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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provisions_of_the_Dawes_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Provisions of the Dawes Act</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Provisions_of_the_Dawes_Act-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Provisions of the Dawes Act subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Provisions_of_the_Dawes_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dawes_Act_1891_Amendments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dawes_Act_1891_Amendments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Dawes Act 1891 Amendments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dawes_Act_1891_Amendments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provisions_of_the_Curtis_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provisions_of_the_Curtis_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Provisions of the Curtis Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provisions_of_the_Curtis_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provisions_of_the_Burke_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provisions_of_the_Burke_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Provisions of the Burke Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provisions_of_the_Burke_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Identity_and_detribalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identity_and_detribalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Identity and detribalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identity_and_detribalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Land loss</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture_and_gender_roles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture_and_gender_roles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Culture and gender roles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture_and_gender_roles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduction_of_sovereignty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduction_of_sovereignty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Reduction of sovereignty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduction_of_sovereignty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fractionation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fractionation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Fractionation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fractionation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dawes Act" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_de_Dawes" title="Ley de Dawes – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ley de Dawes" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dawes Act" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A2nferdielingswet_fan_1887" title="Lânferdielingswet fan 1887 – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Lânferdielingswet fan 1887" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%84%EC%8A%A4_%EB%B2%95" title="도스 법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="도스 법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undang-Undang_Dawes" title="Undang-Undang Dawes – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Undang-Undang Dawes" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dawes Act" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%89%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BA%E6%B3%95" title="ドーズ法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ドーズ法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustawa_Dawesa" title="Ustawa Dawesa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ustawa Dawesa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lei_Dawes" title="Lei Dawes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lei Dawes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Акт Дауэса – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Акт Дауэса" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Акт Дауеса – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Акт Дауеса" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">US legislative act regulating Native American tribal lands</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Plan" title="Dawes Plan">Dawes Plan</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title" style="padding-bottom:0.25em">Dawes Act</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_(obverse).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Great Seal of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/140px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/210px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg/280px-Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_%28obverse%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Other short titles</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">Dawes Severalty Act of 1887</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Long title</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">An Act to provide for the allotment of lands in severalty to Indians on the various reservations, and to extend the protection of the laws of the United States and the Territories over the Indians, and for other purposes.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Nicknames</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">General Allotment Act of 1887</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Enacted by</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">the <a href="/wiki/49th_United_States_Congress" title="49th United States Congress">49th United States Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Effective</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">February 8, 1887</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#bbddff">Citations</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Public law</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/49/105">49–105</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large"><span class="wrap">Statutes at Large</span></a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em">24 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-24-388">388</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#bbddff">Codification</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em">Titles amended</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><a href="/wiki/Title_25_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 25 of the United States Code">25 U.S.C.: Indians</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.245em;line-height:1.15em;padding-right:0.65em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">U.S.C.</a> sections created</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><a href="/wiki/Title_25_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 25 of the United States Code">25 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/25/chapter-9">ch. 9</a> § 331 et seq.</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#bbddff">Legislative history</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em"><div><ul style="line-height:1.3em;text-align:left"><li><b>Introduced</b> in the Senate by <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Dawes" title="Henry L. Dawes">Henry L. Dawes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">R</a>–<a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">MA</a>)</li><li><b>Signed into law</b> by President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> on February 8, 1887</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #d69d36"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color: #002466;color:inherit;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Grover_Cleveland_(3x4_close_cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg/75px-Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg/113px-Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg/150px-Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1392" data-file-height="1860" /></a></span></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color: #002466;color: #FFF;"><div><span class="tmp-color" style="color: #FFF">This article is part of <br />a series about</span></div><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #FFF; text-decoration: inherit;">Grover Cleveland</span></a></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Personal</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland#Early_life" title="Grover Cleveland">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_Birthplace" title="Grover Cleveland Birthplace">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland#Honors_and_memorials" title="Grover Cleveland">Legacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_President_Cleveland_(1920)" title="SS President Cleveland (1920)">SS <i>Cleveland</i> 1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_President_Cleveland_(1947)" title="SS President Cleveland (1947)">SS <i>Cleveland</i> 1947</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">28th Governor of <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1882_New_York_gubernatorial_election" title="1882 New York gubernatorial election">Election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland#Governor_of_New_York" title="Grover Cleveland">Governorship</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">22nd & 24th President of the United States</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">Presidencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_federal_executive_orders#Grover_Cleveland_(1885–1889,_1893–1897)" title="List of United States federal executive orders">Executive actions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897#First_Cleveland_administration,_1885–1889" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">Foreign policy</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">First term</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="First inauguration of Grover Cleveland">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1867)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1867)">Tenure of Office Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_of_Grover_Cleveland_and_Frances_Folsom" title="Wedding of Grover Cleveland and Frances Folsom">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dawes Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1889" title="Enabling Act of 1889">Enabling Act of 1889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Grover_Cleveland#First_administration" title="List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland">Judicial appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#Appointments" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">Cabinet</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Second term</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="Second inauguration of Grover Cleveland">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blount_Report" title="Blount Report">Blount Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan_Report" title="Morgan Report">Morgan Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coxey%27s_Army" title="Coxey's Army">Coxey's Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%E2%80%93Gorman_Tariff_Act" title="Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act">Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1895" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1895">Venezuelan crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Grover_Cleveland#Second_administration" title="List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland">Judicial appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#Appointments_2" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">Cabinet</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Presidential campaigns</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1884_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1884 presidential campaign">1884</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1884_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1884 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1888_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1888 presidential campaign">1888</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1888_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1888 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1892_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1892 presidential campaign">1892</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1892_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1892 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Post-presidency</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland#1896_election_and_retirement_(1897–1908)" title="Grover Cleveland">Retirement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland#Illness_and_death" title="Grover Cleveland">Death</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland's signature"><img alt="Grover Cleveland's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg/150px-Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg/225px-Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg/300px-Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="127" /></a></span></div> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Seal of the President of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></span></span></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Grover_Cleveland_series" title="Template:Grover Cleveland series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Grover_Cleveland_series" title="Template talk:Grover Cleveland series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grover_Cleveland_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Grover Cleveland series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Dawes Act of 1887</b> (also known as the <b>General Allotment Act</b> or the <b>Dawes Severalty Act of 1887</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dawes_1887_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawes_1887-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) regulated land rights on tribal territories within the United States. Named after Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Dawes" title="Henry L. Dawes">Henry L. Dawes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, it authorized the President of the United States to subdivide <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> tribal communal landholdings into allotments for Native American heads of families and individuals. This would convert traditional systems of <a href="/wiki/Land_tenure#Traditional_land_tenure" title="Land tenure">land tenure</a> into a government-imposed system of <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a> by forcing Native Americans to "assume a <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> and proprietary relationship with property" that did not previously exist in their cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before private property could be dispensed, the government had to determine which Indians were eligible for allotments, which propelled an official search for a federal definition of "Indian-ness".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the act was passed in 1887, the federal government implemented the Dawes Act on a tribe-by-tribe basis thereafter. For example, in 1895, Congress passed the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hunter Act (page does not exist)">Hunter Act</a>, which administered the Dawes Act among the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ute_Indian_Reservation" title="Southern Ute Indian Reservation">Southern Ute</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nominal purpose of the act was to protect the property of the natives as well as to compel "<a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">their absorption into the American mainstream</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Native peoples who were deemed to be mixed-blood were granted U.S. citizenship, while others were "<a href="/wiki/Detribalization" title="Detribalization">detribalized</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1887 and 1934, Native Americans ceded control of about 100 million acres of land (as of 2019 the United States has a total 1.9 billion acres of land<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) or about "two-thirds of the land base they held in 1887" as a result of the act.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loss of land ownership and the break-up of traditional leadership of tribes produced potentially negative cultural and social effects that have since prompted some scholars to consider the act as one of the most destructive U.S. policies for Native Americans in history.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Muscogee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a>) in Indian Territory were initially exempt from the Dawes Act. The <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Commission" title="Dawes Commission">Dawes Commission</a> was established in 1893 as a delegation to register members of tribes for allotment of lands. They came to define tribal belonging in terms of <a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">blood-quantum</a>. However, because there was no method of determining precise bloodlines, commission members often assigned "full-blood status" to Native Americans who were perceived as "poorly-assimilated" or "legally incompetent", and "mixed-blood status" to Native Americans who "most resembled whites", regardless of how they identified culturally.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act of 1898</a> extended the provisions of the Dawes Act to the "Five Civilized Tribes", required the abolition of their governments and dissolution of tribal courts, allotment of communal lands to individuals registered as tribal members, and sale of lands declared surplus. This law was "an outgrowth of the <a href="/wiki/Land_Rush_of_1889" title="Land Rush of 1889">land rush of 1889</a>, and completed the extinction of Indian land claims in the territory. This violated the promise of the United States that the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian territory</a> would remain Indian land in perpetuity," completed the obliteration of tribal land titles in Indian Territory, and prepared for admission of the territory land to the Union as the state of <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Dawes Act was amended again in 1906 under the <a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Burke Act</a>. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> administration passed the US <a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> (also known as the Wheeler-Howard Law) on June 18, 1934. It prohibited any further land allotment and created a "<a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a>" for Native Americans, which renewed their rights to reorganize and form self-governments in order to "rebuild an adequate land base."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dawes_Act_-_First_Page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Dawes_Act_-_First_Page.jpg/220px-Dawes_Act_-_First_Page.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Dawes_Act_-_First_Page.jpg/330px-Dawes_Act_-_First_Page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Dawes_Act_-_First_Page.jpg/440px-Dawes_Act_-_First_Page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2338" data-file-height="3128" /></a><figcaption>The first page of the Dawes Act</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dawes_Act_-_Last_Page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Dawes_Act_-_Last_Page.jpg/220px-Dawes_Act_-_Last_Page.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Dawes_Act_-_Last_Page.jpg/330px-Dawes_Act_-_Last_Page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Dawes_Act_-_Last_Page.jpg/440px-Dawes_Act_-_Last_Page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2307" data-file-height="3120" /></a><figcaption>The second page of the Dawes Act</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creation_of_reservations_and_assimilation">Creation of reservations and assimilation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Creation of reservations and assimilation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the early 1800s, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> federal government attempted to address what it referred to as the "Indian Problem." Numerous <a href="/wiki/European_immigrants" class="mw-redirect" title="European immigrants">European immigrants</a> were settling on the eastern border of the Indian territories (where most of the Native American tribes had been relocated). Conflicts between the groups increased as they competed for resources and operated according to different cultural systems. Searching for a quick solution to their problem, Commissioner of Indian Affairs <a href="/wiki/William_Medill" title="William Medill">William Medill</a> proposed establishing "colonies" or "reservations" that would be exclusively for the natives, similar to those which some native tribes had created for themselves in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a form of relocation whereby the US government would offer a transfer of the natives from current locations to areas in the region beyond the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>. This would enable settlement by European Americans in the Southeast, where there was a growing demand for access to new lands.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new policy intended to concentrate Native Americans in areas away from the new settlers. During the later nineteenth century, Native American tribes resisted the imposition of the reservation system and engaged with the United States Army (in what were called the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a> in the West) for decades. Finally defeated by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> military force and continuing waves of new settlers, the tribes negotiated agreements to resettle on reservations.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Native Americans ended up with a total of over 155 million acres (630,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of land, ranging from arid deserts to prime agricultural land.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservation system</a>, while compulsory for Native Americans, allotted each tribe a claim to their new lands, protection over their territories, and the right to govern themselves. With the U.S. Senate to be involved only for negotiation and ratification of treaties, the Native Americans adjusted their ways of life and tried to maintain their traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The traditional tribal organization, a defining characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a> as a social unit, became apparent to the non-native communities of the United States. The tribe was viewed as a highly cohesive group, led by a hereditary, chosen chief, who exercised power and influence among the members of the tribe by aging traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the 1880s, some U.S. stakeholders felt that the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">assimilation of Native Americans into American culture</a> was a top priority and was needed for the peoples' very survival. This was the belief among people who "admired" them, as well as people who thought they needed to leave behind their tribal landholding, reservations, traditions, and, ultimately, their Indian identities.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Senator Henry Dawes launched a campaign to "rid the nation of tribalism through the virtues of private property, allotting land parcels to Indian heads of family."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On February 8, 1887, President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> signed the Dawes Allotment Act into law. Responsible for enacting the allotment of the tribal reservations into plots of land for individual households, the Dawes Act was intended by reformers to achieve six goals: </p> <ul><li>breaking up of tribes as a social unit,</li> <li>encouraging individual initiatives,</li> <li>furthering the progress of native farmers,</li> <li>reducing the cost of native administration,</li> <li>securing parts of the reservations as Indian land, and</li> <li>opening the remainder of the land to White settlers for profit.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The Act facilitated assimilation; they would become more "Americanized" as the government allotted the reservations and the Indians adapted to subsistence farming, the primary model at the time. Native Americans held specific ideologies pertaining to tribal land.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some natives began to adapt to the culture. They adopted the values of the dominant society and saw land as real estate to be bought and developed; they learned how to use their land effectively to become prosperous farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As they were inducted as citizens of the country, they would shed those of their discourses and ideologies presumed to be uncivilized and exchange them for ones that allowed them to become industrious, self-supporting citizens, and finally rid themselves of their need for government supervision.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Provisions_of_the_Dawes_Act">Provisions of the Dawes Act</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Provisions of the Dawes Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The important provisions of the Dawes Act<sup id="cite_ref-Dawes_1887_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawes_1887-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were: </p> <ol><li>A head of family would receive a grant of 160 acres (65 ha), a single person or orphan over 18 years of age would receive a grant of 80 acres (32 ha), and persons under the age of 18 would receive 40 acres (16 ha) each;</li> <li>the allotments would be held in trust by the U.S. Government for 25 years;</li> <li>Eligible Native Americans had four years to select their land; afterward the selection would be made for them by the Secretary of the Interior.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Every member of the bands or tribes receiving a land allotment is subject to laws of the state or territory in which they reside. Every Native American who receives a land allotment "and has adopted the habits of civilized life" (lived separate and apart from the tribe) is bestowed with United States citizenship "without in any manner impairing or otherwise affecting the right of any such Indian to tribal or other property".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a> could issue rules to assure equal distribution of water for irrigation among the tribes, and provided that "no other appropriation or grant of water by any riparian proprietor shall be authorized or permitted to the damage of any other riparian proprietor."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Dawes Act did not apply to the territory of the:<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole, Miami, and Peoria in <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li>Osage and Sac and Fox in the <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory" title="Oklahoma Territory">Oklahoma Territory</a></li> <li>any of the reservations of the <a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_New_York" title="Seneca Nation of New York">Seneca Nation of New York</a>, or</li> <li>a strip of territory in the State of Nebraska adjoining the Sioux Nation</li> <li>Red Lake Ojibwe Reservation</li> <li>The Osage Tribe of Oklahoma</li></ul> <p>Provisions were later extended to the <a href="/wiki/Wea" title="Wea">Wea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peoria_people" title="Peoria people">Peoria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaskaskia" title="Kaskaskia">Kaskaskia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piankeshaw" title="Piankeshaw">Piankeshaw</a>, and Western Miami tribes by act of 1889.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Allotment of the lands of these tribes was mandated by the Act of 1891, which amplified the provisions of the Dawes Act.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dawes_Act_1891_Amendments">Dawes Act 1891 Amendments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Dawes Act 1891 Amendments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1891 the Dawes Act was amended:<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Allowed for pro-rata distribution when the reservation did not have enough land for each individual to receive allotments in original quantities, and provided that when land is only suitable for grazing purposes, such land be allotted in double quantities<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Established criteria for inheritance<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Does not apply to <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Outlet" title="Cherokee Outlet">Cherokee Outlet</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provisions_of_the_Curtis_Act">Provisions of the Curtis Act</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Provisions of the Curtis Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Curtis Act">Curtis Act</a> of 1898 extended the provisions of the Dawes Act to the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory. It did away with their self-government, including tribal courts. In addition to providing for allotment of lands to tribal members, it authorized the Dawes Commission to make determinations of members when registering tribal members. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provisions_of_the_Burke_Act">Provisions of the Burke Act</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Provisions of the Burke Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Burke Act</a> of 1906<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> amended the sections of the Dawes Act dealing with US Citizenship (Section 6) and the mechanism for issuing allotments. The Secretary of Interior could force the Native American Allottee to accept title for land. U.S. Citizenship was granted unconditionally upon receipt of land allotment (the individual did not need to move off the reservation to receive citizenship). Land allotted to Native Americans was taken out of Trust and subject to taxation. The Burke Act did not apply to any Native Americans in <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_Land_for_Sale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Indian_Land_for_Sale.jpg/220px-Indian_Land_for_Sale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Indian_Land_for_Sale.jpg/330px-Indian_Land_for_Sale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Indian_Land_for_Sale.jpg/440px-Indian_Land_for_Sale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>A 1911 ad offering "allotted Indian land" for sale</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Identity_and_detribalization">Identity and detribalization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Identity and detribalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The effects of the Dawes Act were destructive on Native American sovereignty, culture, and identity since it empowered the U.S. government to: </p> <ol><li>legally preempt the sovereign right of Indians to define themselves</li> <li>implement the specious notion of blood-quantum as the legal criteria for defining Indians</li> <li>institutionalize divisions between "full-bloods" and "mixed-bloods"</li> <li>"detribalize" a sizeable segment of the Indian population</li> <li>legally appropriate vast tracts of Indian land</li></ol> <p>The federal government initially viewed the Dawes Act as such a successful democratic experiment that they decided to further explore the use of blood-quantum laws and the notion of federal recognition as the qualifying means for "dispensing other resources and services such as health care and educational funding" to Native Americans long after its passage. Under Dawes, land parcels were dispersed in accordance with perceived blood quanta. Indigenous people labeled "full-blooded" were allocated "relatively small parcels of land deeded with trust patents over which the government retained complete control for a minimum of twenty-five years." Those who were labeled "mixed-blood" were "deeded larger and better tracts of land, with 'patents in fee simple' (complete control), but were also forced to accept U.S. citizenship and relinquish tribal status."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, Native Americans who did not "meet the established criteria" as being either "full-blood" or "mixed-blood" were effectively "detribalized", being "deposed of their American Indian identity and displaced from their homelands, discarded into the nebula of American otherness."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the Dawes Act is "typically recognized" as the "primary instigation of divisions between tribal and detribalized Indians," the history of detribalization in the United States "actually precedes Dawes."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_loss">Land loss</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Land loss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Dawes Act ended Native American communal holding of property (with cropland often being privately owned by families or clans<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), by which they had ensured that everyone had a home and a place in the tribe. The act "was the culmination of American attempts to destroy tribes and their governments and to open Indian lands to settlement by non-Indians and to development by railroads."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Land owned by Native Americans decreased from 138 million acres (560,000 km<sup>2</sup>) in 1887 to 48 million acres (190,000 km<sup>2</sup>) in 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Teller" title="Henry M. Teller">Henry M. Teller</a> of <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> was one of the most outspoken opponents of allotment. In 1881, he said that allotment was a policy "to despoil the Indians of their lands and to make them vagabonds on the face of the earth." Teller also said, </p> <blockquote><p>the real aim [of allotment] was to get at the Indian lands and open them up to settlement. The provisions for the apparent benefit of the Indians are but the pretext to get at his lands and occupy them. ... If this were done in the name of greed, it would be bad enough; but to do it in the name of humanity ... is infinitely worse.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 1890, Dawes himself remarked about the incidence of Native Americans losing their land allotments to settlers: "I never knew a White man to get his foot on an Indian's land who ever took it off."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of land in native hands rapidly depleted from some 150 million acres (610,000 km<sup>2</sup>) to 78 million acres (320,000 km<sup>2</sup>) by 1900. The remainder of the land, once allotted to appointed natives, was declared surplus and sold to non-native settlers as well as railroad and other large corporations; other sections were converted into federal parks and military compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most allottees given land on the Great Plains were not successful at achieving economic viability via farming. Division of land among heirs upon the allottees' deaths quickly led to land fractionalization. Most allotment land, which could be sold after a statutory period of 25 years, was eventually sold to non-Native buyers at bargain prices. Additionally, land deemed to be surplus beyond what was needed for allotment was opened to White settlers, though the profits from the sales of these lands were often invested in programs meant to aid the Native Americans. Over the 47 years of the Act's life, Native Americans lost about 90 million acres (360,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of treaty land, or about two-thirds of the 1887 land base. About 90,000 Native Americans were made landless.<sup id="cite_ref-Case_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Case-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture_and_gender_roles">Culture and gender roles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Culture and gender roles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Dawes Act compelled Native Americans to adopt European American culture by prohibiting Indigenous cultural practices and encouraging settler cultural practices and ideologies into Native American families and children. By transferring communally-owned Native land into private property, the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Indian_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of Indian Affairs">Office of Indian Affairs</a> (OIA) "hoped to transform Native Americans into <a href="/wiki/Yeoman" title="Yeoman">yeoman farmers</a> and farm wives through the assignment of individual land holdings known as allotments." In an attempt to fulfill this objective, the Dawes Act "outlawed Native American culture and established a code of Indian offenses regulating individual behavior according to Euro-American norms of conduct." Any violations of this code were to be "tried in a Court of Indian Offenses on each reservation." Included with the Dawes Act were "funds to instruct Native Americans in Euro-American patterns of thought and behavior through Indian Service schools."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the seizure of many Native American land holdings, indigenous structures of domestic life, gender roles, and tribal identity were critically altered in order to meld with society. For instance, "an important objective of the Dawes Act was to restructure Native American gender roles."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White settlers who encountered Native American societies in the latter half of the nineteenth century "judged women's work [in Native societies] as lower in status than that of men" and assumed it was a sign of indigenous women's "disempowerment and drudgery". As a result, "in evolutionary terms, Whites saw women's performance of what seemed to be male tasks – farming, home building, and supply gathering – as a corruption of gender roles and an impediment to progress." In theory, the gendered tasks "accorded many indigenous women esteem and even rewards and status within their tribes."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By dividing reservation lands into <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">privately owned</a> parcels, legislators hoped to complete the assimilation process by forcing Native Americans to adopt individual households and strengthen the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">nuclear family</a> and values of economic dependency strictly within this small household unit.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dawes Act was thus implemented to destroy "native cultural patterns" by drawing "on theories, common to both ethnologists and material feminists, that saw environmental change as a way to effect social change." Although private property ownership was the cornerstone of the act, reformers "believed that civilization could only be effected by concomitant changes to social life" in indigenous communities. As a result, "they promoted Christian marriages among indigenous people, forced families to regroup under male heads (a tactic often enforced by renaming), and trained men in wage-earning occupations while encouraging women to support them at home through domestic activities."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduction_of_sovereignty">Reduction of sovereignty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reduction of sovereignty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1906, the Burke Act (also known as the Forced Patenting Act) amended the GAA to give the Secretary of the Interior the power to issue allottees a patent in <a href="/wiki/Fee_simple" title="Fee simple">fee simple</a> to people classified "competent and capable". The criteria for this determination is unclear but it meant that allottees deemed "competent" by the Secretary of the Interior would have their land taken out of trust status, subject to taxation, and could be sold by the allottee. The allotted lands of Native Americans determined to be incompetent by the Secretary of the Interior were automatically leased out by the federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The act reads: </p> <blockquote><p>... the Secretary of the Interior may, in his discretion, and he is hereby authorized, whenever he shall be satisfied that any Native American allottee is competent and capable of managing his or her affairs at any time to cause to be issued to such allottee a patent in fee simple, and thereafter all restrictions as to sale, encumbrance, or taxation of said land shall be removed.</p></blockquote> <p>The use of competence opens up the categorization, making it much more subjective and thus increasing the exclusionary power of the Secretary of Interior. Although this act gave power to the allottee to decide whether to keep or sell the land, given the harsh economic reality of the time, and lack of access to credit and markets, liquidation of Indian lands was almost inevitable. It was known by the Department of Interior that virtually 95% of fee-patented land would eventually be sold to whites.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1926, Secretary of the Interior <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Work" title="Hubert Work">Hubert Work</a> commissioned a study of the federal administration of Indian policy and the condition of Native American people. Completed in 1928, <i>The Problem of Indian Administration</i> – commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Meriam_Report" title="Meriam Report">Meriam Report</a> after the study's director, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Meriam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Meriam">Lewis Meriam</a> –  documented fraud and misappropriation by government agents. In particular, the Meriam Report claimed that the General Allotment Act had been used to illegally deprive Native Americans of their land rights. </p><p>After considerable debate, Congress terminated the allotment process under the Dawes Act by enacting the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> of 1934 ("Wheeler-Howard Act"). However, the allotment process in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, under the separate <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Allotment_Act" title="Alaska Native Allotment Act">Alaska Native Allotment Act</a>, continued until its revocation in 1971 by the <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a>. </p><p>Despite the termination of the allotment process in 1934, the effects of the General Allotment Act continue into the present. For example, one provision of the Act was the establishment of a trust fund, administered by the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a>, to collect and distribute revenues from oil, mineral, timber, and grazing leases on Native American lands. The BIA's alleged improper management of the trust fund resulted in litigation, in particular the case <i><a href="/wiki/Cobell_v._Kempthorne" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobell v. Kempthorne">Cobell v. Kempthorne</a></i> (settled in 2009 for $3.4 billion), to force a proper accounting of revenues. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fractionation">Fractionation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fractionation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Dawes_Act" title="Special:EditPage/Dawes Act">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For over one hundred thirty years, the consequences of federal Indian allotments have developed into the problem of <i>fractionation</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As original allottees die, their heirs receive equal, undivided interests in the allottees' lands. In successive generations, smaller undivided interests descend to the next generation. Fractionated interests in individual Native American allotted land continue to expand exponentially with each new generation.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-S1721_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1721-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 7">: 7 </span></sup> </p><p>In 2004, <a href="/wiki/Ross_Swimmer" title="Ross Swimmer">Ross Swimmer</a>, Special Trustee for American Indians at the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of the Interior">U.S. Department of the Interior</a>, stated that there were "approximately four million owner interests in the 10,000,000 acres (40,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of individually owned trust lands, a situation the magnitude of which makes management of trust assets extremely difficult and costly."<sup id="cite_ref-S1721_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1721-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 7">: 7 </span></sup> "These four million interests could expand to eleven million interests by the year 2030 unless an aggressive approach to fractionation is taken."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "There are now single pieces of property with ownership interests that are less than 0.0000001% or 1/9 millionth of the whole interest, which has an estimated value of 0.004 cent."<sup id="cite_ref-S1721_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1721-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 7">: 7 </span></sup> </p><p>The economic consequences of fractionation are severe. Some recent appraisal studies<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Statement needs to be more specific about the content to which it refers. (June 2011)">specify</span></a></i>]</sup> suggest that when the number of owners of a tract of land reaches between ten and twenty, the value of that tract drops to zero. </p><p>In addition, the fractionation of land and the resultant ballooning number of trust accounts quickly produced an administrative nightmare. Over the past 40 years, the area of trust land has grown by approximately 80,000 acres (320 km<sup>2</sup>) per year. Approximately 357 million dollars<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> is collected annually from all sources of trust asset management, including coal sales, timber harvesting, oil and gas leases and other rights-of-way and lease activity. No single fiduciary institution has ever managed as many trust accounts as the Department of the Interior has managed over the last century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Interior is involved in "the management of 100,000 leases for individual [Native Americans] and tribes on trust land that encompasses approximately 56,000,000 acres (230,000 km<sup>2</sup>). Leasing, use permits, sale revenues, and interest of approximately $226 million per year are collected for approximately 230,000 individual Indian money [(IIM)] accounts, and about $530 million per year are collected for approximately 1,400 tribal accounts. In addition, the trust currently manages approximately $2.8 billion in tribal funds and $400 million in individual Native American funds."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Under current regulations, probates need to be conducted for every account with trust assets, even those with balances between one cent and one dollar. While the average cost for a probate process exceeds $3,000, even a streamlined, expedited process...costing as little as $500 would require almost $10,000,000 to probate the $5,700 in these accounts."<sup id="cite_ref-S1721_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1721-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8">: 8 </span></sup> </p><p>"Unlike most private trusts, the federal government bears the entire cost of administering the Indian trust. As a result, the usual incentives found in the commercial sector for reducing the number of small or inactive accounts do not apply to the Indian trust. Similarly, the United States has not adopted many of the tools that States and local government entities have for ensuring that unclaimed or abandoned property is returned to productive use within the local community."<sup id="cite_ref-S1721_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1721-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8">: 8 </span></sup> </p><p>Fractionation is not a new issue. In the 1920s, the <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a> conducted a major study of the conditions of the Native Americans and included data on the impacts of fractionation. This report, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Meriam_Report" title="Meriam Report">Meriam Report</a>, was issued in 1928. Its conclusions and recommendations formed the basis for land reform provisions that were included in what would become the IRA. "The original versions of the IRA included two key titles; one dealing with probate and the other with land consolidation." Because of opposition to many of these provisions in Indian Country, often by the major European-American ranchers and industry who leased land and other private interests, most were removed while Congress was considering the bill. The final version of the IRA included only a few basic land reforms and probate measures. Although Congress enabled major reforms in the structure of tribes through the IRA and stopped the allotment process, it did not meaningfully address fractionation as had been envisioned by <a href="/wiki/John_Collier_(reformer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Collier (reformer)">John Collier</a>, then Commissioner of Indian Affairs, or the Brookings Institution.<sup id="cite_ref-S1721_49-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1721-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8">: 8 </span></sup> </p><p>"In 1922, the <a href="/wiki/General_Accounting_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="General Accounting Office">General Accounting Office</a> (GAO) conducted an audit of 12 reservations to determine the severity of fractionation on those reservations. The GAO found that on the 12 reservations for which it compiled data, there were approximately 80,000 discrete owners but, because of fractionation, there were over a million ownership records associated with those owners. The GAO also found that if the land were physically divided by the fractional interests, many of these interests would represent less than one square foot of ground. In early 2002, the Department of the Interior attempted to replicate the audit methodology used by the GAO and to update the GAO report data to assess the continued growth of fractionation." It found that it increased by more than 40% between 1992 and 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-S1721_49-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1721-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8">: 8 </span></sup> </p><p>"As an example of continuing fractionation, consider a real tract identified in 1987 in <i><a href="/wiki/Hodel_v._Irving" title="Hodel v. Irving">Hodel v. Irving</a></i>, 481 U.S. 704 (1987): </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Tract 1305 is 40 acres (160,000 m<sup>2</sup>) and produces $1,080 in income annually. It is valued at $8,000. It has 439 owners, one-third of whom receive less than $.05 in annual rent and two-thirds of whom receive less than $1. The largest interest holder receives $82.85 annually. The common denominator used to compute fractional interests in the property is 3,394,923,840,000. The smallest heir receives $.01 every 177 years. If the tract were sold (assuming the 439 owners could agree) for its estimated $8,000 value, he would be entitled to $.000418. The administrative costs of handling this tract are estimated by the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a> at $17,560 annually.</p></blockquote> <p>Today, this tract produces $2,000 in income annually and is valued at $22,000. It now has 505 owners but the common denominator used to compute fractional interests has grown to 220,670,049,600,000. If the tract were sold (assuming the 505 owners could agree) for its estimated $22,000 value, the smallest heir would now be entitled to $.00001824." The administrative costs of handling this tract in 2003 are estimated by the BIA at $42,800."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fractionation has become significantly worse. As noted above, in some cases the land is so highly fractionated that it can never be made productive. With such small ownership interests, "it is nearly impossible to obtain the level of consent necessary to lease the land." "In addition, to manage highly fractionated parcels of land, the government spends more money probating estates, maintaining title records, leasing the land, and attempting to manage and distribute tiny amounts of income to individual owners than is received in income from the land. In many cases, the costs associated with managing these lands can be significantly more than the value of the underlying asset."<sup id="cite_ref-S1721_49-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1721-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Angie_Debo" title="Angie Debo">Angie Debo</a>'s, <i>And Still the Waters Run: The Betrayal of the Five Civilized Tribes</i> (1940), claimed the allotment policy of the Dawes Act (as later extended to apply to the <a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Commission" title="Dawes Commission">Dawes Commission</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act of 1898</a>) was systematically manipulated to deprive the Native Americans of their lands and resources.<sup id="cite_ref-princeton_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-princeton-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ellen Fitzpatrick claimed that Debo's book "advanced a crushing analysis of the corruption, moral depravity, and criminal activity that underlay White administration and execution of the allotment policy."<sup id="cite_ref-Fitzpatrick_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzpatrick-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Act for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory (Curtis Act), 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Forced Fee Patenting Act (Burke Act), 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Act_of_1889" title="Nelson Act of 1889">Nelson Act of 1889</a>, Minnesota's version of the Dawes Act</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competency_Commission" title="Competency Commission">Competency Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_run" title="Land run">Land run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_M%C4%81hele" title="Great Māhele">Great Māhele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Buy-Back_Program_for_Tribal_Nations" title="Land Buy-Back Program for Tribal Nations">Land Buy-Back Program for Tribal Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkerboarding_(land)" title="Checkerboarding (land)">Checkerboarding (land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Removal">Indian Removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detraditionalization" title="Detraditionalization">Detraditionalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detribalization" title="Detribalization">Detribalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_disenrollment" title="Tribal disenrollment">Tribal disenrollment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_termination_policy" title="Indian termination policy">Indian termination policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota people</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110525120250/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol1/HTML_files/SES0033.html">"General Allotment Act (or Dawes Act), Act of Feb. 8, 1887 (24 Stat. 388, ch. 119, 25 USCA 331), Acts of Forty-ninth Congress–Second Session, 1887"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol1/html_files/ses0033.html">the original</a> on May 25, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 3,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=General+Allotment+Act+%28or+Dawes+Act%29%2C+Act+of+Feb.+8%2C+1887+%2824+Stat.+388%2C+ch.+119%2C+25+USCA+331%29%2C+Acts+of+Forty-ninth+Congress%E2%80%93Second+Session%2C+1887&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.okstate.edu%2Fkappler%2Fvol1%2Fhtml_files%2Fses0033.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dawes_1887-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dawes_1887_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dawes_1887_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=50">"Dawes Act (1887)"</a>. <i>OurDocuments.gov</i>. National Archives and Records Administration<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OurDocuments.gov&rft.atitle=Dawes+Act+%281887%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ourdocuments.gov%2Fdoc.php%3Fdoc%3D50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlansett2015" class="citation book cs1">Blansett, Kent (2015). Crutchfield, James A.; Moutlon, Candy; Del Bene, Terry (eds.). <i>The Settlement of America: An Encyclopedia of Westward Expansion from Jamestown to the Closing of the Frontier</i>. Routledge. pp. 161–162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780765619846" title="Special:BookSources/9780765619846"><bdi>9780765619846</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Settlement+of+America%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Westward+Expansion+from+Jamestown+to+the+Closing+of+the+Frontier&rft.pages=161-162&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780765619846&rft.aulast=Blansett&rft.aufirst=Kent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrande2015" class="citation book cs1">Grande, Sandy (2015). <i>Red Pedagogy: Native American Social and Political Thought, 10th Anniversary Edition</i>. 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Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 607. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781573561495" title="Special:BookSources/9781573561495"><bdi>9781573561495</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Minorities+in+American+Politics%3A+Volume+2+Hispanic+Americans+and+Native+Americans&rft.pages=607&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9781573561495&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://salempress.com/store/samples/thirties_in_america/thirties_in_america_indian.htm">"The Thirties in America: Indian Reorganization Act"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130828003943/http://salempress.com/store/samples/thirties_in_america/thirties_in_america_indian.htm">Archived</a> 2013-08-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Salem Press, Retrieved August 13, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeloria1988" class="citation book cs1">Deloria, Vine Jr. (1988). <i>Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto</i>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806121291" title="Special:BookSources/9780806121291"><bdi>9780806121291</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Custer+Died+for+Your+Sins%3A+An+Indian+Manifesto&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780806121291&rft.aulast=Deloria&rft.aufirst=Vine+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sandweiss, Martha A., Carol A. O’ Connor, and Clyde A. Milner II. <i>The Oxford History of The American West</i>, New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. p. 174. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDonnell, Janet. <i>The Dispossession of the American Indian</i>, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991. p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carlson, Leonard A. <i>Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land</i>, Westport, Connecticut: 1981. p. 6. 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New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. p. 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrande2015" class="citation book cs1">Grande, Sandy (2015). <i>Red pedagogy: Native American social and political thought</i>. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742518292" title="Special:BookSources/978-0742518292"><bdi>978-0742518292</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+pedagogy%3A+Native+American+social+and+political+thought&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0742518292&rft.aulast=Grande&rft.aufirst=Sandy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carlson (1981), <i>Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land</i>, p. 79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDonnell, Janet. <i>The Dispossession of the American Indian</i>. 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Originally published in 1934.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dawes Act Sec. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dawes Act Sec. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dawes Act Sec. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">act of 1889, March 2, ch. 422 (post, p. 344)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Otis, pp. 177–188</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220216173718/http://public.csusm.edu/nadp/a1891.htm">"Dawes Severalty Act Amendments of 1891 (Statutes at Large 26, 794–96, NADP Document A1891)"</a>. 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[H. R. 11946.] [Public, No. 149.]"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol3/HTML_files/SES0181.html">the original</a> on May 25, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 3,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Burke+Act+%2834+Stat.+182%29+Chapter+2348%2C+May+8%2C+1906.+%5BH.+R.+11946.%5D+%5BPublic%2C+No.+149.%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.okstate.edu%2Fkappler%2FVol3%2FHTML_files%2FSES0181.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrande2015" class="citation book cs1">Grande, Sandy (2015). <i>Red Pedagogy: Native American Social and Political Thought, 10th Anniversary Edition</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610489898" title="Special:BookSources/9781610489898"><bdi>9781610489898</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Pedagogy%3A+Native+American+Social+and+Political+Thought%2C+10th+Anniversary+Edition&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781610489898&rft.aulast=Grande&rft.aufirst=Sandy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreemanonline.org/features/property-rights-among-native-americans">Terry L. Anderson, Property Rights Among Native Americans</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kidwell, Clara Sue. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/A/AL011.html">"Allotment"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100207000614/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/A/AL011.html">Archived</a> 2010-02-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture.</i> (retrieved 29 December 2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gunn-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gunn, Steven J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enotes.com/major-acts-congress/indian-general-allotment-act-dawes-act/print">Major Acts of Congress:Indian General Allotment Act (Dawes Act) (1887).</a> accessed 21 May 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Otis, pp. 18–19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrows1890" class="citation book cs1">Barrows, Isabel C., ed. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 6,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pine+Ridge+Project&rft.atitle=The+History+of+%22Competency%22+as+a+Tool+to+Control+Native+American+Lands&rft.date=2007-02-19&rft.au=Bartecchi+D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvillageearth.org%2Fpages%2FProjects%2FPine_Ridge%2Fpineridgeblog%2F2007%2F02%2Fhistory-of-competency-as-tool-to.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robertson, 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bia.gov/guide/history-indian-land-consolidation">"History of Indian Land Consolidation | Indian Affairs"</a>. <i>www.bia.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bia.gov&rft.atitle=History+of+Indian+Land+Consolidation+%7C+Indian+Affairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bia.gov%2Fguide%2Fhistory-indian-land-consolidation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bia.gov/bia/ots/dtlc/fractionation">"What is Fractionation? | Indian Affairs"</a>. <i>www.bia.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bia.gov&rft.atitle=What+is+Fractionation%3F+%7C+Indian+Affairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bia.gov%2Fbia%2Fots%2Fdtlc%2Ffractionation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-S1721-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-S1721_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-S1721_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-S1721_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-S1721_49-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-S1721_49-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-S1721_49-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-S1721_49-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-S1721_49-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFResources2004" class="citation book cs1">Resources, United States Congress House Committee on (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3dwyMvfho2gC"><i>S. 1721, a Bill to Amend the Indian Land Consolidation Act to Improve Provisions Relating to Probate of Trust and Restricted Land: Legislative Hearing Before the Committee on Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, Second Session, Wednesday, June 23, 2004</i></a>. U.S. Government Printing Office. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-074225-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-074225-5"><bdi>978-0-16-074225-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S.+1721%2C+a+Bill+to+Amend+the+Indian+Land+Consolidation+Act+to+Improve+Provisions+Relating+to+Probate+of+Trust+and+Restricted+Land%3A+Legislative+Hearing+Before+the+Committee+on+Resources%2C+U.S.+House+of+Representatives%2C+One+Hundred+Eighth+Congress%2C+Second+Session%2C+Wednesday%2C+June+23%2C+2004&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-16-074225-5&rft.aulast=Resources&rft.aufirst=United+States+Congress+House+Committee+on&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3dwyMvfho2gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bia.gov/sites/default/files/dup/assets/as-ia/ocla/S.%20550%20testimony%20Final%2005-07-2003.pdf">"Testimony of Wayne Nordwall...S. 550, The "American Probate Reform Act of 2003"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>BIA</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BIA&rft.atitle=Testimony+of+Wayne+Nordwall...S.+550%2C+The+%22American+Probate+Reform+Act+of+2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bia.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdup%2Fassets%2Fas-ia%2Focla%2FS.%2520550%2520testimony%2520Final%252005-07-2003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADawes+Act" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-princeton-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-princeton_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/423.html">Listing</a> for <i>And Still the Waters Run</i> at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a> website (retrieved January 9, 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fitzpatrick-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fitzpatrick_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ellen Fitzpatrick, <i><a href="/wiki/History%27s_Memory:_Writing_America%27s_Past,_1880%E2%80%931980" class="mw-redirect" title="History's Memory: Writing America's Past, 1880–1980">History's Memory: Writing America's Past, 1880–1980</a></i> (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01605-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01605-X">0-674-01605-X</a>, p. 133, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R9i8fRGKyuIC">excerpt available online</a> at Google Books.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Debo, Angie. And Still the Waters Run: The Betrayal of the Five Civilized Tribes</i> (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1940; new edition, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-04615-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-04615-8">0-691-04615-8</a>.</li> <li>Olund, Eric N. (2002). "Public Domesticity during the Indian Reform Era; or, Mrs. Jackson is induced to go to Washington." <i>Gender, Place, and Culture</i> 9: 153–166.</li> <li>Stremlau, Rose. (2005). "To Domesticate and Civilize Wild Indians": Allotment and the Campaign to Reform Indian Families, 1875–1887. <i>Journal of Family History</i> 30: 265–286.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dawes_Act&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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title="wikisource:Special:Search/Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://public.csusm.edu/nadp/a1887.htm">Dawes Act of 1887</a>: full text from the Native American Documents Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chickasaw.tv/events/dawes-act">Dawes Act (1887) Information & Videos</a> – Chickasaw.TV</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20060923155305/http://www.infca.org/tribes/IRA.htm">Wheeler-Howard Act (Indian Reorganization Act) 1934</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121024013411/http://www.library.okstate.edu/okmaps/">Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a></i> (1858)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Standing_Bear_v._Crook" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing Bear v. Crook">Standing Bear v. Crook</a></i> (D. Neb. 1879)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Crow_Dog" title="Ex parte Crow Dog">Ex parte Crow Dog</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Talton_v._Mayes" title="Talton v. Mayes">Talton v. Mayes</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1941)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Lee" title="Williams v. Lee">Williams v. Lee</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Menominee_Tribe_v._United_States" title="Menominee Tribe v. United States">Menominee Tribe v. United States</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McClanahan_v._Arizona_State_Tax_Commission" title="McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission">McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bryan_v._Itasca_County" title="Bryan v. Itasca County">Bryan v. Itasca County</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Antelope" title="United States v. Antelope">United States v. Antelope</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez" title="Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solem_v._Bartlett" title="Solem v. Bartlett">Solem v. Bartlett</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hodel_v._Irving" title="Hodel v. Irving">Hodel v. Irving</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians_v._Holyfield" title="Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield">Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina">Duro v. Reina</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_v._Bourland" title="South Dakota v. Bourland">South Dakota v. Bourland</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cobell_v._Salazar" title="Cobell v. Salazar">Cobell v. Salazar</a></i> (D.C. Cir. 2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adoptive_Couple_v._Baby_Girl" title="Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl">Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a> </i>and<i> <a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_v._Castro-Huerta" title="Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta">Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Indian_tribes" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes">List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a> (1705 onwards)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_Fund_Act" title="Civilization Fund Act">Civilization Act</a> (1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Burke Act</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Indian Citizenship Act</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_arts_and_crafts_laws" title="Indian arts and crafts laws">Indian arts and crafts laws</a> (1935–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Indian_Welfare_Act" title="Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act">Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_Act_of_1940" title="Nationality Act of 1940">Nationality Act</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Law_280" title="Public Law 280">Public Law 280</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Relocation_Act_of_1956" title="Indian Relocation Act of 1956">Indian Relocation Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Self-Determination_and_Education_Assistance_Act_of_1975" title="Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975">Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Child_Welfare_Act" title="Indian Child Welfare Act">Indian Child Welfare Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Gaming_Regulatory_Act" title="Indian Gaming Regulatory Act">Indian Gaming Regulatory Act</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990" title="Native American Languages Act of 1990">Native American Languages Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Arts_and_Crafts_Act_of_1990" title="Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990">Indian Arts and Crafts Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_Truth_in_Advertising_for_Native_Art" title="Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art">Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Federal</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognized tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eagle-bone_whistle" title="Eagle-bone whistle">Eagle-bone whistle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_license" title="Hunting license">Hunting license</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_the_Courts_of_the_Conqueror" title="In the Courts of the Conqueror">In the Courts of the Conqueror</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Gaming_Commission" title="National Indian Gaming Commission">National Indian Gaming Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_gaming" title="Native American gaming">Native American gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recognition_of_Native_American_sacred_sites_in_the_United_States" title="Recognition of Native American sacred sites in the United States">Recognition of sacred sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivance" title="Survivance">Survivance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Special_Committee_on_Conditions_of_Indian_Tribes" title="United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes">United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Native_American_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics" title="Template talk:Native American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Native_American_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">ownership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_Degree_of_Indian_Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate Degree of Indian Blood">Certificate Degree of Indian Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_school_gravesites" title="American Indian boarding school gravesites">gravesites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Native American identity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American wars">Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition (1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars (1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War (1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education, science<br /> and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American church">Native American church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smudging" title="Smudging">Smudging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_tribal_nations_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States">Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Native American women in politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">Pretendian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Modern social statistics of Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Pidgin_English" title="Native American Pidgin English">Native American Pidgin English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indians_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indians of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Native_Americans_in_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Native Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">Native American War Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_peoples_indigenous_to_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">Massacres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Aboriginal title in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Aboriginal title in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aboriginal title in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_statutes_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies">Colonial era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Freedoms_and_Exemptions" title="Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions">Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions</a> (1629 New Netherland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a> (British North America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_Congress_Proclamation_of_1783" title="Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783">Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/150px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/225px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/300px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act of 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission Act</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Indian Land Claims Settlements</a> (1978–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Limitations_Act" title="Indian Claims Limitations Act">Indian Claims Limitations Act</a> (1982)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precedents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_Taney_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Taney Court">Taney Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a></i> (1858)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1890—1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1941)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Warren Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a></i> (1960)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Burger Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilson_v._Omaha_Indian_Tribe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe (page does not exist)">Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rehnquist Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_California" title="Aboriginal title in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_land_rights_in_Hawaii" title="Category:Indigenous land rights in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_Louisiana" title="Aboriginal title in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Tribal_Council_of_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe_v._Morton" title="Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_tribes_in_Michigan" title="Category:Native American tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_New_Mexico" title="Aboriginal title in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_New_York" title="Aboriginal title in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Indian_reservations_in_Oklahoma" title="Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narragansett_land_claim" title="Narragansett land claim">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_v._Elliott" title="State v. Elliott">Vermont</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Indigenous land rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">Aboriginal title</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">in Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">List of federally recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Grover_Cleveland" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Grover_Cleveland" title="Template:Grover Cleveland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Grover_Cleveland" title="Template talk:Grover Cleveland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grover_Cleveland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Grover Cleveland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grover_Cleveland" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">22nd and 24th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1885–1889, 1893–1897)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_New_York" title="List of governors of New York">28th</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York" title="Governor of New York">Governor of New York</a> (1883–1885)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_Birthplace" title="Grover Cleveland Birthplace">Grover Cleveland Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Institute_for_Special_Education" title="New York Institute for Special Education">New York Institute for Special Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1881_Buffalo_mayoral_election" title="1881 Buffalo mayoral election">1881 Buffalo mayoral election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1882_New_York_state_election" title="1882 New York state election">1882 New York state election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mugwumps" title="Mugwumps">Mugwumps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westland_Mansion" title="Westland Mansion">Westland Mansion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">Presidencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">1884 presidential election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1884_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1884 presidential campaign">Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1884 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="First inauguration of Grover Cleveland">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_of_Grover_Cleveland_and_Frances_Folsom" title="Wedding of Grover Cleveland and Frances Folsom">Wedding to Frances Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Succession_Act" title="Presidential Succession Act">Presidential Succession Act of 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_Count_Act" title="Electoral Count Act">Electoral Count Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1867)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1867)">Tenure of Office Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_Disability_Pension_Act" title="Dependent and Disability Pension Act">Dependent and Disability Pension Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatch_Act_of_1887" title="Hatch Act of 1887">Hatch Act of 1887</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Experiment_Stations_Act_of_1887" title="Agricultural Experiment Stations Act of 1887">Agricultural Experiment Stations Act of 1887</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Seed_Bill" title="Texas Seed Bill">Texas Seed Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Act_(1888)" title="Scott Act (1888)">Scott Act</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dawes Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act of 1889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Grover_Cleveland" title="List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland">Federal judges appointed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888 presidential election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1888_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1888 presidential campaign">Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1888 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murchison_letter" title="Murchison letter">Murchison letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_Gables" title="Gray Gables">Gray Gables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892 presidential election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1892_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1892 presidential campaign">Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1892 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="Second inauguration of Grover Cleveland">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Silver_Purchase_Act" title="Sherman Silver Purchase Act">Sherman Silver Purchase Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%E2%80%93Gorman_Tariff_Act" title="Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act">Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coxey%27s_Army" title="Coxey's Army">Coxey's Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Hawaiian_Kingdom" title="Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom">Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1895" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1895">Venezuelan crisis of 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1889" title="Enabling Act of 1889">Enabling Act of 1889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="National Democratic Party (United States)">National Democratic Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_National_Forest" title="Cleveland National Forest">Cleveland National Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Park" title="Cleveland Park">Cleveland Park</a></li> <li>Grover Cleveland High School <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_High_School_(Buffalo,_New_York)" title="Grover Cleveland High School (Buffalo, New York)">Buffalo, New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_High_School_(Los_Angeles)" title="Cleveland High School (Los Angeles)">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_High_School_(Queens)" title="Grover Cleveland High School (Queens)">Queens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland,_Mississippi" title="Cleveland, Mississippi">Cleveland, Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Cleveland_(Alaska)" title="Mount Cleveland (Alaska)">Mount Cleveland (Alaska)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Cleveland" title="Frances Cleveland">Frances Cleveland</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Cleveland" title="Ruth Cleveland">Ruth Cleveland</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther_Cleveland" title="Esther Cleveland">Esther Cleveland</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_F._Cleveland" title="Richard F. Cleveland">Richard F. Cleveland</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Cleveland" title="Francis Cleveland">Francis Cleveland</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Falley_Cleveland" title="Richard Falley Cleveland">Richard Falley Cleveland</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Cleveland" title="Rose Cleveland">Rose Cleveland</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Falley_Jr." title="Richard Falley Jr.">Richard Falley Jr.</a> (great-grandfather)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">← Chester A. Arthur</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">←Benjamin Harrison→</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Grover_Cleveland" title="Category:Grover Cleveland">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q763104#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q763104#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q763104#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/185690344">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4723171-3">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no95014590">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007344169605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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