" class="citation journal cs1">Joly, J. (1910). "Review of <i>Radioactivity and Geology</i>". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Geology" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Geology">Journal of Geology</a></i>. <b>18</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">568–</span>570. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1910JG.....18..568J">1910JG.....18..568J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F621777">10.1086/621777</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geology&rft.atitle=Review+of+Radioactivity+and+Geology&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E568-%3C%2Fspan%3E570&rft.date=1910&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F621777&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1910JG.....18..568J&rft.aulast=Joly&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiousTilling1996" class="citation book cs1">Kious, W. Jacquelyne; Tilling, Robert I. (February 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/historical.html">"Historical perspective"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html"><i>This Dynamic Earth: the Story of Plate Tectonics</i></a> (Online ed.). United States Geological Survey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-048220-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-048220-5"><bdi>978-0-16-048220-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-29</span></span>. <q><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius" title="Abraham Ortelius">Abraham Ortelius</a> in his work Thesaurus Geographicus... suggested that the Americas were 'torn away from Europe and Africa... by earthquakes and floods... The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three [continents].'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+perspective&rft.btitle=This+Dynamic+Earth%3A+the+Story+of+Plate+Tectonics&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Survey&rft.date=1996-02&rft.isbn=978-0-16-048220-5&rft.aulast=Kious&rft.aufirst=W.+Jacquelyne&rft.au=Tilling%2C+Robert+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fgip%2Fdynamic%2Fhistorical.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLippsett2006" class="citation book cs1">Lippsett, Laurence (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l1os3mwQkxYC&pg=PR9">"Maurice Ewing and the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory"</a>. In William Theodore De Bary; Jerry Kisslinger; Tom Mathewson (eds.). <i>Living Legacies at Columbia</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">277–</span>97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13884-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13884-0"><bdi>978-0-231-13884-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maurice+Ewing+and+the+Lamont%E2%80%93Doherty+Earth+Observatory&rft.btitle=Living+Legacies+at+Columbia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E277-%3C%2Fspan%3E97&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-231-13884-0&rft.aulast=Lippsett&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl1os3mwQkxYC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittleFowlerCoulson1990" class="citation book cs1">Little, W.; Fowler, H.W.; Coulson, J. (1990). Onions C.T. 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Vol. II (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861126-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861126-4"><bdi>978-0-19-861126-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shorter+Oxford+English+Dictionary%3A+on+historical+principles&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-861126-4&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Fowler%2C+H.W.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshorteroxfordeng00litt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLliboutry2000" class="citation book cs1">Lliboutry, L. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantitative+Geophysics+and+Geology&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85233-115-3&rft.aulast=Lliboutry&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC7rny3qA6RMC%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKnight2004" class="citation book cs1">McKnight, Tom (2004). <i>Geographica: The complete illustrated Atlas of the world</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Barnes_and_Noble_Books&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barnes and Noble Books (page does not exist)">Barnes and Noble Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-5974-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-5974-5"><bdi>978-0-7607-5974-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geographica%3A+The+complete+illustrated+Atlas+of+the+world&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Barnes+and+Noble+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7607-5974-5&rft.aulast=McKnight&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeissner2002" class="citation book cs1">Meissner, Rolf (2002). <i>The Little Book of Planet Earth</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>, NY: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Verlag">Copernicus Books</a>. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95258-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95258-1"><bdi>978-0-387-95258-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Little+Book+of+Planet+Earth&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Copernicus+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-387-95258-1&rft.aulast=Meissner&rft.aufirst=Rolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyerhoffTanerMorrisAgocs1996" class="citation book cs1">Meyerhoff, Arthur Augustus; Taner, I.; Morris, A.E.L.; Agocs, W.B.; Kamen-Kaye, M.; Bhat, Mohammad I.; Smoot, N. 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Springer Netherlands. p. 348. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4156-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4156-7"><bdi>978-0-7923-4156-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surge+tectonics%3A+a+new+hypothesis+of+global+geodynamics&rft.series=Solid+Earth+Sciences+Library&rft.pages=348&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-4156-7&rft.aulast=Meyerhoff&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Augustus&rft.au=Taner%2C+I.&rft.au=Morris%2C+A.E.L.&rft.au=Agocs%2C+W.B.&rft.au=Kamen-Kaye%2C+M.&rft.au=Bhat%2C+Mohammad+I.&rft.au=Smoot%2C+N.+Christian&rft.au=Choi%2C+Dong+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIVIBPWyT7BkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMossWilson1998" class="citation book cs1">Moss, S.J.; Wilson, M.E.J. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216095932/http://www.gl.rhul.ac.uk/searg/publications/books/biogeography/biogeog_pdfs/Moss_Wilson.pdf">"Biogeographic implications from the Tertiary palaeogeographic evolution of Sulawesi and Borneo"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Hall, R.; Holloway, J.D. (eds.). <i>Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia</i>. Leiden, The Netherlands: Backhuys. pp. <span class="nowrap">133–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-73348-97-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-73348-97-4"><bdi>978-90-73348-97-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gl.rhul.ac.uk/searg/publications/books/biogeography/biogeog_pdfs/Moss_Wilson.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2008-02-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biogeographic+implications+from+the+Tertiary+palaeogeographic+evolution+of+Sulawesi+and+Borneo&rft.btitle=Biogeography+and+Geological+Evolution+of+SE+Asia&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E133-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.pub=Backhuys&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-90-73348-97-4&rft.aulast=Moss&rft.aufirst=S.J.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+M.E.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gl.rhul.ac.uk%2Fsearg%2Fpublications%2Fbooks%2Fbiogeography%2Fbiogeog_pdfs%2FMoss_Wilson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOreskes2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Oreskes" title="Naomi Oreskes">Oreskes, Naomi</a>, ed. (2003). <i>Plate Tectonics: An Insider's History of the Modern Theory of the Earth</i>. Westview. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-4132-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-4132-3"><bdi>978-0-8133-4132-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plate+Tectonics%3A+An+Insider%27s+History+of+the+Modern+Theory+of+the+Earth&rft.pub=Westview&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-4132-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReadWatson1975" class="citation book cs1">Read, Herbert Harold; Watson, Janet (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoge0000read/page/13"><i>Introduction to Geology</i></a>. 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"The Living Machine: Plate Tectonics". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100124060304/http://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/wpk/pe/a/harbbook/other/contents.html"><i>Planet Earth and the New Geosciences</i></a> (3rd ed.). Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. p. 442. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7872-4296-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7872-4296-1"><bdi>978-0-7872-4296-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/wpk/pe/a/harbbook/other/contents.html">the original</a> on 2010-01-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Living+Machine%3A+Plate+Tectonics&rft.btitle=Planet+Earth+and+the+New+Geosciences&rft.pages=442&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Kendall%2FHunt+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7872-4296-1&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Victor+A.&rft.au=Harbert%2C+William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeoinfo.amu.edu.pl%2Fwpk%2Fpe%2Fa%2Fharbbook%2Fother%2Fcontents.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100328212854/http://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/wpk/pe/a/harbbook/c_iii/chap03.html">"Unit 3: The Living Machine: Plate Tectonics"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/wpk/pe/a/harbbook/c_iii/chap03.html">the original</a> on 2010-03-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unit+3%3A+The+Living+Machine%3A+Plate+Tectonics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeoinfo.amu.edu.pl%2Fwpk%2Fpe%2Fa%2Fharbbook%2Fc_iii%2Fchap03.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchubertTurcotteOlson2001" class="citation book cs1">Schubert, Gerald; Turcotte, Donald L.; Olson, Peter (2001). <i>Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets</i>. Cambridge, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35367-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35367-0"><bdi>978-0-521-35367-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mantle+Convection+in+the+Earth+and+Planets&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-35367-0&rft.aulast=Schubert&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft.au=Turcotte%2C+Donald+L.&rft.au=Olson%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanley1999" class="citation book cs1">Stanley, Steven M. (1999). <i>Earth System History</i>. <a href="/wiki/W.H._Freeman" class="mw-redirect" title="W.H. Freeman">W.H. Freeman</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">211–</span>28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-2882-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-2882-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-2882-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth+System+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E211-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-2882-5&rft.aulast=Stanley&rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinWysession2009" class="citation book cs1">Stein, Seth; Wysession, Michael (2009). <i>An Introduction to Seismology, Earthquakes, and Earth Structure</i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-1131-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-1131-0"><bdi>978-1-4443-1131-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Seismology%2C+Earthquakes%2C+and+Earth+Structure&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-1131-0&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft.au=Wysession%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSverdrupJohnsonFleming1942" class="citation book cs1">Sverdrup, H.U.; Johnson, M.W.; Fleming, R.H. (1942). <i>The Oceans: Their physics, chemistry and general biology</i>. Englewood Cliffs: <a href="/wiki/Prentice-Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Prentice-Hall">Prentice-Hall</a>. p. 1087.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oceans%3A+Their+physics%2C+chemistry+and+general+biology&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs&rft.pages=1087&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1942&rft.aulast=Sverdrup&rft.aufirst=H.U.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+M.W.&rft.au=Fleming%2C+R.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompsonTurk1991" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Graham R. & Turk, Jonathan (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernphysicalge0000thom"><i>Modern Physical Geology</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Saunders_College_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Saunders College Publishing">Saunders College Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025398-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025398-0"><bdi>978-0-03-025398-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Physical+Geology&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025398-0&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Graham+R.&rft.au=Turk%2C+Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernphysicalge0000thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorsvikSteinberger2006" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Torsvik, Trond Helge; Steinberger, Bernhard (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723122146/http://www.geodynamics.no/indexOld.htm">"Fra kontinentaldrift til manteldynamikk"</a> [From Continental Drift to Mantle Dynamics]. <i>Geo</i> (in Norwegian). <b>8</b>: <span class="nowrap">20–</span>30. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geodynamics.no/indexOld.htm">the original</a> on 2011-07-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geo&rft.atitle=Fra+kontinentaldrift+til+manteldynamikk&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.date=2006-12&rft.aulast=Torsvik&rft.aufirst=Trond+Helge&rft.au=Steinberger%2C+Bernhard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geodynamics.no%2FindexOld.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span>,<br />translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorsvikSteinberger2008" class="citation book cs1">Torsvik, Trond Helge; Steinberger, Bernhard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723121839/http://www.geodynamics.no/guest/Torsvik_SteinbergerGraasteinen12.pdf">"From Continental Drift to Mantle Dynamics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Trond Slagstad; Rolv Dahl Gråsteinen (eds.). <i>Geology for Society for 150 years – The Legacy after Kjerulf</i>. Vol. 12. Trondheim: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Norges_Geologiske_Undersokelse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Norges Geologiske Undersokelse (page does not exist)">Norges Geologiske Undersokelse</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">24–</span>38. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geodynamics.no/guest/Torsvik_SteinbergerGraasteinen12.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-07-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Continental+Drift+to+Mantle+Dynamics&rft.btitle=Geology+for+Society+for+150+years+%E2%80%93+The+Legacy+after+Kjerulf&rft.place=Trondheim&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.pub=Norges+Geologiske+Undersokelse&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Torsvik&rft.aufirst=Trond+Helge&rft.au=Steinberger%2C+Bernhard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geodynamics.no%2Fguest%2FTorsvik_SteinbergerGraasteinen12.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span> [Norwegian Geological Survey, Popular Science].</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurcotteSchubert2002" class="citation book cs1">Turcotte, D.L.; Schubert, G. (2002). "Plate Tectonics". <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geodynamics00dltu"><i>Geodynamics</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geodynamics00dltu/page/n15">1</a>–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66186-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66186-7"><bdi>978-0-521-66186-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plate+Tectonics&rft.btitle=Geodynamics&rft.pages=1-21&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-66186-7&rft.aulast=Turcotte&rft.aufirst=D.L.&rft.au=Schubert%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeodynamics00dltu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWegener1929" class="citation book cs1">Wegener, Alfred (1929). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/de:Die_Entstehung_der_Kontinente_und_Ozeane" class="extiw" title="s:de:Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane"><i>Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane</i></a> (4th ed.). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn Akt. Ges. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-443-01056-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-443-01056-0"><bdi>978-3-443-01056-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Entstehung+der+Kontinente+und+Ozeane&rft.place=Braunschweig&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Friedrich+Vieweg+%26+Sohn+Akt.+Ges&rft.date=1929&rft.isbn=978-3-443-01056-0&rft.aulast=Wegener&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWegener1966" class="citation book cs1">Wegener, Alfred (1966). <i>The origin of continents and oceans</i>. Translated by Biram John. Courier Dover. p. 246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-61708-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-61708-4"><bdi>978-0-486-61708-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origin+of+continents+and+oceans&rft.pages=246&rft.pub=Courier+Dover&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-486-61708-4&rft.aulast=Wegener&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinchester2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Winchester" title="Simon Winchester">Winchester, Simon</a> (2003). <a href="/wiki/Krakatoa:_The_Day_the_World_Exploded:_August_27,_1883" class="mw-redirect" title="Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883"><i>Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-621285-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-621285-2"><bdi>978-0-06-621285-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Krakatoa%3A+The+Day+the+World+Exploded%3A+August+27%2C+1883&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-06-621285-2&rft.aulast=Winchester&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuenMaruyamaKaratoWindley2007" class="citation book cs1">Yuen, David A.; Maruyama, Shigenori; Karato, Shun-Ichiro; Windley, Brian F., eds. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-BnTZbh6FJMC"><i>Superplumes: Beyond Plate Tectonics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Dordrecht" title="Dordrecht">Dordrecht</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Holland" title="South Holland">South Holland</a>: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature" title="Springer Nature">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5749-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5749-6"><bdi>978-1-4020-5749-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Superplumes%3A+Beyond+Plate+Tectonics&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+South+Holland&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-5749-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-BnTZbh6FJMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Articles">Articles</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews-HannaZuberBanerdt2008" class="citation journal cs1">Andrews-Hanna, Jeffrey C.; Zuber, Maria T.; Banerdt, W. Bruce (2008). 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(2022). "Links of planetary energetics to moon size, orbit, and planet spin: A new mechanism for plate tectonics". In Foulger, Gillian R.; Hamilton, Lawrence C.; Jurdy, Donna M.; Stein, Carol A.; Howard, Keith A.; Stein, Seth (eds.). <i>In the Footsteps of Warren B. Ahmilton: New Ideas in Earth Science</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">213–</span>222. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2F2021.2553%2818%29">10.1130/2021.2553(18)</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8137-2553-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8137-2553-6"><bdi>978-0-8137-2553-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Links+of+planetary+energetics+to+moon+size%2C+orbit%2C+and+planet+spin%3A+A+new+mechanism+for+plate+tectonics&rft.btitle=In+the+Footsteps+of+Warren+B.+Ahmilton%3A+New+Ideas+in+Earth+Science&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E213-%3C%2Fspan%3E222&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2F2021.2553%2818%29&rft.isbn=978-0-8137-2553-6&rft.aulast=Hofmeister&rft.aufirst=Anne+M.&rft.au=Criss%2C+Robert+E.&rft.au=Criss%2C+Everett+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoglioni1990" class="citation journal cs1">Doglioni, C. (1990). "The global tectonic pattern". <i>J. Geodyn</i>. <b>12</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">21–</span>38. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990JGeo...12...21D">1990JGeo...12...21D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0264-3707%2890%2990022-M">10.1016/0264-3707(90)90022-M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Geodyn.&rft.atitle=The+global+tectonic+pattern.&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0264-3707%2890%2990022-M&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990JGeo...12...21D&rft.aulast=Doglioni&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoates1962" class="citation book cs1">Coates, Robert R. (1962). "Magma type and crustal structure in the Aleutian arc". <i>The Crust of the Pacific Basin</i>. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 6. pp. <span class="nowrap">92–</span>109. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962GMS.....6...92C">1962GMS.....6...92C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2FGM006p0092">10.1029/GM006p0092</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118669310" title="Special:BookSources/9781118669310"><bdi>9781118669310</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Magma+type+and+crustal+structure+in+the+Aleutian+arc&rft.btitle=The+Crust+of+the+Pacific+Basin&rft.series=Geophysical+Monograph+Series&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E92-%3C%2Fspan%3E109&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2FGM006p0092&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1962GMS.....6...92C&rft.isbn=9781118669310&rft.aulast=Coates&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlate+tectonics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology">Historical Geology</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology/Plate_tectonics:_overview" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology/Plate tectonics: overview">Plate tectonics: overview</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Plate_tectonics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html">This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics</a>. <a href="/wiki/USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/understanding.html">Understanding Plate Tectonics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060207093949/http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/understanding.html">Archived</a> 2006-02-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tectonic-forces.org/">An explanation of tectonic forces</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912092633/http://www.tectonic-forces.org/">Archived</a> 2017-09-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Example of calculations to show that Earth Rotation could be a driving force.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://peterbird.name/publications/2003_PB2002/2003_PB2002.htm">Bird, P. (2003); An updated digital model of plate boundaries</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/Mountains/03/week3.html">Map of tectonic plates</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170112143308/http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/Mountains/03/week3.html">Archived</a> 2017-01-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geology.wisc.edu/~chuck/MORVEL/">MORVEL plate velocity estimates and information</a>. C. DeMets, D. Argus, & R. Gordon.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocre-geoscience.com/ocre-geomap/">Plate Model of Bird 2003 in Google Maps</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b008q0sp">Plate Tectonics</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li></ul> <p><b>Videos</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khan_Academy" title="Khan Academy">Khan Academy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6EdsBabSZ4g">Explanation of evidence</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/geology/tectonics.html">750<span class="nowrap"> </span>million years of global tectonic activity</a>. Movie.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://qz.com/577842/scientists-have-used-groundbreaking-technology-to-figure-out-how-the-earth-looked-a-billion-years-ago/">Multiple videos of plate tectonic movements</a> <a href="/wiki/Quartz_(publication)" title="Quartz (publication)">Quartz</a> December 31, 2015</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_plate" title="African plate">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_plate" title="Antarctic plate">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_plate" title="Eurasian plate">Eurasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Australian_plate" title="Indo-Australian plate">Indo-Australian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_plate" title="Australian plate">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_plate" title="Indian plate">Indian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_plate" title="North American plate">North American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_plate" title="Pacific plate">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_American_plate" title="South American plate">South American</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px;padding:1.0em;"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="World map indicating tectonic plate boundaries"><img alt="World map indicating tectonic plate boundaries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg/120px-Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg/180px-Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg/240px-Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4903" data-file-height="2996" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates#Minor_plates" title="List of tectonic plates">Minor plates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amurian_microplate" title="Amurian microplate">Amurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_plate" title="Arabian plate">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_plate" title="Burma plate">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_plate" title="Caribbean plate">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_plate" title="Caroline plate">Caroline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocos_plate" title="Cocos plate">Cocos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_plate" title="Indian plate">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazca_plate" title="Nazca plate">Nazca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides_plate" title="New Hebrides plate">New Hebrides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okhotsk_microplate" title="Okhotsk microplate">Okhotsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Sea_plate" title="Philippine Sea plate">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotia_plate" title="Scotia plate">Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_plate" title="Somali plate">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_plate" title="Sunda plate">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_plate" title="Yangtze plate">Yangtze</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates#Microplates" title="List of tectonic plates">Microplates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_plate" title="Adriatic plate">Adriatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_plate" title="Aegean Sea plate">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_sub-plate" title="Anatolian sub-plate">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balmoral_Reef_plate" title="Balmoral Reef plate">Balmoral Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banda_Sea_plate" title="Banda Sea plate">Banda Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird%27s_Head_plate" title="Bird's Head plate">Bird's Head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capricorn_plate" title="Capricorn plate">Capricorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coiba_plate" title="Coiba plate">Coiba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conway_Reef_plate" title="Conway Reef plate">Conway Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explorer_plate" title="Explorer plate">Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futuna_plate" title="Futuna plate">Futuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_microplate" title="Galápagos microplate">Galápagos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A2ve_microplate" title="Gonâve microplate">Gonâve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorda_plate" title="Gorda plate">Gorda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_plate" title="Greenland plate">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halmahera_plate" title="Halmahera plate">Halmahera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_plate" title="Iberian plate">Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_plate" title="Juan de Fuca plate">Juan de Fuca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_plate" title="Juan Fernández plate">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Plateau" title="Kerguelen Plateau">Kerguelen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermadec_plate" title="Kermadec plate">Kermadec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lwandle_plate" title="Lwandle plate">Lwandle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_plate" title="Madagascar plate">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malpelo_plate" title="Malpelo plate">Malpelo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manus_plate" title="Manus plate">Manus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoke_plate" title="Maoke plate">Maoke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_plate" title="Mariana plate">Mariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molucca_Sea_plate" title="Molucca Sea plate">Molucca Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niuafo%27ou_plate" title="Niuafo'ou plate">Niuafo’ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Andes_plate" title="North Andes plate">North Andes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Bismarck_plate" title="North Bismarck plate">North Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Galapagos_microplate" title="North Galapagos microplate">North Galápagos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawa_plate" title="Okinawa plate">Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama_plate" title="Panama plate">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelso_plate" title="Pelso plate">Pelso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Mobile_Belt" title="Philippine Mobile Belt">Philippine Mobile Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivera_plate" title="Rivera plate">Rivera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rovuma_plate" title="Rovuma plate">Rovuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangihe_plate" title="Sangihe plate">Sangihe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles_microcontinent" title="Seychelles microcontinent">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shetland_plate" title="Shetland plate">Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Sea_plate" title="Solomon Sea plate">Solomon Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Bismarck_plate" title="South Bismarck plate">South Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sandwich_plate" title="South Sandwich plate">South Sandwich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timor_plate" title="Timor plate">Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tisza_plate" title="Tisza plate">Tisza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga_plate" title="Tonga plate">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trobriand_plate" title="Trobriand plate">Trobriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_microplate" title="Victoria microplate">Victoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodlark_plate" title="Woodlark plate">Woodlark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates#Ancient_tectonic_plates" title="List of tectonic plates">Ancient plates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_plate" title="Baltic plate">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellingshausen_plate" title="Bellingshausen plate">Bellingshausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charcot_plate" title="Charcot plate">Charcot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmeria_(continent)" title="Cimmeria (continent)">Cimmeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farallon_plate" title="Farallon plate">Farallon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_plate" title="Insular plate">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermontane_plate" title="Intermontane plate">Intermontane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izanagi_plate" title="Izanagi plate">Izanagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kula_plate" title="Kula plate">Kula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_terrane" title="Lhasa terrane">Lhasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agulhas_Basin" title="Agulhas Basin">Malvinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moa_plate" title="Moa plate">Moa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_plate" title="Phoenix plate">Phoenix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshiroda_plate" title="Kshiroda plate">Kshiroda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge#List_of_mid-ocean_ridges" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Oceanic ridges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Ridge" title="Aden Ridge">Aden Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlsberg_Ridge" title="Carlsberg Ridge">Carlsberg Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indian_Ridge" title="Central Indian Ridge">Central Indian Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chile_Ridge" title="Chile Ridge">Chile Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocos_Ridge" title="Cocos Ridge">Cocos Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explorer_Ridge" title="Explorer Ridge">Explorer Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gakkel_Ridge" title="Gakkel Ridge">Gakkel Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands#Geology" title="Galápagos Islands">Galápagos Spreading Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorda_Ridge" title="Gorda Ridge">Gorda Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Ridge" title="Juan de Fuca Ridge">Juan de Fuca Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Knipovich" title="Nikolai Knipovich">Knipovich Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolbeinsey_Ridge" title="Kolbeinsey Ridge">Kolbeinsey Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_Plain" title="Greenland Plain">Mohns Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge#Iceland" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Reykjanes Ridge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific%E2%80%93Antarctic_Ridge" title="Pacific–Antarctic Ridge">Pacific–Antarctic Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_American%E2%80%93Antarctic_Ridge" title="South American–Antarctic Ridge">South American–Antarctic Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Indian_Ridge" title="Southeast Indian Ridge">Southeast Indian Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Indian_Ridge" title="Southwest Indian Ridge">Southwest Indian Ridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge#List_of_ancient_oceanic_ridges" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Ancient oceanic ridges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegir_Ridge" title="Aegir Ridge">Aegir Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Ridge" title="Alpha Ridge">Alpha Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic%E2%80%93Phoenix_Ridge" title="Antarctic–Phoenix Ridge">Antarctic–Phoenix Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kula%E2%80%93Farallon_Ridge" title="Kula–Farallon Ridge">Kula–Farallon Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Labrador_Ridge" title="Mid-Labrador Ridge">Mid-Labrador Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific%E2%80%93Farallon_Ridge" title="Pacific–Farallon Ridge">Pacific–Farallon Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific%E2%80%93Kula_Ridge" title="Pacific–Kula Ridge">Pacific–Kula Ridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates" title="List of tectonic plates">List</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Plate_tectonics" title="Category:Plate tectonics">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">In culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Day" title="Earth Day">Earth Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Earth" title="Flag of Earth">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_symbol" title="Earth symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">World economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth#Etymology" title="Earth">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">Time zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World" title="World">World</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_globe" title="Virtual globe">Virtual globe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_fluid_dynamics" title="Geophysical fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Geomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_imaging" title="Geophysical imaging">Tomography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Age of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremes_on_Earth" title="Extremes on Earth">Extremes on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">The Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Evolution of the Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_solar_terrestrial_planets" title="Geology of solar terrestrial planets">Geology of solar terrestrial planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location_of_Earth" title="Location of Earth">Location in the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Earth" title="Category:Earth">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Earth&#039;s_primary_regions_and_subregions550" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Regions_of_the_world" title="Template:Regions of the world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Regions_of_the_world" title="Template talk:Regions of the world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Regions_of_the_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Regions of the world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Earth&#039;s_primary_regions_and_subregions550" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s primary <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_geoscheme" title="United Nations geoscheme">regions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subregion" title="Subregion">subregions</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World" title="World">Worlds</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab World">Arab World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_Under" title="Down Under">Down Under</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-world_model" title="Three-world model">Three/Four Worlds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_World" title="First World">First World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_World" title="Second World">Second World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_World" title="Fourth World">Fourth World</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hemispheres_of_Earth" title="Hemispheres of Earth">Hemispheres</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hemisphere" title="Eastern Hemisphere">Eastern Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_and_water_hemispheres" title="Land and water hemispheres">Land Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_and_water_hemispheres" title="Land and water hemispheres">Water Hemisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landmass" title="Landmass">Landmasses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Africa-Eurasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Australia" title="Mainland Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Submerged_continent" title="Submerged continent">submerged</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plates">Tectonic plates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Continents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Saharan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">Western</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Antarctica" title="East Antarctica">East Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Plateau" title="Antarctic Plateau">Antarctic Plateau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transantarctic_Mountains" title="Transantarctic Mountains">Transantarctic Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Antarctica" title="West Antarctica">West Antarctica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula" title="Antarctic Peninsula">Antarctic Peninsula</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia%E2%80%93Pacific" title="Asia–Pacific">Asia–Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aralkum_Desert" title="Aralkum Desert">Aralkum Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Central_Asia" title="Greater Central Asia">Greater Central Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia" title="Northeast Asia">Northeastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Asia" title="Pacific Asia">Pacific Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_(region)" title="Ural (region)">Ural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Himalayan_states" title="Himalayan states">Himalayan states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of South Asia">Subregions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Sea" title="Levantine Sea">Levantine Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Russia" title="Southern Russia">Southern Russia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Europe" title="Northwestern Europe">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Peninsula" title="Scandinavian Peninsula">Scandinavian Peninsula</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">South-eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkan Peninsula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">South-western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Europe" title="Atlantic Europe">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Europe" title="Northwestern Europe">Northwestern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic-speaking_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic-speaking Europe">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance-speaking_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance-speaking Europe">Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aridoamerica" title="Aridoamerica">Aridoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_America_(Americas)" title="Middle America (Americas)">Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_America" title="Northern America">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appalachia" title="Appalachia">Appalachia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Belt" title="Bible Belt">Bible Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_region" title="Great Lakes region">Great Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_states" title="Mountain states">Mountain states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_South_Central_states" title="West South Central states">West South Central United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">Atlantic Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Prairies" title="Canadian Prairies">Canadian Prairies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Canada" title="Central Canada">Central Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canada" title="Eastern Canada">Eastern Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Canada" title="Northern Canada">Northern Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canada" title="Western Canada">Western Canada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mexico" title="Northern Mexico">Northern Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-America" title="Anglo-America">Anglo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_America" title="French America">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibero-America" title="Ibero-America">Ibero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Hispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_America" title="Portuguese America">Portuguese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Australia" title="Mainland Australia">Mainland Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Island_Melanesia" title="Island Melanesia">Island Melanesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote Oceania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon Plain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin_(sedimentary_basin)" title="Amazon Basin (sedimentary basin)">Amazon Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon Rainforest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Community" title="Andean Community">Andean States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Highlands" title="Brazilian Highlands">Brazilian Highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_South_America" title="Caribbean South America">Caribbean South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Guianas" title="The Guianas">The Guianas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cone" title="Southern Cone">Southern Cone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_islands" title="Lists of islands">Islands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Africa" title="List of islands of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_islands_of_the_Americas" title="Lists of islands of the Americas">America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_North_America" title="List of islands of North America">North America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_islands" title="List of Caribbean islands">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Central_America" title="List of islands of Central America">Central America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_South_America" title="List of islands of South America">South America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_and_subantarctic_islands" title="List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of islands of Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Europe" title="List of islands of Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_islands_by_area" title="List of European islands by area">by area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_islands_by_population" title="List of European islands by population">by population</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Pacific_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Pacific Ocean">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Australia" title="List of islands of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_New_Zealand" title="List of islands of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Arctic_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Atlantic_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Baltic_Sea" title="List of islands in the Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Black_Sea" title="List of islands in the Black Sea">Black Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_islands" title="List of Caribbean islands">Caribbean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Irish_Sea" title="List of islands in the Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Mediterranean" title="List of islands in the Mediterranean">Mediterranean Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Adriatic" title="List of islands in the Adriatic">Adriatic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Aegean_Islands" title="List of Aegean Islands">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Islands" title="Ionian Islands">Ionian Sea</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Persian_Gulf" title="List of islands in the Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_Pacific_Ocean" title="List of islands in the Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_East_China_Sea" title="List of islands in the East China Sea">East China Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_in_the_South_China_Sea" title="List of islands in the South China Sea">South China Sea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_and_subantarctic_islands" title="List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands">Southern Ocean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Convergence" title="Antarctic Convergence">Antarctic Convergence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Fire" title="Ring of Fire">Ring of Fire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean#World_Ocean" title="Ocean">World Ocean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">waterbodies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes" title="List of lakes">Lakes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_lakes" title="Lists of lakes">lists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rivers" title="Lists of rivers">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_seas_on_Earth" title="List of seas on Earth">Seas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Rim_regions" title="Category:Rim regions">Rim</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Rim" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic Rim">Atlantic Rim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Mediterranean" title="Indo-Mediterranean">Indo-Mediterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Rim" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Ocean Rim">Indian Ocean Rim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Rim" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Rim">Mediterranean Rim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Rim" title="Pacific Rim">Pacific Rim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polar_regions_of_Earth" title="Polar regions of Earth">Polar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Global_regions" title="Category:Global regions">Global</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_East" title="Global East">Global East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Geographical_Pivot_of_History#The_Heartland" title="The Geographical Pivot of History">Global Heartland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">Global North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia" title="Northeast Asia">Global Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Northwest" title="Global Northwest">Global Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">Global South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Southeast" title="Global Southeast">Global Southeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Southwest" title="Global Southwest">Global Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Global West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Template:Continents_of_Earth" title="Template:Continents of Earth">Continents of Earth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:List_of_seas" title="Template:List of seas">List of seas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Earth" title="Template:Earth">Physical Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geologic_principles_and_processes323" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geologic_Principles" title="Template:Geologic Principles"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geologic_Principles" title="Template talk:Geologic Principles"><abbr title="Discuss this 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continuity">Principle of lateral continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_cross-cutting_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of cross-cutting relationships">Principle of cross-cutting relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_faunal_succession" title="Principle of faunal succession">Principle of faunal succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_included_fragments" title="Law of included fragments">Principle of inclusions and components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Walther's law">Walther's law</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG/50px-Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG" decoding="async" width="50" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG/75px-Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG/100px-Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1339" data-file-height="1786" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrologic principles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrusive_rock" title="Intrusive rock">Intrusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrusive_rock" title="Extrusive rock">Extrusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">Volcanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exfoliation_joint" title="Exfoliation joint">Exfoliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">Weathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" title="Soil formation">Soil formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">Diagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compaction_(geology)" title="Compaction (geology)">Compaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">Metamorphism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphologic processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_tectonics" title="Salt tectonics">Salt tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">Tectonic uplift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">Subsidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_transgression" title="Marine transgression">Marine transgression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_regression" title="Marine regression">Marine regression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">Sediment transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">Fluvial processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">Aeolian processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">Glacial processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">Mass wasting processes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geology" title="Template:Geology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geology" title="Template talk:Geology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geology518" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geology" title="Outline of geology">Outline of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Glossary of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" title="Index of geology articles">Index of geology articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geology" title="Timeline of geology">Timeline of geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Composition and structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">Sedimentology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_geology" title="Historical geology">Historical geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamic Earth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_geology" title="Structural geology">Structural geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">Geodynamics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology">Volcanology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science#Planetary_geodesy" title="Planetary science">Planetary geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetism">Geomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey" title="Geophysical survey">Geophysical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science#Planetary_Geophysics_and_Space_Physics" title="Planetary science">Planetary geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonophysics" title="Tectonophysics">Tectonophysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geology" title="Economic geology">Economic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_geology" title="Environmental geology">Environmental geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geophysics" title="Forensic geophysics">Forensic geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteoritics" title="Meteoritics">Meteoritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_geology" title="Mining geology">Mining geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geologist" title="Petroleum geologist">Petroleum geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">Volcanologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology" title="Category:Geology">Geology</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Geology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Geology">Geology</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Elements_of_nature202" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nature" title="Template:Nature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nature" title="Template talk:Nature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Elements_of_nature202" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Elements of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">geological</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis" title="Gaia hypothesis">Gaia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere <span style="font-size:85%;">(Earth)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Clouds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin <span style="font-size:85%;">(abiogenesis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">astrobiology</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protista</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nature" title="Category:Nature">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Triple_junctions278" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Triple_Junctions" title="Template:Triple Junctions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Triple_Junctions" title="Template talk:Triple Junctions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Triple_Junctions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Triple Junctions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Triple_junctions278" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Triple_junction" title="Triple junction">Triple junctions</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Triple trench</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boso_triple_junction" title="Boso triple junction">Boso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banda_Sea_triple_junction" title="Banda Sea triple junction">Banda Sea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Triple ridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden%E2%80%93Owen%E2%80%93Carlsberg_triple_junction" title="Aden–Owen–Carlsberg triple junction">Aden–Owen–Carlsberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afar_triple_junction" title="Afar triple junction">Afar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azores_triple_junction" title="Azores triple junction">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen-Twenty_fracture_zone" title="Fifteen-Twenty fracture zone">Fifteen-Twenty fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_triple_junction" title="Galápagos triple junction">Galápagos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bouvet_triple_junction" title="Bouvet triple junction">Bouvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivera_triple_junction" title="Rivera triple junction">Rivera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodrigues_triple_junction" title="Rodrigues triple junction">Rodrigues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Greenland_triple_junction" title="South Greenland triple junction">South Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongareva_triple_junction" title="Tongareva triple junction">Tongareva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Triple fault</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl%C4%B1ova_triple_junction" title="Karlıova triple junction">Karlıova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trench–trench–ridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chile_triple_junction" title="Chile triple junction">Chile</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fault–fault–trench</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamchatka%E2%80%93Aleutian_triple_junction" title="Kamchatka–Aleutian triple junction">Kamchatka–Aleutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marash_triple_junction" title="Marash triple junction">Maraş</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendocino_triple_junction" title="Mendocino triple junction">Mendocino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ridge–fault–fault</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macquarie_triple_junction" title="Macquarie triple junction">Macquarie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ridge–trench–fault</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Charlotte_triple_junction" title="Queen Charlotte triple junction">Queen Charlotte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Fuji#Geology" title="Mount Fuji">Mount Fuji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Triple_junctions" title="Category:Triple 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418.384 1 Template:Reflist"," 11.19% 313.079 69 Template:Sfn"," 10.59% 296.360 36 Template:Cite_book"," 5.24% 146.641 2 Template:Etymology"," 4.65% 130.097 1 Template:Excerpt"," 4.60% 128.820 10 Template:Navbox"," 4.56% 127.583 1 Template:Geology_sidebar"," 4.39% 122.835 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.912","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":25776794,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAndrews-HannaZuberBanerdt2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBercovici2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackettBullardRuncorn1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBortman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBostrom1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButler1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarey1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasadevallFang2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoates1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColticeGéraultUlvrová2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCondie1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnerneyAcuñaNessKletetschka2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnerneyAcuñaWasilewskiNess1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConradLithgow-Bertelloni2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrameriConradMontésiLithgow-Bertelloni2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDhuimeHawkesworthCawoodStorey2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDietz1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoglioni1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDulloPfaffl2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForsythUyeda1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoulger2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankel1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankel1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlatzmaier2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroveTillKrawczynski2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHancockSkinnerDineley2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasterokHalpinCollinsHand2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeezen1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeirtzlerLe_PichonBaron1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelmholtz_Association_of_German_Research_Centres2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHess1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHofmeisterCrissCriss2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes1928\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJoly1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoly1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKasting1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiousTilling1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorenaga2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorgen1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLe_Pichon1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLippsett2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLippsett2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittleFowlerCoulson1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLliboutry2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovett2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLymanFleming1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallardColticeSetonMüller2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaruyama1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasonRaff1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGuire2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKenzieParker1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKnight2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeissner2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMendia-Landa\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyerhoffTanerMorrisAgocs1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMossWilson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeith,_Katie2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;NeillLenardic2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOreskes2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuiltyBanks2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaffMason1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReadWatson1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRicard2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowleyForteRowanGlišović2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuncorn1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScaleraLavecchia2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidtHarbert1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchubertTurcotteOlson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScoppolaBoccalettiBevisCarminati2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScotese2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSegev2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSleep1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoderblomTomaskoArchinalBecker2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolomatov2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpence1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpiessKuperman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanley1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinWysession2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStern2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStern2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSternGerya2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSverdrupJohnsonFleming1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanimotoLay2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompsonTurk1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomson1863\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTikooElkins-Tanton2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorsvik\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorsvikSteinberger2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorsvikSteinberger2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorsvikSteinbergerGurnisGaina2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurcotteSchubert2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValenciaO\u0026#039;Connell2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValenciaO\u0026#039;ConnellSasselov2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Bemmelen1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Bemmelen1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Dijk2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVineMatthews1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWegener1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWegener1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWegener1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeller,_M.B.Evans,_A.J.Ibarra,_D.E.2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWezel1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhiteMcKenzie1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinchester2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWindleyKuskyPolat2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolpert,_Stuart2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuenMaruyamaKaratoWindley2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhaoCawoodWildeSun2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhaoSunWildeLi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhen_Shao1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhongZuber2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Dijk1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_DijkOkkes1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_DijkOkkes1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_HeckTackley2011\"] = 1,\n [\"Tidal_effect\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"0\"] = 8,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 9,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 36,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 78,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 16,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 6,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Earth\"] = 1,\n [\"Em\"] = 4,\n [\"Etymology\"] = 2,\n [\"Excerpt\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Geologic Principles\"] = 1,\n [\"Geology\"] = 1,\n [\"Geology sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Grc-transl\"] = 1,\n [\"Harv\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 17,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 2,\n [\"In Our Time\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 3,\n [\"Legend striped\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend-line\"] = 9,\n [\"Ma\"] = 5,\n [\"Main\"] = 4,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 1,\n [\"Nature\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 3,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect-distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Regions of the world\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 69,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Tectonic plates\"] = 1,\n [\"Toclimit\"] = 1,\n [\"Triple Junctions\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n [\"Wikibooks\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikt-lang\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","360","17.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","300","14.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","7.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","160","7.9"],["type","80","4.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","4.0"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","3.0"],["gsub","60","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","3.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","40","2.0"],["[others]","660","32.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-54bc5bdf84-pb5fr","timestamp":"20250217173508","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Plate tectonics","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plate_tectonics","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7950","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q7950","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-12-21T20:15:05Z","dateModified":"2025-02-16T22:53:40Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/67\/Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg","headline":"scientific theory that describes the large-scale motions of Earth's lithosphere"}</script> </body> </html>