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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decline_of_famine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_of_famine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Decline of famine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_of_famine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attempts_at_famine_alleviation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attempts_at_famine_alleviation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Attempts at famine alleviation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attempts_at_famine_alleviation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Regional history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regional_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Regional history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Regional_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Early history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Colonial period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Recent years </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_initiatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_initiatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.5 Current initiatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_initiatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_role_of_African_Unity_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_role_of_African_Unity_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.6 The role of African Unity organization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_role_of_African_Unity_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Far_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Far_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Far East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Far_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Great_Leap_Forward_1958–1961" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Leap_Forward_1958–1961"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1.1 Great Leap Forward 1958–1961 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Leap_Forward_1958–1961-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cambodia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cambodia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Cambodia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cambodia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Korean_famine_in_the_1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Korean_famine_in_the_1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 North Korean famine in the 1990s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Korean_famine_in_the_1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vietnam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vietnam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.5 Vietnam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Middle East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.1 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-16th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#16th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.2 16th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-16th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-17th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#17th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.3 17th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-17th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.4 18th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.5 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.6 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Latin America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risk_of_future_famine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risk_of_future_famine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Risk of future famine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Risk_of_future_famine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climate_and_population_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_and_population_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Climate and population pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_and_population_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State-sponsored_famines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State-sponsored_famines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 State-sponsored famines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State-sponsored_famines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_sanctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_sanctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Economic sanctions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_sanctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Famine_prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Famine_prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Famine prevention </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Famine_prevention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Famine prevention subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Famine_prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overall_food_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overall_food_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Overall food production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overall_food_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_security"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Food security </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_security-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Relief </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Levels_of_food_insecurity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Levels_of_food_insecurity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Levels of food insecurity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Levels_of_food_insecurity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_on_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Effects on society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_and_further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_and_further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Sources and further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_and_further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Famine</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 86 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-86" aria-hidden="true" > 86 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongersnood" title="Hongersnood – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Hongersnood" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D3%99_%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Амассатә амлакра – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Амассатә амлакра" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9" title="مجاعة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مجاعة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%82" title="قیتلیق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قیتلیق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongon" title="Kongon – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Kongon" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7" title="দুর্ভিক্ষ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দুর্ভিক্ষ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki-hng" title="Ki-hng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ki-hng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2" title="अकाल – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अकाल" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Масов глад – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Масов глад" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naonegezh" title="Naonegezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Naonegezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fam" title="Fam – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fam" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83_%D0%B2%D1%8B%C3%A7%C4%83%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Аслă выçăлăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Аслă выçăлăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladomor" title="Hladomor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hladomor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newyn" title="Newyn – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Newyn" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungersn%C3%B8d" title="Hungersnød – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hungersnød" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungersnot" title="Hungersnot – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hungersnot" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A4ljah%C3%A4da" title="Näljahäda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Näljahäda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Λιμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λιμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hambruna" title="Hambruna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hambruna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malsatego" title="Malsatego – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malsatego" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gosete" title="Gosete – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gosete" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AD%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="قحطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قحطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famine" title="Famine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Famine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongersneed" title="Hongersneed – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Hongersneed" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorta" title="Gorta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gorta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fame_(sociedade)" title="Fame (sociedade) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fame (sociedade)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%B7%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B3" title="દુષ્કાળ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="દુષ્કાળ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EA%B7%BC" title="기근 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기근" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2" title="अकाल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अकाल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glad_(katastrofa)" title="Glad (katastrofa) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Glad (katastrofa)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famino" title="Famino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Famino" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bencana_kelaparan" title="Bencana kelaparan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bencana kelaparan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungursney%C3%B0" title="Hungursneyð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hungursneyð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carestia" title="Carestia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Carestia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99" title="רעב המוני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רעב המוני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="მასობრივი შიმშილი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მასობრივი შიმშილი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Ашаршылық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ашаршылық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njaa" title="Njaa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Njaa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xela" title="Xela – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xela" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bads" title="Bads – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bads" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongersnout" title="Hongersnout – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Hongersnout" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badmetis" title="Badmetis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Badmetis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caistria" title="Caistria – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Caistria" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carestia" title="Carestia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Carestia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosary" title="Mosary – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Mosary" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahat" title="Kahat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kahat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongersnood" title="Hongersnood – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hongersnood" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="भोकमरी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भोकमरी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A3%A2%E9%A5%89" title="飢饉 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="飢饉" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungersn%C3%B8d" title="Hungersnød – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hungersnød" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungersnaud" title="Hungersnaud – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Hungersnaud" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famina" title="Famina – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Famina" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocharchilik" title="Ocharchilik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ocharchilik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%DD%AA" title="کاݪ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کاݪ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AD%D8%B7%D9%8A" title="قحطي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="قحطي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%84%E1%9F%87%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F" title="គ្រោះទុរ្ភិក្ស – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="គ្រោះទុរ្ភិក្ស" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kl%C4%99ska_g%C5%82odu" title="Klęska głodu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Klęska głodu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carestia" title="Carestia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Carestia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foamete" title="Foamete – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Foamete" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatun_yarqay" title="Hatun yarqay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hatun yarqay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Массовый голод – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Массовый голод" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%82" title="Сут – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Сут" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zija_e_buk%C3%ABs" title="Zija e bukës – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Zija e bukës" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carist%C3%ACa" title="Caristìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Caristìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famine" title="Famine – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Famine" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladomor" title="Hladomor – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Hladomor" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masovna_glad" title="Masovna glad – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Masovna glad" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masovna_glad" title="Masovna glad – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Masovna glad" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A4l%C3%A4nh%C3%A4t%C3%A4" title="Nälänhätä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nälänhätä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungersn%C3%B6d" title="Hungersnöd – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hungersnöd" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பஞ்சம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பஞ்சம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A7l%C4%B1q" title="Açlıq – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Açlıq" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%81" title="కరువు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కరువు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2" title="ทุพภิกขภัย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทุพภิกขภัย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%B1tl%C4%B1k" title="Kıtlık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kıtlık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1wurumma%CC%B1nde" title="A̱wurumma̱nde – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱wurumma̱nde" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about scarcity of food. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Famine_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Famine (disambiguation)">Famine (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:No-nb_bldsa_6a019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/No-nb_bldsa_6a019.jpg/300px-No-nb_bldsa_6a019.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/No-nb_bldsa_6a019.jpg/450px-No-nb_bldsa_6a019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/No-nb_bldsa_6a019.jpg/600px-No-nb_bldsa_6a019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4512" data-file-height="4628" /></a><figcaption>A woman, man, and child, all dead from starvation during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921%E2%80%931922" title="Russian famine of 1921–1922">Russian famine of 1921–1922</a></figcaption></figure> A famine is a widespread scarcity of <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> caused by several possible factors, including, but not limited to <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural disasters">natural disasters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crop_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop failure">crop failure</a>, widespread <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">economic catastrophe</a> or <a href="/wiki/Government_policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Government policies">government policies</a>. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a>, and increased <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">mortality</a>. Every inhabited continent in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout history. During the 19th and 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>, suffered the greatest number of fatalities due to famine. Deaths caused by famine declined sharply beginning in the 1970s, with numbers falling further since 2000. Since 2010, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> has been the most affected continent in the world by famine. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions">edit</a>]</div> According to the United Nations <a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">World Food Programme</a>, famine is declared when malnutrition is widespread, and when people have started dying of starvation through lack of access to sufficient, nutritious food.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Integrated_Food_Security_Phase_Classification" title="Integrated Food Security Phase Classification">Integrated Food Security Phase Classification</a> criteria define Phase 5 famine of acute food insecurity as occurring when all three of the following situations exist at the same time:<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-IPC_famine-5">[5]</a> <ul><li>At least 20% of households in an area face extreme food shortages with a limited ability to cope;</li> <li>The prevalence of acute malnutrition in children exceeds 30%;</li> <li>The death rate exceeds two people per 10,000 per day.</li></ul> The declaration of a famine carries no binding obligations on the UN or member states, but serves to focus global attention on the problem.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Another_Definition">Another Definition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Another Definition">edit</a>]</div> The scarcity of food refers to a situation where the availability of food is insufficient to meet the demands of a population, often resulting from factors like poor agricultural productivity, climate change, political instability, or economic crises. This shortage can lead to widespread hunger, malnutrition, and social unrest, especially in vulnerable regions. Food scarcity affects not only individual health and well-being but also contributes to greater inequality and economic decline as prices for essential items rise dramatically, further limiting access for the poor. Addressing food scarcity requires sustainable agricultural practices, improved food distribution systems, and coordinated global efforts to alleviate poverty and inequality. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_famines" title="List of famines">List of famines</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Tenmei_Famine_Map_Artwork.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Great_Tenmei_Famine_Map_Artwork.png/220px-Great_Tenmei_Famine_Map_Artwork.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Great_Tenmei_Famine_Map_Artwork.png/330px-Great_Tenmei_Famine_Map_Artwork.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Great_Tenmei_Famine_Map_Artwork.png/440px-Great_Tenmei_Famine_Map_Artwork.png 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="1113" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Great_Tenmei_famine" title="Great Tenmei famine">Great Tenmei famine</a> in Japan (1782–1788)</figcaption></figure> The cyclical occurrence of famine has been a mainstay of societies engaged in <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence agriculture</a> since the dawn of agriculture itself. The frequency and intensity of famine has fluctuated throughout history, depending on changes in food demand, such as <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a>, and supply-side shifts caused by changing <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climatic</a> conditions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_of_famine">Decline of famine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Decline of famine">edit</a>]</div> In the 16th and 17th century, the feudal system began to break down, and more prosperous farmers began to <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclose</a> their own land and improve their yields to sell the surplus crops for a profit. These <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> landowners paid their labourers with <a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">money</a>, thereby increasing the commercialization of rural society. In the emerging competitive labour market, better techniques for the improvement of labour productivity were increasingly valued and rewarded. It was in the farmer's interest to produce as much as possible on their land in order to sell it to areas that demanded that product. They produced guaranteed <a href="/wiki/Surplus_value" title="Surplus value">surpluses</a> of their crop every year if they could. Subsistence peasants were also increasingly forced to commercialize their activities because of increasing <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxes</a>. Taxes that had to be paid to central governments in money forced the peasants to produce crops to sell. Sometimes they produced <a href="/wiki/Industrial_crop" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial crop">industrial crops</a>, but they would find ways to increase their production in order to meet both their subsistence requirements as well as their tax obligations. Peasants also used the new money to purchase manufactured goods. The agricultural and social developments encouraging increased food production were gradually taking place throughout the 16th century, but took off in the early 17th century. By the 1590s, these trends were sufficiently developed in the rich and commercialized province of <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a> to allow its population to withstand a general outbreak of famine in Western Europe at that time. By that time, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> had one of the most commercialized agricultural systems in Europe. They grew many industrial crops such as <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">flax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hops" title="Hops">hops</a>. Agriculture became increasingly specialized and efficient. The efficiency of Dutch agriculture allowed for much more rapid urbanization in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries than anywhere else in Europe. As a result, productivity and wealth increased, allowing the Netherlands to maintain a steady food supply.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> By 1650, English agriculture had also become commercialized on a much wider scale. The last peacetime famine in England was in 1623–24. There were still periods of hunger, as in the Netherlands, but no more famines ever occurred. Common areas for pasture were <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosed</a> for private use and large scale, efficient farms were consolidated. Other technical developments included the draining of marshes, more efficient field use patterns, and the wider introduction of industrial crops. These agricultural developments led to wider prosperity in England and increasing urbanization.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> By the end of the 17th century, English agriculture was the most productive in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> In both England and the Netherlands, the population stabilized between 1650 and 1750, the same time period in which the sweeping changes to agriculture occurred. Famine still occurred in other parts of Europe, however. In <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, famines occurred as late as the twentieth century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attempts_at_famine_alleviation">Attempts at famine alleviation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Attempts at famine alleviation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony,_1847.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG/170px-Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG/255px-Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG/340px-Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG 2x" data-file-width="405" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Skibbereen" title="Skibbereen">Skibbereen</a>, Ireland during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a>, 1847 illustration by <a href="/wiki/James_Mahony" title="James Mahony">James Mahony</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Illustrated_London_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Illustrated London News">Illustrated London News</a></figcaption></figure> Because of the severity of famine, it was a chief concern for governments and other authorities. In pre-industrial Europe, preventing famine, and ensuring timely food supplies, was one of the chief concerns of many governments, although they were severely limited in their options due to limited levels of external trade, infrastructure, and bureaucracy generally too rudimentary to effect real relief. Most governments were concerned by famine because it could lead to <a href="/wiki/Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolt">revolt</a> and other forms of social disruption. By the mid-19th century and the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, it became possible for governments to alleviate the effects of famine through <a href="/wiki/Price_controls" title="Price controls">price controls</a>, large scale importation of food products from foreign markets, stockpiling, <a href="/wiki/Rationing" title="Rationing">rationing</a>, regulation of production and <a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">charity</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine of 1845</a> in Ireland was one of the first famines to feature such intervention, although the government response was often lackluster. The initial response of the British government to the early phase of the famine was "prompt and relatively successful", according to <a href="/wiki/F._S._L._Lyons" title="F. S. L. Lyons">F. S. L. Lyons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Confronted by widespread crop failure in the autumn of 1845, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Sir Robert Peel</a> purchased £100,000 worth of maize and <a href="/wiki/Cornmeal" title="Cornmeal">cornmeal</a> secretly from America. <a href="/wiki/Barings_Bank" title="Barings Bank">Baring Brothers & Co</a> initially acted as purchasing agents for the Prime Minister. The government hoped that they would not "stifle private enterprise" and that their actions would not act as a disincentive to local relief efforts. Due to weather conditions, the first shipment did not arrive in Ireland until the beginning of February 1846.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy199538-11">[11]</a> The maize corn was then re-sold for a penny a pound.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In 1846, Peel moved to repeal the <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> on grain which kept the price of bread artificially high. The famine situation worsened during 1846 and the repeal of the Corn Laws in that year did little to help the starving Irish; the measure split the Conservative Party, leading to the fall of Peel's ministry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake1967221–241-13">[13]</a> In March, Peel set up a programme of public works in Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Famine_in_India_Natives_Waiting_for_Relief_in_Bangalore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Famine_in_India_Natives_Waiting_for_Relief_in_Bangalore.jpg/170px-Famine_in_India_Natives_Waiting_for_Relief_in_Bangalore.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Famine_in_India_Natives_Waiting_for_Relief_in_Bangalore.jpg/255px-Famine_in_India_Natives_Waiting_for_Relief_in_Bangalore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Famine_in_India_Natives_Waiting_for_Relief_in_Bangalore.jpg/340px-Famine_in_India_Natives_Waiting_for_Relief_in_Bangalore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2483" data-file-height="2931" /></a><figcaption>People waiting for famine relief in <a href="/wiki/Bangalore" title="Bangalore">Bangalore</a>, India (from the <a href="/wiki/Illustrated_London_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Illustrated London News">Illustrated London News</a>, 1877)</figcaption></figure> Despite this promising start, the measures undertaken by Peel's successor, <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Lord John Russell</a>, proved comparatively "inadequate" as the crisis deepened. Russell's ministry introduced public works projects, which by December 1846 employed some half million Irish and proved impossible to administer. The government was influenced by a <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> belief that the market would provide the food needed. It halted government food and relief works, and turned to a mixture of "indoor" and "outdoor" direct relief; the former administered in <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouses</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Poor_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Poor Laws">Poor Law</a>, the latter through <a href="/wiki/Soup_kitchen" title="Soup kitchen">soup kitchens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apocalypse_vasnetsov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Apocalypse_vasnetsov.jpg/294px-Apocalypse_vasnetsov.jpg" decoding="async" width="294" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Apocalypse_vasnetsov.jpg/441px-Apocalypse_vasnetsov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Apocalypse_vasnetsov.jpg/588px-Apocalypse_vasnetsov.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2290" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse_(painting)" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (painting)">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a>, an 1887 painting by Russian artist <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Vasnetsov" title="Viktor Vasnetsov">Viktor Vasnetsov</a>. Depicted from left to right are Death, Famine, War, and Conquest.</figcaption></figure> A systematic attempt at creating the necessary regulatory framework for dealing with famine was developed by the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a> in the 1880s. In order to comprehensively address the issue of famine, the British created an Indian Famine commission to recommend steps that the government would be required to take in the event of a famine.<a href="#cite_note-L._Brennan-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brittanica-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Scales-18">[18]</a> The Famine Commission issued a series of government guidelines and regulations on how to respond to famines and food shortages called the Famine Code. The famine code was also one of the first attempts to scientifically predict famine in order to mitigate its effects. These were finally passed into law in 1883 under <a href="/wiki/George_Robinson,_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon" title="George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon">Lord Ripon</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Famine_Codes" title="Indian Famine Codes">Code</a> introduced the first <a href="/wiki/Famine_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Famine scale">famine scale</a>: three levels of <a href="/wiki/Food_insecurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Food insecurity">food insecurity</a> were defined: near-scarcity, scarcity, and famine. "Scarcity" was defined as three successive years of <a href="/wiki/Crop_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop failure">crop failure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crop_yield" title="Crop yield">crop yields</a> of one-third or one-half normal, and large populations in distress. "Famine" further included a rise in food prices above 140% of "normal", the movement of people in search of food, and widespread mortality.<a href="#cite_note-L._Brennan-16">[16]</a> The Commission identified that the loss of wages from lack of employment of agricultural labourers and artisans were the cause of famines. The Famine Code applied a strategy of generating employment for these sections of the population and relied on open-ended public works to do so.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> During the 20th century, an estimated 70 to 120 million people died from <a href="/wiki/List_of_famines" title="List of famines">famines across the world</a>, of whom over half died in China, with an estimated 30 million dying during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">famine of 1958–1961</a>,<a href="#cite_note-IDSWorkingPaper-20">[20]</a> up to 10 million in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1928%E2%80%931930" title="Chinese famine of 1928–1930">Chinese famine of 1928–1930</a>, and over two million in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a>, and millions more lost in famines in North and East China. The USSR lost 8 million claimed by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a>, over a million in both the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946%E2%80%931947" title="Soviet famine of 1946–1947">Soviet famine of 1946–1947</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a>, the 5 million in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921%E2%80%931922" title="Russian famine of 1921–1922">Russian famine of 1921–1922</a>, and others famines. Java suffered 2.5 million deaths under Japanese occupation during World War Two.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The other most notable famine of the century was the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a>, resulting both from the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Japanese occupation of Burma</a>, resulting in an influx of refugees, and blocking Burmese grain imports and a failure of the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Presidency#Provincial_Autonomy" title="Bengal Presidency">Bengali provincial Government</a> to <a href="/wiki/Indian_Famine_Codes" title="Indian Famine Codes">declare a famine</a>, and fund relief, the imposition of grain and transport embargoes by the neighbouring provincial administrations, to prevent their own stocks being transferred to Bengal, the failure to implement India wide rationing by the central Delhi authority, hoarding and profiteering by merchants, medieval land management practices, an Axis powers denial program that confiscated boats once used to transport grain, a Delhi administration that prioritised supplying, and offering medical treatment to the British Indian Army, War workers, and Civil servants, over the populace at large, incompetence and ignorance, and an <a href="/wiki/Churchill_war_ministry" title="Churchill war ministry">Imperial War Cabinet</a> initially leaving the issue to the Colonial administration to resolve, than to the original local crop failures, and blights.<a href="#cite_note-Sen-22">[22]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:183px;max-width:183px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg/181px-Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="181" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg/272px-Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg/362px-Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="763" data-file-height="571" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:105px;max-width:105px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Ondervoed_kindje_hongerwinter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ondervoed_kindje_hongerwinter.jpg/103px-Ondervoed_kindje_hongerwinter.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ondervoed_kindje_hongerwinter.jpg/155px-Ondervoed_kindje_hongerwinter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ondervoed_kindje_hongerwinter.jpg/206px-Ondervoed_kindje_hongerwinter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="752" data-file-height="995" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:204px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:1968_5Nigeria_CDC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/1968_5Nigeria_CDC.png/143px-1968_5Nigeria_CDC.png" decoding="async" width="143" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/1968_5Nigeria_CDC.png/215px-1968_5Nigeria_CDC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/1968_5Nigeria_CDC.png/286px-1968_5Nigeria_CDC.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="666" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:143px;max-width:143px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:204px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg/141px-Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg/212px-Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg/282px-Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1291" data-file-height="1873" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">From top-left to bottom-right, or (mobile) from top-to-bottom: child victims of famines in <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">India (1943–44)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%9345" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch famine of 1944–45">the Netherlands (1944–45)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigeria (1967–70)</a>, and an engraving of a woman and her children during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine in Ireland (1845–1849)</a></div></div></div></div> A few of the great famines of the late 20th century were: the <a href="/wiki/Biafra" title="Biafra">Biafran famine</a> in the 1960s, the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge" title="Khmer Rouge">Khmer Rouge</a>-caused famine in Cambodia in the 1970s, the North Korean <a href="/wiki/North_Korean_famine" class="mw-redirect" title="North Korean famine">famine of the 1990s</a>, and the Ethiopian <a href="/wiki/1983%E2%80%931985_famine_in_Ethiopia" title="1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia">famine of 1983–1985</a>. Approximately 3 million died as a consequence of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a>. The Ethiopian famine was reported on television reports around the world, carrying footage of starving Ethiopians whose plight was centered around a feeding station near the town of <a href="/wiki/Korem" title="Korem">Korem</a>. This stimulated the first mass movements to end famine across the world. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> newsreader <a href="/wiki/Michael_Buerk" title="Michael Buerk">Michael Buerk</a> gave moving commentary of the tragedy on 23 October 1984, which he described as a "biblical famine". This prompted the <a href="/wiki/Band_Aid_(band)" title="Band Aid (band)">Band Aid</a> single, which was organized by <a href="/wiki/Bob_Geldof" title="Bob Geldof">Bob Geldof</a> and featured more than 20 pop stars. The <a href="/wiki/Live_Aid" title="Live Aid">Live Aid</a> concerts in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> raised even more funds for the cause. Hundreds of thousands of people died within one year as a result of the famine, but the publicity Live Aid generated encouraged Western nations to make available enough surplus grain to end the immediate hunger crisis in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-History-23">[23]</a> Some of the famines of the 20th century served the geopolitical purposes of governments, including traumatizing and replacing distrusted ethnic populations in strategically important regions, rendering regions vulnerable to invasion difficult to govern by an enemy power and shifting the burden of food shortage onto regions where the distress of the population posed a lesser risk of catastrophic regime de-legitimation.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic-related_famines" class="mw-redirect" title="COVID-19 pandemic-related famines">COVID-19 pandemic-related famines</a> and <a href="/wiki/2022%E2%80%932023_food_crises" class="mw-redirect" title="2022–2023 food crises">2022–2023 food crises</a></div> Until 2017, worldwide deaths from famine had been falling dramatically. The <a href="/wiki/World_Peace_Foundation" title="World Peace Foundation">World Peace Foundation</a> reported that from the 1870s to the 1970s, great famines killed an average of 928,000 people a year.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Since 1980, annual deaths had dropped to an average of 75,000, less than 10% of what they had been until the 1970s. That reduction was achieved despite the approximately 150,000 lives lost in the <a href="/wiki/2011_East_Africa_drought" title="2011 East Africa drought">2011 Somalia famine</a>. Yet in 2017, the UN officially declared famine had returned to Africa, with about 20 million people at risk of death from starvation in the northern part of Nigeria, in <a href="/wiki/2017_South_Sudan_famine" title="2017 South Sudan famine">South Sudan</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Famine_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Famine in Yemen">Yemen</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/2017_Somalian_drought" class="mw-redirect" title="2017 Somalian drought">Somalia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-democracyFT-26">[26]</a> On 20 April 2021, hundreds of aid organizations from around the world wrote an open letter to <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a> newspaper, warning that millions of people in <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> faced starvation. Organizations including the International Council of Voluntary Agencies and the <a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">World Food Programme</a> said: "Girls and boys, men and women, are being starved by conflict and violence; by inequality; by the impacts of climate change; by the loss of land, jobs of prospects; by a fight against Covid-19 that has left them even further behind". The groups warned that funding had dwindled, while money alone would not be enough by itself. Governments should step in to end conflicts and ensure humanitarian access, they said. "If no action is taken, lives will be lost. The responsibility to address this lies with states", they added.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In November 2021, the <a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">World Food Programme</a> reported that 45 million people were "teetering on the very edge of famine" in 43 countries, and that the slightest shock would push them over the precipice. This number had risen from 42 million earlier in 2021, and from 27 million in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The slightest shock — be it extreme weather linked to climate change, conflict, or the deadly interplay of both hunger drivers — could push tens of millions of people into irreversible peril, a prospect the agency had been warning of for more than a year. <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> was becoming the world's largest humanitarian crisis, with the country's needs surpassing those of the other worst-hit countries — <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> In 2023 and 2024, the Israeli response to the <a href="/wiki/2023_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel">2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel</a> caused the <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip_famine" title="Gaza Strip famine">Gaza Strip famine</a>. This includes a <a href="/wiki/2023_Israeli_blockade_of_the_Gaza_Strip" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip">full ban</a> on all shipments for a short time after the attack, later extremely restrictive security checks on aid attempting to go through the blockade, and <a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid_during_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war#Israeli_protests_against_aid" title="Humanitarian aid during the Israel–Hamas war">Israeli protesters blocking aid</a>. In 2024, famine conditions struck <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> as a result of the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Haitian_crisis_(2018%E2%80%93present)" title="Haitian crisis (2018–present)">Haitian crisis</a>, resulting in a reported 6,000 people suffering from <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a> and 5.4 million civilians— almost half of Haiti's population— suffering from "crisis levels of hunger or worse". While food insecurity was first noted in March 2024, a 30 September report released for the <a href="/wiki/Integrated_Food_Security_Phase_Classification" title="Integrated Food Security Phase Classification">Integrated Food Security Phase Classification</a> (IFSPC) officially declared the presence of famine in Haiti as a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Gang_war_in_Haiti" title="Gang war in Haiti">gang conflict</a> preventing transport of food while also preventing civilians from being able to find food outside of their homes.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional_history">Regional history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Regional history">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Famines-by-continent-and-ME-01_1839.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Famines-by-continent-and-ME-01_1839.png/220px-Famines-by-continent-and-ME-01_1839.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Famines-by-continent-and-ME-01_1839.png/330px-Famines-by-continent-and-ME-01_1839.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Famines-by-continent-and-ME-01_1839.png/440px-Famines-by-continent-and-ME-01_1839.png 2x" data-file-width="1839" data-file-height="2022" /></a><figcaption>Famines by continent</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Famines_in_Africa" title="Category:Famines in Africa">Category:Famines in Africa</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_history">Early history</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early history">edit</a>]</div> In the mid-22nd century BC, a sudden and short-lived climatic change that caused reduced rainfall resulted in several decades of drought in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>. The resulting famine and civil strife is believed to have been a major cause of the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a>. An account from the <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="First Intermediate Period">First Intermediate Period</a> states, "All of Upper Egypt was dying of hunger and people were eating their children." As for recorded examples pertaining to more recent centuries: in the 1680s, famine extended across the entire <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>, and in 1738 half the population of <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a> died of famine.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, between 1687 and 1731, there were six famines.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The famine that afflicted Egypt in 1784 cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> experienced famine and <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">plague</a> in the late 18th century and early 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> There was famine in <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> in 1784, and in <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> in 1785.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> According to John Iliffe, "Portuguese records of <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> from the 16th century show that a great famine occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys."<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The first documentation of weather in West-Central Africa occurs around the mid-16th to 17th centuries in areas such as Luanda Kongo, however, not much data was recorded on the issues of weather and disease except for a few notable documents. The only records obtained are of violence between Portuguese and Africans during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbwila" title="Battle of Mbwila">Battle of Mbwila</a> in 1665. In these documents the Portuguese wrote of African raids on Portuguese merchants solely for food, giving clear signs of famine. Additionally, instances of <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a> by the African Jaga were also more prevalent during this time frame, indicating an extreme deprivation of a primary food source.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colonial_period">Colonial period</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Colonial period">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg/170px-Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg/255px-Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg/340px-Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption>A 1906 <a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch</a> cartoon depicting <a href="/wiki/King_Leopold_II" class="mw-redirect" title="King Leopold II">King Leopold II</a> as a snake entangling a Congolese man</figcaption></figure> A notable period of famine occurred around the turn of the 20th century in the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a>. In forming this state, Leopold used mass labor camps to finance his empire.<a href="#cite_note-Masci_2002-39">[39]</a> This period resulted in the death of up to 10 million Congolese from brutality, disease and famine.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Some colonial "pacification" efforts often caused severe famine, notably with the repression of the Maji Maji revolt in <a href="/wiki/German_East_Africa" title="German East Africa">Tanganyika</a> in 1906. The introduction of cash crops such as cotton, and forcible measures to impel farmers to grow these crops, sometimes impoverished the peasantry in many areas, such as northern Nigeria, contributing to greater vulnerability to famine when severe drought struck in 1913.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> A large-scale famine occurred in Ethiopia in 1888 and succeeding years, as the <a href="/wiki/1890s_African_rinderpest_epizootic" title="1890s African rinderpest epizootic">rinderpest epizootic</a>, introduced into <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> by infected cattle, spread southwards reaching ultimately as far as <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. In Ethiopia it was estimated that as much as 90 percent of the national herd died, rendering rich farmers and herders destitute overnight. This coincided with <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> associated with an <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> oscillation, human epidemics of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, and in several countries, intense war. The <a href="/wiki/Famines_in_Ethiopia" title="Famines in Ethiopia">Ethiopian Great famine</a> that afflicted Ethiopia from 1888 to 1892 cost it roughly one-third of its population.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> the year 1888 is remembered as the worst famine in history, on account of these factors and also the exactions imposed by the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad" title="Muhammad Ahmad">Mahdist state</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral traditions</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Himba_people" title="Himba people">Himba people</a> recall two droughts from 1910 to 1917. From 1910 to 1911 the Himba described the drought as "drought of the omutati seed", also called omangowi, the fruit of an unidentified vine that people ate during the time period. From 1914 to 1916, droughts brought katur' ombanda or kari' ombanda 'the time of eating clothing'.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="20th_century_2">20th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niger_childhood_malnutrition_16oct06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Niger_childhood_malnutrition_16oct06.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="165" data-file-height="210" /></a><figcaption>Malnourished children in <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, during the 2005 famine</figcaption></figure> For the middle part of the 20th century, agriculturalists, economists and geographers did not consider Africa to be especially famine prone. From 1870 to 2010, 87% of deaths from famine occurred in Asia and Eastern Europe, with only 9.2% in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-democracyFT-26">[26]</a> There were notable counter-examples, such as the famine in <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> during World War II and the <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> famine of 1949, but most famines were localized and brief food shortages. Although the drought was brief the main cause of death in Rwanda was due to Belgian prerogatives to acquisition grain from their colony (Rwanda). The increased grain acquisition was related to WW2. This and the drought caused 300,000 Rwandans to perish.<a href="#cite_note-Masci_2002-39">[39]</a> From 1967 to 1969 large scale famine occurred in Biafra and Nigeria due to a <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">government blockade of the Breakaway territory</a>. It is estimated that 1.5 million people died of starvation due to this famine. Additionally, drought and other government interference with the food supply caused 500 thousand Africans to perish in Central and West Africa.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Famine recurred in the early 1970s, when Ethiopia and the west African <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> suffered <a href="/wiki/Sahel_drought" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahel drought">drought and famine</a>. The Ethiopian famine of that time was closely linked to the crisis of feudalism in that country, and in due course helped to bring about the downfall of the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a>. The Sahelian famine was associated with the slowly growing crisis of pastoralism in Africa, which has seen livestock herding decline as a viable way of life over the last two generations. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Starved_girl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Starved_girl.jpg/170px-Starved_girl.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Starved_girl.jpg/255px-Starved_girl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Starved_girl.jpg/340px-Starved_girl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="1788" /></a><figcaption>A girl during the <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a> of the late 1960s. Pictures of the famine caused by Nigerian blockade garnered sympathy for the Biafrans worldwide.</figcaption></figure> Famines occurred in Sudan in the late-1970s and again in 1990 and 1998. The 1980 famine in <a href="/wiki/Karamoja" title="Karamoja">Karamoja</a>, Uganda was, in terms of mortality rates, one of the worst in history. 21% of the population died, including 60% of the infants.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In the 1980s, large scale multilayer drought occurred in the Sudan and Sahelian regions of Africa. This caused famine because even though the Sudanese Government believed there was a surplus of grain, there were local deficits across the region.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In October 1984, television reports describing the Ethiopian famine as "biblical", prompted the <a href="/wiki/Live_Aid" title="Live Aid">Live Aid</a> concerts in London and Philadelphia, which raised large sums to alleviate the suffering. A primary cause of the famine (one of the largest seen in the country) is that Ethiopia (and the surrounding Horn) was still recovering from the droughts which occurred in the mid-late 1970s. Compounding this problem was the intermittent fighting due to <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_civil_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian civil war">civil war</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Derg" title="Derg">government</a>'s lack of organization in providing relief, and hoarding of supplies to control the population. Ultimately, over 1 million Ethiopians died and over 22 million people suffered due to the prolonged drought, which lasted roughly 2 years.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In 1992 Somalia became a war zone with no effective government, police, or basic services after the collapse of the dictatorship led by <a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a> and the split of power between warlords. This coincided with a massive drought, causing over 300,000 Somalis to perish.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recent_years">Recent years</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Recent years">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maradi_aidecentre_Niger9aug2005_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Maradi_aidecentre_Niger9aug2005_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="210" data-file-height="210" /></a><figcaption>Laure Souley holds her three-year-old daughter and an infant son at a MSF aide center during the 2005 famine, Maradi Niger</figcaption></figure> Since the start of the 21st century, more effective early warning and humanitarian response actions have reduced the number of deaths by famine markedly. That said, many African countries are not self-sufficient in food production, relying on income from <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crops</a> to import food. <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> in Africa is susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climatic</a> fluctuations, especially <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a> which can reduce the amount of food produced locally. Other agricultural problems include <a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">soil infertility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, swarms of <a href="/wiki/Desert_locust" title="Desert locust">desert locusts</a>, which can destroy whole crops, and livestock diseases. <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a> is increasingly problematic: the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> reportedly spreads up to 48 kilometres (30 mi) per year.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The most serious famines have been caused by a combination of drought, misguided economic policies, and conflict. The 1983–85 famine in Ethiopia, for example, was the outcome of all these three factors, made worse by the Communist government's censorship of the emerging crisis. In Capitalist Sudan at the same date, drought and economic crisis combined with denials of any food shortage by the then-government of President <a href="/wiki/Gaafar_Nimeiry" title="Gaafar Nimeiry">Gaafar Nimeiry</a>, to create a crisis that killed perhaps 250,000 people—and helped bring about a popular uprising that overthrew Nimeiry. Numerous factors make the <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> situation in Africa tenuous, including political instability, armed conflict and <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">corruption</a> and mismanagement in handling food supplies, and trade policies that harm African agriculture. An example of a famine created by human rights abuses is the <a href="/wiki/1998_Sudan_famine" title="1998 Sudan famine">1998 Sudan famine</a>. <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> is also having long-term economic effects on agriculture by reducing the available workforce, and is creating new vulnerabilities to famine by overburdening poor households. On the other hand, in the modern history of Africa on quite a few occasions famines acted as a major source of acute political instability.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In Africa, if current trends of <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">soil degradation</a> continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_University" title="United Nations University">United Nations University</a> (UNU)'s Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-news.mongabay.com-51">[51]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sahel_Map-Africa_rough.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sahel_Map-Africa_rough.png/220px-Sahel_Map-Africa_rough.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sahel_Map-Africa_rough.png/330px-Sahel_Map-Africa_rough.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sahel_Map-Africa_rough.png/440px-Sahel_Map-Africa_rough.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="925" /></a><figcaption>Famine-affected areas in the western <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> belt during the <a href="/wiki/2012_Sahel_drought" title="2012 Sahel drought">2012 drought</a>.</figcaption></figure> Famines in the early 21st century in Africa include the <a href="/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Niger_food_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="2005–06 Niger food crisis">2005–06 Niger food crisis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/2010_Sahel_famine" title="2010 Sahel famine">2010 Sahel famine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/2011_East_Africa_drought" title="2011 East Africa drought">2011 East Africa drought</a>, where two consecutive missed rainy seasons precipitated the one of the worst <a href="/wiki/2011_East_Africa_drought" title="2011 East Africa drought">droughts in East Africa</a> in 60 years.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Twdisyihoa-53">[53]</a> An estimated 50,000 to 150,000 people are reported to have died during the period.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mafhscbafro-55">[55]</a> In 2012, the <a href="/wiki/2012_Sahel_drought" title="2012 Sahel drought">Sahel drought</a> put more than 10 million people in the western Sahel at risk of famine (according to a <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Relief_%26_Development_Fund_(MRDF)" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist Relief & Development Fund (MRDF)">Methodist Relief & Development Fund (MRDF)</a> aid expert), due to a month-long heat wave.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-http://www.poverties.org_Famine_in_Africa-57">[57]</a> Today, famine is most widespread in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>, but with exhaustion of food resources, overdrafting of <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>, wars, internal struggles, and economic failure, famine continues to be a worldwide problem with hundreds of millions of people suffering.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> These famines cause widespread malnutrition and impoverishment. The <a href="/wiki/1984%E2%80%931985_famine_in_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="1984–1985 famine in Ethiopia">famine in Ethiopia</a> in the 1980s had an immense death toll, although Asian famines of the 20th century have also produced extensive death tolls. Modern African famines are characterized by widespread destitution and malnutrition, with heightened mortality confined to young children. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Current_initiatives">Current initiatives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Current initiatives">edit</a>]</div> Against a backdrop of conventional interventions through the state or markets, alternative initiatives have been pioneered to address the problem of food security. One pan-African example is the <a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall</a>. Another example is the "Community Area-Based Development Approach" to agricultural development ("CABDA"), an NGO programme with the objective of providing an alternative approach to increasing food security in Africa. CABDA proceeds through specific areas of intervention such as the introduction of drought-resistant crops and new methods of food production such as agro-forestry. Piloted in Ethiopia in the 1990s it has spread to Malawi, Uganda, Eritrea and Kenya. In an analysis of the programme by the <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Development_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Development Institute">Overseas Development Institute</a>, CABDA's focus on individual and community capacity-building is highlighted. This enables farmers to influence and drive their own development through community-run institutions, bringing food security to their household and region.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_role_of_African_Unity_organization">The role of African Unity organization</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The role of African Unity organization">edit</a>]</div> The organization of African unity and its role in the African crisis has been interested in the political aspects of the continent, especially the liberation of the occupied parts of it and the elimination of racism. The organization has succeeded in this area but the economic field and development has not succeeded in these fields. African leaders have agreed to waive the role of their organization in the development to the United Nations through the Economic Commission for Africa "ECA".<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Far_East">Far East</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Far East">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_famines_in_China" title="List of famines in China">List of famines in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1928%E2%80%931930" title="Chinese famine of 1928–1930">Chinese famine of 1928–1930</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Engraving-FamineRelief-China.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Engraving-FamineRelief-China.gif/220px-Engraving-FamineRelief-China.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Engraving-FamineRelief-China.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="265" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> officials engaged in famine relief, 19th-century engraving</figcaption></figure> Chinese scholars had kept count of 1,828 instances of famine from 108 BC to 1911 in one province or another—an average of more than one famine per year.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> A major famine from 1333 to 1337 killed 6 million. The four famines of 1810, 1811, 1846, and 1849 are said to have killed no fewer than 45 million people.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> China's <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> bureaucracy devoted extensive attention to minimizing famines with a network of <a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">granaries</a>. Its famines generally occurred immediately after <a href="/wiki/ENSO" class="mw-redirect" title="ENSO">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a>-linked droughts and floods. These events are comparable, though somewhat smaller in scale, to the ecological trigger events of China's vast 19th-century famines.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Qing China carried out its relief efforts, which included vast shipments of food, a requirement that the rich open their storehouses to the poor, and price regulation, as part of a state guarantee of subsistence to the peasantry (known as ming-sheng). However the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> of the 1850s disrupted the granary relief system such that 1850 to 1873 saw the population of China drop by over 30 million people from early deaths and missing births.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> When a stressed monarchy shifted from state management and direct shipments of grain to monetary charity in the mid-19th century, the system broke down. Thus the 1867–68 famine under the <a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a> was successfully relieved but the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Great North China Famine</a> of 1877–78, caused by drought across northern China, was a catastrophe. The province of <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> was substantially depopulated as grains ran out, and desperately starving people stripped forests, fields, and their very houses for food. Estimated mortality is 9.5 to 13 million people.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Great_Leap_Forward_1958–1961">Great Leap Forward 1958–1961</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Great Leap Forward 1958–1961">edit</a>]</div> The largest famine of the 20th century was <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">the 1958–1961 famine</a> associated with the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> in China. The immediate causes of this famine lay in Mao Zedong's ill-fated attempt to transform China from an agricultural nation to an industrial power in one huge leap. Communist Party cadres across China insisted that peasants abandon their farms for collective farms, and begin to produce steel in small foundries, often melting down their farm instruments in the process. Collectivisation undermined incentives for the investment of labor and resources in agriculture; unrealistic plans for decentralized metal production sapped needed labor; unfavorable weather conditions; and communal dining halls encouraged <a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">overconsumption</a> of available food.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Such was the centralized control of information and the intense pressure on party cadres to report only good news—such as <a href="/wiki/Production_quota" title="Production quota">production quotas</a> met or exceeded—that information about the escalating disaster was effectively suppressed. When the leadership did become aware of the scale of the famine, it did little to respond, and continued to ban any discussion of the cataclysm. This blanket suppression of news was so effective that very few Chinese citizens were aware of the scale of the famine, and the greatest peacetime demographic disaster of the 20th century only became widely known twenty years later, when the veil of censorship began to lift. The exact number of famine deaths during 1958–1961 is difficult to determine, and estimates range from 18 million<a href="#cite_note-grada9-68">[68]</a> to at least 42 million<a href="#cite_note-dikotterxii-69">[69]</a> people, with a further 30 million cancelled or delayed births.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> It was only when the famine had wrought its worst that Mao reversed agricultural collectivisation policies, which were effectively dismantled in 1978. China has not experienced a famine of the proportions of the Great Leap Forward since 1961.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</div> Japan experienced more than 130 famines between 1603 and 1868.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cambodia">Cambodia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cambodia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Choeungek2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Choeungek2.JPG/220px-Choeungek2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Choeungek2.JPG/330px-Choeungek2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Choeungek2.JPG/440px-Choeungek2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Skulls of <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge" title="Khmer Rouge">Khmer Rouge</a> murder victims at <a href="/wiki/Choeung_Ek" title="Choeung Ek">Choeung Ek</a></figcaption></figure> In 1975, the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge" title="Khmer Rouge">Khmer Rouge</a> took control of Cambodia. The new government was led by <a href="/wiki/Pol_Pot" title="Pol Pot">Pol Pot</a>, who desired to turn Cambodia into a communist, agrarian utopia. His regime emptied the cities, abolished currency and private property, and forced Cambodia's population into slavery on communal farms. In less than four years, the Khmer Rouge had executed nearly 1.4 million people, mostly those believed to be a threat to the new ideology. Due to the failure of the Khmer Rouge's agrarian reform policies, Cambodia experienced widespread famine. As many as one million more died from starvation, disease, and exhaustion resulting from these policies.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-kaplan-74">[74]</a> In 1979 Vietnam invaded Cambodia and removed the Khmer Rouge from power. By that time about one quarter of Cambodia's population had been killed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_Korean_famine_in_the_1990s">North Korean famine in the 1990s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: North Korean famine in the 1990s">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/North_Korean_famine" class="mw-redirect" title="North Korean famine">Famine struck North Korea in the mid-1990s</a>, set off by unprecedented floods. This <a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">autarkic</a> <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban</a>, industrial state depended on massive inputs of subsidised goods, including fossil fuels, primarily from the Soviet Union and the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. When the Soviet collapse and China's marketization switched trade to a hard currency, full-price basis, North Korea's economy collapsed. The vulnerable agricultural sector experienced a massive failure in 1995–96, expanding to full-fledged famine by 1996–1999. Estimates based on the North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> North Korea has not yet regained food self-sufficiency and relies on external <a href="/wiki/Food_aid" class="mw-redirect" title="Food aid">food aid</a> from <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. While Woo-Cumings have focused on the FAD side of the famine, Moon argues that FAD shifted the incentive structure of the authoritarian regime to react in a way that forced millions of disenfranchised people to starve to death.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> According to the UN's <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organisation</a> (FAO), North Korea is facing a serious cereal shortfall in 2017 after the country's crop harvest was diminished as a result of severe drought.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>]<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The FAO estimated that early-season production fell by over 30 percent compared to agricultural output from the previous year, leading to the country's worst famine since 2001.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vietnam">Vietnam</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Vietnam">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a> occupation during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> caused the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Famine_of_1945" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese Famine of 1945">Vietnamese Famine of 1945</a>, which caused around 700,000 to 2,000,000 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: India">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Famine_in_India" title="Famine in India">Famine in India</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_major_famines_in_India_during_British_rule" title="Timeline of major famines in India during British rule">Timeline of major famines in India during British rule</a></div> Owing to its almost entire dependence upon the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> rains, India is vulnerable to crop failures, which upon occasion deepen into famine.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> There were 14 famines in <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a> between the 11th and 17th centuries (Bhatia, 1985). For example, during the 1022–1033 Great famines in India entire provinces were depopulated. Famine in <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> killed at least two million people in 1702–1704. B.M. Bhatia believes that the earlier famines were localised, and it was only after 1860, during the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British rule</a>, that famine came to signify general shortage of foodgrains in the country. There were approximately 25 major famines spread through states such as <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> in the south, and <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> in the east during the latter half of the 19th century. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:India-famine-family-crop-420.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/India-famine-family-crop-420.jpg/220px-India-famine-family-crop-420.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/India-famine-family-crop-420.jpg/330px-India-famine-family-crop-420.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/India-famine-family-crop-420.jpg 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption>Victims of the Great Famine of 1876–78 in India during British rule, pictured in 1877.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Romesh_Chunder_Dutt" title="Romesh Chunder Dutt">Romesh Chunder Dutt</a> argued as early as 1900, and present-day scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> agree, that some historic famines were a product of both uneven rainfall and British economic and administrative policies, which since 1857 had led to the seizure and conversion of local farmland to foreign-owned plantations, restrictions on internal trade, heavy taxation of Indian citizens to support British expeditions in Afghanistan (see <a href="/wiki/European_influence_in_Afghanistan#Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="European influence in Afghanistan">The Second Anglo-Afghan War</a>), inflationary measures that increased the price of food, and substantial exports of staple crops from India to Britain. (Dutt, 1900 and 1902; Srivastava, 1968; Sen, 1982; Bhatia, 1985.) Some British citizens, such as <a href="/wiki/William_Digby_(writer)" title="William Digby (writer)">William Digby</a>, agitated for policy reforms and famine relief, but <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bulwer-Lytton,_1st_Earl_of_Lytton" title="Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton">Lord Lytton</a>, the governing British viceroy in India, opposed such changes in the belief that they would stimulate shirking by Indian workers. The first, the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1770" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengal famine of 1770">Bengal famine of 1770</a>, is estimated to have taken around 10 million lives—one-third of Bengal's population at the time. Other notable famines include the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931878" title="Great Famine of 1876–1878">Great Famine of 1876–1878</a>, in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died<a href="#cite_note-mikedavis7-81">[81]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_famine_of_1899%E2%80%931900" title="Indian famine of 1899–1900">Indian famine of 1899–1900</a>, in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.<a href="#cite_note-mikedavis173-82">[82]</a> The famines were ended by the 20th century with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a> killing an estimated 2.1 million Bengalis during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The observations of the Famine Commission of 1880 support the notion that food distribution is more to blame for famines than food scarcity. They observed that each province in <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>, including <a href="/wiki/British_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="British Burma">Burma</a>, had a surplus of foodgrains, and the annual surplus was 5.16 million tons (Bhatia, 1970). At that time, annual export of rice and other grains from India was approximately one million tons. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Population growth worsened the plight of the peasantry. As a result of peace and improved sanitation and health, the Indian population rose from perhaps 100 million in 1700 to 300 million by 1920. While encouraging agricultural productivity, the British also provided economic incentives to have more children to help in the fields. Although a similar population increase occurred in Europe at the same time, the growing numbers could be absorbed by industrialization or emigration to the Americas and Australia. India enjoyed neither an industrial revolution nor an increase in food growing. Moreover, Indian landlords had a stake in the cash crop system and discouraged innovation. As a result, population numbers far outstripped the amount of available food and land, creating dire poverty and widespread hunger.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Craig A. Lockard, Societies, Networks, and Transitions<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></cite></div></blockquote> The Maharashtra drought saw zero deaths from starvation and is known for the successful employment of famine prevention policies, unlike during British rule.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_East">Middle East</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Middle East">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mother_and_child_during_the_Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mother_and_child_during_the_Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon_1.jpg/170px-Mother_and_child_during_the_Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mother_and_child_during_the_Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon_1.jpg/255px-Mother_and_child_during_the_Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mother_and_child_during_the_Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon_1.jpg/340px-Mother_and_child_during_the_Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="687" /></a><figcaption>A starving woman and child during the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrian genocide</a>. Ottoman Empire, 1915</figcaption></figure> the <a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1870%E2%80%931872" title="Persian famine of 1870–1872">Persian famine of 1870–1872</a> is believed to have caused the death of 1.5 million persons (20–25% of the population) in <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> (present-day Iran).<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> In the early 20th century an Ottoman blockade of food being exported to <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> caused a famine which killed up to 450,000 Lebanese (about one-third of the population). The famine killed more people than the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a>. The blockade was caused by uprisings in the Syrian region of the Empire, including one which occurred in the 1860s which led to the massacre of thousands of Lebanese and Syrian by Ottoman Turks and local <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Medieval demography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages">Crisis of the Late Middle Ages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_General_Crisis" title="The General Crisis">The General Crisis</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine of 1315–1317</a> (or to 1322) was the first major food crisis to strike Europe in the 14th century. Millions in northern Europe died over an extended number of years, marking a clear end to the earlier period of growth and prosperity during the 11th and 12th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> An unusually cold and wet spring of 1315 led to widespread crop failures, which lasted until at least the summer of 1317; some regions in Europe did not fully recover until 1322. Most nobles, cities, and states were slow to respond to the crisis and when they realized its severity, they had little success in securing food for their people. In 1315, in <a href="/wiki/Norfolk" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a>, England, the price of grain soared from 5 shillings/quarter to 20 shillings/quarter.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> It was a period marked by extreme levels of criminal activity, disease and mass death, infanticide, and cannibalism. It had consequences for Church, State, European society and future calamities to follow in the 14th century. There were 95 famines in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Britain">medieval Britain</a>,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> and 75 or more in medieval France.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> More than 10% of England's population, or at least 500,000 people, may have died during the famine of 1315–1316.<a href="#cite_note-famine-92">[92]</a> Famine was a very destabilizing and devastating occurrence. The prospect of starvation led people to take desperate measures. When scarcity of food became apparent to peasants, they would sacrifice long-term prosperity for short-term survival. They would kill their <a href="/wiki/Draught_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Draught animal">draught animals</a>, leading to lowered production in subsequent years. They would eat their seed corn, sacrificing next year's crop in the hope that more seed could be found. Once those means had been exhausted, they would take to the road in search of food. They migrated to the cities where merchants from other areas would be more likely to sell their food, as cities had a stronger purchasing power than did rural areas. Cities also administered relief programs and bought grain for their populations so that they could keep order. With the confusion and desperation of the migrants, crime would often follow them. Many peasants resorted to banditry in order to acquire enough to eat. One famine would often lead to difficulties in the following years because of lack of seed stock or disruption of routine, or perhaps because of less-available labour. Famines were often interpreted as signs of God's displeasure. They were seen as the removal, by God, of His gifts to the people of the Earth. Elaborate religious processions and rituals were made to prevent God's wrath in the form of famine. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="16th_century">16th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: 16th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goya-Guerra_(59).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Goya-Guerra_%2859%29.jpg/220px-Goya-Guerra_%2859%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Goya-Guerra_%2859%29.jpg/330px-Goya-Guerra_%2859%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Goya-Guerra_%2859%29.jpg/440px-Goya-Guerra_%2859%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="702" /></a><figcaption>An engraving from <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Disasters_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Disasters of War">Disasters of War</a>, showing starving women, doubtless inspired by the terrible famine that struck <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> in 1811–1812.</figcaption></figure> During the 15th century to the 18th century, famines in Europe became more frequent due to the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>. The colder climate resulted in harvest failures and shortfalls that led to a rise in <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">conspiracy theories</a> concerning the causes behind these famines, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pacte_de_Famine" title="Pacte de Famine">Pacte de Famine</a> in France.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The 1590s saw the worst famines in centuries across all of Europe. Famine had been relatively rare during the 16th century. The economy and population had grown steadily as subsistence populations tend to when there is an extended period of relative peace (most of the time). Although peasants in areas of high population density, such as northern Italy, had learned to increase the yields of their lands through techniques such as promiscuous culture, they were still quite vulnerable to famines, forcing them to work their land even more intensively. The great famine of the 1590s began a period of famine and decline in the 17th century. The price of grain, all over Europe was high, as was the population. Various types of people were vulnerable to the succession of bad harvests that occurred throughout the 1590s in different regions. The increasing number of wage labourers in the countryside were vulnerable because they had no food of their own, and their meager living was not enough to purchase the expensive grain of a bad-crop year. Town labourers were also at risk because their wages would be insufficient to cover the cost of grain, and, to make matters worse, they often received less money in bad-crop years since the disposable income of the wealthy was spent on grain. Often, unemployment would be the result of the increase in grain prices, leading to ever-increasing numbers of urban poor. All areas of Europe were badly affected by the famine in these periods, especially rural areas. The Netherlands was able to escape most of the damaging effects of the famine, though the 1590s were still difficult years there. <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Grain_trade" title="Grain trade">grain trade</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region">Baltic</a> guaranteed a food supply. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="17th_century">17th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: 17th century">edit</a>]</div> The years around 1620 saw another period of famine sweep across Europe. These famines were generally less severe than the famines of twenty-five years earlier, but they were nonetheless quite serious in many areas. Perhaps the worst famine since 1600, the great famine in <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> in 1696, killed one-third of the population.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Devastating harvest failures afflicted the northern Italian economy from 1618 to 1621, and it did not recover fully for centuries. There were serious famines in the late-1640s and less severe ones in the 1670s throughout northern Italy. Over two million people died in two famines in France between 1693 and 1710. Both famines were made worse by ongoing wars.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Starvation_image_from_F%C3%A4derneslandet_1867.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Starvation_image_from_F%C3%A4derneslandet_1867.jpg/210px-Starvation_image_from_F%C3%A4derneslandet_1867.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Starvation_image_from_F%C3%A4derneslandet_1867.jpg/315px-Starvation_image_from_F%C3%A4derneslandet_1867.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Starvation_image_from_F%C3%A4derneslandet_1867.jpg/420px-Starvation_image_from_F%C3%A4derneslandet_1867.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1540" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of starvation in northern Sweden, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_famine_of_1867%E2%80%931869" title="Swedish famine of 1867–1869">Swedish famine of 1867–1869</a></figcaption></figure> As late as the 1690s, Scotland experienced famine which reduced the population of parts of Scotland by at least 15%.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Finland_(1695%E2%80%931697)" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Famine of Finland (1695–1697)">Great Famine of 1695–1697</a> may have killed a third of the Finnish population.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> and roughly 10% of <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>'s population.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Death rates rose in Scandinavia between 1740 and 1800 as the result of a series of crop failures.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Finnish_famine_of_1866%E2%80%931868" title="Finnish famine of 1866–1868">Finnish famine of 1866–1868</a> killed 15% of the population. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="18th_century">18th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: 18th century">edit</a>]</div> The period of 1740–1743 saw frigid winters and summer droughts, which led to famine across Europe and a major spike in mortality.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The winter 1740–41 was unusually cold, possibly because of volcanic activity.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> According to Scott and Duncan (2002), "Eastern Europe experienced more than 150 recorded famines between AD 1500 and 1700 and there were 100 hunger years and 121 famine years in Russia between AD 971 and 1974."<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Famines_in_Czech_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Famines in Czech lands">Great Famine</a>, which lasted from 1770 until 1771, killed about one tenth of <a href="/wiki/Czech_lands" title="Czech lands">Czech lands</a>' population, or 250,000 inhabitants, and radicalised countrysides leading to peasant uprisings.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> There were sixteen good harvests and 111 famine years in northern Italy from 1451 to 1767.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> According to Stephen L. Dyson and Robert J. Rowland, "The Jesuits of <a href="/wiki/Cagliari" title="Cagliari">Cagliari</a> [in Sardinia] recorded years during the late 1500s 'of such hunger and so sterile that the majority of the people could sustain life only with wild ferns and other weeds' ... During the terrible famine of 1680, some 80,000 persons, out of a total population of 250,000, are said to have died, and entire villages were devastated".<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Reid_Bryson" title="Reid Bryson">Bryson</a> (1974), there were thirty-seven famine years in Iceland between 1500 and 1804.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> In 1783 the volcano <a href="/wiki/Laki_(volcano)" class="mw-redirect" title="Laki (volcano)">Laki</a> in south-central <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> erupted. The lava caused little direct damage, but ash and sulphur dioxide spewed out over most of the country, causing three-quarters of the island's livestock to perish. In the following famine, around ten thousand people died, one-fifth of the population of Iceland. [Asimov, 1984, 152–53][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="19th_century">19th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg/220px-Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg/330px-Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg/440px-Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1291" data-file-height="1873" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of victims of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a> in Ireland, 1845–1849</figcaption></figure> Other areas of Europe have known famines much more recently. France saw famines as recently as the 19th century. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a> in Ireland, 1846–1851, caused by the failure of the potato crop over a few years, resulted in 1,000,000 dead and another 2,000,000 refugees fleeing to Britain, Australia and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="20th_century_3">20th century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> Famine still occurred in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> during the 20th century. Droughts and famines in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a> are known to have happened every 10 to 13 years, with average droughts happening every 5 to 7 years. Russia experienced eleven major famines between 1845 and 1922, one of the worst being the <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1891%E2%80%931892" title="Russian famine of 1891–1892">famine of 1891–1892</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921%E2%80%9322" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian famine of 1921–22">Russian famine of 1921–22</a> killed an estimated 5 million. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:No-nb_bldsa_6a030.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/No-nb_bldsa_6a030.jpg/220px-No-nb_bldsa_6a030.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/No-nb_bldsa_6a030.jpg/330px-No-nb_bldsa_6a030.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/No-nb_bldsa_6a030.jpg/440px-No-nb_bldsa_6a030.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3347" data-file-height="3161" /></a><figcaption>Victims of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921%E2%80%931922" title="Russian famine of 1921–1922">Russian famine of 1921–1922</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Famines_in_Russia_and_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Famines in Russia and USSR">Famines continued</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> era, the most notorious being the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a> in various parts of the country, especially the <a href="/wiki/Volga_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga Region">Volga</a>, and the Ukrainian and northern <a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakh</a> SSR's during the winter of 1932–1933. The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%931933" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–1933">Soviet famine of 1932–1933</a> is nowadays reckoned to have cost an estimated 6 million lives.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Famine_of_1947" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Famine of 1947">last major famine</a> in the USSR happened in 1947 due to the severe <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> and the mismanagement of grain reserves by the Soviet government.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hunger_Plan" title="Hunger Plan">Hunger Plan</a>, i.e. the Nazi plan to starve large sections of the Soviet population, caused the deaths of many. The Russian Academy of Sciences in 1995 reported civilian victims in the USSR at German hands, including Jews, totaled 13.7 million dead, 20% of the 68 million persons in the occupied USSR. This included 4.1 million famine and disease deaths in occupied territory. There were an additional estimated 3 million famine deaths in areas of the USSR not under German occupation.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The 872 days of the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a> (1941–1944) caused unparalleled famine in the Leningrad region through disruption of utilities, water, energy and food supplies. This resulted in the deaths of about one million people.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Famine also struck in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>. In the Netherlands, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch famine of 1944">Hongerwinter</a> of 1944 killed approximately 30,000 people. Some other areas of Europe also experienced famine at the same time. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Latin America">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Icon1_4_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Icon1_4_7.jpg/170px-Icon1_4_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Icon1_4_7.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="221" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption>Malnourished child during Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought).</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">pre-Columbian</a> Americans often dealt with severe food shortages and famines.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The persistent drought around 850 AD coincided with the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Classic_Maya_collapse" title="Classic Maya collapse">Classic Maya</a> civilization, and the famine of One Rabbit (AD 1454) was a major catastrophe in <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Mexico" title="Pre-Columbian Mexico">Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>'s 1877–78 <a href="/wiki/Grande_Seca" title="Grande Seca">Grande Seca</a> (Great Drought), the worst in Brazil's history,<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> caused approximately half a million deaths.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The one from 1915 was devastating too.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Oceania">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a> was hit by a great famine between the 15th and 18th centuries. Hunger and subsequent cannibalism was caused by overpopulation and depletion of natural resources as a result of deforestation, partly because work on megalithic monuments required a lot of wood.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> There are other documented episodes of famine in various islands of Polynesia, such as occurred in <a href="/wiki/Kau,_Hawaii" title="Kau, Hawaii">Kau, Hawaii</a> in 1868.<a href="#cite_note-:0-119">[119]</a> According to Daniel Lord Smail, "'Famine <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a>' was until recently a regular feature of life in the islands of the <a href="/wiki/Milne_Bay_Province" title="Milne Bay Province">Massim</a> near <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> and of some other societies of Southeast Asia and the Pacific."<a href="#cite_note-:1-120">[120]</a> When Russian explorer <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Kotzebue" title="Otto von Kotzebue">Otto von Kotzebue</a> visited the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> in Micronesia in 1817, he noted that Marshallese families practiced <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a> after the birth of a third child as a form of <a href="/wiki/Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">population planning</a> due to frequent famines.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Risk_of_future_famine">Risk of future famine</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Risk of future famine">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">factual accuracy</a> of parts of this article (those related to article) may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2010)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a> reports that, as of 2007, approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> If current trends of soil degradation continue in Africa, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_University" title="United Nations University">UNU</a>'s Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-news.mongabay.com-51">[51]</a> As of late 2007, increased farming for use in <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a>,<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> along with world <a href="/wiki/Oil_prices" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil prices">oil prices</a> at nearly $100 a barrel,<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> has pushed up the price of grain used to feed poultry and dairy cows and other cattle, causing higher prices of wheat (up 58%), soybean (up 32%), and maize (up 11%) over the year.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> In 2007 <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_world_food_price_crisis" title="2007–2008 world food price crisis">Food riots</a> took place in many countries across the world.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> An epidemic of stem rust, which is destructive to <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> and is caused by race <a href="/wiki/Ug99" title="Ug99">Ug99</a>, has in 2007 spread across Africa and into Asia.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-NewSci-131">[131]</a> Beginning in the 20th century, nitrogen <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a>, new <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desert_farming" title="Desert farming">desert farming</a>, and other agricultural technologies began to be used to increase food production, in part to combat famine. Between 1950 and 1984, as the <a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a> influenced agriculture world grain production increased by 250%. Developed nations have shared these technologies with developing nations with a famine problem. However, as early as 1995, there were signs that these new developments may contribute to the decline of arable land (e.g. persistence of pesticides leading to <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">soil contamination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">salt accumulation due to irrigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg/180px-ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg/270px-ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg/360px-ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lake_Chad" title="Lake Chad">Lake Chad</a> in a 2001 satellite image, with the actual lake in blue. The lake has shrunk by 95% since the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1994, David Pimentel, professor of ecology and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>, and Mario Giampietro, senior researcher at the National Research Institute on Food and Nutrition (INRAN), estimated the maximum <a href="/wiki/U.S._population" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. population">U.S. population</a> for a <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainable economy</a> at 200 million.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> According to geologist <a href="/wiki/Dale_Allen_Pfeiffer" title="Dale Allen Pfeiffer">Dale Allen Pfeiffer</a>, coming decades could see rising <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a> prices without relief and massive <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a> on a global level.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Water_deficits" class="mw-redirect" title="Water deficits">Water deficits</a>, which are already spurring heavy <a href="/wiki/Grain" title="Grain">grain</a> imports in numerous smaller countries, may soon do the same in larger countries, such as China or India.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> The water tables are falling in many countries (including Northern China, the US, and India) due to widespread overconsumption. Other countries affected include Pakistan, Iran, and Mexico. This will eventually lead to <a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a> and cutbacks in grain harvest. Even while overexploiting its <a href="/wiki/Aquifers" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquifers">aquifers</a>, China has developed a grain deficit, contributing to the upward pressure on grain prices. Most of the three billion people projected to be added worldwide by mid-century will be born in countries already experiencing <a href="/wiki/Water_shortages" class="mw-redirect" title="Water shortages">water shortages</a>. After China and India, there is a second tier of smaller countries with large water deficits – Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Mexico, and Pakistan. Four of these already import a large share of their grain. Only Pakistan remains marginally self-sufficient. But with a population expanding by 4 million a year, it will also soon turn to the world market for grain.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> According to a UN climate report, the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayan</a> glaciers that are the principal dry-season water sources of Asia's biggest rivers – <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus">Indus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brahmaputra" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmaputra">Brahmaputra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mekong" title="Mekong">Mekong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salween" class="mw-redirect" title="Salween">Salween</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow</a> – could disappear by 2350 as temperatures rise and human demand rises.<a href="#cite_note-137">[note 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basin</a> of the Himalayan rivers.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> India, China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by severe droughts in coming decades.<a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a> In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more than 500 million people.<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a> Evan Fraser, a geographer at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Guelph" title="University of Guelph">University of Guelph</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, Canada, explores the ways in which <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> may affect future famines.<a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a> To do this, he draws on a range of historic cases where relatively small environmental problems triggered famines as a way of creating theoretical links between climate and famine in the future. Drawing on situations as diverse as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine of Ireland</a>,<a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a> a series of weather induced famines in Asia during the late 19th century, and famines in Ethiopia during the 1980s, he concludes there are three "lines of defense" that protect a community's <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> from <a href="/wiki/Environmental_change" title="Environmental change">environmental change</a>. The first line of defense is the <a href="/wiki/Agroecosystem" title="Agroecosystem">agro-ecosystem</a> on which food is produced: diverse ecosystems with well managed soils high in <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> tend to be more resilient. The second line of defense is the wealth and skills of individual households: If those households affected by bad weather such as drought have savings or skills they may be able to do all right despite the bad weather.<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> The final line of defense is created by the formal institutions present in a society. Governments, churches, or NGOs must be willing and able to mount effective relief efforts. Pulling this together, Evan Fraser argues that if an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> is resilient enough, it may be able to withstand weather-related shocks. But if these shocks overwhelm the ecosystem's line of defense, it is necessary for the household to adapt using its skills and savings. If a problem is too big for the family or household, then people must rely on the third line of defense, which is whether or not the formal institutions present in a society are able to provide help. Evan Fraser concludes that in almost every situation where an environmental problem triggered a famine you see a failure in each of these three lines of defense.<a href="#cite_note-Fraser2006-147">[146]</a> Hence, understanding how climate change may cause famines in the future requires combining both an assessment of local socio-economic and environmental factors along with <a href="/wiki/Climate_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate models">climate models</a> that predict where bad weather may occur in the future.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> The <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>, alongside lockdowns and travel restrictions, has prevented movement of aid and greatly impacted food production. As a result, several famines are forecast, which the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> called a crisis "of biblical proportions",<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> or "hunger pandemic".<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> This pandemic, in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/2019-20_locust_infestation" class="mw-redirect" title="2019-20 locust infestation">2019-20 locust infestations</a> and several <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_armed_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Ongoing armed conflicts">ongoing armed conflicts</a>, is predicted to form the worst series of famines since the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a>, affecting between 10 and 20 percent of the global population in some way.<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> Western nations suspended humanitarian aid to <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a>'s takeover of the country in August 2021.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a> The United States has <a href="/wiki/Afghan_frozen_assets" title="Afghan frozen assets">frozen about $9 billion</a> in assets belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Da_Afghanistan_Bank" title="Da Afghanistan Bank">Afghan central banks</a>,<a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in U.S. bank accounts.<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a> In October 2021, more than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food shortage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> On 11 November 2021, the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> reported that Afghanistan is facing widespread famine due to collapsed economy and broken banking system. The <a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">UN World Food Programme</a> has also issued multiple warnings of worsening food insecurity.<a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Theories_of_famines" title="Theories of famines">Theories of famines</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg/220px-%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg/330px-%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg/440px-%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1554" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption>A victim of starvation in <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">besieged Leningrad</a> suffering from <a href="/wiki/Dystrophy" title="Dystrophy">dystrophia</a> in 1941.<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a></figcaption></figure> Definitions of famines are based on three different categories—these include food supply-based, food consumption-based and mortality-based definitions. Some definitions of famines are: <ul><li>Blix – Widespread food shortage leading to significant rise in regional death rates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlixSvensk_näringsforskning1971-162">[161]</a></li> <li>Brown and Eckholm – Sudden, sharp reduction in food supply resulting in widespread hunger.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownEckholm1974-163">[162]</a></li> <li>Scrimshaw – Sudden collapse in level of food consumption of large numbers of people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScrimshaw1987-164">[163]</a></li> <li>Ravallion – Unusually high mortality with unusually severe threat to food intake of some segments of a population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERavallion19962-165">[164]</a></li> <li>Cuny – A set of conditions that occurs when large numbers of people in a region cannot obtain sufficient food, resulting in widespread, acute malnutrition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunyHill1999-166">[165]</a></li></ul> Food shortages in a population are caused either by a lack of food or by difficulties in food distribution; it may be worsened by natural climate fluctuations and by extreme political conditions related to oppressive government or warfare. The conventional explanation until 1981 for the cause of famines was the Food availability decline (FAD) hypothesis. The assumption was that the central cause of all famines was a decline in food availability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEncyclopædia_Britannica2010-167">[166]</a> However, FAD could not explain why only a certain section of the population such as the agricultural laborer was affected by famines while others were insulated from famines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaudhari1984135-168">[167]</a> Based on the studies of some recent famines, the decisive role of FAD has been questioned and it has been suggested that the causal mechanism for precipitating starvation includes many variables other than just decline of food availability. According to this view, famines are a result of entitlements, the theory being proposed is called the "failure of exchange entitlements" or FEE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaudhari1984135-168">[167]</a> A person may own various commodities that can be exchanged in a market economy for the other commodities he or she needs. The exchange can happen via trading or production or through a combination of the two. These entitlements are called trade-based or production-based entitlements. Per this proposed view, famines are precipitated due to a breakdown in the ability of the person to exchange his entitlements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaudhari1984135-168">[167]</a> An example of famines due to FEE is the inability of an agricultural laborer to exchange his primary entitlement, i.e., labor for rice when his employment became erratic or was eliminated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaudhari1984135-168">[167]</a> According to the Physicians for Social Responsibility (PSR), global <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> is additionally challenging the Earth's ability to produce food, potentially leading to famine.<a href="#cite_note-Psrccaf-169">[168]</a> Some elements make a particular region more vulnerable to famine. These include poverty, <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a>,<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> an inappropriate social infrastructure, a suppressive political regime, and a weak or under-prepared government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERavallion19961-171">[170]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Oxfam_International" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxfam International">Oxfam International</a>, commenting on a <a href="/wiki/Famine_Early_Warning_Systems_Network" title="Famine Early Warning Systems Network">Famine Early Warning Systems Network</a> (FEWS NET) report, "Famines are not natural phenomena, they are catastrophic political failures."<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_and_population_pressure">Climate and population pressure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Climate and population pressure">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Starved_child.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Starved_child.jpg/170px-Starved_child.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Starved_child.jpg/255px-Starved_child.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Starved_child.jpg/340px-Starved_child.jpg 2x" data-file-width="346" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>A child suffering extreme starvation in India, 1972</figcaption></figure> Thomas Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population has made popular the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Malthusian_catastrophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Malthusian catastrophe">Malthusian catastrophe</a>—that many famines are caused by imbalance of food production compared to the large populations of countries<a href="#cite_note-de_Waal_2018-173">[172]</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">population exceeds the regional carrying capacity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> However, anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Alex_de_Waal" title="Alex de Waal">Alex de Waal</a>, executive director of the World Peace Foundation,<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> refutes the Malthus theory, looking instead to political factors as major causes of recent (over the last 150 years) famines.<a href="#cite_note-de_Waal_2018-173">[172]</a> Historically, famines have occurred from agricultural problems such as drought, crop failure, or <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">pestilence</a>. Changing weather patterns, the ineffectiveness of medieval governments in dealing with crises, wars, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of epidemics">epidemic diseases</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> helped to cause hundreds of famines in Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, including 95 in Britain and 75 in France.<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a> In France, the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, crop failures and epidemics reduced the population by two-thirds.<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> Economist <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> has also argued that sustained famines historically have been caused by political instability and repressive political regimes rather than overpopulation.<a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> The failure of a harvest or change in conditions, such as <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a>, can create a situation whereby large numbers of people continue to live where the <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">carrying capacity</a> of the land has temporarily dropped radically. Famine is often associated with <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_economy" title="Subsistence economy">subsistence</a> agriculture. The total absence of agriculture in an economically strong area does not cause famine; Arizona and other wealthy regions import the vast majority of their food, since such regions produce sufficient economic goods for trade. Famines have also been caused by volcanism. The 1815 eruption of the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Tambora" title="Mount Tambora">Mount Tambora</a> volcano in Indonesia caused crop failures and famines worldwide and caused the worst famine of the 19th century. The current consensus of the scientific community is that the aerosols and dust released into the upper atmosphere causes cooler temperatures by preventing the sun's energy from reaching the ground. The same mechanism is theorized to be caused by very large meteorite impacts to the extent of causing mass extinctions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State-sponsored_famines">State-sponsored famines</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: State-sponsored famines">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation (crime)</a></div> In certain cases, such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> in China (which produced the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">largest famine in absolute numbers</a>), <a href="/wiki/North_Korean_famine" class="mw-redirect" title="North Korean famine">North Korea in the mid-1990s</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> in the early-2000s, famine can occur because of government policy. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HolodomorKharkiv.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5e/HolodomorKharkiv.jpg/220px-HolodomorKharkiv.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5e/HolodomorKharkiv.jpg/330px-HolodomorKharkiv.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5e/HolodomorKharkiv.jpg/440px-HolodomorKharkiv.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The government's <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">forced collectivization</a> of agriculture was one of the main causes of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%931933" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–1933">Soviet famine of 1932–1933</a>.</figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Simon_Payaslian" title="Simon Payaslian">Simon Payaslian</a>, a tentative scholarly consensus classifies the Soviet famine (at least in Ukraine where 2.5 to 4 million perished<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a>) as a <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>,<a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a> although some scholars say that it remains a significant issue in modern politics and dispute whether Soviet policies would fall under the <a href="/wiki/Legal_definition_of_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal definition of genocide">legal definition of genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> Several scholars have disputed that the famine was a genocidal act by the Soviet government, including <a href="/wiki/J._Arch_Getty" title="J. Arch Getty">J. Arch Getty</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Getty_2000-184">[183]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Stephen G. Wheatcroft</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft_2018-185">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/R._W._Davies" title="R. W. Davies">R. W. Davies</a>,<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a> and Mark Tauger.<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a> Getty says that the "overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars working in the new archives ... is that the terrible famine of the 1930s was the result of Stalinist bungling and rigidity rather than some genocidal plan."<a href="#cite_note-Getty_2000-184">[183]</a> Wheatcroft says that the Soviet government's policies during the famine were criminal acts of fraud and manslaughter, though not outright murder or genocide.<a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft_2020-188">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[note 2]</a> In regard to the Soviet state's reaction to this crisis, Wheatcroft comments: "The good harvest of 1930 led to the decisions to export substantial amounts of grain in 1931 and 1932. The Soviet leaders also assumed that the wholesale socialisation of livestock farming would lead to the rapid growth of meat and dairy production. These policies failed, and the Soviet leaders attributed the failure not to their own lack of realism but to the machinations of enemies. Peasant resistance was blamed on the kulaks, and the increased use of force on a large scale almost completely replaced attempts at persuasion."<a href="#cite_note-Davies_&_Wheatcroft_2009-190">[188]</a> Wheatcroft says that Soviet authorities refused to scale down grain procurements despite the low harvest,<a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft_2018-185">[184]</a> and that "[Wheatcroft and his colleague's] work has confirmed – if confirmation were needed – that the grain campaign in 1932/33 was unprecedentedly harsh and repressive."<a href="#cite_note-Davies_&_Wheatcroft_2004-191">[189]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> biographer <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kotkin" title="Stephen Kotkin">Stephen Kotkin</a> supports a similar view, stating that while "there is no question of Stalin's responsibility for the famine" and many deaths could have been prevented if not for the "insufficient" and counterproductive Soviet measures, there is no evidence for Stalin's intention to kill the Ukrainians deliberately.<a href="#cite_note-Kotkin_2017-192">[190]</a> While Mark Tauger considers the famine to be the result of natural factors stating that "the harsh 1932–1933 procurements only displaced the famine from urban areas" but the low harvest "made a famine inevitable". Ultimately concluding that it is difficult to accept the famine "as the result of the 1932 grain procurements and as a conscious act of genocide" he still concurs with Wheatcroft that "the regime was still responsible for the deprivation and suffering of the Soviet population in the early 1930s", and "if anything, these data show that the effects of [collectivization and forced industrialization] were worse than has been assumed."<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> In 1958 in China, <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>'s Communist Government launched the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> campaign, aimed at rapidly industrializing the country.<a href="#cite_note-NewYorkTimes-194">[192]</a> The government forcibly took control of agriculture. Barely enough grain was left for the peasants, and starvation occurred in many rural areas. Exportation of grain continued despite the famine and the government attempted to conceal it. While the famine is attributed to unintended consequences, it is believed that the government refused to acknowledge the problem, thereby further contributing to the deaths. In many instances, peasants were persecuted. Between 20 and 45 million people perished in this famine, making it one of the deadliest famines to date.<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a> Historian and journalists, such as <a href="/wiki/Seumas_Milne" title="Seumas Milne">Seumas Milne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jon_Wiener" title="Jon Wiener">Jon Wiener</a>, have criticized the emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> when assigning blame for famines. In a 2002 article for <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>, Milne mentions "the moral blindness displayed towards the record of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>", and he writes: "If Lenin and Stalin are regarded as having killed those who died of hunger in the famines of the 1920s and 1930s, then Churchill is certainly responsible for the 4 million deaths in the avoidable <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> Weiner makes a similar assertion while comparing the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a> and the Bengal famine of 1943, stating that <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>'s role in the Bengal famine "seems similar to Stalin's role in the Ukrainian famine".<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Mike_Davis_(scholar)" title="Mike Davis (scholar)">Mike Davis</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/Late_Victorian_Holocausts" title="Late Victorian Holocausts">Late Victorian Holocausts</a>, draws comparisons between the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_major_famines_in_India_during_British_rule" title="Timeline of major famines in India during British rule">Indian famines of the late 19th century</a>, arguing that in both instances the governments which oversaw the response to the famines deliberately chose not to alleviate conditions and as such bear responsibility for the scale of deaths in said famines.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Jason_Hickel" title="Jason Hickel">Jason Hickel</a> and Dylan Sullivan, the number excess deaths during the apex of British colonialism in India rise to around 100 million.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> Malawi ended its famine by subsidizing farmers despite the strictures imposed by the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>.<a href="#cite_note-newyorktimes-201">[199]</a> During the 1973 <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie_I_of_Ethiopia#Wollo_famine" class="mw-redirect" title="Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia">Wollo Famine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, food was shipped out of Wollo to the capital city of <a href="/wiki/Addis_Ababa" title="Addis Ababa">Addis Ababa</a>, where it could command higher prices. In the late-1970s and early-1980s, residents of the <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorships</a> of Ethiopia and <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> suffered massive famines, but the <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> avoided them, despite also suffering a severe drop in national food production. In <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, famine occurred because of a <a href="/wiki/Failed_state" title="Failed state">failed state</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Famine_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Famine in Yemen">famine in Yemen</a> is a direct result of the <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabian-led_intervention_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen">Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Yemen" title="Blockade of Yemen">blockade</a> imposed by Saudi Arabia and its allies, including the United States.<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> According to the UN, 130 children under five years of age were dying from starvation and starvation related diseases every day by the end of 2017, with 50,000 dead for the year. As of October 2018, half the population is at risk of famine.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Famines_by_political_regime.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Famines_by_political_regime.png/220px-Famines_by_political_regime.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Famines_by_political_regime.png/330px-Famines_by_political_regime.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Famines_by_political_regime.png/440px-Famines_by_political_regime.png 2x" data-file-width="3960" data-file-height="4300" /></a><figcaption>Famines since 1850 by political regime</figcaption></figure> Israel's <a href="/wiki/2023_Israeli_blockade_of_the_Gaza_Strip" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip">blockade of Gaza</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Israel–Hamas war">war</a> between Israel and Hamas led to a <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip_famine" title="Gaza Strip famine">famine in the Gaza Strip</a> in 2024.<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a> On 16 January 2024, UN experts accused Israel of "destroying Gaza's food system and using food as a weapon against the Palestinian people".<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> According to Amartya Sen (1999), "there has never been a famine in a functioning multiparty democracy". Hasell and Roser have demonstrated that while there have been a few minor exceptions, famines rarely occur in democratic systems but are strongly correlated with <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial</a> systems.<a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_sanctions">Economic sanctions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Economic sanctions">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Economic_sanctions" title="Economic sanctions">Economic sanctions</a> are state or UN sanctioned measures to pressure a targeted country to submit to political demands. Because such measures often involve limiting imports and exports to "crash" or inflict pain on the targeted nation's economy. This can restrict the targeted nation's economic development and make it more difficult for their population to access food.<a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a> Economic sanctions have been blamed for contributing to the <a href="/wiki/North_Korean_famine" class="mw-redirect" title="North Korean famine">North Korean famine</a> in the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a> The effects of <a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">sanctions against Iraq</a> in the 1990s on mortality are disputed.<a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a>'s takeover of Afghanistan in August 2021, <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> warned that Afghanistan was at risk of famine and urged the UN, World Bank, US and other countries to modify their sanctions to help prevent famine.<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Famine_prevention">Famine prevention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Famine prevention">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Famine" title="Special:EditPage/Famine">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Famine%22">"Famine"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Famine%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Famine%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Famine%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Famine%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Famine%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (May 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg/180px-Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg/270px-Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg/360px-Famine_in_Algeria_1869.jpg 2x" data-file-width="372" data-file-height="622" /></a><figcaption>A starving child during the 1869 famine in <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>.</figcaption></figure> Relief technologies, including <a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">immunization</a>, improved <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> infrastructure, general food rations and supplementary feeding for vulnerable children, has provided temporary mitigation to the mortality impact of famines, while leaving their economic consequences unchanged, and not solving the underlying issue of too large a regional population relative to food production capability. Humanitarian crises may also arise from <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> campaigns, <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agro-terrorism" title="Agro-terrorism">agro-terrorism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a> flows and episodes of extreme violence and state collapse, creating famine conditions among the affected populations. Despite repeated stated intentions by the world's leaders to end hunger and famine, famine remains a chronic threat in much of Africa, Eastern Europe, the Southeast, South Asia, and the Middle East. In July 2005, the <a href="/wiki/Famine_Early_Warning_Systems_Network" title="Famine Early Warning Systems Network">Famine Early Warning Systems Network</a> (FEWS NET) labelled Niger with emergency status, as well as Chad, Ethiopia, <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>, Somalia and Zimbabwe. In January 2006, the United Nations <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> warned that 11 million people in Somalia, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> and Ethiopia were in danger of starvation due to the combination of severe drought and military conflicts.<a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a> In 2006, the most serious humanitarian crisis in Africa was in <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>'s region <a href="/wiki/Darfur" title="Darfur">Darfur</a>. <a href="/wiki/Frances_Moore_Lapp%C3%A9" title="Frances Moore Lappé">Frances Moore Lappé</a>, later co-founder of the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Food_and_Development_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute for Food and Development Policy">Institute for Food and Development Policy</a> (Food First) argued in <a href="/wiki/Diet_for_a_Small_Planet" title="Diet for a Small Planet">Diet for a Small Planet</a> (1971) that vegetarian diets can provide food for larger populations, with the same resources, compared to omnivorous diets. Noting that modern famines are sometimes aggravated by misguided economic policies, political design to impoverish or marginalize certain populations, or acts of war, political economists have investigated the political conditions under which famine is prevented. Economist <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[note 3]</a> states that the liberal institutions that exist in India, including competitive elections and a free press, have played a major role in preventing famine in that country since independence. <a href="/wiki/Alex_de_Waal" title="Alex de Waal">Alex de Waal</a> has developed this theory to focus on the "political contract" between rulers and people that ensures famine prevention, noting the rarity of such political contracts in Africa, and the danger that international relief agencies will undermine such contracts through removing the locus of accountability for famines from national governments. The demographic impacts of famine are sharp. Mortality is concentrated among children and the elderly. A consistent demographic fact is that in all recorded famines, male mortality exceeds female, even in those populations (such as northern India and Pakistan) where there is a male longevity advantage during normal times. Reasons for this may include greater female resilience under the pressure of malnutrition, and possibly female's naturally higher percentage of body fat. Famine is also accompanied by lower fertility. Famines therefore leave the reproductive core of a population—adult women—lesser affected compared to other population categories, and post-famine periods are often characterized a "rebound" with increased births. Even though the theories of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a> would predict that famines reduce the size of the population commensurate with available food resources, in fact even the most severe famines have rarely dented population growth for more than a few years. The mortality in China in 1958–61, Bengal in 1943, and Ethiopia in 1983–85 was all made up by a growing population over just a few years. Of greater long-term demographic impact is emigration: Ireland was chiefly depopulated after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">1840s famines</a> by waves of emigration. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overall_food_production">Overall food production</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Overall food production">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Food_production_per_capita.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Food_production_per_capita.svg/220px-Food_production_per_capita.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Food_production_per_capita.svg/330px-Food_production_per_capita.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Food_production_per_capita.svg/440px-Food_production_per_capita.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> Globally, the amount of food produced per person has kept rising, despite a growing world population. A local crop failure does not cause a famine unless there is also a lack of money to buy food from elsewhere. A war or political oppression can also disrupt distribution of otherwise adequate global supplies.<a href="#cite_note-216">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_security">Food security</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Food security">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">Food security</a></div> Long term measures to improve food security, include investment in modern agriculture techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilizers">fertilizers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-obama-217">[214]</a> but can also include strategic national <a href="/wiki/Food_storage" title="Food storage">food storage</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> strictures restrict government subsidies for farmers, and increasing use of fertilizers is opposed by some environmental groups because of its unintended consequences: adverse effects on water supplies and habitat.<a href="#cite_note-newyorktimes-201">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-atlantic-218">[215]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norman_Borlaug.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Norman_Borlaug.jpg/200px-Norman_Borlaug.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Norman_Borlaug.jpg/300px-Norman_Borlaug.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Norman_Borlaug.jpg/400px-Norman_Borlaug.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman Borlaug</a>, father of the <a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a>, is often credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation.</figcaption></figure> The effort to bring modern agricultural techniques found in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> <a href="/wiki/Fertilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilizers">fertilizers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pesticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticides">pesticides</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Sub-continent" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Sub-continent">Indian Sub-continent</a>, called the <a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a>, resulted in decreases in malnutrition similar to those seen earlier in Western nations. This was possible because of existing <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> and institutions that are in short supply in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, such as a system of roads or public <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a> companies that made seeds available.<a href="#cite_note-219">[216]</a> Supporting farmers in areas of food insecurity, through such measures as free or subsidized <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>, increases food harvest and reduces food prices.<a href="#cite_note-newyorktimes-201">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[217]</a> The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a> in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> fueled <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[219]</a> The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a> — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.<a href="#cite_note-223">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[221]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> and some rich nations press nations that depend on them for aid to cut back or eliminate subsidized agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, in the name of <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> even as the United States and Europe extensively subsidized their own farmers.<a href="#cite_note-225">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relief">Relief</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Relief">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Famine_relief" title="Famine relief">Famine relief</a></div> There is a growing realization among aid groups that giving cash or cash vouchers instead of food is a cheaper, faster, and more efficient way to deliver help to the hungry, particularly in areas where food is available but unaffordable.<a href="#cite_note-csmonitor-226">[223]</a> The United Nations <a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">World Food Programme</a>, the biggest non-governmental distributor of food, announced that it will begin distributing cash and vouchers instead of food in some areas, which <a href="/wiki/Josette_Sheeran" title="Josette Sheeran">Josette Sheeran</a>, WFP's former executive director, described as a "revolution" in food aid.<a href="#cite_note-csmonitor-226">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-wfp-227">[224]</a> The aid agency <a href="/wiki/Concern_Worldwide" title="Concern Worldwide">Concern Worldwide</a> is piloting a method through a mobile phone operator, Safaricom, which runs a money transfer program that allows cash to be sent from one part of the country to another.<a href="#cite_note-csmonitor-226">[223]</a> However, for people in a <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> living a long way from and with limited access to <a href="/wiki/Marketplace" title="Marketplace">markets</a>, delivering food may be the most appropriate way to help.<a href="#cite_note-csmonitor-226">[223]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fred_Cuny" title="Fred Cuny">Fred Cuny</a> stated that "the chances of saving lives at the outset of a relief operation are greatly reduced when food is imported. By the time it arrives in the country and gets to people, many will have died."<a href="#cite_note-228">[225]</a> US Law[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>], which requires buying food at home rather than where the hungry live, is inefficient because approximately half of what is spent goes for transport.<a href="#cite_note-229">[226]</a> Fred Cuny further pointed out "studies of every recent famine have shown that food was available in-country—though not always in the immediate food deficit area" and "even though by local standards the prices are too high for the poor to purchase it, it would usually be cheaper for a donor to buy the hoarded food at the inflated price than to import it from abroad."<a href="#cite_note-230">[227]</a> Deficient <a href="/wiki/Micronutrient" title="Micronutrient">micronutrients</a> can be provided through <a href="/wiki/Food_fortification" title="Food fortification">fortifying</a> foods.<a href="#cite_note-hiddenhunger-231">[228]</a> Fortifying foods such as <a href="/wiki/Peanut_butter" title="Peanut butter">peanut butter</a> sachets (see <a href="/wiki/Plumpy%27Nut" class="mw-redirect" title="Plumpy'Nut">Plumpy'Nut</a>) have revolutionized emergency feeding in humanitarian emergencies because they can be eaten directly from the packet, do not require refrigeration or mixing with scarce clean water, can be stored for years and, vitally, can be absorbed by extremely ill children.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-232">[229]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VOA_Heinlein_-_Somali_refugees_September_2011_-_09.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/VOA_Heinlein_-_Somali_refugees_September_2011_-_09.jpg/220px-VOA_Heinlein_-_Somali_refugees_September_2011_-_09.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/VOA_Heinlein_-_Somali_refugees_September_2011_-_09.jpg/330px-VOA_Heinlein_-_Somali_refugees_September_2011_-_09.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/VOA_Heinlein_-_Somali_refugees_September_2011_-_09.jpg/440px-VOA_Heinlein_-_Somali_refugees_September_2011_-_09.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="535" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali</a> boy receiving treatment for malnutrition at a health facility in Hilaweyn during the <a href="/wiki/2011_East_Africa_drought" title="2011 East Africa drought">drought of 2011</a>.</figcaption></figure> WHO and other sources recommend that malnourished children—and adults who also have <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>—drink rehydration solution, and continue to eat, in addition to antibiotics, and zinc supplements.<a href="#cite_note-WHOtreatmentdiarrhoea2005-233">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-BangladeshGuidelinesSeverelyMalnourished-234">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDCcholeratraining-235">[232]</a> There is a special oral rehydration solution called ReSoMal which has less sodium and more potassium than standard solution. However, if the diarrhea is severe, the standard solution is preferable as the person needs the extra sodium.<a href="#cite_note-BangladeshGuidelinesSeverelyMalnourished-234">[231]</a> Obviously, this is a judgment call best made by a physician, and using either solution is better than doing nothing. Zinc supplements often can help reduce the duration and severity of diarrhea, and Vitamin A can also be helpful.<a href="#cite_note-time-236">[233]</a> The World Health Organization underlines the importance of a person with diarrhea continuing to eat, with a 2005 publication for physicians stating: "Food should never be withheld and the child's usual foods should not be diluted. Breastfeeding should always be continued."<a href="#cite_note-WHOtreatmentdiarrhoea2005-233">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> has been pioneering a program that has now become part of the World Bank's prescribed recipe for coping with a food crisis and had been seen by aid organizations as a model of how to best help hungry nations. Through the country's main food assistance program, the Productive Safety Net Program, Ethiopia has been giving rural residents who are chronically short of food, a chance to work for food or cash. Foreign aid organizations like the World Food Program were then able to buy food locally from surplus areas to distribute in areas with a shortage of food.<a href="#cite_note-237">[234]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a> was widely viewed as an answer to famine in the 1970s and 1980s. Between 1950 and 1984, hybrid strains of high-yielding crops transformed agriculture around the globe and world grain production increased by 250%.<a href="#cite_note-238">[235]</a> Some[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] criticize the process, stating that these new high-yielding crops require more chemical <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>, which can harm the environment.<a href="#cite_note-239">[236]</a> Although these high-yielding crops make it technically possible to feed more people, there are indications that regional food production has peaked in many world sectors, due to certain strategies associated with intensive agriculture such as <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> <a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">overdrafting</a> and overuse of <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Agrochemical" title="Agrochemical">agricultural chemicals</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Levels_of_food_insecurity">Levels of food insecurity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Levels of food insecurity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Famine_scales" title="Famine scales">Famine scales</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_mass_grave_for_children_in_Dadaab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_mass_grave_for_children_in_Dadaab.jpg/220px-Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_mass_grave_for_children_in_Dadaab.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_mass_grave_for_children_in_Dadaab.jpg/330px-Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_mass_grave_for_children_in_Dadaab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_mass_grave_for_children_in_Dadaab.jpg/440px-Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_mass_grave_for_children_in_Dadaab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption>Freshly-dug graves for child victims of the <a href="/wiki/2011_East_Africa_drought" title="2011 East Africa drought">2011 East Africa drought</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dadaab" title="Dadaab">Dadaab</a> refugee camp, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></figcaption></figure> In modern times, local and political governments and <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organizations</a> that deliver famine relief have limited resources with which to address the multiple situations of food insecurity that are occurring simultaneously. Various methods of categorizing the gradations of food security have thus been used in order to most efficiently allocate food relief. One of the earliest were the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Famine_Codes" title="Indian Famine Codes">Indian Famine Codes</a> devised by the British in the 1880s. The Codes listed three stages of food insecurity: near-scarcity, scarcity and famine, and were highly influential in the creation of subsequent famine warning or measurement systems. The early warning system developed to monitor the region inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Turkana_people" title="Turkana people">Turkana people</a> in northern Kenya also has three levels, but links each stage to a pre-planned response to mitigate the crisis and prevent its deterioration The experiences of famine relief organizations throughout the world over the 1980s and 1990s resulted in at least two major developments: the "livelihoods approach" and the increased use of nutrition indicators to determine the severity of a crisis. Individuals and groups in food stressful situations will attempt to cope by rationing consumption, finding alternative means to supplement income, etc., before taking desperate measures, such as selling off plots of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> land. When all means of self-support are exhausted, the affected population begins to migrate in search of food or fall victim to outright mass <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a>. Famine may thus be viewed partially as a social phenomenon, involving <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">markets</a>, the price of food, and social support structures. A second lesson drawn was the increased use of rapid nutrition assessments, in particular of children, to give a quantitative measure of the famine's severity. Since 2003, many of the most important organizations in famine relief, such as the <a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">World Food Programme</a> and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Agency_for_International_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Agency for International Development">U.S. Agency for International Development</a>, have adopted a five-level scale measuring intensity and magnitude. The intensity scale uses both livelihoods' measures and measurements of mortality and child malnutrition to categorize a situation as food secure, food insecure, food crisis, famine, severe famine, and extreme famine. The number of deaths determines the magnitude designation, with under 1000 fatalities defining a "minor famine" and a "catastrophic famine" resulting in over 1,000,000 deaths. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> Famine personified as an <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a> is found in some cultures: Famine is one of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a> in Christian tradition, a man riding a black horse holding a <a href="/wiki/Balance_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance scale">balance scale</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Fear_gorta" title="Fear gorta">fear gorta</a> of Irish folklore; or the <a href="/wiki/Wendigo" title="Wendigo">Wendigo</a> of <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian</a> tradition. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_society">Effects on society</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Effects on society">edit</a>]</div> A 2023 systematic review and meta-analysis has shown that prenatal famine exposure is associated with an increased risk of mental disorders (such as <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>) and changes in <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">DNA methylation</a>, that is further exacerbating the impact of famine on human health and nutrition.<a href="#cite_note-240">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_world_food_price_crisis" title="2007–2008 world food price crisis">2007–2008 world food price crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_oil#Agricultural_effects_and_population_limits" title="Peak oil">Agriculture and population limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmit" title="Atmit">Atmit</a> (a porridge used to fight famine)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famine_Early_Warning_Systems_Network" title="Famine Early Warning Systems Network">Famine Early Warning Systems Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_prices" title="Food prices">Food prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">Food security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Hunger_Index" title="Global Hunger Index">Global Hunger Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Food_Security_Phase_Classification" title="Integrated Food Security Phase Classification">Integrated Food Security Phase Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_famines" title="List of famines">List of famines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_food" title="Local food">Local food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum#Right_of_asylum_by_country_of_refuge" title="Right of asylum">Right of asylum: protected grounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsistence_crisis" title="Subsistence crisis">Subsistence crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_vulture_and_the_little_girl" class="mw-redirect" title="The vulture and the little girl">The vulture and the little girl</a>: photo by <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Carter" title="Kevin Carter">Kevin Carter</a> of a vulture lurking a famine-stricken <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudanese</a> toddler.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agricultural_Supply_and_Demand_Estimates" title="World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates">World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates</a> (monthly report)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">World Food Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Vision_Famine_events" class="mw-redirect" title="World Vision Famine events">World Vision Famine events</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Initial reports erroneously gave the year 2035 rather than the correct 2350. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> "We may well ask whether having revolutionarily high expectations is a crime? Of course it is, if it leads to an increase in the level of deaths, as a result of insufficient care being taken to safeguard the lives of those put at risk when the high ambitions failed to be fulfilled, and especially when it was followed by a cover-up. The same goes for not adjusting policy to unfolding evidence of crisis. But these are crimes of manslaughter and fraud rather than of murder. How heinous are they in comparison, say, with shooting over 600,000 citizens wrongly identified as enemies in 1937–8, or in shooting 25,000 Poles identified as a security risk in 1940, when there was no doubt as to the outcome of the orders? The conventional view is that manslaughter is less heinous than cold blooded murder."<a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft_2020-188">[187]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> Sen is known for his assertion that famines do not occur in democracies in much the same way that <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> is associated with the "<a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">invisible hand</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> with "<a href="/wiki/Creative_destruction" title="Creative destruction">creative destruction</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMassing20031-214">[212]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wfp.org/fight-famine">"Fighting famine"</a>. wfp.org. World Food Programme. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221221064143/https://www.wfp.org/fight-famine">Archived</a> from the original on 21 December 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wfp.org&rft.atitle=Fighting+famine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wfp.org%2Ffight-famine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly1992" class="citation journal cs1">Kelly, James (May 1992). "Scarcity and Poor Relief in Eighteenth-Century Ireland: The Subsistence Crisis of 1782–4". 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UN News. 21 July 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220511062021/https://news.un.org/en/story/2011/07/382342-when-food-security-crisis-becomes-famine">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UN+News&rft.atitle=When+a+food+security+crisis+becomes+a+famine&rft.date=2011-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.un.org%2Fen%2Fstory%2F2011%2F07%2F382342-when-food-security-crisis-becomes-famine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPC_famine-5"><a href="#cite_ref-IPC_famine_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipcinfo.org/ipcinfo-website/resources/resources-details/en/c/1129202">"IPC and Famine"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Integrated_Food_Security_Phase_Classification" title="Integrated Food Security Phase Classification">Integrated Food Security Phase Classification</a>. 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20210211002558/http://www.ipcinfo.org/ipcinfo-website/resources/resources-details/en/c/1129202">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Integrated+Food+Security+Phase+Classification&rft.atitle=IPC+and+Famine&rft.date=2013&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcinfo.org%2Fipcinfo-website%2Fresources%2Fresources-details%2Fen%2Fc%2F1129202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39025927">"South Sudan declares famine in Unity State"</a>. BBC News. 20 February 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180722044156/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39025927">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2018. 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Etusevi Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781450515030" title="Special:BookSources/9781450515030"><bdi>9781450515030</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=ch.+11&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+English+Agriculture&rft.pub=Etusevi+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781450515030&rft.aulast=Curtler&rft.aufirst=W.H.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYomy8cKVOtkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2001" class="citation book cs1">Burns, William E. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=59ITUOLbVkoC">The Scientific Revolution: An Encyclopedia</a>. 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U.S. Library of Congress. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111012005810/http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/35.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2011. Retrieved 29 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ethiopia+in+Crisis%3A+Famine+and+Its+Aftermath+1984%E2%80%931988&rft.pub=U.S.+Library+of+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Fethiopia%2F35.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasci2002" class="citation journal cs1">Masci, David (8 November 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2002110800#top">"Famine in Africa"</a>. CQ Researcher. 12 (39). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220309155152/https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2002110800#top">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CQ+Researcher&rft.atitle=Famine+in+Africa&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=39&rft.date=2002-11-08&rft.aulast=Masci&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.cqpress.com%2Fcqresearcher%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3Dcqresrre2002110800%23top&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0801/p01s02-woaf.html">"Hunger is spreading in Africa"</a>. Christian Science Monitor. 1 August 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101123114118/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0801/p01s02-woaf.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 November 2010. Retrieved 1 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=Hunger+is+spreading+in+Africa&rft.date=2005-08-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2F2005%2F0801%2Fp01s02-woaf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> See, for example, <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Korotayev" title="Andrey Korotayev">Andrey Korotayev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daria_Khaltourina" title="Daria Khaltourina">Daria Khaltourina</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/27503953/Introduction_to_Social_Macrodynamics_Secular_Cycles_and_Millennial_Trends_in_Africa">Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends in Africa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200216214439/https://www.academia.edu/27503953/Introduction_to_Social_Macrodynamics_Secular_Cycles_and_Millennial_Trends_in_Africa">Archived</a> 16 February 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Moscow: 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-484-00560-4" title="Special:BookSources/5-484-00560-4">5-484-00560-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-news.mongabay.com-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-news.mongabay.com_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-news.mongabay.com_51-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111127175559/http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html">"Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025"</a>. Mongabay. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html">the original</a> on 27 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mongabay&rft.atitle=Africa+may+be+able+to+feed+only+25%25+of+its+population+by+2025&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.mongabay.com%2F2006%2F1214-unu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhcr.org/4fce08ac6.html">"One year on, thousands flee Somalia every month, but successes too"</a>. Unhcr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120605224414/http://www.unhcr.org/4fce08ac6.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2012. Retrieved 5 June 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Unhcr&rft.atitle=One+year+on%2C+thousands+flee+Somalia+every+month%2C+but+successes+too&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhcr.org%2F4fce08ac6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Twdisyihoa-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Twdisyihoa_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158">"The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa"</a>. Africa and Europe in Partnership. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158">the original</a> on 2 November 2011. 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The East African. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121024171549/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/oe8n10/-/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 16 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+East+African&rft.atitle=Manufacturing+a+famine%3A+How+Somalia+crisis+became+a+fund-raising+opportunity&rft.date=2011-10-02&rft.aulast=Warah&rft.aufirst=Rasna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theeastafrican.co.ke%2Fnews%2FHow%2BSomalia%2Bcrisis%2B%2Bbecame%2Ba%2Bfund%2Braising%2Bopportunity%2B%2F-%2F2558%2F1246690%2F-%2Foe8n10%2F-%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/node/12566">"Methodists make appeal for famine threatened West Africa"</a>. Ekklesia. 6 July 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120307152019/http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/node/12566">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2012. 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(1987) "African Unity in the 20 century" :Cairo </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Walter H. Mallory, China: Land of famine (1926) p.1 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mitosyfraudes.org/Polit/Famines.html">"FAEC — FEARFUL FAMINES OF THE PAST"</a>. Mitosyfraudes.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110415072104/http://www.mitosyfraudes.org/Polit/Famines.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2011. 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Journal of Interdisciplinary History 36.1 (2005): 33–55. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236806289_The_Political_Economy_of_Famine_Relief_in_China_1740-1820/link/55e55c3308ae6abe6e9047eb/download">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Pierre-Etienne Will, Bureaucracy and Famine </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Hooker1999" class="citation web cs1">Richard Hooker (14 July 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110414025909/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CHING/TAIPING.HTM">"Ch'ing China: The Taiping Rebellion"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CHING/TAIPING.HTM">the original</a> on 14 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ch%27ing+China%3A+The+Taiping+Rebellion&rft.date=1999-07-14&rft.au=Richard+Hooker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsu.edu%2F~dee%2FCHING%2FTAIPING.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/U8480E/U8480E05.htm">Dimensions of need – People and populations at risk</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151615/http://www.fao.org/docrep/U8480E/U8480E05.htm">Archived</a> 10 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Walker & Company, 2010. p. xii. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8027-7768-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8027-7768-6">0-8027-7768-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmil1999" class="citation journal cs1">Smil, V. (18 December 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1127087">"China's great famine: 40 years later"</a>. British Medical Journal. 319 (7225): 1619–1621. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.319.7225.1619">10.1136/bmj.319.7225.1619</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1127087">1127087</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10600969">10600969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=China%27s+great+famine%3A+40+years+later&rft.volume=319&rft.issue=7225&rft.pages=1619-1621&rft.date=1999-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1127087%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10600969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.319.7225.1619&rft.aulast=Smil&rft.aufirst=V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1127087&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoo2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Meredith_Jung-En_Woo" title="Meredith Jung-En Woo">Woo, Meredith Jung-En</a> (2007). Neoliberalism and Institutional Reform in East Asia: A Comparative Study. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-59034-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-59034-2"><bdi>978-0-230-59034-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neoliberalism+and+Institutional+Reform+in+East+Asia%3A+A+Comparative+Study&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-230-59034-2&rft.aulast=Woo&rft.aufirst=Meredith+Jung-En&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSugiharaRobbYanagisawa1996" class="citation book cs1">Sugihara, Kaoru; Robb, Peter G.; Yanagisawa, Haruka (27 July 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Ps-IesBlzkC&pg=PA312">Local Agrarian Societies in Colonial India: Japanese Perspectives</a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780700704712" title="Special:BookSources/9780700704712"><bdi>9780700704712</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230916142023/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Ps-IesBlzkC&pg=PA312">Archived</a> from the original on 16 September 2023. 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Financial Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/08528568-6dc5-11e7-bfeb-33fe0c5b7eaa">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=North+Korea+faces+worst+drought+since+2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F08528568-6dc5-11e7-bfeb-33fe0c5b7eaa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeabrook2017" class="citation news cs1">Seabrook, Ben (21 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-koreans-undernourished-in-worst-drought-in-16-years-20170721-gxfqz8.html">"North Koreans undernourished, in worst drought in 16 years"</a>. 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The Economic History Review. 72: 286–316. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fehr.12741">10.1111/ehr.12741</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1468-0289">1468-0289</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Causes+and+consequences+of+the+Great+Vietnam+Famine%2C+1944%E2%80%935&rft.volume=72&rft.pages=286-316&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fehr.12741&rft.issn=1468-0289&rft.aulast=HUFF&rft.aufirst=GREGG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fehr.12741&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. 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Verso, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-739-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-739-0">1-85984-739-0</a> p. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-mikedavis173-82"><a href="#cite_ref-mikedavis173_82-0">^</a> Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-739-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-739-0">1-85984-739-0</a> p. 173 </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDysonMaharatna1991" class="citation journal cs1">Dyson, Tim; Maharatna, Arup (September 1991). 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The Indian Economic and Social History Review. 28 (3): 281–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001946469102800303">10.1177/001946469102800303</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143627077">143627077</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Economic+and+Social+History+Review&rft.atitle=Excess+mortality+during+the+Great+Bengal+Famine%3A+A+Re-evaluation&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=281-97&rft.date=1991-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F001946469102800303&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143627077%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dyson&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Maharatna%2C+Arup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Craig A. 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Retrieved 31 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+and+Food+Security%3A+Papers+Presented+at+the+International+Symposium+on+Climate+Variability+and+Food+Security+in+Developing+Countries&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=International+Rice+Research+Institute&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-971-10-4210-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO2bPFK22-GYC%26q%3Dmaharashtra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeroushalmi2009" class="citation book cs1">Yeroushalmi, David (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XYlGS3s3zTQC&pg=PA327">The Jews of Iran in the nineteenth century: aspects of history, community</a>. 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Retrieved 15 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Iran+in+the+nineteenth+century%3A+aspects+of+history%2C+community&rft.pages=327&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15288-5&rft.aulast=Yeroushalmi&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXYlGS3s3zTQC%26pg%3DPA327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Christoffel Anthonie Olivier Nieuwenhuijze (1977). Commoners, Climbers and Notables: A Sampler of Studies on Social Ranking in the Middle East. Brill Archive ISBN. p. 213. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-05065-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-05065-5">90-04-05065-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Igoe2009" class="citation book cs1">Brian Igoe (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R688at3KskQC&pg=PA49">The Story of Ireland</a>. p. 49. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230916142031/https://books.google.com/books?id=R688at3KskQC&pg=PA49">Archived</a> from the original on 16 September 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Ireland&rft.pages=49&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Brian+Igoe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR688at3KskQC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Hackett_Fischer1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Hackett_Fischer" title="David Hackett Fischer">David Hackett Fischer</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o8ea33eCFQgC&q=great+wave+great+famine+inflation&pg=PA23">The Great Wave</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195121216" title="Special:BookSources/9780195121216"><bdi>9780195121216</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230916142030/https://books.google.com/books?id=o8ea33eCFQgC&q=great+wave+great+famine+inflation&pg=PA23">Archived</a> from the original on 16 September 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Wave&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780195121216&rft.au=David+Hackett+Fischer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do8ea33eCFQgC%26q%3Dgreat%2Bwave%2Bgreat%2Bfamine%2Binflation%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartholomew2004" class="citation news cs1">Bartholomew, James (8 August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3609390/Poor-studies-will-always-be-with-us.html">"Poor studies will always be with us"</a>. Telegraph.co.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160301084104/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3609390/Poor-studies-will-always-be-with-us.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Telegraph.co.uk&rft.atitle=Poor+studies+will+always+be+with+us&rft.date=2004-08-08&rft.aulast=Bartholomew&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fcomment%2Fpersonal-view%2F3609390%2FPoor-studies-will-always-be-with-us.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasu" class="citation web cs1">Basu, Kaushik. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/201392/famine">"famine"</a>. Britannica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150507160730/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/201392/famine">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 1 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica.com&rft.atitle=famine&rft.aulast=Basu&rft.aufirst=Kaushik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F201392%2Ffamine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-famine-92"><a href="#cite_ref-famine_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Macfarlane1997" class="citation book cs1">Alan Macfarlane (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/savagewarsofpeac0000macf">The savage wars of peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian trap</a>. Wiley. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/savagewarsofpeac0000macf/page/66">66</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18117-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18117-0"><bdi>978-0-631-18117-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+savage+wars+of+peace%3A+England%2C+Japan+and+the+Malthusian+trap&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-631-18117-0&rft.au=Alan+Macfarlane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsavagewarsofpeac0000macf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Kaplan, Steven. The Famine Plot Persuasion in Eighteenth-Century France. Pennsylvania: Diane Publishing Co, 1982. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87169-723-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87169-723-8">0-87169-723-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091009053403/http://www.euro.who.int/document/peh-ehp/nehapfin.pdf">"Home"</a> (PDF). www.euro.who.int. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euro.who.int/document/peh-ehp/nehapfin.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.euro.who.int&rft.atitle=Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euro.who.int%2Fdocument%2Fpeh-ehp%2Fnehapfin.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_GrádaChevet2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ó Gráda, Cormac; Chevet, Jean-Michel (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/10197/368/3/ogradac_article_pub_039.pdf">"Famine And Market In Ancient Régime France"</a> (PDF). The Journal of Economic History. 62 (3): 706–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050702001055">10.1017/S0022050702001055</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10197%2F368">10197/368</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17494233">17494233</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8036361">8036361</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190923121948/https://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/10197/368/3/ogradac_article_pub_039.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2019. Retrieved 23 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Famine+And+Market+In+Ancient+R%C3%A9gime+France&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=706-33&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10197%2F368&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8036361%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17494233&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050702001055&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Gr%C3%A1da&rft.aufirst=Cormac&rft.au=Chevet%2C+Jean-Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearchrepository.ucd.ie%2Fbitstream%2F10197%2F368%2F3%2Fogradac_article_pub_039.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1988" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Michael (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/populationchange0000ande/page/9">Population change in North-western Europe, 1750–1850</a>. Macmillan Education. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/populationchange0000ande/page/9">9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-34386-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-34386-9"><bdi>978-0-333-34386-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Population+change+in+North-western+Europe%2C+1750%E2%80%931850&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Macmillan+Education&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-333-34386-9&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpopulationchange0000ande%2Fpage%2F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/finland/9.htm">"Finland and the Swedish Empire"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171009181052/http://countrystudies.us/finland/9.htm">Archived</a> 9 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Federal Research Division, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Karen J. Cullen (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RiLjHZdt-sMC&pg=PA20">Famine in Scotland: The 'Ill Years' of the 1690s</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230916142030/https://books.google.com/books?id=RiLjHZdt-sMC&pg=PA20">Archived</a> 16 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 20. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-3887-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-3887-3">0-7486-3887-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Alan Macfarlane (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eGsCGAdH4YQC&pg=PA63">The savage wars of peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian trap</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220128101941/https://books.google.com/books?id=eGsCGAdH4YQC&pg=PA63">Archived</a> 28 January 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. p. 63. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18117-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18117-2">0-631-18117-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts, p. 281. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Cormac Ó Gráda (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LoN2XkjJio4C&pg=PA18">Famine: a short history</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164808/https://books.google.com/books?id=LoN2XkjJio4C&pg=PA18">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 18. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12237-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-12237-7">0-691-12237-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Susan Scott, Christopher John Duncan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BME8WHMQpNIC">Demography and nutrition: evidence from historical and contemporary populations</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164808/https://books.google.com/books?id=BME8WHMQpNIC">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. John Wiley and Sons. p. 45. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-05983-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-05983-4">0-632-05983-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> E. E. Rich, C. H. Wilson, M. M. Postan (1977). The Cambridge economic history of Europe: The economic organization of early modern Europe. p. 614. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-08710-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-08710-4">0-521-08710-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Alan Macfarlane (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eGsCGAdH4YQC&pg=PA64">The savage wars of peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian trap</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230916142602/https://books.google.com/books?id=eGsCGAdH4YQC&pg=PA64">Archived</a> 16 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. p. 64. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18117-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18117-2">0-631-18117-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDysonRowland2007" class="citation book cs1">Dyson, Stephen L.; Rowland, Robert J. (2007). Archaeology and history in Sardinia from the Stone Age to the Middle Ages: shepherds, sailors & conquerors. Philadelphia: UPenn Museum of Archaeology, 2007. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934536-02-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-934536-02-5"><bdi>978-1-934536-02-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+and+history+in+Sardinia+from+the+Stone+Age+to+the+Middle+Ages%3A+shepherds%2C+sailors+%26+conquerors&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=UPenn+Museum+of+Archaeology%2C+2007&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-934536-02-5&rft.aulast=Dyson&rft.aufirst=Stephen+L.&rft.au=Rowland%2C+Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Henry Oliver Lancaster (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T4DLK7zLxYMC&pg=PA399">Expectations of life: a study in the demography, statistics, and history of world mortality</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512203839/http://books.google.com/books?id=T4DLK7zLxYMC&pg=PA399">Archived</a> 12 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. p. 399. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-97105-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-97105-X">0-387-97105-X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubinstein2004" class="citation book cs1">Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA85">Genocide: a history</a>. Pearson Education. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-50601-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-50601-5"><bdi>978-0-582-50601-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230916142527/https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA85">Archived</a> from the original on 16 September 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide%3A+a+history&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-582-50601-5&rft.aulast=Rubinstein&rft.aufirst=W.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnMMAk4VwLLwC%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Alan_Macfarlane" title="Alan Macfarlane">Alan Macfarlane</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alanmacfarlane.com/savage/A-FAM.PDF">The Dimension of Famine</a>" (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110517095451/http://www.alanmacfarlane.com/savage/A-FAM.PDF">Archived</a> 17 May 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Stéphane Courtois, Mark Kramer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206">Livre noir du Communisme: crimes, terreur, répression</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230916142527/https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206">Archived</a> 16 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Harvard University Press, 1999. p. 206. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-07608-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-07608-7">0-674-07608-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllman2000" class="citation journal cs1">Ellman, Michael (1 September 2000). "The 1947 Soviet famine and the entitlement approach to famines". Cambridge Journal of Economics. 24 (5): 603–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcje%2F24.5.603">10.1093/cje/24.5.603</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45613622">45613622</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=The+1947+Soviet+famine+and+the+entitlement+approach+to+famines&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=603-30&rft.date=2000-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcje%2F24.5.603&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45613622%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ellman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> The Russian Academy of Science Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk. Liudskie poteri SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny: sbornik statei. Saint Petersburg 1995 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-86789-023-6" title="Special:BookSources/5-86789-023-6">5-86789-023-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTitova2008" class="citation news cs1">Titova, Irina (29 January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140818002907/http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=24841">"Last Battle of Siege of Leningrad Re-Enacted"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_St._Petersburg_Times_(Russia)" title="The St. Petersburg Times (Russia)">The St. Petersburg Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=24841">the original</a> on 18 August 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+St.+Petersburg+Times&rft.atitle=Last+Battle+of+Siege+of+Leningrad+Re-Enacted&rft.date=2008-01-29&rft.aulast=Titova&rft.aufirst=Irina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sptimes.ru%2Findex.php%3Faction_id%3D2%26story_id%3D24841&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_PFSc4kCyxcC&pg=PA190">Technology, Disease, and Colonial Conquests, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries: Essays Reappraising the Guns and Germs Theories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164807/https://books.google.com/books?id=_PFSc4kCyxcC&pg=PA190">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. George Raudzens (2003). Brill. p. 190. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-391-04206-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-391-04206-8">0-391-04206-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Richardson Benedict Gill (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DRt5RnlBTq0C&pg=PA123">The great Maya droughts: water, life, and death</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164807/https://books.google.com/books?id=DRt5RnlBTq0C&pg=PA123">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. UNM Press. p. 123. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8263-2774-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8263-2774-5">0-8263-2774-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSousaPearson2009" class="citation journal cs1">Sousa, Anastácio Q.; Pearson, Richard (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2727349">"Drought, Smallpox, and Emergence of Leishmania braziliensis in Northeastern Brazil"</a>. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 15 (6). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): 916–921. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid1506.071331">10.3201/eid1506.071331</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2727349">2727349</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19523291">19523291</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Drought%2C+Smallpox%2C+and+Emergence+of+Leishmania+braziliensis+in+Northeastern+Brazil&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=916-921&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2727349%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19523291&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid1506.071331&rft.aulast=Sousa&rft.aufirst=Anast%C3%A1cio+Q.&rft.au=Pearson%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2727349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160112061115/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s8857.html">"Sample Chapter for Ó Gráda, C.: Famine: A Short History"</a>. Press.princeton.edu. 6 February 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s8857.html">the original</a> on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Press.princeton.edu&rft.atitle=Sample+Chapter+for+%C3%93+Gr%C3%A1da%2C+C.%3A+Famine%3A+A+Short+History&rft.date=2009-02-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Fchapters%2Fs8857.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/W8514E/W8514E29.htm">"Inland fishery enhancements"</a>. www.fao.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140306225557/http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/W8514E/W8514E29.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 28 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fao.org&rft.atitle=Inland+fishery+enhancements&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2Fdocrep%2F005%2FW8514E%2FW8514E29.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Bo Rothstein (2005). Social traps and the problem of trust. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-84829-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-84829-6">0-521-84829-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-119"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_119-0">^</a> Patrick Vinton Kirch (1989). The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms. Cambridge University Press. p. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-120"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_120-0">^</a> Andrew Shryock, Daniel Lord Smail (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mombkmEiZg0C">Deep History: The Architecture of Past and Present</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164807/https://books.google.com/books?id=mombkmEiZg0C">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. University of California Press. p. 139. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-27028-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-27028-2">0-520-27028-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHezel1983" class="citation book cs1">Hezel, Francis X. (1983). The First Taint of Civilization: A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-colonial Days, 1521–1885. Pacific Islands Monograph Series. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 92–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824816438" title="Special:BookSources/9780824816438"><bdi>9780824816438</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Taint+of+Civilization%3A+A+History+of+the+Caroline+and+Marshall+Islands+in+Pre-colonial+Days%2C+1521%E2%80%931885&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.series=Pacific+Islands+Monograph+Series&rft.pages=92-94&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780824816438&rft.aulast=Hezel&rft.aufirst=Francis+X.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food">"Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160429094959/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food">Archived</a> 29 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Guardian, 31 August 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090822070637/http://www.sundayherald.com/news/heraldnews/display.var.2104849.0.2008_the_year_of_global_food_crisis.php">"2008 the Year of Global Food Crisis (From Sunday Herald)"</a>. www.sundayherald.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sundayherald.com/news/heraldnews/display.var.2104849.0.2008_the_year_of_global_food_crisis.php">the original</a> on 22 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.sundayherald.com&rft.atitle=2008+the+Year+of+Global+Food+Crisis+%28From+Sunday+Herald%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sundayherald.com%2Fnews%2Fheraldnews%2Fdisplay.var.2104849.0.2008_the_year_of_global_food_crisis.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0118/p08s01-comv.html">"The global grain bubble"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091130063759/http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0118/p08s01-comv.html">Archived</a> 30 November 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Christian Science Monitor </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm">"The cost of food: Facts and figures"</a>. 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The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130901074034/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/04/china.business">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2013. Retrieved 11 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Riots+and+hunger+feared+as+demand+for+grain+sends+food+costs+soaring&rft.date=2007-12-04&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2007%2Fdec%2F04%2Fchina.business&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110814134028/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece">"Environment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a>. 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Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 170: 195–205. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013AgFM..170..195F">2013AgFM..170..195F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.agrformet.2012.04.008">10.1016/j.agrformet.2012.04.008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Agricultural+and+Forest+Meteorology&rft.atitle=%27Vulnerability+hotspots%27%3A+Integrating+socio-economic+and+hydrological+models+to+identify+where+cereal+production+may+decline+in+the+future+due+to+climate+change+induced+drought&rft.volume=170&rft.pages=195-205&rft.date=2013-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.agrformet.2012.04.008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013AgFM..170..195F&rft.aulast=Fraser&rft.aufirst=Evan+D.G.&rft.au=Simelton%2C+Elisabeth&rft.au=Termansen%2C+Mette&rft.au=Gosling%2C+Simon+N.&rft.au=South%2C+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey2020" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fiona_Harvey" title="Fiona Harvey">Harvey, Fiona</a> (21 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/apr/21/coronavirus-pandemic-will-cause-famine-of-biblical-proportions">"Coronavirus pandemic 'will cause famine of biblical proportions'"</a>. The Guardian. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200712070926/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/apr/21/coronavirus-pandemic-will-cause-famine-of-biblical-proportions">Archived</a> from the original on 12 July 2020. Retrieved 14 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Coronavirus+pandemic+%27will+cause+famine+of+biblical+proportions%27&rft.date=2020-04-21&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Fiona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2F2020%2Fapr%2F21%2Fcoronavirus-pandemic-will-cause-famine-of-biblical-proportions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/food-agency-chief-world-brink-hunger-pandemic-70269400">"UN food agency chief: World on brink of 'a hunger pandemic'"</a>. ABC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211224022544/https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/food-agency-chief-world-brink-hunger-pandemic-70269400">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=UN+food+agency+chief%3A+World+on+brink+of+%27a+hunger+pandemic%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FUS%2FwireStory%2Ffood-agency-chief-world-brink-hunger-pandemic-70269400&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobalist.com/united-states-donald-trump-coronavirus-covid19-china-mao-zedong-great-famine/">"COVID 19 Today and China's Great Famine"</a>. 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The Guardian. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200616221317/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/21/global-hunger-could-be-next-big-impact-of-coronavirus-pandemic">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2020. 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CBS News. 20 October 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512115310/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/afghanistan-taliban-blames-us-as-1-million-kids-face-starvation/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBS+News&rft.atitle=Taliban+blames+U.S.+as+1+million+Afghan+kids+face+death+by+starvation&rft.date=2021-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Fnews%2Fafghanistan-taliban-blames-us-as-1-million-kids-face-starvation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://messaging-custom-newsletters.nytimes.com/template/oakv2?campaign_id=30&emc=edit_int_20211029&instance_id=44044&nl=the-interpreter&productCode=INT&regi_id=57806557&segment_id=72971&te=1&uri=nyt%3A%2F%2Fnewsletter%2Fde4d3c8a-f805-5843-bf23-d2fd9a6bcf70&user_id=9aa4b6ac6a6bfa9626d966e353fed48b">"Is the United States Driving Afghanistan Toward Famine?"</a>. The New York Times. 29 October 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221213141440/https://messaging-custom-newsletters.nytimes.com/template/oakv2?campaign_id=30&emc=edit_int_20211029&instance_id=44044&nl=the-interpreter&productCode=INT&regi_id=57806557&segment_id=72971&te=1&uri=nyt%3A%2F%2Fnewsletter%2Fde4d3c8a-f805-5843-bf23-d2fd9a6bcf70&user_id=9aa4b6ac6a6bfa9626d966e353fed48b">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2022. Retrieved 13 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Is+the+United+States+Driving+Afghanistan+Toward+Famine%3F&rft.date=2021-10-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmessaging-custom-newsletters.nytimes.com%2Ftemplate%2Foakv2%3Fcampaign_id%3D30%26emc%3Dedit_int_20211029%26instance_id%3D44044%26nl%3Dthe-interpreter%26productCode%3DINT%26regi_id%3D57806557%26segment_id%3D72971%26te%3D1%26uri%3Dnyt%253A%252F%252Fnewsletter%252Fde4d3c8a-f805-5843-bf23-d2fd9a6bcf70%26user_id%3D9aa4b6ac6a6bfa9626d966e353fed48b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msnbc.com/opinion/afghanistan-s-hunger-crisis-problem-u-s-can-fix-n1283618">"Afghanistan's hunger crisis is a problem the U.S. can fix"</a>. 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Retrieved 13 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MSNBC&rft.atitle=Afghanistan%27s+hunger+crisis+is+a+problem+the+U.S.+can+fix&rft.date=2021-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msnbc.com%2Fopinion%2Fafghanistan-s-hunger-crisis-problem-u-s-can-fix-n1283618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/oct/25/countdown-to-catastrophe-half-of-afghans-face-hunger-this-winter-un">"'Countdown to catastrophe': half of Afghans face hunger this winter – UN"</a>. 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Retrieved 16 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FEWSNET+report%3A+260%2C000+people+died+in+the+Somalia+famine+%26%23124%3B+Oxfam+International&rft.date=2014-05-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfam.org%2Fen%2Fpressroom%2Freactions%2Ffewsnet-report-260000-people-died-somalia-famine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-de_Waal_2018-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-de_Waal_2018_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-de_Waal_2018_173-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Waal2018" class="citation journal cs1">de Waal, Alex (January 2018). "The end of famine? Prospects for the elimination of mass starvation by political action". Political Geography. 62: 184–195. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.polgeo.2017.09.004">10.1016/j.polgeo.2017.09.004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Geography&rft.atitle=The+end+of+famine%3F+Prospects+for+the+elimination+of+mass+starvation+by+political+action&rft.volume=62&rft.pages=184-195&rft.date=2018-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.polgeo.2017.09.004&rft.aulast=de+Waal&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geophysics/famine1.htm">"What Causes a Famine to Break Out?"</a>. science.howstuffworks.com. 5 July 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190222042219/https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geophysics/famine1.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2019. Retrieved 21 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=science.howstuffworks.com&rft.atitle=What+Causes+a+Famine+to+Break+Out%3F&rft.date=2011-07-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.howstuffworks.com%2Fenvironmental%2Fearth%2Fgeophysics%2Ffamine1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190223193240/https://fletcher.tufts.edu/people/alex-de-waal">"Alex de Waal | The Fletcher School"</a>. fletcher.tufts.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fletcher.tufts.edu/people/alex-de-waal">the original</a> on 23 February 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fletcher.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Alex+de+Waal+%7C+The+Fletcher+School&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffletcher.tufts.edu%2Fpeople%2Falex-de-waal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3609390/Poor-studies-will-always-be-with-us.html">"Poor studies will always be with us"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180523235838/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3609390/Poor-studies-will-always-be-with-us.html">Archived</a> 23 May 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Telegraph </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historynet.com/magazines/military_history/3031536.html">Don O'Reilly, "Hundred Years' War: Joan of Arc and the Siege of Orléans</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061109043743/http://www.historynet.com/magazines/military_history/3031536.html">Archived</a> 9 November 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", TheHistoryNet.com </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen1982" class="citation book cs1">Sen, Amartya (1982) [1981]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/povertyfamineses0000sena">Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation</a> (Reprint ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198284635" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198284635"><bdi>978-0198284635</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poverty+and+Famines%3A+An+Essay+on+Entitlement+and+Deprivation&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0198284635&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Amartya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpovertyfamineses0000sena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen2001" class="citation book cs1">Sen, Amartya (2001) [1999]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentasfre00sena">Development As Freedom</a> (2nd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0192893307" title="Special:BookSources/978-0192893307"><bdi>978-0192893307</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+As+Freedom&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0192893307&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Amartya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevelopmentasfre00sena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndriewsky2015" class="citation journal cs1">Andriewsky, Olga (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ewjus.com/index.php/ewjus/article/download/Andriewsky/24">"Towards a Decentred History: The Study of the Holodomor and Ukrainian Historiography"</a>. East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 2 (1): 28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21226%2FT2301N">10.21226/T2301N</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211112100941/https://ewjus.com/index.php/ewjus/article/download/Andriewsky/24">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East%2FWest%3A+Journal+of+Ukrainian+Studies&rft.atitle=Towards+a+Decentred+History%3A+The+Study+of+the+Holodomor+and+Ukrainian+Historiography&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=28&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21226%2FT2301N&rft.aulast=Andriewsky&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fewjus.com%2Findex.php%2Fewjus%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2FAndriewsky%2F24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayaslian2021" class="citation book cs1">Payaslian, Simon (11 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199743292/obo-9780199743292-0105.xml">"20th Century Genocides"</a>. International Relations. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOBO%2F9780199743292-0105">10.1093/OBO/9780199743292-0105</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974329-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974329-2"><bdi>978-0-19-974329-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200324130403/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199743292/obo-9780199743292-0105.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2021 – via Oxford Bibliographies Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=20th+Century+Genocides&rft.btitle=International+Relations&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021-01-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2FOBO%2F9780199743292-0105&rft.isbn=978-0-19-974329-2&rft.aulast=Payaslian&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fview%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780199743292%2Fobo-9780199743292-0105.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarples2005" class="citation news cs1">Marples, David R. (30 November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080615015541/http://www.expressnews.ualberta.ca/article.cfm?id=7176">"The great famine debate goes on..."</a> Edmont Journal. University of Alberta. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.expressnews.ualberta.ca/article.cfm?id=7176">the original</a> on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 28 November 2021 – via ExpressNews.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Edmont+Journal&rft.atitle=The+great+famine+debate+goes+on...&rft.date=2005-11-30&rft.aulast=Marples&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.expressnews.ualberta.ca%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3D7176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulchytsky2007" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kulchytsky, Stanislav (17 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://day.kyiv.ua/uk/article/podrobici/golodomor-1932-1933-rr-yak-genocid-progalini-u-dokazoviy-bazi-1">"Holodomor 1932–1933 rr. yak henotsyd: prohalyny u dokazovii bazi" <bdi lang="uk">Голодомор 1932 — 1933 рр. як геноцид: прогалини у доказовій базі</bdi></a> [Holodomor 1932–1933 as genocide: gaps in the evidence]. Den (in Ukrainian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201202145734/https://day.kyiv.ua/uk/article/podrobici/golodomor-1932-1933-rr-yak-genocid-progalini-u-dokazoviy-bazi-1">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Den&rft.atitle=Holodomor+1932%E2%80%931933+rr.+yak+henotsyd%3A+prohalyny+u+dokazovii+bazi+%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80+1932+%E2%80%94+1933+%D1%80%D1%80.+%D1%8F%D0%BA+%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4%3A+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8+%D1%83+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9+%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96&rft.date=2007-02-17&rft.aulast=Kulchytsky&rft.aufirst=Stanislav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fday.kyiv.ua%2Fuk%2Farticle%2Fpodrobici%2Fgolodomor-1932-1933-rr-yak-genocid-progalini-u-dokazoviy-bazi-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Getty_2000-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Getty_2000_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Getty_2000_184-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGetty2000" class="citation magazine cs1">Getty, J. Arch (1 March 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2000/03/the-future-did-not-work/378081/">"The Future Did Not Work"</a>. The Atlantic. Retrieved 2 March 2021. <q>Similarly, the overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars working in the new archives (including Courtois's co-editor Werth) is that the terrible famine of the 1930s was the result of Stalinist bungling and rigidity rather than some genocidal plan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Future+Did+Not+Work&rft.date=2000-03-01&rft.aulast=Getty&rft.aufirst=J.+Arch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2000%2F03%2Fthe-future-did-not-work%2F378081%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheatcroft_2018-185">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wheatcroft_2018_185-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheatcroft_2018_185-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft2018" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326562364">"The Turn Away from Economic Explanations for Soviet Famines"</a>. Contemporary European History. 27 (3). Cambridge University Press: 465–469. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0960777318000358">10.1017/S0960777318000358</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10536%2FDRO%2FDU%3A30116832">10536/DRO/DU:30116832</a>. 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Columbia University Press. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-51152-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-51152-0"><bdi>978-0-231-51152-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406122922/https://books.google.com/books?id=6MoChuyC84gC">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 28 August 2023. <q>The failure of the International Atomic Energy Agency, South Korea, and the United States to resolve the crisis in a timely manner and the tightening of sanctions against the country constituted an important background condition for the famine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Famine+in+North+Korea%3A+Markets%2C+Aid%2C+and+Reform&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-51152-0&rft.aulast=Haggard&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft.au=Noland%2C+Marcus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6MoChuyC84gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDysonCetorelli2017" class="citation journal cs1">Dyson, Tim; Cetorelli, Valeria (1 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5717930">"Changing views on child mortality and economic sanctions in Iraq: a history of lies, damned lies and statistics"</a>. 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The Christian Science Monitor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090703113649/http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0604/p01s02-woaf.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2009. Retrieved 14 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=UN+aid+debate%3A+Give+cash%2C+not+food%3F&rft.date=2008-06-04&rft.au=The+Christian+Science+Monitor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2F2008%2F0604%2Fp01s02-woaf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wfp-227"><a href="#cite_ref-wfp_227-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090212124012/http://www.wfp.org/english/?ModuleID=137&Key=2899">"WFP: Cash roll-out to help hunger hot spots | WFP - Latest news - News - Press Releases"</a>. www.wfp.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wfp.org/english/?ModuleID=137&Key=2899">the original</a> on 12 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wfp.org&rft.atitle=WFP%3A+Cash+roll-out+to+help+hunger+hot+spots+%26%23124%3B+WFP+-+Latest+news+-+News+-+Press+Releases&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wfp.org%2Fenglish%2F%3FModuleID%3D137%26Key%3D2899&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Andrew S. Natsios (Administrator U.S. Agency for International Development) </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/id/160075">"Begley: Let Them Eat Micronutrients"</a>. Newsweek.com. 20 September 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090717002543/http://www.newsweek.com/id/160075">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Newsweek.com&rft.atitle=Begley%3A+Let+Them+Eat+Micronutrients&rft.date=2008-09-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Fid%2F160075&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> memorandum to former Representative Steve Solarz (United States, Democratic Party, New York) – July 1994 </li> <li id="cite_note-hiddenhunger-231"><a href="#cite_ref-hiddenhunger_231-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKristof2009" class="citation news cs1">Kristof, Nicholas (24 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/24/opinion/24kristof.html">"The Hidden Hunger"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180127123907/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/24/opinion/24kristof.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Hidden+Hunger&rft.date=2009-05-24&rft.aulast=Kristof&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F05%2F24%2Fopinion%2F24kristof.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC-232"><a href="#cite_ref-BBC_232-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2009" class="citation news cs1">Anderson, Tatum (24 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8114750.stm">"Firms target nutrition for the poor"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171108114041/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8114750.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 1 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Firms+target+nutrition+for+the+poor&rft.date=2009-06-24&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Tatum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fbusiness%2F8114750.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHOtreatmentdiarrhoea2005-233">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHOtreatmentdiarrhoea2005_233-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHOtreatmentdiarrhoea2005_233-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172153/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/9241593180.pdf">"The Treatment of Diarrhoea, a Manual for Physicians and Other Senior Health Workers"</a> (PDF). World Health Organization. 2005. p. 10 (14 in PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/9241593180.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 October 2011. <q>The aim is to give as much nutrient rich food as the child will accept. Most children with watery diarrhoea regain their appetite after dehydration is corrected, whereas those with bloody diarrhoea often eat poorly until the illness resolves. These children should be encouraged to resume normal feeding as soon as possible.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=The+Treatment+of+Diarrhoea%2C+a+Manual+for+Physicians+and+Other+Senior+Health+Workers&rft.pages=10+%2814+in+PDF%29&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhqlibdoc.who.int%2Fpublications%2F2005%2F9241593180.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> See also "8. Management of Diarrhoea with Severe Malnutrition", pp. 22–24 (26–28 in PDF). </li> <li id="cite_note-BangladeshGuidelinesSeverelyMalnourished-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BangladeshGuidelinesSeverelyMalnourished_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BangladeshGuidelinesSeverelyMalnourished_234-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111019171912/http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/SAM_Guideline.pdf">"National Guidelines for the Management of Severely Malnourished Children in Bangladesh"</a> (PDF). Institute of Public Health Nutrition, Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. May 2008. pp. 21–25. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/SAM_Guideline.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Guidelines+for+the+Management+of+Severely+Malnourished+Children+in+Bangladesh&rft.pages=21-25&rft.pub=Institute+of+Public+Health+Nutrition%2C+Directorate+General+of+Health+Services%2C+Ministry+of+Health+and+Family+Welfare%2C+Government+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+Bangladesh&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicef.org%2Fbangladesh%2FSAM_Guideline.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CDCcholeratraining-235"><a href="#cite_ref-CDCcholeratraining_235-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111020070810/http://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/pdf/chw_trainingmaterialsforcholera.pdf">"Community Health Worker Training Materials for Cholera Prevention and Control"</a> (PDF). CDC. 17 November 2010. p. 7. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/pdf/chw_trainingmaterialsforcholera.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 October 2011. <q>Continue to breastfeed your baby if the baby has watery diarrhea, even when traveling to get treatment. Adults and older children should continue to eat frequently.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CDC&rft.atitle=Community+Health+Worker+Training+Materials+for+Cholera+Prevention+and+Control&rft.pages=7&rft.date=2010-11-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fhaiticholera%2Fpdf%2Fchw_trainingmaterialsforcholera.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-time-236"><a href="#cite_ref-time_236-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalt2009" class="citation magazine cs1">Walt, Vivienne (17 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090808043255/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1914655,00.html">"Diarrhea: The Great Zinc Breakthrough"</a>. Time. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1914655,00.html">the original</a> on 8 August 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Diarrhea%3A+The+Great+Zinc+Breakthrough&rft.date=2009-08-17&rft.aulast=Walt&rft.aufirst=Vivienne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C1914655%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_Benequista2008" class="citation journal cs1">Nicholas Benequista (6 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0506/p01s06-woaf.html?page=2">"Ethiopia: A model of African food aid is now in trouble"</a>. The Christian Science Monitor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090705020347/http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0506/p01s06-woaf.html?page=2">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2009. Retrieved 14 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=Ethiopia%3A+A+model+of+African+food+aid+is+now+in+trouble&rft.date=2008-05-06&rft.au=Nicholas+Benequista&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2F2008%2F0506%2Fp01s06-woaf.html%3Fpage%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6496585.stm">"Special Reports – The limits of a Green Revolution?"</a>. BBC News. 29 March 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110728055441/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6496585.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Special+Reports+%E2%80%93+The+limits+of+a+Green+Revolution%3F&rft.date=2007-03-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fin_depth%2F6496585.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPimentel1996" class="citation journal cs1">Pimentel, David (September 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0048-9697%2896%2905280-1">"Green revolution agriculture and chemical hazards"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_of_the_Total_Environment" title="Science of the Total Environment">Science of the Total Environment</a>. 188: S86–S98. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996ScTEn.188S..86P">1996ScTEn.188S..86P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0048-9697%2896%2905280-1">10.1016/0048-9697(96)05280-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8966546">8966546</a> – via Elsevier Science Direct.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+of+the+Total+Environment&rft.atitle=Green+revolution+agriculture+and+chemical+hazards&rft.volume=188&rft.pages=S86-S98&rft.date=1996-09&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8966546&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0048-9697%2896%2905280-1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996ScTEn.188S..86P&rft.aulast=Pimentel&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252F0048-9697%252896%252905280-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEichenauerEhlert2023" class="citation journal cs1">Eichenauer, Heike; Ehlert, Ulrike (16 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10505322">"The association between prenatal famine, DNA methylation and mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis"</a>. Clinical Epigenetics. 15 (1): 152. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13148-023-01557-y">10.1186/s13148-023-01557-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1868-7083">1868-7083</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10505322">10505322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37716973">37716973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Epigenetics&rft.atitle=The+association+between+prenatal+famine%2C+DNA+methylation+and+mental+disorders%3A+a+systematic+review+and+meta-analysis&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=152&rft.date=2023-09-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10505322%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1868-7083&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37716973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs13148-023-01557-y&rft.aulast=Eichenauer&rft.aufirst=Heike&rft.au=Ehlert%2C+Ulrike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10505322&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_and_further_reading">Sources and further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Sources and further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlfaniÓ_Gráda2018" class="citation journal cs1">Alfani, Guido; Ó Gráda, Cormac (2018). "The timing and causes of famines in Europe". <a href="/wiki/Nature_Sustainability" title="Nature Sustainability">Nature Sustainability</a>. 1 (6): 283–288. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018NatSu...1..283A">2018NatSu...1..283A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41893-018-0078-0">10.1038/s41893-018-0078-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134922211">134922211</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Sustainability&rft.atitle=The+timing+and+causes+of+famines+in+Europe&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=283-288&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A134922211%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41893-018-0078-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018NatSu...1..283A&rft.aulast=Alfani&rft.aufirst=Guido&rft.au=%C3%93+Gr%C3%A1da%2C+Cormac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Arnold, David. Famine: Social Crisis and Historical Change (Basil Blackwell, 1988).</li> <li>Ashton, Basil, et al. "Famine in China, 1958–61." in The Population of Modern China (Springer, Boston, MA, 1992) pp. 225–271.</li> <li>Asimov, Isaac, Asimov's New Guide to Science, pp. 152–53, Basic Books, Inc. : 1984.</li> <li>Bhatia, B.M. (1985) Famines in India: A Study in Some Aspects of the Economic History of India With Special Reference to Food Problem (Delhi: Konark Publishers).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlixSvensk_näringsforskning1971" class="citation cs2">Blix, Gunnar; Svensk näringsforskning, Stiftelsen (1971), Famine: A symposium dealing with nutrition and relief operations in times of disaster, vol. 9, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksell</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Famine%3A+A+symposium+dealing+with+nutrition+and+relief+operations+in+times+of+disaster&rft.place=Sweden&rft.pub=Almqvist+%26+Wiksell&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Blix&rft.aufirst=Gunnar&rft.au=Svensk+n%C3%A4ringsforskning%2C+Stiftelsen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownEckholm1974" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Lester Russell; Eckholm, Erik P. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MyYcR9aZFbMC">By Bread Alone</a>. Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-63640-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-63640-1"><bdi>978-0-275-63640-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=By+Bread+Alone&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-275-63640-1&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Lester+Russell&rft.au=Eckholm%2C+Erik+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMyYcR9aZFbMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Campbell, David. "The iconography of famine." in Picturing Atrocity: Photography in Crisis (2012): 79–92 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/1987937/THE_ICONOGRAPHY_OF_FAMINE.doc">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍].</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaudhari1984" class="citation book cs1">Chaudhari, B. B (1984). Desai, Meghnad; Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber; Rudra, Ashok (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LlGQhpgcTmEC&q=food+availability+decline">Agrarian power and agricultural productivity in South Asia</a>. Vol. 1. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05369-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05369-4"><bdi>978-0-520-05369-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agrarian+power+and+agricultural+productivity+in+South+Asia&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05369-4&rft.aulast=Chaudhari&rft.aufirst=B.+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLlGQhpgcTmEC%26q%3Dfood%2Bavailability%2Bdecline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Conquest, Robert. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (Oxford University Press, 1986).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunyHill1999" class="citation cs2">Cuny, Frederick C; Hill, Richard B (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/famineconflictre00cuny">Famine, Conflict, and Response: a Basic Guide</a>, West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56549-090-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56549-090-1"><bdi>978-1-56549-090-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Famine%2C+Conflict%2C+and+Response%3A+a+Basic+Guide&rft.place=West+Hartford%2C+Conn.&rft.pub=Kumarian+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-56549-090-1&rft.aulast=Cuny&rft.aufirst=Frederick+C&rft.au=Hill%2C+Richard+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffamineconflictre00cuny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Davis, Mike, <a href="/wiki/Late_Victorian_Holocausts:_El_Ni%C3%B1o_Famines_and_the_Making_of_the_Third_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World">Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World</a>, London, Verso, 2002</li> <li>De Waal, Alexander. Famine Crimes: Politics & the Disaster Relief Industry in Africa (Indiana University Press, 1997).</li> <li>De Waal, Alexander. Famine that Kills: Darfur, Sudan (2nd ed. 2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/faminethatkillsd00dewa">online</a></li> <li>Dikötter, Frank. Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62 (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/maosgreatfamineh0000diko">online</a></li> <li>Dutt, Romesh C. Open Letters to Lord Curzon on Famines and Land Assessments in India, first published 1900, 2005 edition by Adamant Media Corporation, Elibron Classics Series, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4021-5115-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-4021-5115-2">1-4021-5115-2</a>.</li> <li>Dutt, Romesh C. The Economic History of India Under Early British Rule, first published 1902, 2001 edition by Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-24493-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-24493-5">0-415-24493-5</a></li> <li>Edgerton-Tarpley, Kathryn, and Cormac O'gr. Tears from Iron: Cultural Responses to Famine in Nineteenth-Century China (U of California Press, 2008).</li> <li>Fegan, Melissa. Literature and the Irish Famine 1845–1919 (Clarendon Press, 2002).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopædia_Britannica2010" class="citation web cs1">Encyclopædia Britannica (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1481493/food-availability-decline">"Food-availability decline"</a>. Retrieved 1 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Food-availability+decline&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F1481493%2Ffood-availability-decline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ganson, Nicholas, The Soviet Famine of 1946–47 in Global and Historical Perspective. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-230-61333-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-230-61333-0">0-230-61333-0</a>)</li> <li>Genady Golubev and Nikolai Dronin, Geography of Droughts and Food Problems in Russia (1900–2000), Report of the International Project on Global Environmental Change and Its Threat to Food and Water Security in Russia (February 2004).</li> <li>Gráda, Cormac Ó. Famine: A Short History (Princeton University Press, 2009).</li> <li>Greenough, Paul R., Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal. The Famine of 1943–1944 (Oxford University Press, 1982).</li> <li>Haggard, Stephan, and Marcus Noland. Famine in North Korea: Markets, Aid, and Reform (Columbia University Press, 2007).</li> <li>Harrison, G. Ainsworth. Famine, Oxford University Press, 1988.</li> <li>Iliffe, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/11667/Iliffe,%20Dr.%20John,%20Femine%20In%20Zimbabwe,%201890-1960%20(Henderson%20History%20Seminar%20Series,%20Paper%20No.%2070).pdf?sequence=1">"Famine in Zimbabwe, 1890–1960"</a>. (1987).</li> <li>Jordan, William Chester. The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century. (Princeton University Press, 1997).</li> <li>Keen, David. The Benefits of Famine: A Political Economy of Famine and Relief in Southwestern Sudan 1983–89 (James Currey, 2008).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinealy1995" class="citation book cs1">Kinealy, Christine (1995). This Great Calamity: The Irish Famine 1845–52. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57098-034-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-57098-034-9"><bdi>1-57098-034-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=This+Great+Calamity%3A+The+Irish+Famine+1845%E2%80%9352&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pub=Gill+%26+Macmillan&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-57098-034-9&rft.aulast=Kinealy&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>LeBlanc, Steven, Constant Battles: The Myth of the Peaceful, Noble Savage, St. Martin's Press (2003) argues that recurring famines have been the major cause of warfare since <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">paleolithic</a> times. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-31089-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-31089-7">0-312-31089-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLassa2006" class="citation news cs1">Lassa, Jonatan (3 July 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090216132415/http://thejakartapost.com/news/2006/07/03/famine-drought-malnutrition-defining-and-fighting-hunger.html">"Famine, drought, malnutrition: Defining and fighting hunger"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Jakarta_Post" title="The Jakarta Post">The Jakarta Post</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2006/07/03/famine-drought-malnutrition-defining-and-fighting-hunger.html">the original</a> on 16 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jakarta+Post&rft.atitle=Famine%2C+drought%2C+malnutrition%3A+Defining+and+fighting+hunger&rft.date=2006-07-03&rft.aulast=Lassa&rft.aufirst=Jonatan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejakartapost.com%2Fnews%2F2006%2F07%2F03%2Ffamine-drought-malnutrition-defining-and-fighting-hunger.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Li, Lillian M. Fighting Famine in North China: State, Market, and Environmental Decline, 1690s–1990s (Stanford UP), 2007 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5304-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5304-3">978-0-8047-5304-3</a>.</li> <li>Lucas, Henry S. "The great European famine of 1315, 1316, and 1317." Speculum 5.4 (1930): 343–377.</li> <li>Mallory, Walter H. China: Land of famine (1926) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.224331">online</a>.</li> <li>Marcus, David. "Famine crimes in international law." American Journal of International Law (2003): 245–281. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pegc.us/archive/Journals/marcus_famine_crimes_in_ihl.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415082220/http://www.pegc.us/archive/Journals/marcus_famine_crimes_in_ihl.pdf">Archived</a> 15 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMassing2003" class="citation news cs1">Massing, Michael (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5DD103CF932A35750C0A9659C8B63">"Does Democracy Avert Famine?"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 27 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Does+Democracy+Avert+Famine%3F&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Massing&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9800E5DD103CF932A35750C0A9659C8B63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Mead, Margaret. "The Changing Significance of Food". American Scientist. (March–April 1970). pp. 176–89.</li> <li>Meng, Xin, Nancy Qian, and Pierre Yared. "The institutional causes of China's great famine, 1959–1961". Review of Economic Studies 82.4 (2015): 1568–1611. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.725.3187&rep=rep1&type=pdf">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaySivertsen2008" class="citation book cs1">Ray, James Arthur; Sivertsen, Linda (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/harmonicwealthse00rayj">Harmonic Wealth: The Secret of Attracting the Life You Want</a>. Hyperion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4013-2264-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4013-2264-9"><bdi>978-1-4013-2264-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harmonic+Wealth%3A+The+Secret+of+Attracting+the+Life+You+Want&rft.pub=Hyperion&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4013-2264-9&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=James+Arthur&rft.au=Sivertsen%2C+Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fharmonicwealthse00rayj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMishra2019" class="citation journal cs1">Mishra, Vimal; et al. (2019). "Drought and Famine in India, 1870–2016". <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_Research_Letters" title="Geophysical Research Letters">Geophysical Research Letters</a>. 46 (4): 2075–2083. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019GeoRL..46.2075M">2019GeoRL..46.2075M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2018GL081477">10.1029/2018GL081477</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:133752333">133752333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Drought+and+Famine+in+India%2C+1870%E2%80%932016&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=2075-2083&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A133752333%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2018GL081477&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019GeoRL..46.2075M&rft.aulast=Mishra&rft.aufirst=Vimal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Moon, William. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120712070718/http://mcfarland.metapress.com/app/home/contribution.asp?backto=issue,8,10;journal,2,9;linkingpublicationresults,1:120199,1">"Origins of the Great North Korean Famine"</a>. North Korean Review</li> <li>Newby, A.G. Finland's Great Famine, 1856-68 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2023).</li> <li>Padmanabhan, S. Y. "The great Bengal famine." Annual Review of Phytopathology 11.1 (1973): 11–24 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bowbrick.org.uk/SenScans/Padmanabhan.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavallion1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Ravallion" title="Martin Ravallion">Ravallion, Martin</a> (1996), Famines and economics, World Bank, Policy Research Dept., Poverty and Human Resources Division, <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.18.1618">10.1.1.18.1618</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Famines+and+economics&rft.pub=World+Bank%2C+Policy+Research+Dept.%2C+Poverty+and+Human+Resources+Division&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.18.1618%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.aulast=Ravallion&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Roseboom, Tessa, Susanne de Rooij, and Rebecca Painter. "The Dutch famine and its long-term consequences for adult health." Early human development 82.8 (2006): 485–491. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.322.5774&rep=rep1&type=pdf">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen, Amartya</a>, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlements and Deprivation, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1982 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/content/economicsfinance/9780198284635/toc.html">via Oxford Press</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScrimshaw1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nevin_S._Scrimshaw" title="Nevin S. Scrimshaw">Scrimshaw, Nevin S.</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ilkrAAAAYAAJ">Food Protection in the Americas</a>. National Academy Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+Protection+in+the+Americas&rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Scrimshaw&rft.aufirst=Nevin+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DilkrAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShipton1990" class="citation journal cs1">Shipton, Parker (1990). "African Famines and Food Security: Anthropological Perspectives". Annual Review of Anthropology. 19: 353–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.an.19.100190.002033">10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.002033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=African+Famines+and+Food+Security%3A+Anthropological+Perspectives&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=353-94&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.an.19.100190.002033&rft.aulast=Shipton&rft.aufirst=Parker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmil1999" class="citation journal cs1">Smil, V. 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BMJ. 319 (7225): 1619–1621. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.319.7225.1619">10.1136/bmj.319.7225.1619</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1127087">1127087</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10600969">10600969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=China%27s+great+famine%3A+40+years+later&rft.volume=319&rft.issue=7225&rft.pages=1619-1621&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1127087%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10600969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.319.7225.1619&rft.aulast=Smil&rft.aufirst=V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1127087&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Sommerville, Keith. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/2449527.stm">Why famine stalks Africa</a>, BBC, 2001</li> <li>Srivastava, H.C., The History of Indian Famines from 1858–1918, Sri Ram Mehra and Co., Agra, 1968.</li> <li>Vaughan, Megan. The Story of an African Famine: Gender and Famine in Twentieth-Century Malawi (Cambridge University Press, 1987).</li> <li>Webb, Patrick. Famine. In Griffiths, M (ed.). Encyclopaedia of International Relations and Global Politics. London: Routledge, 2005, pp. 270–72.</li> <li>Wemheuer, Felix. Famine Politics in Maoist China and the Soviet Union (Yale University Press, 2014).</li> <li>Woo-Cumings, Meredith, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060318194644/http://www.adbi.org/files/2002.01.rp31.ecology.famine.northkorea.pdf">"The Political Ecology of Famine: The North Korean Catastrophe and Its Lessons"</a> (PDF). 22 January 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adbi.org/files/2002.01.rp31.ecology.famine.northkorea.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 18 March 2006. Retrieved 30 December 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Political+Ecology+of+Famine%3A+The+North+Korean+Catastrophe+and+Its+Lessons&rft.date=2015-01-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adbi.org%2Ffiles%2F2002.01.rp31.ecology.famine.northkorea.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFamine" class="Z3988"> (807 KB), ADB Institute Research Paper 31, January 2002.</li> <li>Zhou, Xun, ed. The Great Famine in China, 1958–1962: A Documentary History (Yale University Press, 2012).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Famine&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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text" href="https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494">Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019142757/http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-674337">Morning Star Fishermen</a> And The Race Against Hunger</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wfp.org/">United Nations World Food Programme</a> Hunger relief against poverty and famine</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ifpri.org/">International Food Policy Research Institute</a> Sustainable solutions for ending hunger</li> <li>Cohne, Josh (28 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302133333/http://technorati.com/business/finance/article/arable-land-shortage-and-the-case/">"Arable Land Shortage and the Case for Agriculture and Farmland Investing"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Technorati" title="Technorati">Technorati</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/africa/2006/africa_food_crisis/default.stm">"In Depth: Africa's Food Crisis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 21 September 2007.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celia_W._Dugger" title="Celia W. Dugger">Dugger, Celia W.</a> (31 March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/world/africa/31soil.html?ex=1301461200&en=a95f9eb19c751f1f&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss">"Overfarming African Land Is Worsening Hunger Crisis"</a>. The New York Times.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20081222003226/http://foodsecurity.developmentgateway.org/Content-item-view.10976+M5ce7bbfcaeb.0.html">"Food Security: A Review of Literature from Ethiopia to India" (Geopolicity)</a></li> <li>Marcus, David (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080817165709/http://www.asil.org/ajil/marcus.pdf">"Famine Crimes in International Law"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Journal_of_International_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Journal of International Law">The American Journal of International Law</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Sachs, Jeffrey</a> (26 October 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070216115449/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,989405,00.html">The Real Causes of Famine"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time 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class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Food_preservation" title="Template:Food preservation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Food_preservation" title="Template talk:Food preservation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Food_preservation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Food preservation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Food_preservation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Food preservation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopreservation" title="Biopreservation">Biopreservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igunaq" title="Igunaq">Burying in ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canning" title="Canning">Canning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_chain" title="Cold chain">Cold chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curing_(food_preservation)" title="Curing (food preservation)">Curing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_drying" title="Food drying">Drying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation_in_food_processing" title="Fermentation in food processing">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeze-drying" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeze-drying">Freeze-drying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frozen_food" title="Frozen food">Freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurdle_technology" title="Hurdle technology">Hurdle technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_preserves" title="Fruit preserves">Jamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspic" title="Aspic">Jellying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugging" title="Jugging">Jugging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modified_atmosphere" title="Modified atmosphere">Modified atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascalization" title="Pascalization">Pascalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pickling" title="Pickling">Pickling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potted_meat" title="Potted meat">Potting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confit" title="Confit">Confit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potjevleesch" title="Potjevleesch">Potjevleesch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rillettes" title="Rillettes">Rillettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salting_(food)" title="Salting (food)">Salting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_(cooking)" title="Smoking (cooking)">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugaring" title="Sugaring">Sugaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndallization" title="Tyndallization">Tyndallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_packing" title="Vacuum packing">Vacuum packing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/16px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/24px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Food_preservation" title="Category:Food preservation">Category: Food preservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_industry" title="Food industry">Food industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Food manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_packaging" title="Food packaging">Packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_marketing" title="Food marketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foodservice" title="Foodservice">Foodservice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_fortification" title="Food fortification">Fortification</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Consumer_food_safety" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Consumer_food_safety" title="Template:Consumer food safety"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Consumer_food_safety" title="Template talk:Consumer food safety"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Consumer_food_safety" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Consumer food safety"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Consumer_food_safety" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Consumer food safety</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adulterant" title="Adulterant">Adulterants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food_contaminant" title="Food contaminant">food contaminants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-MCPD" title="3-MCPD">3-MCPD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldicarb" title="Aldicarb">Aldicarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_use_in_livestock" title="Antibiotic use in livestock">Antibiotic use in livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">Cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">Formaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HGH_controversies" title="HGH controversies">HGH controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melamine" title="Melamine">Melamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_in_fish" title="Mercury in fish">Mercury in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan_I" title="Sudan I">Sudan I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Food additives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flavoring" title="Flavoring">Flavorings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate" title="Monosodium glutamate">Monosodium glutamate (MSG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-fructose_corn_syrup" title="High-fructose corn syrup">High-fructose corn syrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">Vegetable oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_oil_misinformation" title="Seed oil misinformation">controversy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_parasite_infection" title="Intestinal parasite infection">Intestinal parasites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasitic disease</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amoebiasis" title="Amoebiasis">Amoebiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisakiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisakiasis">Anisakiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">Cryptosporidiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclosporiasis" title="Cyclosporiasis">Cyclosporiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphyllobothriasis" title="Diphyllobothriasis">Diphyllobothriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinworm_infection" title="Pinworm infection">Enterobiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasciolopsiasis" title="Fasciolopsiasis">Fasciolopsiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasciolosis" title="Fasciolosis">Fasciolosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giardiasis" title="Giardiasis">Giardiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomiasis" title="Gnathostomiasis">Gnathostomiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paragonimiasis" title="Paragonimiasis">Paragonimiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxocariasis" title="Toxocariasis">Toxocariasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">Toxoplasmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichinosis" title="Trichinosis">Trichinosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichuriasis" title="Trichuriasis">Trichuriasis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">Botulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacter_jejuni" title="Campylobacter jejuni">Campylobacter jejuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens" title="Clostridium perfringens">Clostridium perfringens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronobacter" title="Cronobacter">Cronobacter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterovirus" title="Enterovirus">Enterovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli_O104:H4" title="Escherichia coli O104:H4">Escherichia coli O104:H4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli_O157:H7" title="Escherichia coli O157:H7">Escherichia coli O157:H7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_A" title="Hepatitis A">Hepatitis A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_E" title="Hepatitis E">Hepatitis E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Listeria" title="Listeria">Listeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norovirus" title="Norovirus">Norovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotavirus" title="Rotavirus">Rotavirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigatoxigenic_and_verotoxigenic_Escherichia_coli" title="Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic Escherichia coli">Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic E. coli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">Vibrio cholerae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorpyrifos" title="Chlorpyrifos">Chlorpyrifos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindane" title="Lindane">Lindane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malathion" title="Malathion">Malathion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methamidophos" title="Methamidophos">Methamidophos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preservative" title="Preservative">Preservatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benzoic_acid" title="Benzoic acid">Benzoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylenediaminetetraacetic_acid" title="Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid">Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_benzoate" title="Sodium benzoate">Sodium benzoate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sugar_substitute" title="Sugar substitute">Sugar substitutes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acesulfame_potassium" title="Acesulfame potassium">Acesulfame potassium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartame" title="Aspartame">Aspartame</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspartame_controversy" title="Aspartame controversy">controversy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccharin" title="Saccharin">Saccharin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyclamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium cyclamate">Sodium cyclamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbitol" title="Sorbitol">Sorbitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sucralose" title="Sucralose">Sucralose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">environment pollution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">Aflatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_contamination_of_groundwater" title="Arsenic contamination of groundwater">Arsenic contamination of groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzene_in_soft_drinks" title="Benzene in soft drinks">Benzene in soft drinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">Bisphenol A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieldrin" title="Dieldrin">Dieldrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethylstilbestrol" title="Diethylstilbestrol">Diethylstilbestrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioxin" title="Dioxin">Dioxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">Mycotoxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonylphenol" title="Nonylphenol">Nonylphenol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellfish_poisoning" title="Shellfish poisoning">Shellfish poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Food fraud">Food fraud</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bread_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Bread fraud">Bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_milk_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast milk fraud">Breast milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg fraud">Egg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_oil_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Olive oil fraud">Olive oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prawn_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Prawn fraud">Prawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafood_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafood fraud">Seafood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimp_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrimp fraud">Shrimp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Tea fraud">Tea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Food processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4-Hydroxynonenal" title="4-Hydroxynonenal">4-Hydroxynonenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid-hydrolyzed_vegetable_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein">Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrylamide" title="Acrylamide">Acrylamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_additives" title="List of food additives">Food additives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterocyclic_amine" title="Heterocyclic amine">Heterocyclic amines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modified_starch" title="Modified starch">Modified starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrosamine" title="Nitrosamine">Nitrosamines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortening" title="Shortening">Shortening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_fat" title="Trans fat">Trans fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variant_Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_contamination_incidents" title="List of food contamination incidents">Food contamination incidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devon_colic" title="Devon colic">Devon colic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swill_milk_scandal" title="Swill milk scandal">Swill milk scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esing_Bakery_incident" title="Esing Bakery incident">Esing Bakery incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1858_Bradford_sweets_poisoning" title="1858 Bradford sweets poisoning">1858 Bradford sweets poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_English_beer_poisoning" title="1900 English beer poisoning">1900 English beer poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morinaga_Milk_arsenic_poisoning_incident" title="Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident">Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minamata_disease" title="Minamata disease">Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moroccan_oil_poisoning_disaster_1959&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moroccan oil poisoning disaster 1959 (page does not exist)">Moroccan oil poisoning disaster 1959</a> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AB%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8_1959" class="extiw" title="ar:كارثة الزيوت المسمومة في المغرب 1959">ar</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Iraq_poison_grain_disaster" title="1971 Iraq poison grain disaster">1971 Iraq poison grain disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_oil_syndrome" title="Toxic oil syndrome">Toxic oil syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_Austrian_diethylene_glycol_wine_scandal" title="1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal">1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_BSE_outbreak" title="United Kingdom BSE outbreak">United Kingdom BSE outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_meat_substitution_scandal" title="Australian meat substitution scandal">Australian meat substitution scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_Jack_in_the_Box_E._coli_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="1993 Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak">Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Odwalla_E._coli_outbreak" title="1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak">1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_North_American_E._coli_O157:H7_outbreaks" title="2006 North American E. coli O157:H7 outbreaks">2006 North American E. coli outbreaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICA_meat_repackaging_controversy" title="ICA meat repackaging controversy">ICA meat repackaging controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Canada_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak">2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Chinese_milk_scandal" title="2008 Chinese milk scandal">2008 Chinese milk scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Irish_pork_crisis" title="2008 Irish pork crisis">2008 Irish pork crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_United_States_salmonellosis_outbreak" title="2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak">2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Germany_E._coli_O104:H4_outbreak" title="2011 Germany E. coli O104:H4 outbreak">2011 Germany E. coli outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_United_States_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2011 United States listeriosis outbreak">2011 United States listeriosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bihar_school_meal_poisoning_incident" title="Bihar school meal poisoning incident">Bihar school meal poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_horse_meat_scandal" title="2013 horse meat scandal">2013 horse meat scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique_funeral_beer_poisoning" title="Mozambique funeral beer poisoning">2015 Mozambique funeral beer poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Weak_Meat" title="Operation Weak Meat">2017 Brazil Operation Weak Meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_South_African_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak">2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Australian_strawberry_contamination" title="2018 Australian strawberry contamination">2018 Australian strawberry contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_United_Kingdom_Shigatoxigenic_E._coli_outbreak" title="2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak">2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kobayashi_red_yeast_rice_scandal" title="Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal">Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">Food safety incidents in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_Taiwan" title="Food safety incidents in Taiwan">Food safety incidents in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Foodborne illness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks">outbreaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks_by_death_toll" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks by death toll">death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks_in_the_United_States" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standards_organization" title="Standards organization">standards</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_food_safety_organisations" title="List of food safety organisations">watchdogs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceptable_daily_intake" title="Acceptable daily intake">Acceptable daily intake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E_number" title="E number">E number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_labeling_regulations" title="List of food labeling regulations">Food labeling regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_libel_laws" title="Food libel laws">Food libel laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_Australia" title="Food safety in Australia">Food safety in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Food_Safety_Network" title="International Food Safety Network">International Food Safety Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_facts_label" title="Nutrition facts label">Nutrition facts label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_certification" title="Organic certification">Organic certification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_Assurance_International" title="Quality Assurance International">Quality Assurance International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_food_information_regulations" title="United Kingdom food information regulations">United Kingdom food information regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_safety_organisations" title="List of food safety organisations">Institutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Food_Safety" title="Centre for Food Safety">Centre for Food Safety</a> (Hong Kong)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority" title="European Food Safety Authority">European Food Safety Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Information_and_Control_Agency" title="Food Information and Control Agency">Food Information and Control Agency</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Standards_Agency" title="Food Standards Agency">Food Standards Agency</a> (United Kingdom)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Food_Safety_and_Health" title="Institute for Food Safety and Health">Institute for Food Safety and Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Food_Safety_Network" title="International Food Safety Network">International Food Safety Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Food_and_Drug_Safety" title="Ministry of Food and Drug Safety">Ministry of Food and Drug Safety</a> (South Korea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Agency_for_Food_Safety_and_Nutrition" title="Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition">Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curing_(food_preservation)" title="Curing (food preservation)">Curing (food preservation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_drink_prohibitions" title="Food and drink prohibitions">Food and drink prohibitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_marketing" title="Food marketing">Food marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_politics" title="Food politics">Food politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Food preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_quality" title="Food quality">Food quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">Genetically modified food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">Conspiracy theories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/16px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/24px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/9px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/14px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/19px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="239" data-file-height="408" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Drink" title="Portal:Drink">Drink portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety" title="Category:Food safety">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Food_safety" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Food safety">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikibooks page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/16px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/24px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/32px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Cookbook">Cookbook</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Food_and_drink" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Food and drink">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Artificial_foods" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Artificial_foods" title="Template:Artificial foods"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Artificial_foods" title="Template talk:Artificial foods"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Artificial_foods" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Artificial foods"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Artificial_foods" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Artificial foods</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artificial <a href="/wiki/Fat_substitute" title="Fat substitute">fat substitutes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olestra" title="Olestra">Olestra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artificial protein substitutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid-hydrolyzed_vegetable_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein">Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artificial <a href="/wiki/Sugar_substitute" title="Sugar substitute">sugar substitutes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acesulfame_potassium" title="Acesulfame potassium">Acesulfame potassium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alitame" title="Alitame">Alitame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartame" title="Aspartame">Aspartame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartame-acesulfame_salt" title="Aspartame-acesulfame salt">Aspartame-acesulfame salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcin" title="Dulcin">Dulcin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucin" title="Glucin">Glucin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogenated_starch_hydrolysates" title="Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates">Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neohesperidin_dihydrochalcone" title="Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone">Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotame" title="Neotame">Neotame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NutraSweet" title="NutraSweet">NutraSweet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrinova" title="Nutrinova">Nutrinova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccharin" title="Saccharin">Saccharin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyclamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium cyclamate">Sodium cyclamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sucralose" title="Sucralose">Sucralose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Natural food substitutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheese_analogue" title="Cheese analogue">Cheese analogues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_substitute" title="Coffee substitute">Coffee substitutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_substitutes" title="Egg substitutes">Egg substitutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meat_analogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat analogue">Meat analogues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bacon_substitutes" title="List of bacon substitutes">bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_meat_substitutes" title="List of meat substitutes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_substitute" title="Milk substitute">Milk substitutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllodulcin" title="Phyllodulcin">Phyllodulcin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_substitute" title="Salt substitute">Salt substitutes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tang_(drink_mix)" title="Tang (drink mix)">Tang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_additives" title="List of food additives">List of food additives</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_politics" title="Food politics">Food politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_power" title="Food power">Food power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">Food security</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overnutrition" title="Overnutrition">Overnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_desert" title="Food desert">Food desert</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_swamp" title="Food swamp">Food swamp</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Food_Protection" title="International Association for Food Protection">International Association for Food Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Agriculture_and_Food_Research_Organization" title="National Agriculture and Food Research Organization">National Agriculture and Food Research Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Food_and_Drug_Authority" class="mw-redirect" title="National Food and Drug Authority">National Food and Drug Authority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Malnutrition" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nutritional_pathology" title="Template:Nutritional pathology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nutritional_pathology" title="Template talk:Nutritional pathology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nutritional_pathology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nutritional pathology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Malnutrition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93energy_malnutrition" title="Protein–energy malnutrition">Protein-energy malnutrition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascites" title="Ascites">Ascites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emaciation" title="Emaciation">Emaciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwashiorkor" title="Kwashiorkor">Kwashiorkor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marasmus" title="Marasmus">Marasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catabolysis" title="Catabolysis">Catabolysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_deficiency" title="Vitamin deficiency">Vitamin deficiency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/B_vitamins" title="B vitamins">B vitamins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>B1 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beriberi" class="mw-redirect" title="Beriberi">Beriberi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome" title="Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome">Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_encephalopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wernicke's encephalopathy">Wernicke's encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korsakoff%27s_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Korsakoff's syndrome">Korsakoff's syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li>B2 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Riboflavin#Deficiency" title="Riboflavin">Riboflavin deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B3 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pellagra" title="Pellagra">Pellagra</a></li></ul></li> <li>B6 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyridoxine_deficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyridoxine deficiency">Pyridoxine deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B7 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotin_deficiency" title="Biotin deficiency">Biotin deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B9 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folate_deficiency" title="Folate deficiency">Folate deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B12 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12_deficiency" title="Vitamin B12 deficiency">Vitamin B12 deficiency</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>A: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A_deficiency" title="Vitamin A deficiency">Vitamin A deficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bitot%27s_spots" title="Bitot's spots">Bitot's spots</a></li></ul></li> <li>C: <a href="/wiki/Scurvy" title="Scurvy">Scurvy</a></li> <li>D: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_deficiency" title="Vitamin D deficiency">Vitamin D deficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">Rickets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteomalacia" title="Osteomalacia">Osteomalacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison%27s_groove" title="Harrison's groove">Harrison's groove</a></li></ul></li> <li>E: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_E_deficiency" title="Vitamin E deficiency">Vitamin E deficiency</a></li> <li>K: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K_deficiency" title="Vitamin K deficiency">Vitamin K deficiency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mineral_deficiency" title="Mineral deficiency">Mineral deficiency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance" title="Electrolyte imbalance">Electrolyte imbalance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypocalcemia" title="Hypocalcemia">Calcium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypochloremia" title="Hypochloremia">Chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_deficiency_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnesium deficiency (medicine)">Magnesium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypophosphatemia" title="Hypophosphatemia">Phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypokalemia" title="Hypokalemia">Potassium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyponatremia" title="Hyponatremia">Sodium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_deficiency" title="Iron deficiency">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_deficiency" title="Zinc deficiency">Zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganese_deficiency_(medicine)" title="Manganese deficiency (medicine)">Manganese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_deficiency" title="Copper deficiency">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iodine_deficiency" title="Iodine deficiency">Iodine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromium_deficiency" title="Chromium deficiency">Chromium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum_deficiency" title="Molybdenum deficiency">Molybdenum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium_deficiency" title="Selenium deficiency">Selenium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keshan_disease" title="Keshan disease">Keshan disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine_deficiency" title="Fluorine deficiency">Fluorine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_development_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development (biology)">Growth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformity" title="Deformity">Deformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delayed_milestone" title="Delayed milestone">Delayed milestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Failure_to_thrive" title="Failure to thrive">Failure to thrive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_stature" title="Short stature">Short stature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idiopathic_short_stature" title="Idiopathic short stature">Idiopathic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anorexia_(symptom)" title="Anorexia (symptom)">Anorexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cachexia" title="Cachexia">Cachexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deficiency_(medicine)" title="Deficiency (medicine)">Deficiency (medicine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">Dehydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_malnutrition" title="Epidemiology of malnutrition">Epidemiology of malnutrition</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_fortification" title="Food fortification">Food fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger" title="Hunger">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronutrient_deficiency" title="Micronutrient deficiency">Micronutrient deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation (crime)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_dehydration" title="Terminal dehydration">Terminal dehydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undernutrition_in_children" title="Undernutrition in children">Undernutrition in children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">Weight loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_food_crises_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="World food crises (2022–present)">World food crises (2022–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underweight" title="Underweight">Underweight</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Disasters" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Disasters" title="Template:Disasters"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Disasters" title="Template talk:Disasters"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Disasters" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Disasters"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Disasters" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">Disasters</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_disasters" title="Lists of disasters">Lists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_accidents_and_disasters_by_death_toll" title="List of accidents and disasters by death toll">by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_by_cost" title="List of disasters by cost">by cost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Australia_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Australia by death toll">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Bangladesh_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Bangladesh by death toll">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Canada" title="List of disasters in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_China_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in China by death toll">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Croatia_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Croatia by death toll">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_the_Czech_Republic_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in the Czech Republic by death toll">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Estonia_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Estonia by death toll">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Great Britain and Ireland by death toll">Great Britain and Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_in_Haiti" title="List of natural disasters in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_India" title="Natural disasters in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Indonesia" title="List of disasters in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Japan_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Japan by death toll">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Malta_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Malta by death toll">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_New_Zealand_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in New Zealand by death toll">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_in_Pakistan" title="List of natural disasters in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_the_Philippines" title="List of disasters in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Poland_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Poland by death toll">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Portugal_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Portugal by death toll">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Romania_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Romania by death toll">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_man-made_disasters_in_South_Korea" title="List of man-made disasters in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Sweden_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Sweden by death toll">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Thailand" title="List of disasters in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_in_the_United_States" title="List of natural disasters in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_in_Vietnam_by_death_toll" title="List of disasters in Vietnam by death toll">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disasters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_disasters" title="Template:Natural disasters"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_disasters" title="Template talk:Natural disasters"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_disasters" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural disasters"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_disasters_–_list_by_death_toll" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">Natural disasters</a> – <a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll" title="List of natural disasters by death toll">list by death toll</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geological_hazard" title="Geological hazard">Geological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">Mass wasting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche">Avalanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">Mudflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris_flow" title="Debris flow">Debris flow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquake</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lists_of_earthquakes" title="Lists of earthquakes">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">Seismic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_risk" title="Seismic risk">Seismic risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">Soil liquefaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">Volcano eruption</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">Pyroclastic flow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">Lahar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Natural erosion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hydrological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_floods" title="List of floods">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal flood">Coastal flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">Megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnic_eruption" title="Limnic eruption">Limnic eruption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Meteorological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temperature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megadrought" title="Megadrought">Megadrought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cyclonic storms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_cyclone" class="mw-redirect" title="Bomb cyclone">Bomb cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">Thunderstorm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tornado_outbreak" title="Tornado outbreak">Tornado outbreak</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARkStorm" title="ARkStorm">ARkStorm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_shower" title="Meteor shower">Meteor shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">Supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unrelated to natural hazards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accident" title="Accident">Accidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rail_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rail accidents">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_maritime_disasters" title="List of maritime disasters">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_shipwrecks" title="Lists of shipwrecks">Shipwreck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_accidents_and_incidents_involving_commercial_aircraft" title="List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Spaceflight</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_industrial_disasters" title="List of industrial disasters">Industrial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_structural_failures_and_collapses" class="mw-redirect" title="List of structural failures and collapses">Structural failures and collapses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bridge_failures" title="List of bridge failures">Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam_failure" title="Dam failure">Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_accident" title="Mining accident">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Nuclear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_by_death_toll" title="List of nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll">by death toll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_radiation_accidents" title="List of civilian radiation accidents">Civilian radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_nuclear_accidents" title="List of civilian nuclear accidents">Civilian nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_nuclear_accidents" title="List of military nuclear accidents">Military nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_spills" title="List of oil spills">Oil spills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levee_breach" title="Levee breach">Levee breach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_catastrophic_collapses_of_broadcast_masts_and_towers" title="List of catastrophic collapses of broadcast masts and towers">Mast and tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_infrastructure_failures" title="List of modern infrastructure failures">Infrastructure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Famine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_famines" title="List of famines">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famine_scales" title="Famine scales">Famine scales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents" title="List of laboratory biosecurity incidents">Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic" title="Opioid epidemic">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_of_despair" title="Disease of despair">Disease of despair</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_man-made_disasters" class="mw-redirect" title="List of man-made disasters">Man-made</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_collapses_and_crushes" title="Crowd collapses and crushes">Crowd collapses and crushes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_crises" title="List of economic crises">Economic crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_disasters" title="List of environmental disasters">Environmental disasters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_zone" title="Sacrifice zone">Sacrifice zone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_disasters" title="List of military disasters">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_wars" title="Lists of wars">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_terrorist_incidents" title="List of terrorist incidents">Terrorist incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_riots" title="List of riots">Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nightclub_fires" title="List of nightclub fires">Nightclub fires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_preparedness" title="Earthquake preparedness">Earthquake preparedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_preparedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane preparedness">Hurricane preparedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety" title="Safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survival_kit" title="Survival kit">Survival kit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countermeasures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">Humanitarian aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_population_warning" title="Emergency population warning">Emergency population warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_Alert_System" title="Emergency Alert System">Emergency Alert System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_warning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquake warning system">Earthquake warning system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_evacuations" title="List of mass evacuations">Evacuations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_management" title="Emergency management">Emergency management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane response">Hurricane response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_management" title="Crisis management">Crisis management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_area" title="Disaster area">Disaster area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_film" title="Disaster film">Disaster film</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_disaster_films" title="List of disaster films">List of disaster films</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a> (<a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_by_country" title="Civil defense by country">List of civil defense organisations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Emergency_Managers" title="International Association of Emergency Managers">International Association of Emergency Managers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Disaster_and_Risk_Conference" title="International Disaster and Risk Conference">International Disaster and Risk Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_Accountability_Project" title="Disaster Accountability Project">Disaster Accountability Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Disaster_Emergency_Service" title="International Disaster Emergency Service">International Disaster Emergency Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Disaster_management" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Disaster management">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Population" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Population" title="Template:Population"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Population" title="Template talk:Population"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Population" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Population"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Population" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_world" title="Demographics of the world">Demographics of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estimates_of_historical_world_population" title="Estimates of historical world population">Estimates of historical world population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">Population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_momentum" title="Population momentum">Population momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projections_of_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Projections of population growth">Projections of population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">World population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_biology" title="Population biology">Population biology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">Population decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">Population density</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_density" title="Physiological density">Physiological density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_pyramid" title="Population pyramid">Population pyramid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocapacity" title="Biocapacity">Biocapacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_%3D_PAT" title="I = PAT">I = P × A × T</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaya_identity" title="Kaya identity">Kaya identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overshoot_(population)" title="Overshoot (population)">Overshoot (population)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World3" title="World3">World3 model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">Human population planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption_(economics)" title="Overconsumption (economics)">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demography" title="Political demography">Political demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_addition_paradox" title="Mere addition paradox">Mere addition paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalism" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-identity_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-identity problem">Non-identity problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_population_growth" title="Zero population growth">Zero population growth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Environment" title="Population and Environment">Population and Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Development_Review" title="Population and Development Review">Population and Development Review</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_housing_censuses_by_country" title="Population and housing censuses by country">Population and housing censuses by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities" title="List of largest cities">Largest cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population_milestones" title="World population milestones">World population milestones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Six_Billion" title="Day of Six Billion">6 billion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Seven_Billion" title="Day of Seven Billion">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Eight_Billion" title="Day of Eight Billion">8</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_population_concern_organizations" title="List of population concern organizations">Population concern organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Events and organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/7_Billion_Actions" title="7 Billion Actions">7 Billion Actions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Euthanasia" title="Church of Euthanasia">Church of Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development" title="International Conference on Population and Development">International Conference on Population and Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Action_International" title="Population Action International">Population Action International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Connection" title="Population Connection">Population Connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Matters" title="Population Matters">Population Matters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_world_population_conferences" title="United Nations world population conferences">United Nations world population conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Conference" title="World Population Conference">World Population Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Day" title="World Population Day">World Population Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Foundation" title="World Population Foundation">World Population Foundation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bennett%27s_law" title="Bennett's law">Bennett's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_populations" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human populations">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Population" title="Category:Population">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q168247#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q168247#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q168247#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4160816-1">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85047075">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb133188531">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb133188531">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565784">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120743&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000058974&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007567956505171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" 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