CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Tornado - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"73ca2b82-b99f-4ffa-b0cc-0b0be4b33729","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Tornado","wgTitle":"Tornado","wgCurRevisionId":1258576939,"wgRevisionId":1258576939,"wgArticleId":37530,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Source attribution","CS1: long volume value","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Commons category link is locally defined","Articles containing Spanish-language text","Pages with Spanish IPA","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021","Pages using Sister project links with default search", "Articles containing video clips","Tornado","Weather hazards","Severe weather and convection","Types of cyclone","Wind","Storm","Spanish words and phrases","Natural disasters","Hazards of outdoor recreation"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Tornado","wgRelevantArticleId":37530,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[], "wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q8081","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.page.gallery.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.tmh.player","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg/1200px-F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="900"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg/800px-F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="600"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg/640px-F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="480"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Tornado - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Tornado rootpage-Tornado skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Tornado" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Tornado" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Tornado" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Tornado" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Tornado_rating_scales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tornado_rating_scales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Tornado rating scales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tornado_rating_scales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Definitions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Definitions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Funnel_cloud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funnel_cloud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Funnel cloud</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funnel_cloud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outbreaks_and_families" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outbreaks_and_families"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Outbreaks and families</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outbreaks_and_families-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Characteristics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Characteristics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Size_and_shape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size_and_shape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Size and shape</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size_and_shape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Track_length" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Track_length"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Track length</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Track_length-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appearance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appearance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Appearance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appearance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rotation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rotation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Rotation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rotation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound_and_seismology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_and_seismology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Sound and seismology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_and_seismology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electromagnetic,_lightning,_and_other_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromagnetic,_lightning,_and_other_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromagnetic,_lightning,_and_other_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Life cycle</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Life_cycle-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Life cycle subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Life_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Supercell_relationship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supercell_relationship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Supercell relationship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supercell_relationship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maturity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maturity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Maturity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maturity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dissipation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dissipation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Dissipation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dissipation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Multiple_vortex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiple_vortex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Multiple vortex</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multiple_vortex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waterspout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waterspout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Waterspout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waterspout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landspout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landspout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Landspout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landspout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Similar_circulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Similar_circulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Similar circulations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Similar_circulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gustnado" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gustnado"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>Gustnado</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gustnado-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dust_devil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dust_devil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.2</span> <span>Dust devil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dust_devil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fire_whirls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire_whirls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.3</span> <span>Fire whirls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire_whirls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Steam_devils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steam_devils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.4</span> <span>Steam devils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steam_devils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intensity_and_damage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intensity_and_damage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Intensity and damage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intensity_and_damage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climatology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climatology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Climatology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Climatology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Climatology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Climatology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Associations_with_climate_and_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Associations_with_climate_and_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Associations with climate and climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Associations_with_climate_and_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Detection</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Detection-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Detection subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Radar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Storm_spotting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Storm_spotting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Storm spotting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Storm_spotting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Visual evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extremes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extremes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Extremes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extremes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myths_and_misconceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myths_and_misconceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Myths and misconceptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Myths_and_misconceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ongoing_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ongoing_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Ongoing research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ongoing_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Tornado</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 147 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-147" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">147 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%8A%D1%83%D1%8D%D0%B6%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Гъуэжькуий – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Гъуэжькуий" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Адыгэбзэ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trombi_(jorreestorm%C3%A2)" title="Trombi (jorreestormâ) – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Trombi (jorreestormâ)" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Anarâškielâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0" title="बवंडर – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="बवंडर" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yst" title="Yst – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Yst" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%82%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="إعصار قمعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إعصار قمعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torn%C3%A1u" title="Tornáu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tornáu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusuviru%27%C5%A9" title="Kusuviru'ũ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kusuviru'ũ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88" title="تورنادو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تورنادو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%8B" title="টর্নেডো – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="টর্নেডো" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angin_tutus" title="Angin tutus – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Angin tutus" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%84g-l%C3%AA-%C3%A1-hong" title="Kńg-lê-á-hong – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kńg-lê-á-hong" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Ҡойон – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡойон" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Тарнада – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тарнада" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BF" title="Віхраслуп – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Віхраслуп" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8B" title="टॉरनैडो – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="टॉरनैडो" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Торнадо – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Торнадо" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windhosn" title="Windhosn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Windhosn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B9_%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Хуй һалхин – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хуй һалхин" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Торнадо – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Торнадо" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torn%C3%A1do" title="Tornádo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Tornádo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trowynt" title="Trowynt – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trowynt" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%ADyoltsoh" title="Níyoltsoh – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Níyoltsoh" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tromb" title="Tromb – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tromb" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%AF%CF%86%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Σίφωνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σίφωνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%DA%86%D9%86%D8%AF" title="پیچند – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیچند" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bawandar" title="Bawandar – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Bawandar" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornade" title="Tornade – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tornade" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torn%C3%A1d%C3%B3" title="Tornádó – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tornádó" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterrym_cassee" title="Sterrym cassee – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Sterrym cassee" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuairt-ghaoth" title="Cuairt-ghaoth – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cuairt-ghaoth" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%85" title="Йилбазмух – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Йилбазмух" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B4-l%C3%B2-chiu-f%C3%BBng" title="Pô-lò-chiu-fûng – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Pô-lò-chiu-fûng" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D2%AF" title="Хү – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Хү" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A0%EB%84%A4%EC%9D%B4%EB%8F%84" title="토네이도 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="토네이도" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guguwa" title="Guguwa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Guguwa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%B8" title="Տորնադո – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տորնադո" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0" title="बवंडर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बवंडर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angin_puting_beliung" title="Angin puting beliung – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Angin puting beliung" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%85%E1%93%9A%E1%94%AA%E1%94%AD%E1%96%85" title="ᐅᓚᔪᔭᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐅᓚᔪᔭᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nullagiaquyalunaq" title="Nullagiaquyalunaq – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Nullagiaquyalunaq" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Iñupiatun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sk%C3%BDstrokkur" title="Skýstrokkur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Skýstrokkur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tromba_d%27aria" title="Tromba d'aria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tromba d'aria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%95" title="טורנדו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טורנדו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಟಾರ್ನೆಡೋಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಟಾರ್ನೆಡೋಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90" title="ქარბორბალა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ქარბორბალა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%A3c%C3%ABszk" title="Krãcëszk – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Krãcëszk" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Торнадо – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Торнадо" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamchela" title="Chamchela – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Chamchela" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B2nad" title="Tònad – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Tònad" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B2rnad" title="Tòrnad – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Tòrnad" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babl%C3%AEsok" title="Bablîsok – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Bablîsok" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D1%8E%D0%BD" title="Куюн – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Куюн" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B8%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%A3%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%94" title="ພະຍຸໂທຣນາໂດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພະຍຸໂທຣນາໂດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_(caelum)" title="Turbo (caelum) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Turbo (caelum)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virpu%C4%BCviesulis" title="Virpuļviesulis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Virpuļviesulis" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viesulas" title="Viesulas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Viesulas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borineri_(tromba_d%27aria)" title="Borineri (tromba d'aria) – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Borineri (tromba d'aria)" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torn%C3%A1d%C3%B3" title="Tornádó – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tornádó" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Торнадо – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Торнадо" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambondanitra" title="Rambondanitra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rambondanitra" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8A%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8B" title="ടൊർണേഡോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ടൊർണേഡോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%98%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4" title="घूर्णवात – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="घूर्णवात" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D" title="ტორნადო – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ტორნადო" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puting_beliung" title="Puting beliung – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Puting beliung" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C5%8Dng-l%C3%B2i-h%C5%ADng" title="Guōng-lòi-hŭng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Guōng-lòi-hŭng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B1%E1%80%86%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="လေဆင်နှာမောင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လေဆင်နှာမောင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covulaca" title="Covulaca – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Covulaca" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado_(wervelwind)" title="Tornado (wervelwind) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tornado (wervelwind)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wervelst%C3%B6rm" title="Wervelstörm – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Wervelstörm" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="भूमरी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भूमरी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%83%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8D" title="तःफय् – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="तःफय्" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AB%9C%E5%B7%BB" title="竜巻 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="竜巻" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornaado" title="Tornaado – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Tornaado" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornada_(atmosf%C3%A8ra)" title="Tornada (atmosfèra) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tornada (atmosfèra)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obonboleettii" title="Obonboleettii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Obonboleettii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%8B" title="ਟੋਰਨੈਡੋ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਟੋਰਨੈਡੋ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%80%99adiyoc" title="’adiyoc – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="’adiyoc" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangcah</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%88%D9%88" title="ٹورنیڈو – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ٹورنیڈو" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warwaru" title="Warwaru – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Warwaru" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%93%D8%A8%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8D" title="بړبوکۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بړبوکۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taaniedo" title="Taaniedo – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Taaniedo" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornade" title="Tornade – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Tornade" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warvelwind" title="Warvelwind – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Warvelwind" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornad%C4%83" title="Tornadă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tornadă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinchi_muyuq_wayra" title="Sinchi muyuq wayra – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sinchi muyuq wayra" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%87" title="Смерч – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Смерч" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Табык холорук – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Табык холорук" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%83" title="चक्रवातः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="चक्रवातः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnatu" title="Turnatu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Turnatu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%9D" title="ටෝනාඩෝ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ටෝනාඩෝ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torn%C3%A1do" title="Tornádo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tornádo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%86" title="تۆرنادۆ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تۆرنادۆ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Торнадо – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Торнадо" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trombi_(py%C3%B6rremyrsky)" title="Trombi (pyörremyrsky) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Trombi (pyörremyrsky)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tromb" title="Tromb – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tromb" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buhawi" title="Buhawi – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Buhawi" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="சுழல் காற்று – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சுழல் காற்று" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D3%99" title="Өермә – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Өермә" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%94" title="ทอร์นาโด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทอร์นาโด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8E%A6%E1%8E%B7%E1%8E%A6" title="ᎠᎦᎷᎦ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᎦᎷᎦ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chy mw-list-item"><a href="https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%27x%C3%AAhevovet%C3%A4so" title="Ma'xêhevovetäso – Cheyenne" lang="chy" hreflang="chy" data-title="Ma'xêhevovetäso" data-language-autonym="Tsetsêhestâhese" data-language-local-name="Cheyenne" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tsetsêhestâhese</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortum_(meteoroloji)" title="Hortum (meteoroloji) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hortum (meteoroloji)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%87" title="Смерч – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Смерч" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7" title="بگولا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بگولا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D9%82%DB%87%D9%8A%DB%87%D9%86" title="قارا قۇيۇن – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="قارا قۇيۇن" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Tornado" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulleip%C3%B6rde" title="Tulleipörde – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Tulleipörde" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B2i_r%E1%BB%93ng" title="Vòi rồng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vòi rồng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuulisp%C3%A4%C3%A4" title="Tuulispää – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Tuulispää" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sid%C3%A5rniyon_d%27_timpesse" title="Sidårniyon d' timpesse – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Sidårniyon d' timpesse" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BE%8D%E6%8E%9B" title="龍掛 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="龍掛" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buhawi" title="Buhawi – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Buhawi" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BE%99%E5%8D%B7%E9%A3%8E" title="龙卷风 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="龙卷风" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%93%D7%90" title="טארנאדא – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="טארנאדא" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BE%8D%E6%8D%B2%E9%A2%A8" title="龍捲風 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="龍捲風" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viesols" title="Viesols – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Viesols" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BE%8D%E6%8D%B2%E9%A2%A8" title="龍捲風 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="龍捲風" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8081#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Tornado" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Tornado"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tornado&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tornado&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Tornado"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tornado&action=edit"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tornado&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Tornado" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Tornado" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tornado&oldid=1258576939" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tornado&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Tornado&id=1258576939&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FTornado"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FTornado"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Tornado&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tornado&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tornado" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibooks mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Meteorology/Tornadoes" hreflang="en"><span>Wikibooks</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikinews mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Tornadoes" hreflang="en"><span>Wikinews</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Tornado" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiversity mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Tornado" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiversity</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8081" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Rotating air column connecting the Earth’s surface and a cumulonimbus cloud</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Tornado_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Tornado (disambiguation)">Tornado (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the current tornado season, see <a href="/wiki/Tornadoes_of_2024" title="Tornadoes of 2024">Tornadoes of 2024</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Tornado</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg/220px-F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg/330px-F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg/440px-F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/2007_Elie_tornado" title="2007 Elie tornado">A tornado</a> approaching <a href="/wiki/Elie,_Manitoba" title="Elie, Manitoba">Elie, Manitoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> in June 2007.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area of occurrence</th><td class="infobox-data">North America (particularly in central and southeastern regions of the United States colloquially known as Tornado Alley), South Africa, much of Europe (except most of the Alps), western and eastern Australia, New Zealand, Bangladesh and adjacent eastern India, Japan, the Philippines, and southeastern South America (Uruguay and Argentina)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Season</th><td class="infobox-data">Primarily <a href="/wiki/Spring_(season)" title="Spring (season)">spring</a> and <a href="/wiki/Summer" title="Summer">summer</a>, but can occur at any time of year with the right atmospheric conditions</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Effect</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Enhanced_Fujita_scale" title="Enhanced Fujita scale">Wind damage</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Weather" title="Category:Weather">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">Temperate and polar seasons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">Winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(season)" title="Spring (season)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer" title="Summer">Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autumn" title="Autumn">Autumn</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">Tropical seasons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dry_season" title="Dry season">Dry season</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harmattan" title="Harmattan">Harmattan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_season" title="Wet season">Wet season</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">Storms</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus_cloud" title="Cumulonimbus cloud">Cumulonimbus cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcus_cloud" title="Arcus cloud">Arcus cloud</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downburst" title="Downburst">Downburst</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microburst" class="mw-redirect" title="Microburst">Microburst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_burst" title="Heat burst">Heat burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_lightning" title="Volcanic lightning">Volcanic lightning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">Thunderstorm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air-mass_thunderstorm" title="Air-mass thunderstorm">Air-mass thunderstorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thundersnow" title="Thundersnow">Thundersnow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_thunderstorm" title="Dry thunderstorm">Dry thunderstorm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesocyclone" title="Mesocyclone">Mesocyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">Supercell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tornado</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anticyclonic_tornado" title="Anticyclonic tornado">Anticyclonic tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landspout" title="Landspout">Landspout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterspout" title="Waterspout">Waterspout</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_devil" title="Dust devil">Dust devil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_whirl" title="Fire whirl">Fire whirl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticyclone" title="Anticyclone">Anticyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_low" title="Polar low">Polar low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">Extratropical cyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_windstorm" title="European windstorm">European windstorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nor%27easter" title="Nor'easter">Nor'easter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtropical_cyclone" title="Subtropical cyclone">Subtropical cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane" title="Atlantic hurricane">Atlantic hurricane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">Typhoon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">Dust storm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simoom" title="Simoom">Simoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haboob" title="Haboob">Haboob</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">Monsoon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amihan" title="Amihan">Amihan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gale" title="Gale">Gale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirocco" title="Sirocco">Sirocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_storm" title="Winter storm">Winter storm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_blizzard" title="Ground blizzard">Ground blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_squall" title="Snow squall">Snow squall</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">Precipitation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drizzle" title="Drizzle">Drizzle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freezing_drizzle" title="Freezing drizzle">Freezing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graupel" title="Graupel">Graupel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megacryometeor" title="Megacryometeor">Megacryometeor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pellets" title="Ice pellets">Ice pellets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_dust" title="Diamond dust">Diamond dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freezing_rain" title="Freezing rain">Freezing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudburst" title="Cloudburst">Cloudburst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rain_and_snow_mixed" title="Rain and snow mixed">Rain and snow mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_grains" title="Snow grains">Snow grains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_roller" title="Snow roller">Snow roller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slush" title="Slush">Slush</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_meteorology_articles" title="Index of meteorology articles">Topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">Atmosphere</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">Convection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_river" title="Atmospheric river">River</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_physics" title="Cloud physics">Physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mist" title="Mist">Mist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog_season" title="Fog season">Season</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">Jet stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather" title="Severe weather">Severe weather</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_severe_weather_phenomena" title="List of severe weather phenomena">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme</a></li> <li>Severe weather terminology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(Canada)" title="Severe weather terminology (Canada)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(Japan)" title="Severe weather terminology (Japan)">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)" title="Severe weather terminology (United States)">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">Weather forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_modification" title="Weather modification">Weather modification</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Glossaries</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tornado_terms" title="Glossary of tornado terms">Tornado terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tropical_cyclone_terms" title="Glossary of tropical cyclone terms">Tropical cyclone terms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#ccc 1px solid; border-bottom:#ccc 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/16px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/24px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/32px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Weather" title="Portal:Weather">Weather portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Weather" title="Template:Weather"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Weather" title="Template talk:Weather"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Weather" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Weather"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tornadoes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tornadoes">Tornadoes</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Pictures_of_tornadoes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Pictures of tornadoes">Pictures of tornadoes</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <p>A <b>tornado</b> is a violently rotating column of <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a> that is in contact with both the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Cumulonimbus_cloud" title="Cumulonimbus cloud">cumulonimbus cloud</a> or, in rare cases, the base of a <a href="/wiki/Cumulus_cloud" title="Cumulus cloud">cumulus cloud</a>. It is often referred to as a <b>twister</b>, <b>whirlwind</b> or <b>cyclone</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the word <a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">cyclone</a> is used in <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a> to name a weather system with a <a href="/wiki/Low-pressure_area" title="Low-pressure area">low-pressure area</a> in the center around which, from an observer looking down toward the surface of the Earth, winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often (but not always) visible in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Funnel_cloud" title="Funnel cloud">condensation funnel</a> originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of rotating <a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">debris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a> beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 180 kilometers per hour (110 miles per hour), are about 80 meters (250 feet) across, and travel several kilometers (a few miles) before dissipating. The <a href="/wiki/Tornado_records#Highest_winds_observed_in_a_tornado" title="Tornado records">most extreme</a> tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 480 kilometers per hour (300 mph), can be more than 3 kilometers (2 mi) in diameter, and can stay on the ground for more than 100 km (62 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-fastest_wind_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fastest_wind-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-widest_tornado_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-widest_tornado-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various types of tornadoes include the <a href="/wiki/Multiple-vortex_tornado" title="Multiple-vortex tornado">multiple-vortex tornado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landspout" title="Landspout">landspout</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Waterspout" title="Waterspout">waterspout</a>. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-<a href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">supercellular</a> tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> and are less common at <a href="/wiki/High_latitude" class="mw-redirect" title="High latitude">high latitudes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the <a href="/wiki/Gustnado" title="Gustnado">gustnado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dust_devil" title="Dust devil">dust devil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fire_whirl" title="Fire whirl">fire whirl</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Steam_devil" title="Steam devil">steam devil</a>. </p><p>Tornadoes occur most frequently in North America (particularly in central and southeastern regions of the United States colloquially known as <a href="/wiki/Tornado_Alley" title="Tornado Alley">Tornado Alley</a>; the United States has by far the most tornadoes of any country in the world).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tornadoes also occur in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, much of Europe (except most of the Alps), western and eastern Australia, New Zealand, Bangladesh and adjacent eastern India, Japan, the Philippines, and southeastern South America (Uruguay and Argentina).<sup id="cite_ref-EB_tornado_climatology_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB_tornado_climatology-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of <a href="/wiki/Pulse-Doppler_radar" title="Pulse-Doppler radar">pulse-Doppler radar</a> by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as <a href="/wiki/Hook_echo" title="Hook echo">hook echoes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Debris_ball" class="mw-redirect" title="Debris ball">debris balls</a>, as well as through the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Storm_spotter" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm spotter">storm spotters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tornado_rating_scales">Tornado rating scales</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Research_history_of_tornadoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Research history of tornadoes">Research history of tornadoes</a></div> <p>There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The <a href="/wiki/Fujita_scale" title="Fujita scale">Fujita scale</a> rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_Fujita_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Enhanced Fujita Scale">Enhanced Fujita Scale</a>. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An <a href="/wiki/List_of_F5_and_EF5_tornadoes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes">F5 or EF5</a> tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large <a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">skyscrapers</a>. The similar <a href="/wiki/TORRO_scale" title="TORRO scale">TORRO scale</a> ranges from T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/International_Fujita_scale" title="International Fujita scale">International Fujita scale</a> is also used to rate the <a href="/wiki/Intensity_of_tornadoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Intensity of tornadoes">intensity of tornadoes</a> and other wind events based on the severity of the damage they cause.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doppler <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">radar</a> data, <a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">photogrammetry</a>, and ground swirl patterns (<a href="/wiki/Trochoid" title="Trochoid">trochoidal</a> marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.<sup id="cite_ref-EF_SPC_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EF_SPC-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dszpics1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Dszpics1.jpg/300px-Dszpics1.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Dszpics1.jpg/450px-Dszpics1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Dszpics1.jpg/600px-Dszpics1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>A tornado near <a href="/wiki/Anadarko,_Oklahoma" title="Anadarko, Oklahoma">Anadarko, Oklahoma</a>, 1999. The <i>funnel</i> is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparency (optics)">translucent</a> dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AllTdots.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/AllTdots.png/300px-AllTdots.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/AllTdots.png/450px-AllTdots.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/AllTdots.png/600px-AllTdots.png 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1875" /></a><figcaption>All tornadoes in the <a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a>, 1950–2013, plotted by midpoint, highest <a href="/wiki/Fujita_scale" title="Fujita scale">F-scale</a> on top, Alaska and Hawaii negligible, source <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> <a href="/wiki/Storm_Prediction_Center" title="Storm Prediction Center">Storm Prediction Center</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The word <i>tornado</i> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">tronada</i></span> (meaning 'thunderstorm', past participle of <i>tronar</i> 'to thunder', itself in turn from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>tonāre</i> 'to thunder').<sup id="cite_ref-etymology_1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etymology_1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-etymology_2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etymology_2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a> of the r and o in the English spelling was influenced by the Spanish <i>tornado</i> (past participle of <i>tornar</i> 'to twist, turn,', from Latin <i>tornō</i> 'to turn').<sup id="cite_ref-etymology_1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etymology_1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English word has been <a href="/wiki/Reborrowed" class="mw-redirect" title="Reborrowed">reborrowed</a> into Spanish, referring to the same weather phenomenon. </p><p>Tornadoes' opposite phenomena are the widespread, straight-line <a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">derechos</a> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="/tʃ/: 'ch' in 'China'">tʃ</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>/</a></span></span>, from <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">derecho</i> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Spanish pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="es-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Spanish" title="Help:IPA/Spanish">[deˈɾetʃo]</a></span>, 'straight'). A tornado is also commonly referred to as a "twister" or the old-fashioned colloquial term <i>cyclone</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-TT_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TT-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nssl_faq_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nssl_faq-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2></div> <p>A tornado is a violently rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a <a href="/wiki/Cumuliform_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumuliform cloud">cumuliform cloud</a> or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud.<sup id="cite_ref-Glossary_of_Meteorology_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glossary_of_Meteorology-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. The term is not precisely defined; for example, there is disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Tornado</i> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Vortex" title="Vortex">vortex</a> of wind, not the condensation cloud.<sup id="cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Advanced_Spotter_Guide-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tornado?_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado?-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funnel_cloud">Funnel cloud</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Funnel_cloud" title="Funnel cloud">Funnel cloud</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornado_with_no_funnel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Tornado_with_no_funnel.jpg/220px-Tornado_with_no_funnel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Tornado_with_no_funnel.jpg/330px-Tornado_with_no_funnel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Tornado_with_no_funnel.jpg/440px-Tornado_with_no_funnel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.</figcaption></figure> <p>A tornado is not necessarily visible; however, the intense low pressure caused by the high wind speeds (as described by <a href="/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle" title="Bernoulli's principle">Bernoulli's principle</a>) and rapid rotation (due to <a href="/wiki/Cyclostrophic_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclostrophic balance">cyclostrophic balance</a>) usually cause <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a> in the air to condense into cloud droplets due to <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic cooling">adiabatic cooling</a>. This results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel.<sup id="cite_ref-Renno_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renno-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is some disagreement over the definition of a funnel cloud and a condensation funnel. According to the <i>Glossary of Meteorology</i>, a funnel cloud is any rotating cloud pendant from a cumulus or cumulonimbus, and thus most tornadoes are included under this definition.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among many meteorologists, the "funnel cloud" term is strictly defined as a rotating cloud which is not associated with strong winds at the surface, and condensation funnel is a broad term for any rotating cloud below a cumuliform cloud.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tornadoes often begin as funnel clouds with no associated strong winds at the surface, and not all funnel clouds evolve into tornadoes. Most tornadoes produce strong winds at the surface while the visible funnel is still above the ground, so it is difficult to discern the difference between a funnel cloud and a tornado from a distance.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outbreaks_and_families">Outbreaks and families</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tornado_family" title="Tornado family">Tornado family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tornado_outbreak" title="Tornado outbreak">tornado outbreak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tornado_outbreak_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Tornado outbreak sequence">tornado outbreak sequence</a></div> <p>Occasionally, a single storm will produce more than one tornado, either simultaneously or in succession. Multiple tornadoes produced by the same <a href="/wiki/Storm_cell" title="Storm cell">storm cell</a> are referred to as a "tornado family".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several tornadoes are sometimes spawned from the same large-scale storm system. If there is no break in activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak (although the term "tornado outbreak" has various definitions). A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.<sup id="cite_ref-Glossary_of_Meteorology_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glossary_of_Meteorology-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Size_and_shape">Size and shape</h3></div> <p>Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a narrow <a href="/wiki/Funnel" title="Funnel">funnel</a>, a few hundred meters (yards) across, with a small cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see them.<sup id="cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Small, relatively weak landspouts may be visible only as a small swirl of dust on the ground. Although the condensation funnel may not extend all the way to the ground, if associated surface winds are greater than 64 km/h (40 mph), the circulation is considered a tornado.<sup id="cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Advanced_Spotter_Guide-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A tornado with a nearly cylindrical profile and relatively low height is sometimes referred to as a "stovepipe" tornado. Large tornadoes which appear at least as wide as their cloud-to-ground height can look like large <a href="/wiki/Wedges" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedges">wedges</a> stuck into the ground, and so are known as "wedge tornadoes" or "wedges".<sup id="cite_ref-wedge_tornado_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wedge_tornado-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "stovepipe" classification is also used for this type of tornado if it otherwise fits that profile. A wedge can be so wide that it appears to be a block of dark clouds, wider than the distance from the cloud base to the ground. Even experienced storm observers may not be able to tell the difference between a low-hanging cloud and a wedge tornado from a distance. Many, but not all major tornadoes are wedges.<sup id="cite_ref-wedge_tornado_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wedge_tornado-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roping_tornado.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Roping_tornado.jpg/220px-Roping_tornado.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Roping_tornado.jpg/330px-Roping_tornado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Roping_tornado.jpg/440px-Roping_tornado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="911" /></a><figcaption>A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, found near <a href="/wiki/Tecumseh,_Oklahoma" title="Tecumseh, Oklahoma">Tecumseh, Oklahoma</a>.</figcaption></figure><p>Tornadoes in the dissipating stage can resemble narrow tubes or ropes, and often curl or twist into complex shapes. These tornadoes are said to be "roping out", or becoming a "rope tornado". When they rope out, the length of their funnel increases, which forces the winds within the funnel to weaken due to <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_angular_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of angular momentum">conservation of angular momentum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-thebible_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thebible-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multiple-vortex tornadoes can appear as a family of swirls circling a common center, or they may be completely obscured by condensation, dust, and debris, appearing to be a single funnel.<sup id="cite_ref-rope_tornado_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rope_tornado-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm/241px--Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="241" height="151" data-durationhint="282" data-mwtitle="Andover_Tornado,_April_29,_2022,_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Andover_Tornado,_April_29,_2022,_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="768" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="2304" data-height="1440" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="230" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="384" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="576" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm/Andover_Tornado%2C_April_29%2C_2022%2C_City_Hall_East_Camera.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="576" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>A security camera video of the <a href="/wiki/2022_Andover_tornado" title="2022 Andover tornado">2022 Andover tornado</a>. The tornado, despite having EF intensity, had a "rope" shape for the duration of its life.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the United States, tornadoes are around 500 feet (150 m) across on average.<sup id="cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is a wide range of tornado sizes. Weak tornadoes, or strong yet dissipating tornadoes, can be exceedingly narrow, sometimes only a few feet or couple meters across. One tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long.<sup id="cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other end of the spectrum, wedge tornadoes can have a damage path a mile (1.6 km) wide or more. A <a href="/wiki/May_2004_tornado_outbreak_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="May 2004 tornado outbreak sequence">tornado that affected Hallam, Nebraska</a> on May 22, 2004, was up to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide at the ground, and <a href="/wiki/2013_El_Reno_tornado" title="2013 El Reno tornado">a tornado in El Reno, Oklahoma</a> on May 31, 2013, was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km) wide, the widest on record.<sup id="cite_ref-widest_tornado_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-widest_tornado-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Track_length">Track length</h3></div> <p>In the United States, the average tornado travels on the ground for 5 miles (8.0 km). However, tornadoes are capable of both much shorter and much longer damage paths: one tornado was reported to have a damage path only 7 feet (2.1 m) long, while the record-holding tornado for path length—the <a href="/wiki/Tri-State_Tornado" class="mw-redirect" title="Tri-State Tornado">Tri-State Tornado</a>, which affected parts of <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> on March 18, 1925—was on the ground continuously for 219 miles (352 km).<sup id="cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many tornadoes which appear to have path lengths of 100 miles (160 km) or longer are composed of a family of tornadoes which have formed in quick succession; however, there is no substantial evidence that this occurred in the case of the Tri-State Tornado.<sup id="cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, modern reanalysis of the path suggests that the tornado may have begun 15 miles (24 km) further west than previously thought.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appearance">Appearance</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waurika_Oklahoma_Tornado_Back_and_Front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Waurika_Oklahoma_Tornado_Back_and_Front.jpg/220px-Waurika_Oklahoma_Tornado_Back_and_Front.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Waurika_Oklahoma_Tornado_Back_and_Front.jpg/330px-Waurika_Oklahoma_Tornado_Back_and_Front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Waurika_Oklahoma_Tornado_Back_and_Front.jpg/440px-Waurika_Oklahoma_Tornado_Back_and_Front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>Photographs of the <a href="/wiki/Waurika,_Oklahoma" title="Waurika, Oklahoma">Waurika, Oklahoma</a> tornado of May 30, 1976, taken at nearly the same time by two photographers. In the top picture, the tornado is lit by the sunlight focused from behind the <a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">camera</a>, thus the funnel appears bluish. In the lower image, where the camera is facing the opposite direction, the sun is behind the tornado, giving it a dark appearance.<sup id="cite_ref-PD_tornado_images_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PD_tornado_images-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p>Tornadoes can have a wide range of colors, depending on the environment in which they form. Those that form in dry environments can be nearly invisible, marked only by swirling debris at the base of the funnel. Condensation funnels that pick up little or no debris can be gray to white. While traveling over a body of water (as a waterspout), tornadoes can turn white or even blue. Slow-moving funnels, which ingest a considerable amount of debris and dirt, are usually darker, taking on the color of debris. Tornadoes in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> can turn red because of the reddish tint of the soil, and tornadoes in mountainous areas can travel over snow-covered ground, turning white.<sup id="cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lighting conditions are a major factor in the appearance of a tornado. A tornado which is "<a href="/wiki/Backlighting_(lighting_design)" title="Backlighting (lighting design)">back-lit</a>" (viewed with the sun behind it) appears very dark. The same tornado, viewed with the sun at the observer's back, may appear gray or brilliant white. Tornadoes which occur near the time of sunset can be many different colors, appearing in hues of yellow, orange, and pink.<sup id="cite_ref-TT_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TT-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-target_tornado_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-target_tornado-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors that can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</a> observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's <i>updraft base</i>, which is rain-free,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making them visible.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is mounting evidence, including <a href="/wiki/Doppler_on_Wheels" title="Doppler on Wheels">Doppler on Wheels</a> mobile radar images and eyewitness accounts, that most tornadoes have a clear, calm center with extremely low pressure, akin to the <a href="/wiki/Eye_(cyclone)" title="Eye (cyclone)">eye</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclones</a>. Lightning is said to be the source of illumination for those who claim to have seen the interior of a tornado.<sup id="cite_ref-Science_News_2_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Science_News_2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-inside_eyewitness_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inside_eyewitness-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rotation">Rotation</h3></div> <p>Tornadoes normally rotate <a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">cyclonically</a> (when viewed from above, this is counterclockwise in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern hemisphere">northern hemisphere</a> and clockwise in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern hemisphere">southern</a>). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due to the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis effect">Coriolis effect</a>, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is negligible, as indicated by their large <a href="/wiki/Rossby_number" title="Rossby number">Rossby numbers</a>. Supercells and tornadoes rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis effect is neglected.<sup id="cite_ref-Origin_of_Updraft_Rotation_in_Supercells_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Origin_of_Updraft_Rotation_in_Supercells-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rotation_and_Propagation_of_Simulated_Supercells_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rotation_and_Propagation_of_Simulated_Supercells-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low-level <a href="/wiki/Mesocyclone" title="Mesocyclone">mesocyclones</a> and tornadoes owe their rotation to complex processes within the supercell and ambient environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Tornado_Development_and_Decay_within_a_Supercell_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tornado_Development_and_Decay_within_a_Supercell-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Approximately 1 percent of tornadoes rotate in an anticyclonic direction in the northern hemisphere. Typically, systems as weak as landspouts and gustnadoes can rotate anticyclonically, and usually only those which form on the anticyclonic shear side of the descending <a href="/wiki/Rear_flank_downdraft" title="Rear flank downdraft">rear flank downdraft</a> (RFD) in a cyclonic supercell.<sup id="cite_ref-Recent_Example_of_an_anticyclonic_tornado_in_El_Reno,_OK_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Recent_Example_of_an_anticyclonic_tornado_in_El_Reno,_OK-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On rare occasions, <a href="/wiki/Anticyclonic_tornado" title="Anticyclonic tornado">anticyclonic tornadoes</a> form in association with the mesoanticyclone of an anticyclonic supercell, in the same manner as the typical cyclonic tornado, or as a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell.<sup id="cite_ref-Sunnyvale_Tornado_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sunnyvale_Tornado-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sound_and_seismology">Sound and seismology</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornado_infrasound_sources.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Tornado_infrasound_sources.png/220px-Tornado_infrasound_sources.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Tornado_infrasound_sources.png 1.5x" data-file-width="328" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of generation of infrasound in tornadoes by the <a href="/wiki/Earth_System_Research_Laboratories" title="Earth System Research Laboratories">Earth System Research Laboratories</a>'s Infrasound Program</figcaption></figure> <p>Tornadoes emit widely on the <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustics</a> <a href="/wiki/Audio_frequency" title="Audio frequency">spectrum</a> and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and topography.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent <a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">eddies</a>, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of "noise".<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_music_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_music-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.<sup id="cite_ref-sound_obs_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sound_obs-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible <a href="/wiki/Infrasonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrasonic">infrasonic</a> signatures.<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_infrasonics_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_infrasonics-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long-distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation.<sup id="cite_ref-field_programs_history_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-field_programs_history-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tornadoes also produce a detectable <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">seismic</a> signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process.<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_seismic_signal_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_seismic_signal-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electromagnetic,_lightning,_and_other_effects"><span id="Electromagnetic.2C_lightning.2C_and_other_effects"></span>Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects</h3></div> <p>Tornadoes emit on the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Sferics" class="mw-redirect" title="Sferics">sferics</a> and <a href="/wiki/E-field" class="mw-redirect" title="E-field">E-field</a> effects detected.<sup id="cite_ref-field_programs_history_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-field_programs_history-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-in_situ_history_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-in_situ_history-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are observed correlations between tornadoes and patterns of lightning. Tornadic storms do not contain more lightning than other storms and some tornadic cells never produce lightning at all. More often than not, overall cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning activity decreases as a tornado touches the surface and returns to the baseline level when the tornado dissipates. In many cases, intense tornadoes and thunderstorms exhibit an increased and anomalous dominance of positive polarity CG discharges.<sup id="cite_ref-CG_tor_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CG_tor-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">Luminosity</a> has been reported in the past and is probably due to misidentification of external light sources such as lightning, city lights, and <a href="/wiki/Power_flash" title="Power flash">power flashes</a> from broken lines, as internal sources are now uncommonly reported and are not known to ever have been recorded. In addition to winds, tornadoes also exhibit changes in atmospheric variables such as <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moisture" title="Moisture">moisture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a>. For example, on June 24, 2003, near <a href="/wiki/Manchester,_South_Dakota" title="Manchester, South Dakota">Manchester, South Dakota</a>, a probe measured a 100-<a href="/wiki/Bar_(unit)" title="Bar (unit)">millibar</a> (100 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">hPa</a>; 3.0 <a href="/wiki/Inch_of_mercury" title="Inch of mercury">inHg</a>) pressure decrease. The pressure dropped gradually as the vortex approached then dropped extremely rapidly to 850 <a href="/wiki/Bar_(unit)" title="Bar (unit)">mbar</a> (850 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">hPa</a>; 25 <a href="/wiki/Inch_of_mercury" title="Inch of mercury">inHg</a>) in the core of the violent tornado before rising rapidly as the vortex moved away, resulting in a V-shape pressure trace. Temperature tends to decrease and moisture content to increase in the immediate vicinity of a tornado.<sup id="cite_ref-Manchester_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manchester-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_cycle">Life cycle</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_of_a_Tornado.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Evolution_of_a_Tornado.jpg/220px-Evolution_of_a_Tornado.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Evolution_of_a_Tornado.jpg/330px-Evolution_of_a_Tornado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Evolution_of_a_Tornado.jpg/440px-Evolution_of_a_Tornado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3760" data-file-height="2507" /></a><figcaption>Composite of eight images shot in sequence as a tornado formed in <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> in 2016</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tornadogenesis" title="Tornadogenesis">Tornadogenesis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dimmit_Sequence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dimmit_Sequence.jpg/220px-Dimmit_Sequence.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="437" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dimmit_Sequence.jpg/330px-Dimmit_Sequence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dimmit_Sequence.jpg/440px-Dimmit_Sequence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1389" /></a><figcaption>A sequence of images showing the birth of a tornado. First, the rotating cloud base lowers. This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and debris and causing damage. As the pressure continues to drop, the visible funnel extends to the ground. This tornado, near <a href="/wiki/Dimmitt,_Texas" title="Dimmitt, Texas">Dimmitt, Texas</a>, was one of the best-observed violent tornadoes in history.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supercell_relationship">Supercell relationship</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">Supercell</a></div> <p>Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain <a href="/wiki/Mesocyclone" title="Mesocyclone">mesocyclones</a>, an area of organized rotation a few kilometers/miles up in the atmosphere, usually 1.6–9.7 km (1–6 miles) across. Most intense tornadoes (EF3 to EF5 on the <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_Fujita_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Enhanced Fujita Scale">Enhanced Fujita Scale</a>) develop from supercells. In addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such storms.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most tornadoes from supercells follow a recognizable life cycle which begins when increasing rainfall drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the <a href="/wiki/Rear_flank_downdraft" title="Rear flank downdraft">rear flank downdraft</a> (RFD). This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground, and drags the supercell's rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it.<sup id="cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Advanced_Spotter_Guide-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornado_Formation_of_it%27s_wall_cloud_from_a_Mesocyclone.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Tornado_Formation_of_it%27s_wall_cloud_from_a_Mesocyclone.svg/220px-Tornado_Formation_of_it%27s_wall_cloud_from_a_Mesocyclone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Tornado_Formation_of_it%27s_wall_cloud_from_a_Mesocyclone.svg/330px-Tornado_Formation_of_it%27s_wall_cloud_from_a_Mesocyclone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Tornado_Formation_of_it%27s_wall_cloud_from_a_Mesocyclone.svg/440px-Tornado_Formation_of_it%27s_wall_cloud_from_a_Mesocyclone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Tornado Formation of its wall cloud from a Mesocyclone</figcaption></figure> <p>As the mesocyclone lowers below the cloud base, it begins to take in cool, moist air from the downdraft region of the storm. The convergence of warm air in the updraft and cool air causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also focuses the mesocyclone's base, causing it to draw air from a smaller and smaller area on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface. This pulls the focused mesocyclone down, in the form of a visible condensation funnel. As the funnel descends, the RFD also reaches the ground, fanning outward and creating a gust front that can cause severe damage a considerable distance from the tornado. Usually, the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground (becoming a tornado) within a few minutes of the RFD reaching the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Advanced_Spotter_Guide-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many other aspects of tornado formation (such as why some storms form tornadoes while others do not, or what precise role downdrafts, temperature, and moisture play in tornado formation) are still poorly understood.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maturity">Maturity</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stovepipe_Tornado_near_Yuma,_Colorado.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Stovepipe_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg/220px-Stovepipe_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Stovepipe_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg/330px-Stovepipe_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Stovepipe_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg/440px-Stovepipe_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A mature stovepipe tornado near Yuma, Colorado.</figcaption></figure> <p>Initially, the tornado has a good source of warm, moist air <a href="/wiki/Inflow_(meteorology)" title="Inflow (meteorology)">flowing inward</a> to power it, and it grows until it reaches the "mature stage". This can last from a few minutes to more than an hour, and during that time a tornado often causes the most damage, and in rare cases can be more than 1.6 km (1 mile) across. The low pressured atmosphere at the base of the tornado is essential to the endurance of the system.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the RFD, now an area of cool surface winds, begins to wrap around the tornado, cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado.<sup id="cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Advanced_Spotter_Guide-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flow inside the funnel of the tornado is downward, supplying water vapor from the cloud above. This is contrary to the upward flow inside hurricanes, supplying water vapor from the warm ocean below. Therefore, the energy of the tornado is supplied from the cloud above. <sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dissipation">Dissipation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastern_Colorado_Tornado_Ropes_Out.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Eastern_Colorado_Tornado_Ropes_Out.jpg/220px-Eastern_Colorado_Tornado_Ropes_Out.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Eastern_Colorado_Tornado_Ropes_Out.jpg/330px-Eastern_Colorado_Tornado_Ropes_Out.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Eastern_Colorado_Tornado_Ropes_Out.jpg/440px-Eastern_Colorado_Tornado_Ropes_Out.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1038" data-file-height="740" /></a><figcaption>A tornado dissipating or "roping out" in <a href="/wiki/Eads,_Colorado" title="Eads, Colorado">Eads, Colorado</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>As the RFD completely wraps around and chokes off the tornado's air supply, the vortex begins to weaken, becoming thin and rope-like. This is the "dissipating stage", often lasting no more than a few minutes, after which the tornado ends. During this stage, the shape of the tornado becomes highly influenced by the winds of the parent storm, and can be blown into fantastic patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PD_tornado_images_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PD_tornado_images-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-target_tornado_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-target_tornado-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though the tornado is dissipating, it is still capable of causing damage. The storm is contracting into a rope-like tube and, due to <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_angular_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of angular momentum">conservation of angular momentum</a>, winds can increase at this point.<sup id="cite_ref-thebible_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thebible-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cycle" class="extiw" title="wikt:cycle">cyclically</a>. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Although this is a widely accepted theory for how most tornadoes form, live, and die, it does not explain the formation of smaller tornadoes, such as landspouts, long-lived tornadoes, or tornadoes with multiple vortices. These each have different mechanisms which influence their development—however, most tornadoes follow a pattern similar to this one.<sup id="cite_ref-tornadogenesis_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornadogenesis-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multiple_vortex">Multiple vortex</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Multiple-vortex_tornado" title="Multiple-vortex tornado">Multiple-vortex tornado</a></div> <p>A <i>multiple-vortex tornado</i> is a type of tornado in which two or more columns of spinning air rotate about their own axes and at the same time revolve around a common center. A multi-vortex structure can occur in almost any circulation, but is very often observed in intense tornadoes. These vortices often create small areas of heavier damage along the main tornado path.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Advanced_Spotter_Guide-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a phenomenon that is distinct from a <a href="/wiki/Satellite_tornado" title="Satellite tornado">satellite tornado</a>, which is a smaller tornado that forms very near a large, strong tornado contained within the same mesocyclone. The satellite tornado may appear to "<a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a>" the larger tornado (hence the name), giving the appearance of one, large multi-vortex tornado. However, a satellite tornado is a distinct circulation, and is much smaller than the main funnel.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Waterspout">Waterspout</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Waterspout" title="Waterspout">Waterspout</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trombe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Trombe.jpg/220px-Trombe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Trombe.jpg/330px-Trombe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Trombe.jpg/440px-Trombe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1630" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A waterspout near the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys" title="Florida Keys">Florida Keys</a> in 1969.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <i>waterspout</i> is defined by the <a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a> as a tornado over water. However, researchers typically distinguish "fair weather" waterspouts from tornadic (i.e. associated with a mesocyclone) waterspouts. Fair weather waterspouts are less severe but far more common, and are similar to <a href="/wiki/Dust_devil" title="Dust devil">dust devils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Landspout" title="Landspout">landspouts</a>. They form at the bases of <a href="/wiki/Cumulus_congestus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulus congestus">cumulus congestus</a> clouds over tropical and subtropical waters. They have relatively weak winds, smooth <a href="/wiki/Laminar_flow" title="Laminar flow">laminar</a> walls, and typically travel very slowly. They occur most commonly in the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys" title="Florida Keys">Florida Keys</a> and in the northern <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USA_Today_1_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USA_Today_1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USA_Today_2_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USA_Today_2-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, tornadic waterspouts are stronger tornadoes over water. They form over water similarly to mesocyclonic tornadoes, or are stronger tornadoes which cross over water. Since they form from <a href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe thunderstorm">severe thunderstorms</a> and can be far more intense, faster, and longer-lived than fair weather waterspouts, they are more dangerous.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In official tornado statistics, waterspouts are generally not counted unless they affect land, though some European weather agencies count waterspouts and tornadoes together.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ESWD_definitions_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESWD_definitions-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landspout">Landspout</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Landspout" title="Landspout">Landspout</a></div> <p>A <i>landspout</i>, or <i>dust-tube tornado</i>, is a tornado not associated with a mesocyclone. The name stems from their characterization as a "fair weather waterspout on land". Waterspouts and landspouts share many defining characteristics, including relative weakness, short lifespan, and a small, smooth condensation funnel that often does not reach the surface. Landspouts also create a distinctively laminar cloud of dust when they make contact with the ground, due to their differing mechanics from true mesoform tornadoes. Though usually weaker than classic tornadoes, they can produce strong winds which could cause serious damage.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Advanced_Spotter_Guide-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Similar_circulations">Similar circulations</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gustnado">Gustnado</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gustnado" title="Gustnado">Gustnado</a></div> <p>A <i>gustnado</i>, or <i>gust front tornado</i>, is a small, vertical swirl associated with a <a href="/wiki/Outflow_boundary" title="Outflow boundary">gust front</a> or <a href="/wiki/Downburst" title="Downburst">downburst</a>. Because they are not connected with a cloud base, there is some debate as to whether or not gustnadoes are tornadoes. They are formed when fast-moving cold, dry outflow air from a <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorm</a> is blown through a mass of stationary, warm, moist air near the outflow boundary, resulting in a "rolling" effect (often exemplified through a <a href="/wiki/Roll_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Roll cloud">roll cloud</a>). If low level <a href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">wind shear</a> is strong enough, the rotation can be turned vertically or diagonally and make contact with the ground. The result is a gustnado.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gustnado_AMS_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gustnado_AMS-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They usually cause small areas of heavier rotational wind damage among areas of straight-line wind damage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dust_devil">Dust devil</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dust_devil" title="Dust devil">Dust devil</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dust_devil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Dust_devil.jpg/220px-Dust_devil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Dust_devil.jpg/330px-Dust_devil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Dust_devil.jpg/440px-Dust_devil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>A dust devil in <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <i>dust devil</i> (also known as a whirlwind) resembles a tornado in that it is a vertical swirling column of air. However, they form under clear skies and are no stronger than the weakest tornadoes. They form when a strong convective updraft is formed near the ground on a hot day. If there is enough low-level wind shear, the column of hot, rising air can develop a small cyclonic motion that can be seen near the ground. They are not considered tornadoes because they form during fair weather and are not associated with any clouds. However, they can, on occasion, result in major damage.<sup id="cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dust_devil_injury_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dust_devil_injury-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fire_whirls">Fire whirls</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fire_whirl" title="Fire whirl">Fire whirl</a></div> <p>Small-scale, tornado-like circulations can occur near any intense surface heat source. Those that occur near intense <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a> are called <i>fire whirls</i>. They are not considered tornadoes, except in the rare case where they connect to a <a href="/wiki/Pyrocumulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrocumulus">pyrocumulus</a> or other cumuliform cloud above. Fire whirls usually are not as strong as tornadoes associated with thunderstorms. They can, however, produce significant damage.<sup id="cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Steam_devils">Steam devils</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Steam_devil" title="Steam devil">Steam devil</a></div> <p>A <i>steam devil</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Rotating" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotating">rotating</a> <a href="/wiki/Updraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Updraft">updraft</a> between 50-and-200-metre wide (160 and 660 ft) that involves steam or smoke. These formations do not involve high wind speeds, only completing a few rotations per minute. Steam devils are very rare. They most often form from smoke issuing from a power plant's smokestack. <a href="/wiki/Hot_springs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot springs">Hot springs</a> and deserts may also be suitable locations for a tighter, faster-rotating steam devil to form. The phenomenon can occur over water, when cold arctic air passes over relatively warm water.<sup id="cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Intensity_and_damage">Intensity and damage</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tornado_intensity_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Tornado intensity and damage">Tornado intensity and damage</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right;"> <caption>Tornado rating classifications<sup id="cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="background: #e0e0ff;"><b>F0<br />EF0</b> </th> <th style="background: #e0e0ff;"><b>F1<br />EF1</b> </th> <th style="background: #e0e0ff;"><b>F2<br />EF2</b> </th> <th style="background: #e0e0ff;"><b>F3<br />EF3</b> </th> <th style="background: #e0e0ff;"><b>F4<br />EF4</b> </th> <th style="background: #e0e0ff;"><b>F5<br />EF5</b> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background: #fd0;">Weak </td> <td colspan="2" style="background: #f3943f;">Strong </td> <td colspan="2" style="background: #ea5297;">Violent </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="4" style="background: #ffce44;">Significant </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background: #e84e0f;">Intense </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fujita_scale" title="Fujita scale">Fujita scale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_Fujita_scale" title="Enhanced Fujita scale">Enhanced Fujita scale</a> (EF), and <a href="/wiki/International_Fujita_scale" title="International Fujita scale">International Fujita scale</a> rate tornadoes by damage caused. The EF scale was an update to the older Fujita scale, by <a href="/wiki/Expert_elicitation" title="Expert elicitation">expert elicitation</a>, using engineered wind estimates and better damage descriptions. The EF scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would receive the same numerical rating, and was implemented starting in the United States in 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not substantial structures, whereas an <a href="/wiki/List_of_F5_and_EF5_tornadoes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes">EF5</a> tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them bare and even deform large <a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">skyscrapers</a>. The similar <a href="/wiki/TORRO_scale" title="TORRO scale">TORRO scale</a> ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. <a href="/wiki/Pulse-Doppler_radar" title="Pulse-Doppler radar">Doppler</a> <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</a> data, <a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">photogrammetry</a>, and ground swirl patterns (<a href="/wiki/Cycloid" title="Cycloid">cycloidal</a> marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shown_here_May_22,_2013,_is_an_aerial_view_of_homes_destroyed_by_a_tornado_in_Moore,_Okla_130522-F-IE715-379.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shown_here_May_22%2C_2013%2C_is_an_aerial_view_of_homes_destroyed_by_a_tornado_in_Moore%2C_Okla_130522-F-IE715-379.jpg/220px-Shown_here_May_22%2C_2013%2C_is_an_aerial_view_of_homes_destroyed_by_a_tornado_in_Moore%2C_Okla_130522-F-IE715-379.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shown_here_May_22%2C_2013%2C_is_an_aerial_view_of_homes_destroyed_by_a_tornado_in_Moore%2C_Okla_130522-F-IE715-379.jpg/330px-Shown_here_May_22%2C_2013%2C_is_an_aerial_view_of_homes_destroyed_by_a_tornado_in_Moore%2C_Okla_130522-F-IE715-379.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Shown_here_May_22%2C_2013%2C_is_an_aerial_view_of_homes_destroyed_by_a_tornado_in_Moore%2C_Okla_130522-F-IE715-379.jpg/440px-Shown_here_May_22%2C_2013%2C_is_an_aerial_view_of_homes_destroyed_by_a_tornado_in_Moore%2C_Okla_130522-F-IE715-379.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4016" data-file-height="2472" /></a><figcaption>On May 20, 2013, a <a href="/wiki/2013_Moore_tornado" title="2013 Moore tornado">large tornado</a> of the highest category, EF5, ravaged <a href="/wiki/Moore,_Oklahoma" title="Moore, Oklahoma">Moore, Oklahoma</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Tornadoes vary in intensity regardless of shape, size, and location, though strong tornadoes are typically larger than weak tornadoes. The association with track length and duration also varies, although longer track tornadoes tend to be stronger.<sup id="cite_ref-width/length_intensity_relationship_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-width/length_intensity_relationship-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of violent tornadoes, only a small portion of the path is of violent intensity, most of the higher intensity from <a href="/wiki/Multiple_vortex_tornado" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple vortex tornado">subvortices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. The rate of occurrence drops off quickly with increasing strength—less than 1% are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).<sup id="cite_ref-Basic_Spotter_Guide_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basic_Spotter_Guide-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Current records may significantly underestimate the frequency of strong (EF2-EF3) and violent (EF4-EF5) tornadoes, as damage-based intensity estimates are limited to structures and vegetation that a tornado impacts. A tornado may be much stronger than its damage-based rating indicates if its strongest winds occur away from suitable damage indicators, such as in an open field.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EFunderstimate_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EFunderstimate-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outside <a href="/wiki/Tornado_Alley" title="Tornado Alley">Tornado Alley</a>, and North America in general, violent tornadoes are extremely rare. This is apparently mostly due to the lesser number of tornadoes overall, as research shows that tornado intensity distributions are fairly similar worldwide. A few significant tornadoes occur annually in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, and southeastern South America.<sup id="cite_ref-intensity_distribution_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intensity_distribution-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climatology">Climatology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tornado_climatology" title="Tornado climatology">Tornado climatology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Globdisttornado.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Globdisttornado.jpg/220px-Globdisttornado.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Globdisttornado.jpg/330px-Globdisttornado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Globdisttornado.jpg/440px-Globdisttornado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2729" data-file-height="1465" /></a><figcaption>Areas worldwide where tornadoes are most likely, indicated by orange shading</figcaption></figure> <p>The United States has the most tornadoes of any country, nearly four times more than estimated in all of Europe, excluding waterspouts.<sup id="cite_ref-European_tornado_climatology_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-European_tornado_climatology-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is mostly due to the unique geography of the continent. North America is a large continent that extends from the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> north into <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">arctic</a> areas, and has no major east–west mountain range to block air flow between these two areas. In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_latitudes" title="Middle latitudes">middle latitudes</a>, where most tornadoes of the world occur, the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> block moisture and buckle the <a href="/wiki/Prevailing_winds" title="Prevailing winds">atmospheric flow</a>, forcing drier air at mid-levels of the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a> due to downsloped winds, and causing <a href="/wiki/Cyclogenesis" title="Cyclogenesis">the formation of a low pressure area</a> downwind to the east of the mountains. Increased westerly flow off the Rockies force the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Dry_line" title="Dry line">dry line</a> when the flow aloft is strong,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> fuels abundant low-level moisture in the southerly flow to its east. This unique topography allows for frequent collisions of warm and cold air, the conditions that breed strong, long-lived storms throughout the year. A large portion of these tornadoes form in an area of the <a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">central United States</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Tornado_Alley" title="Tornado Alley">Tornado Alley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Science_News_1_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Science_News_1-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This area extends into Canada, particularly <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Prairie_Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Prairie Provinces">Prairie Provinces</a>, although southeast <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, the interior of <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, and western <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> are also tornado-prone.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tornadoes also occur across northeastern Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States averages about 1,200 tornadoes per year, followed by Canada, averaging 62 reported per year.<sup id="cite_ref-Canada62_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canada62-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NOAA's has a higher average 100 per year in Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-Canada100_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canada100-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country (more than 20, or 0.00048/km<sup>2</sup>, 0.0012/sq mi annually), followed by the UK (around 33, 0.00013/km<sup>2</sup>, 0.00034/sq mi per year), although those are of lower intensity, briefer<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and cause minor damage.<sup id="cite_ref-European_tornado_climatology_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-European_tornado_climatology-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornado_Alley.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Tornado_Alley.gif/220px-Tornado_Alley.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Tornado_Alley.gif/330px-Tornado_Alley.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Tornado_Alley.gif/440px-Tornado_Alley.gif 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="582" /></a><figcaption>Intense tornado activity in the United States. The darker-colored areas denote the area commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Tornado_Alley" title="Tornado Alley">Tornado Alley</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Tornadoes kill an average of 179 people per year in Bangladesh, the most in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Bangladesh_tornado_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bangladesh_tornado-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reasons for this include the region's high population density, poor construction quality, and lack of tornado safety knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Bangladesh_tornado_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bangladesh_tornado-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other areas of the world that have frequent tornadoes include South Africa, the <a href="/wiki/La_Plata_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="La Plata Basin">La Plata Basin</a> area, portions of Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and far eastern Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-EB_tornado_climatology_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB_tornado_climatology-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter, but tornadoes can occur any time of year that favorable conditions occur.<sup id="cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spring and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present.<sup id="cite_ref-LouieLouie_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LouieLouie-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tornadoes are focused in the right front quadrant of <a href="/wiki/Landfall_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Landfall (meteorology)">landfalling</a> tropical cyclones, which tend to occur in the late summer and autumn. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of <a href="/wiki/Eyewall_mesovortices" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyewall mesovortices">eyewall mesovortices</a>, which persist until landfall.<sup id="cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_L6_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AOML_FAQ_L6-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tornado occurrence is highly dependent on the time of day, because of <a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">solar heating</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_time_of_day_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_time_of_day-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Worldwide, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, between 15:00 (3 pm) and 19:00 (7 pm) local time, with a peak near 17:00 (5 pm).<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Destructive tornadoes can occur at any time of day. The <a href="/wiki/Tupelo-Gainesville_tornado_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="Tupelo-Gainesville tornado outbreak">Gainesville Tornado</a> of 1936, one of the deadliest tornadoes in history, occurred at 8:30 am local time.<sup id="cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United Kingdom has the highest incidence of tornadoes per unit area of land in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unsettled conditions and weather fronts transverse the British Isles at all times of the years, and are responsible for spawning the tornadoes, which consequently form at all times of the year. The United Kingdom has at least 34 tornadoes per year and possibly as many as 50.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most tornadoes in the United Kingdom are weak, but they are occasionally destructive. For example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006 both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Associations_with_climate_and_climate_change">Associations with climate and climate change</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornado_US_annual_count.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Tornado_US_annual_count.svg/220px-Tornado_US_annual_count.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Tornado_US_annual_count.svg/330px-Tornado_US_annual_count.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Tornado_US_annual_count.svg/440px-Tornado_US_annual_count.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1634" data-file-height="1038" /></a><figcaption>U. S. annual count of confirmed tornadoes. The count uptick in 1990 is coincident with the introduction of doppler weather radar.</figcaption></figure> <p>Associations with various <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> and environmental trends exist. For example, an increase in the <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> of a source region (e.g. Gulf of Mexico and <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>) increases atmospheric moisture content. Increased moisture can fuel an increase in <a href="/wiki/Severe_weather" title="Severe weather">severe weather</a> and tornado activity, particularly in the cool season.<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards_GoM_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards_GoM-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some evidence does suggest that the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Oscillation">Southern Oscillation</a> is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the <a href="/wiki/ENSO" class="mw-redirect" title="ENSO">ENSO</a> phase is that of <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> or <a href="/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="La Niña">La Niña</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AGU_ENSO_tor_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AGU_ENSO_tor-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climatic shifts may affect tornadoes via <a href="/wiki/Teleconnection" title="Teleconnection">teleconnections</a> in shifting the jet stream and the larger weather patterns. The climate-tornado link is confounded by the forces affecting larger patterns and by the local, nuanced nature of tornadoes. Although it is reasonable to suspect that <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> may affect trends in tornado activity,<sup id="cite_ref-agw_tstm_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-agw_tstm-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> any such effect is not yet identifiable due to the complexity, local nature of the storms, and database quality issues. Any effect would vary by region.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC4-WGI_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC4-WGI-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Detection">Detection</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornado1857.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Tornado1857.jpg/220px-Tornado1857.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Tornado1857.jpg/330px-Tornado1857.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Tornado1857.jpg/440px-Tornado1857.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Path of a tornado across Wisconsin on August 21, 1857</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Convective_storm_detection" title="Convective storm detection">Convective storm detection</a></div> <p>Rigorous attempts to warn of tornadoes began in the United States in the mid-20th century. Before the 1950s, the only method of detecting a tornado was by someone seeing it on the ground. Often, news of a tornado would reach a local weather office after the storm. However, with the advent of weather radar, areas near a local office could get advance warning of severe weather. The first public <a href="/wiki/Tornado_warning" title="Tornado warning">tornado warnings</a> were issued in 1950 and the first <a href="/wiki/Tornado_watch" title="Tornado watch">tornado watches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Convective_outlooks" class="mw-redirect" title="Convective outlooks">convective outlooks</a> came about in 1952. In 1953, it was confirmed that <a href="/wiki/Hook_echo" title="Hook echo">hook echoes</a> were associated with tornadoes.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By recognizing these radar signatures, meteorologists could detect thunderstorms probably producing tornadoes from several miles away.<sup id="cite_ref-hook_echoes_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hook_echoes-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radar">Radar</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pulse-Doppler_radar" title="Pulse-Doppler radar">Pulse-Doppler radar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</a></div> <p>Today most developed countries have a network of weather radars, which serves as the primary method of detecting hook signatures that are likely associated with tornadoes. In the United States and a few other countries, Doppler weather radar stations are used. These devices measure the velocity and radial <a href="/wiki/Direction_(geometry,_geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Direction (geometry, geography)">direction</a> (towards or away from the radar) of the winds within a storm, and so can spot evidence of rotation in storms from over 160 km (100 miles) away. When storms are distant from a radar, only areas high within the storm are observed and the important areas below are not sampled.<sup id="cite_ref-airbusradar_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-airbusradar-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Data resolution also decreases with distance from the radar. Some meteorological situations leading to tornadogenesis are not readily detectable by radar and tornado development may occasionally take place more quickly than radar can complete a scan and send the batch of data. <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar#Velocity" title="Weather radar">Doppler weather radar</a> systems can detect <a href="/wiki/Mesocyclone" title="Mesocyclone">mesocyclones</a> within a supercell thunderstorm. This allows meteorologists to predict tornado formations throughout thunderstorms.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:05june-rapiddow-wide.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/05june-rapiddow-wide.gif/700px-05june-rapiddow-wide.gif" decoding="async" width="700" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/05june-rapiddow-wide.gif/1050px-05june-rapiddow-wide.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/05june-rapiddow-wide.gif 2x" data-file-width="1081" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Doppler_on_Wheels" title="Doppler on Wheels">Doppler on Wheels</a> radar loop of a <a href="/wiki/Hook_echo" title="Hook echo">hook echo</a> and associated mesocyclone in <a href="/wiki/Tornadoes_of_2009#June_5" title="Tornadoes of 2009">Goshen County, Wyoming on June 5, 2009</a>. Strong mesocyclones show up as adjacent areas of yellow and blue (on other radars, bright red and bright green), and usually indicate an imminent or occurring tornado.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Storm_spotting">Storm spotting</h3></div> <p><span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">In the mid-1970s, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a> (NWS) increased its efforts to train <a href="/wiki/Storm_spotting" title="Storm spotting">storm spotters</a> so they could spot key features of storms that indicate severe hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes, as well as storm damage and <a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">flash flooding</a>. The program was called <a href="/wiki/Skywarn" title="Skywarn">Skywarn</a>, and the spotters were local sheriff's deputies, state troopers, firefighters, ambulance drivers, <a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio_operator" title="Amateur radio operator">amateur radio operators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">civil defense</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Emergency_management" title="Emergency management">emergency management</a>) spotters, <a href="/wiki/Storm_chasing" title="Storm chasing">storm chasers</a>, and ordinary citizens. When severe weather is anticipated, local weather service offices request these spotters to look out for severe weather and report any tornadoes immediately, so that the office can warn of the hazard.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Spotters usually are trained by the NWS on behalf of their respective organizations, and report to them. The organizations activate public warning systems such as <a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_siren" title="Civil defense siren">sirens</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Alert_System" title="Emergency Alert System">Emergency Alert System</a> (EAS), and they forward the report to the NWS.<sup id="cite_ref-spotter_history_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spotter_history-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are more than 230,000 trained Skywarn weather spotters across the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-NWS_SKYWARN_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NWS_SKYWARN-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Canada, a similar network of volunteer weather watchers, called <a href="/wiki/Canwarn" class="mw-redirect" title="Canwarn">Canwarn</a>, helps spot severe weather, with more than 1,000 volunteers.<sup id="cite_ref-environment_Canada_detection_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-environment_Canada_detection-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Europe, several nations are organizing spotter networks under the auspices of <a href="/wiki/Skywarn_Europe" title="Skywarn Europe">Skywarn Europe</a><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) has maintained a network of spotters in the United Kingdom since 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Storm spotters are required because radar systems such as <a href="/wiki/NEXRAD" title="NEXRAD">NEXRAD</a> detect signatures that suggest the presence of tornadoes, rather than tornadoes as such.<sup id="cite_ref-NSSLsearch_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSSLsearch-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radar may give a warning before there is any visual evidence of a tornado or an imminent one, but <a href="/wiki/Ground_truth" title="Ground truth">ground truth</a> from an observer can give definitive information.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spotter's ability to see what radar cannot is especially important as distance from the radar site increases, because the radar beam becomes progressively higher in altitude further away from the radar, chiefly due to curvature of Earth, and the beam also spreads out.<sup id="cite_ref-airbusradar_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-airbusradar-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_evidence">Visual evidence</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_cloud12_-_NOAA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Wall_cloud12_-_NOAA.jpg/220px-Wall_cloud12_-_NOAA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Wall_cloud12_-_NOAA.jpg/330px-Wall_cloud12_-_NOAA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Wall_cloud12_-_NOAA.jpg/440px-Wall_cloud12_-_NOAA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1836" data-file-height="1180" /></a><figcaption>A rotating <a href="/wiki/Wall_cloud" title="Wall cloud">wall cloud</a> with <a href="/wiki/Rear_flank_downdraft" title="Rear flank downdraft">rear flank downdraft</a> clear slot evident to its left rear</figcaption></figure> <p>Storm spotters are trained to discern whether or not a storm seen from a distance is a supercell. They typically look to its rear, the main region of <a href="/wiki/Updraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Updraft">updraft</a> and inflow. Under that updraft is a rain-free base, and the next step of <a href="/wiki/Tornadogenesis" title="Tornadogenesis">tornadogenesis</a> is the formation of a rotating <a href="/wiki/Wall_cloud" title="Wall cloud">wall cloud</a>. The vast majority of intense tornadoes occur with a wall cloud on the backside of a supercell.<sup id="cite_ref-Basic_Spotter_Guide_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basic_Spotter_Guide-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence of a supercell is based on the storm's shape and structure, and cloud tower features such as a hard and vigorous updraft tower, a persistent, large <a href="/wiki/Overshooting_top" title="Overshooting top">overshooting top</a>, a hard anvil (especially when backsheared against strong upper level <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">winds</a>), and a corkscrew look or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Striation_(meteorology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Striation (meteorology) (page does not exist)">striations</a>. Under the storm and closer to where most tornadoes are found, evidence of a supercell and the likelihood of a tornado includes inflow bands (particularly when curved) such as a "beaver tail", and other clues such as strength of inflow, warmth and moistness of inflow air, how outflow- or inflow-dominant a storm appears, and how far is the front flank precipitation core from the wall cloud. Tornadogenesis is most likely at the interface of the updraft and <a href="/wiki/Rear_flank_downdraft" title="Rear flank downdraft">rear flank downdraft</a>, and requires a balance between the outflow and inflow.<sup id="cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Advanced_Spotter_Guide-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only wall clouds that rotate spawn tornadoes, and they usually precede the tornado between five and thirty minutes. Rotating wall clouds may be a visual manifestation of a low-level mesocyclone. Barring a low-level boundary, tornadogenesis is highly unlikely unless a rear flank downdraft occurs, which is usually visibly evidenced by evaporation of cloud adjacent to a corner of a wall cloud. A tornado often occurs as this happens or shortly afterwards; first, a funnel cloud dips and in nearly all cases by the time it reaches halfway down, a surface swirl has already developed, signifying a tornado is on the ground before condensation connects the surface circulation to the storm. Tornadoes may also develop without wall clouds, under flanking lines and on the leading edge. Spotters watch all areas of a storm, and the <a href="/wiki/Cloud_base" title="Cloud base">cloud base</a> and surface.<sup id="cite_ref-NSSL_tornadoes_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSSL_tornadoes-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extremes">Extremes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tornado_records" title="Tornado records">Tornado records</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Super_Outbreak_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Super_Outbreak_Map.jpg/220px-Super_Outbreak_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Super_Outbreak_Map.jpg/330px-Super_Outbreak_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Super_Outbreak_Map.jpg/440px-Super_Outbreak_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1345" data-file-height="1631" /></a><figcaption>A map of the tornado paths in the Super Outbreak (April 3–4, 1974)</figcaption></figure> <p>The tornado which holds most records in history was the <a href="/wiki/Tri-State_Tornado" class="mw-redirect" title="Tri-State Tornado">Tri-State Tornado</a>, which roared through parts of <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> on March 18, 1925. It was likely an F5, though tornadoes were not ranked on any scale in that era. It holds records for longest path length (219 miles; 352 km), longest duration (about 3.5 hours), and fastest forward speed for a significant tornado (73 mph; 117 km/h) anywhere on Earth. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history (695 dead).<sup id="cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tornado was also the costliest tornado in history at the time (unadjusted for inflation), but in the years since has been surpassed by several others if population changes over time are not considered. When costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it ranks third today.<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_damage_cost_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_damage_cost-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The deadliest tornado in world history was the <a href="/wiki/Daultipur-Salturia_Tornado" class="mw-redirect" title="Daultipur-Salturia Tornado">Daultipur-Salturia Tornado</a> in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Bangladesh_tornado_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bangladesh_tornado-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">Bangladesh has had at least 19 tornadoes in its history that killed more than 100 people, almost half of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_tornadoes_causing_100_or_more_deaths" title="List of tornadoes causing 100 or more deaths">total in the rest of the world</a>.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>One of the most extensive <a href="/wiki/Tornado_outbreak" title="Tornado outbreak">tornado outbreaks</a> on record was the <a href="/wiki/1974_Super_Outbreak" title="1974 Super Outbreak">1974 Super Outbreak</a>, which affected a large area of the central United States and extreme southern <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> on April 3 and 4, 1974. The outbreak featured 148 tornadoes in 18 hours, many of which were violent; seven were of F5 intensity, and twenty-three peaked at F4 strength. Sixteen tornadoes were on the ground at the same time during its peak. More than 300 people, possibly as many as 330, were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-super_outbreak_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-super_outbreak-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While direct measurement of the most violent tornado wind speeds is nearly impossible, since conventional <a href="/wiki/Anemometer" title="Anemometer">anemometers</a> would be destroyed by the intense winds and flying debris, some tornadoes have been scanned by <a href="/wiki/Doppler_on_Wheels" title="Doppler on Wheels">mobile Doppler radar units</a>, which can provide a good estimate of the tornado's winds. The highest wind speed ever measured in a tornado, which is also the highest wind speed ever recorded on the planet, is 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) in the F5 <a href="/wiki/1999_Bridge_Creek_%E2%80%93_Moore_tornado" class="mw-redirect" title="1999 Bridge Creek – Moore tornado">Bridge Creek-Moore, Oklahoma</a>, tornado which killed 36 people.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reading was taken about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-fastest_wind_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fastest_wind-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Storms that produce tornadoes can feature intense updrafts, sometimes exceeding 150 mph (240 km/h). Debris from a tornado can be lofted into the parent storm and carried a very long distance. A tornado which affected <a href="/wiki/Great_Bend,_Kansas" title="Great Bend, Kansas">Great Bend, Kansas</a>, in November 1915, was an extreme case, where a "rain of debris" occurred 80 miles (130 km) from the town, a sack of flour was found 110 miles (180 km) away, and a cancelled check from the Great Bend bank was found in a field outside of <a href="/wiki/Palmyra,_Nebraska" title="Palmyra, Nebraska">Palmyra, Nebraska</a>, 305 miles (491 km) to the northeast.<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_project_oddities_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_project_oddities-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Waterspouts and tornadoes have been advanced as an explanation for instances of <a href="/wiki/Rain_of_animals" title="Rain of animals">raining fish and other animals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety">Safety</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tornado_preparedness" title="Tornado preparedness">Tornado preparedness</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birmingham_tornado_2005_damage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Birmingham_tornado_2005_damage.jpg/220px-Birmingham_tornado_2005_damage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Birmingham_tornado_2005_damage.jpg/330px-Birmingham_tornado_2005_damage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Birmingham_tornado_2005_damage.jpg/440px-Birmingham_tornado_2005_damage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Damage from the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_tornado_of_2005" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham tornado of 2005">Birmingham tornado of 2005</a>. An unusually strong example of a tornado event in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the Birmingham Tornado resulted in 19 injuries, mostly from falling trees.</figcaption></figure> <p>Though tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are precautions and preventative measures that can be taken to increase the chances of survival. Authorities such as the <a href="/wiki/Storm_Prediction_Center" title="Storm Prediction Center">Storm Prediction Center</a> in the United States advise having a pre-determined plan should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building greatly increases chances of survival.<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_safety_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_safety-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In tornado-prone areas, many buildings have underground <a href="/wiki/Storm_cellar" title="Storm cellar">storm cellars</a>, which have saved thousands of lives.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some countries have meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such as <a href="/wiki/Tornado_watch" title="Tornado watch">tornado watches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tornado_warning" title="Tornado warning">warnings</a> in the United States and Canada). <a href="/wiki/Weather_radio" title="Weather radio">Weather radios</a> provide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for the local area, mainly available only in the United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible, meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of debris underneath the overpass.<sup id="cite_ref-highway_overpasses_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-highway_overpasses-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Myths_and_misconceptions">Myths and misconceptions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tornado_myths" title="Tornado myths">Tornado myths</a></div> <p>Folklore often identifies a green sky with tornadoes, and though the phenomenon may be associated with severe weather, there is no evidence linking it specifically with tornadoes.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by the tornado. While there is a large drop in <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a> inside a strong tornado, the pressure difference is unlikely to cause significant damage. Opening windows may instead increase the severity of the tornado's damage.<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_project_myths_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_project_myths-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_project_myths_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_project_myths-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tornado_myths_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_myths-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another commonly held misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. This belief is partly inspired by widely circulated video captured during the <a href="/wiki/April_26,_1991_tornado_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="April 26, 1991 tornado outbreak">1991 tornado outbreak</a> near <a href="/wiki/Andover,_Kansas" title="Andover, Kansas">Andover, Kansas</a>, where a news crew and several other people took shelter under an overpass on the <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Turnpike" title="Kansas Turnpike">Kansas Turnpike</a> and safely rode out a tornado as it passed nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-noaa-overpass_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-noaa-overpass-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a highway overpass is a dangerous place during a tornado, and the subjects of the video remained safe due to an unlikely combination of events: the storm in question was a weak tornado, the tornado did not directly strike the overpass,<sup id="cite_ref-noaa-overpass_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-noaa-overpass-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the overpass itself was of a unique design. Due to the <a href="/wiki/Venturi_effect" title="Venturi effect">Venturi effect</a>, tornadic winds are accelerated in the confined space of an overpass.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, in the <a href="/wiki/1999_Oklahoma_tornado_outbreak" title="1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak">1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak</a> of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes, and at each of the three locations there was a fatality, along with many life-threatening injuries.<sup id="cite_ref-highway_overpass_danger_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-highway_overpass_danger-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2,000 homes were completely destroyed and another 7,000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.<sup id="cite_ref-highway_overpasses_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-highway_overpasses-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An old belief is that the southwest corner of a basement provides the most protection during a tornado. The safest place is the side or corner of an underground room opposite the tornado's direction of approach (usually the northeast corner), or the central-most room on the lowest floor. Taking shelter in a basement, under a staircase, or under a sturdy piece of furniture such as a workbench further increases the chances of survival.<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_project_myths_126-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_project_myths-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tornado_myths_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_myths-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are areas which people believe to be protected from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> forces.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,<sup id="cite_ref-Tornadoes_in_mountains_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tornadoes_in_mountains-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> affect valleys, and have damaged <a href="/wiki/List_of_tornadoes_striking_downtown_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tornadoes striking downtown areas">several city centers</a>. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more susceptible than others.<sup id="cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tornado_project_myths_126-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_project_myths-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tornado_myths_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_myths-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ongoing_research">Ongoing research</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_tornado_research" title="History of tornado research">History of tornado research</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornado_with_DOW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Tornado_with_DOW.jpg/220px-Tornado_with_DOW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Tornado_with_DOW.jpg/330px-Tornado_with_DOW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Tornado_with_DOW.jpg/440px-Tornado_with_DOW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1552" data-file-height="1116" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Doppler_on_Wheels" title="Doppler on Wheels">Doppler on Wheels</a> unit observing a <a href="/wiki/Tornadoes_of_2004#May_12" title="Tornadoes of 2004">tornado</a> near <a href="/wiki/Attica,_Kansas" title="Attica, Kansas">Attica, Kansas</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Meteorology is a relatively young science and the study of tornadoes is newer still. Although researched for about 140 years and intensively so for around 60 years, there are still aspects of tornadoes which remain a mystery.<sup id="cite_ref-VORTEX_book_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VORTEX_book-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meteorologists have a fairly good understanding of the development of <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorms</a> and mesocyclones,<sup id="cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Extreme_Weather-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the meteorological conditions conducive to their formation. However, the step from <a href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">supercell</a>, or other respective formative processes, to <a href="/wiki/Tornadogenesis" title="Tornadogenesis">tornadogenesis</a> and the prediction of tornadic vs. non-tornadic mesocyclones is not yet well known and is the focus of much research.<sup id="cite_ref-LouieLouie_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LouieLouie-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also under study are the low-level mesocyclone and the <a href="/wiki/Vortex_stretching" title="Vortex stretching">stretching</a> of low-level <a href="/wiki/Vorticity" title="Vorticity">vorticity</a> which tightens into a tornado,<sup id="cite_ref-LouieLouie_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LouieLouie-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in particular, what are the processes and what is the relationship of the environment and the convective storm. Intense tornadoes have been observed forming simultaneously with a mesocyclone aloft (rather than succeeding mesocyclogenesis) and some intense tornadoes have occurred without a mid-level mesocyclone.<sup id="cite_ref-Seymour_2001_32_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seymour_2001_32-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In particular, the role of <a href="/wiki/Downdraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Downdraft">downdrafts</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Rear-flank_downdraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Rear-flank downdraft">rear-flank downdraft</a>, and the role of <a href="/wiki/Baroclinic" class="mw-redirect" title="Baroclinic">baroclinic</a> boundaries, are intense areas of study.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reliably predicting tornado intensity and longevity remains a problem, as do details affecting characteristics of a tornado during its life cycle and tornadolysis. Other rich areas of research are tornadoes associated with <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mesovortex" class="extiw" title="wikt:mesovortex">mesovortices</a> within linear thunderstorm structures and within tropical cyclones.<sup id="cite_ref-tornado_forecasting_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tornado_forecasting-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meteorologists still do not know the exact mechanisms by which most tornadoes form, and occasional tornadoes still strike without a tornado warning being issued.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analysis of observations including both stationary and mobile (surface and aerial) <a href="/wiki/In-situ" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ">in-situ</a> and <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> (passive and active) instruments generates new ideas and refines existing notions. <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">Numerical modeling</a> also provides new insights as observations and new discoveries are integrated into our physical understanding and then tested in <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">computer simulations</a> which validate new notions as well as produce entirely new theoretical findings, many of which are otherwise unattainable. Importantly, development of new observation technologies and installation of finer spatial and temporal resolution observation networks have aided increased understanding and better predictions.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research programs, including field projects such as the <a href="/wiki/VORTEX_projects" title="VORTEX projects">VORTEX projects</a> (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment), deployment of <a href="/wiki/TOtable_Tornado_Observatory" title="TOtable Tornado Observatory">TOTO</a> (the TOtable Tornado Observatory), Doppler on Wheels (DOW), and dozens of other programs, hope to solve many questions that still plague meteorologists.<sup id="cite_ref-field_programs_history_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-field_programs_history-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Universities, government agencies such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Severe_Storms_Laboratory" title="National Severe Storms Laboratory">National Severe Storms Laboratory</a>, private-sector meteorologists, and the <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research" title="National Center for Atmospheric Research">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> are some of the organizations very active in research; with various sources of funding, both private and public, a chief entity being the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NSSLsearch_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSSLsearch-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pace of research is partly constrained by the number of observations that can be taken; gaps in information about the wind, pressure, and moisture content throughout the local atmosphere; and the computing power available for simulation.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Solar storms similar to tornadoes have been recorded, but it is unknown how closely related they are to their terrestrial counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Tornado_time_lapse.webm/120px--Tornado_time_lapse.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="120" height="68" data-durationhint="37" data-mwtitle="Tornado_time_lapse.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fa/Tornado_time_lapse.webm/Tornado_time_lapse.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fa/Tornado_time_lapse.webm/Tornado_time_lapse.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fa/Tornado_time_lapse.webm/Tornado_time_lapse.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Tornado_time_lapse.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fa/Tornado_time_lapse.webm/Tornado_time_lapse.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fa/Tornado_time_lapse.webm/Tornado_time_lapse.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fa/Tornado_time_lapse.webm/Tornado_time_lapse.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Time-lapse of a tornado's life cycle near <a href="/wiki/Prospect_Valley,_Colorado" title="Prospect Valley, Colorado">Prospect Valley, Colorado</a> on June 19, 2018.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seymour_Texas_Tornado.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979."><img alt="A tornado that occurred at Seymour, Texas in April 1979." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Seymour_Texas_Tornado.jpg/120px-Seymour_Texas_Tornado.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Seymour_Texas_Tornado.jpg/180px-Seymour_Texas_Tornado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Seymour_Texas_Tornado.jpg/240px-Seymour_Texas_Tornado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="334" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A tornado that occurred at <a href="/wiki/Seymour,_Texas" title="Seymour, Texas">Seymour, Texas</a> in April 1979.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roanoke_tornado.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="F4 tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004."><img alt="F4 tornado in Roanoke, Illinois on July 13, 2004." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Roanoke_tornado.jpg/120px-Roanoke_tornado.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Roanoke_tornado.jpg/180px-Roanoke_tornado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Roanoke_tornado.jpg/240px-Roanoke_tornado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="230" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">F4 tornado in <a href="/wiki/Roanoke,_Illinois" title="Roanoke, Illinois">Roanoke, Illinois</a> on July 13, 2004.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornadic_classic_supercell_radar.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="A radar reflectivity image of a classic tornadic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999."><img alt="A radar reflectivity image of a classic tornadic supercell near Oklahoma City, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tornadic_classic_supercell_radar.gif/120px-Tornadic_classic_supercell_radar.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tornadic_classic_supercell_radar.gif/180px-Tornadic_classic_supercell_radar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tornadic_classic_supercell_radar.gif/240px-Tornadic_classic_supercell_radar.gif 2x" data-file-width="502" data-file-height="473" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A radar reflectivity image of a classic tornadic supercell near <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City,_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Oklahoma City, Oklahoma">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma</a> on May 3, 1999.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rope_Tornado_near_Yuma,_Colorado.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rope Tornado near Yuma, Colorado on August 8, 2023."><img alt="Rope Tornado near Yuma, Colorado on August 8, 2023." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Rope_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg/120px-Rope_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Rope_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg/180px-Rope_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Rope_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg/240px-Rope_Tornado_near_Yuma%2C_Colorado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rope Tornado near <a href="/wiki/Yuma,_Colorado" title="Yuma, Colorado">Yuma, Colorado</a> on August 8, 2023.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_City_Oklahoma_Tornado_(mature).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973."><img alt="The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in Union City, Oklahoma on May 24, 1973." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Union_City_Oklahoma_Tornado_%28mature%29.jpg/120px-Union_City_Oklahoma_Tornado_%28mature%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Union_City_Oklahoma_Tornado_%28mature%29.jpg/180px-Union_City_Oklahoma_Tornado_%28mature%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Union_City_Oklahoma_Tornado_%28mature%29.jpg/240px-Union_City_Oklahoma_Tornado_%28mature%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="332" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The mature stage of a tornado that occurred in <a href="/wiki/Union_City,_Oklahoma" title="Union City, Oklahoma">Union City, Oklahoma</a> on May 24, 1973.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornado_near_Punkin_Center,_CO.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A wall cloud with tornado South of Limon, Colorado."><img alt="A wall cloud with tornado South of Limon, Colorado." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tornado_near_Punkin_Center%2C_CO.jpg/120px-Tornado_near_Punkin_Center%2C_CO.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tornado_near_Punkin_Center%2C_CO.jpg/180px-Tornado_near_Punkin_Center%2C_CO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tornado_near_Punkin_Center%2C_CO.jpg/240px-Tornado_near_Punkin_Center%2C_CO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1794" data-file-height="1032" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A wall cloud with tornado South of <a href="/wiki/Limon,_Colorado" title="Limon, Colorado">Limon, Colorado</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:April_14,_2012_Marquette,_Kansas_EF4_tornado.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="EF4 tornado near Marquette, Kansas on April 14, 2012."><img alt="EF4 tornado near Marquette, Kansas on April 14, 2012." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/April_14%2C_2012_Marquette%2C_Kansas_EF4_tornado.JPG/120px-April_14%2C_2012_Marquette%2C_Kansas_EF4_tornado.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/April_14%2C_2012_Marquette%2C_Kansas_EF4_tornado.JPG/180px-April_14%2C_2012_Marquette%2C_Kansas_EF4_tornado.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/April_14%2C_2012_Marquette%2C_Kansas_EF4_tornado.JPG/240px-April_14%2C_2012_Marquette%2C_Kansas_EF4_tornado.JPG 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="546" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">EF4 tornado near <a href="/wiki/Marquette,_Kansas" title="Marquette, Kansas">Marquette, Kansas</a> on April 14, 2012.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Colorado_Mountain_Tornado.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A tornado in the mountains of Park County, Colorado."><img alt="A tornado in the mountains of Park County, Colorado." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Colorado_Mountain_Tornado.jpg/120px-Colorado_Mountain_Tornado.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Colorado_Mountain_Tornado.jpg/180px-Colorado_Mountain_Tornado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Colorado_Mountain_Tornado.jpg/240px-Colorado_Mountain_Tornado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="810" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A tornado in the mountains of <a href="/wiki/Park_County,_Colorado" title="Park County, Colorado">Park County, Colorado</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NorthSeaTornadoEF0.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="F0 tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011."><img alt="F0 tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/NorthSeaTornadoEF0.jpg/90px-NorthSeaTornadoEF0.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/NorthSeaTornadoEF0.jpg/135px-NorthSeaTornadoEF0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/NorthSeaTornadoEF0.jpg/180px-NorthSeaTornadoEF0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3216" data-file-height="4288" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> F0 tornado in its final stages over the North Sea near Vrångö, Sweden on July 17, 2011.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png/32px-EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png/48px-EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png/64px-EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png 2x" data-file-width="1085" data-file-height="726" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Tornadoes" title="Portal:Tornadoes">Tornadoes portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/32px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/48px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg/64px-Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Weather" title="Portal:Weather">Weather portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_significance_of_tornadoes" title="Cultural significance of tornadoes">Cultural significance of tornadoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tornadoes_and_tornado_outbreaks" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks">List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_F5_and_EF5_tornadoes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes">List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_F4_and_EF4_tornadoes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of F4 and EF4 tornadoes">List of F4 and EF4 tornadoes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_F4_and_EF4_tornadoes_(2020%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of F4 and EF4 tornadoes (2020–present)">List of F4 and EF4 tornadoes (2020–present)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tropical_cyclone-spawned_tornadoes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes">List of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tornadoes_with_confirmed_satellite_tornadoes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tornadoes with confirmed satellite tornadoes">List of tornadoes with confirmed satellite tornadoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_flow" title="Secondary flow">Secondary flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skipping_tornado" title="Skipping tornado">Skipping tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tornado" title="Space tornado">Space tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado_preparedness" title="Tornado preparedness">Tornado preparedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornadoes_of_2024" title="Tornadoes of 2024">Tornadoes of 2024</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">Typhoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vortex" title="Vortex">Vortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlwind" title="Whirlwind">Whirlwind</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cyclone">"merriam-webster.com"</a>. merriam-webster.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170709022406/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cyclone">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-07-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-09-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=merriam-webster.com&rft.pub=merriam-webster.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fcyclone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrison2012" class="citation book cs1">Garrison, Tom (2012). <i>Essentials of Oceanography</i>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8400-6155-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8400-6155-3"><bdi>978-0-8400-6155-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Oceanography&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8400-6155-3&rft.aulast=Garrison&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fastest_wind-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fastest_wind_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fastest_wind_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWurman2008" class="citation web cs1">Wurman, Joshua (2008-08-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070205124033/http://www.cswr.org/dow/dow.htm">"Doppler on Wheels"</a>. Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cswr.org/dow/DOW.htm">the original</a> on 2007-02-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Doppler+on+Wheels&rft.pub=Center+for+Severe+Weather+Research&rft.date=2008-08-29&rft.aulast=Wurman&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcswr.org%2Fdow%2FDOW.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-widest_tornado-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-widest_tornado_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-widest_tornado_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crh.noaa.gov/oax/archive/hallam/hallam.php">"Hallam Nebraska Tornado"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-10-02. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130430223118/http://www.crh.noaa.gov/oax/archive/hallam/hallam.php">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service&rft.atitle=Hallam+Nebraska+Tornado&rft.date=2005-10-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crh.noaa.gov%2Foax%2Farchive%2Fhallam%2Fhallam.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SPC_FAQ-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SPC_FAQ_5-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Edwards_(meteorologist)" title="Roger Edwards (meteorologist)">Edwards, Roger</a> (2006-04-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060929185156/http://www.spc.ncep.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/">"The Online Tornado FAQ"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Storm_Prediction_Center" title="Storm Prediction Center">Storm Prediction Center</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.ncep.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/">the original</a> on 2006-09-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Storm+Prediction+Center&rft.atitle=The+Online+Tornado+FAQ&rft.date=2006-04-04&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.ncep.noaa.gov%2Ffaq%2Ftornado%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Weather_Service2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a> (2009-02-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.erh.noaa.gov/btv/events/15Jan2009/overview.shtml">"15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V"</a>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101224234/http://www.weather.gov/btv">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-01-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=15+January+2009%3A+Lake+Champlain+Sea+Smoke%2C+Steam+Devils%2C+and+Waterspout%3A+Chapters+IV+and+V&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2009-02-03&rft.au=National+Weather+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.erh.noaa.gov%2Fbtv%2Fevents%2F15Jan2009%2Foverview.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp">"Tornado Alley, USA: Science News Online, May 11, 2002"</a>. 25 August 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp">the original</a> on 25 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tornado+Alley%2C+USA%3A+Science+News+Online%2C+May+11%2C+2002&rft.date=2006-08-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.org%2Farticles%2F20020511%2Fbob9.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB_tornado_climatology-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB_tornado_climatology_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB_tornado_climatology_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-218357/tornado">"Tornado: Global occurrence"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica Online</i>. 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070317211343/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-218357/tornado">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-03-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tornado%3A+Global+occurrence&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-218357%2Ftornado&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://weather.com/storms/tornado/news/tornadoes-around-world-20140329">"TORNADO CENTRAL, Where Tornadoes Strike Around the World, February 12, 2018"</a>. 12 February 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210930215440/https://weather.com/storms/tornado/news/tornadoes-around-world-20140329">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=TORNADO+CENTRAL%2C+Where+Tornadoes+Strike+Around+the+World%2C+February+12%2C+2018&rft.date=2018-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweather.com%2Fstorms%2Ftornado%2Fnews%2Ftornadoes-around-world-20140329&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColemanKnuppSpannElliott2011" class="citation journal cs1">Coleman, Timothy A.; Knupp, Kevin R.; Spann, James; Elliott, J. B.; Peters, Brian E. (2011-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F2010BAMS3062.1">"The History (and Future) of Tornado Warning Dissemination in the United States"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</i>. <b>92</b> (5): 567–582. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011BAMS...92..567C">2011BAMS...92..567C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F2010BAMS3062.1">10.1175/2010BAMS3062.1</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Meteorological+Society&rft.atitle=The+History+%28and+Future%29+of+Tornado+Warning+Dissemination+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=567-582&rft.date=2011-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F2010BAMS3062.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011BAMS...92..567C&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=Timothy+A.&rft.au=Knupp%2C+Kevin+R.&rft.au=Spann%2C+James&rft.au=Elliott%2C+J.+B.&rft.au=Peters%2C+Brian+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F2010BAMS3062.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhrens2016" class="citation book cs1">Ahrens, C. Donald (2016). <i>Meteorology today: an introduction to weather, climate, and the environment</i> (11th ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-11358-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-11358-9"><bdi>978-1-305-11358-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meteorology+today%3A+an+introduction+to+weather%2C+climate%2C+and+the+environment&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA%2C+USA&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-305-11358-9&rft.aulast=Ahrens&rft.aufirst=C.+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeaden2004" class="citation web cs1">Meaden, Terrance (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100430211910/http://www.torro.org.uk/TORRO/ECSS_Slide_Show/2004%20SPAIN%20ECSS%20Post-FINAL%20slide%20show.html">"Wind Scales: Beaufort, T – Scale, and Fujita's Scale"</a>. Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torro.org.uk/TORRO/ECSS_Slide_Show/2004%20SPAIN%20ECSS%20Post-FINAL%20slide%20show.html">the original</a> on 2010-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wind+Scales%3A+Beaufort%2C+T+%E2%80%93+Scale%2C+and+Fujita%27s+Scale&rft.pub=Tornado+and+Storm+Research+Organisation&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Meaden&rft.aufirst=Terrance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torro.org.uk%2FTORRO%2FECSS_Slide_Show%2F2004%2520SPAIN%2520ECSS%2520Post-FINAL%2520slide%2520show.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.essl.org/media/publications/IF-scale_v0.10.pdf">"The International Fujita (IF) Scale Tornado and Wind Damage Assessment Guide"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ESSL.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/European_Severe_Storms_Laboratory" title="European Severe Storms Laboratory">European Severe Storms Laboratory</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220428044530/https://www.essl.org/media/publications/IF-scale_v0.10.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 28 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ESSL.org&rft.atitle=The+International+Fujita+%28IF%29+Scale+Tornado+and+Wind+Damage+Assessment+Guide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.essl.org%2Fmedia%2Fpublications%2FIF-scale_v0.10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EF_SPC-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EF_SPC_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/efscale/ef-scale.html">"Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage"</a>. <i>Storm Prediction Center</i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-02-01. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120711091501/http://www.spc.noaa.gov/efscale/ef-scale.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-07-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Storm+Prediction+Center&rft.atitle=Enhanced+F+Scale+for+Tornado+Damage&rft.date=2007-02-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Fefscale%2Fef-scale.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsLadueFerreeScharfenberg2013" class="citation journal cs1">Edwards, Roger; Ladue, James G.; Ferree, John T.; Scharfenberg, Kevin; Maier, Chris; Coulbourne, William L. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FBAMS-D-11-00006.1">"Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</i>. <b>94</b> (5): 641–653. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013BAMS...94..641E">2013BAMS...94..641E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FBAMS-D-11-00006.1">10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00006.1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7842905">7842905</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Meteorological+Society&rft.atitle=Tornado+Intensity+Estimation%3A+Past%2C+Present%2C+and+Future&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=641-653&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7842905%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2FBAMS-D-11-00006.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013BAMS...94..641E&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Ladue%2C+James+G.&rft.au=Ferree%2C+John+T.&rft.au=Scharfenberg%2C+Kevin&rft.au=Maier%2C+Chris&rft.au=Coulbourne%2C+William+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252FBAMS-D-11-00006.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-etymology_1-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-etymology_1_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-etymology_1_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=tornado">"tornado"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=tornado&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dtornado&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-etymology_2-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-etymology_2_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMish1993" class="citation book cs1">Mish, Frederick C. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/merriamwebstersc01merr"><i>Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary</i></a> (10 ed.). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87779-709-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87779-709-9"><bdi>0-87779-709-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merriam+Webster%27s+Collegiate+Dictionary&rft.edition=10&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-87779-709-9&rft.aulast=Mish&rft.aufirst=Frederick+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmerriamwebstersc01merr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TT-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TT_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TT_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall2008" class="citation web cs1">Marshall, Tim (2008-11-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081016163615/http://www.tornadoproject.com/cellar/tttttttt.htm">"The Tornado Project's Terrific, Timeless and Sometimes Trivial Truths about Those Terrifying Twirling Twisters!"</a>. The Tornado Project. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tornadoproject.com/cellar/tttttttt.htm">the original</a> on 2008-10-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Tornado+Project%27s+Terrific%2C+Timeless+and+Sometimes+Trivial+Truths+about+Those+Terrifying+Twirling+Twisters%21&rft.pub=The+Tornado+Project&rft.date=2008-11-09&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tornadoproject.com%2Fcellar%2Ftttttttt.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nssl_faq-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nssl_faq_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120523165229/http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/tornado/tor_faq.shtml">"Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes"</a>. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2009-07-20. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/tornado/tor_faq.shtml">the original</a> on 2012-05-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions+about+Tornadoes&rft.pub=National+Severe+Storms+Laboratory&rft.date=2009-07-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nssl.noaa.gov%2Fprimer%2Ftornado%2Ftor_faq.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glossary_of_Meteorology-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Glossary_of_Meteorology_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Glossary_of_Meteorology_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlossary_of_Meteorology2020" class="citation book cs1">Glossary of Meteorology (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Tornado"><i>Tornado</i></a> (2 ed.). American Meteorological Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210508191421/https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Tornado">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-05-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tornado&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2020&rft.au=Glossary+of+Meteorology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglossary.ametsoc.org%2Fwiki%2FTornado&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Advanced_Spotter_Guide-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Advanced_Spotter_Guide_21-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crh.noaa.gov/oax/skywarn/adv_spotters.pdf">"Advanced Spotters' Field Guide"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003-01-03. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.crh.noaa.gov/oax/skywarn/adv_spotters.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Advanced+Spotters%27+Field+Guide&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2003-01-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crh.noaa.gov%2Foax%2Fskywarn%2Fadv_spotters.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado?-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tornado?_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoswell2001" class="citation web cs1">Doswell, Charles A. III (2001-10-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cimms.ou.edu/~doswell/a_tornado/atornado.html">"What is a tornado?"</a>. Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180703163826/http://www.cimms.ou.edu/~doswell/a_tornado/atornado.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+a+tornado%3F&rft.pub=Cooperative+Institute+for+Mesoscale+Meteorological+Studies&rft.date=2001-10-01&rft.aulast=Doswell&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.+III&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cimms.ou.edu%2F~doswell%2Fa_tornado%2Fatornado.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Renno-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Renno_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenno2008" class="citation journal cs1">Renno, Nilton O. (2008-07-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vortexengine.ca/misc/Renno_2008.pdf">"A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Tellus_A" title="Tellus A">Tellus A</a></i>. <b>60</b> (4): 688–99. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008TellA..60..688R">2008TellA..60..688R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0870.2008.00331.x">10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F73164">2027.42/73164</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://vortexengine.ca/misc/Renno_2008.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tellus+A&rft.atitle=A+thermodynamically+general+theory+for+convective+vortices&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=688-99&rft.date=2008-07-03&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027.42%2F73164&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1600-0870.2008.00331.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008TellA..60..688R&rft.aulast=Renno&rft.aufirst=Nilton+O.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvortexengine.ca%2Fmisc%2FRenno_2008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130205095929/http://glossary.ametsoc.org/index.php?title=Special%3AAllPages%2FF"><i>Funnel cloud</i></a> (2 ed.). <a href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</a>. 2000-06-30. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glossary.ametsoc.org/index.php?title=Special:AllPages/F">the original</a> on 2013-02-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-02-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Funnel+cloud&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2000-06-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglossary.ametsoc.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DSpecial%3AAllPages%2FF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranick2006" class="citation web cs1">Branick, Michael (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030803230231/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/severewx/glossary4.php#t">"A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters"</a>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/severewx/glossary4.php#t">the original</a> on 2003-08-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+Glossary+of+Weather+Terms+for+Storm+Spotters&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Branick&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Foun%2Fseverewx%2Fglossary4.php%23t&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-significant_tornadoes-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-significant_tornadoes_26-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrazulis1993" class="citation book cs1">Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). <i>Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991</i>. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-879362-03-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-879362-03-1"><bdi>1-879362-03-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Significant+Tornadoes+1680%E2%80%931991&rft.place=St.+Johnsbury%2C+VT&rft.pub=The+Tornado+Project+of+Environmental+Films&rft.date=1993-07&rft.isbn=1-879362-03-1&rft.aulast=Grazulis&rft.aufirst=Thomas+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneiderBrooksSchaefer2004" class="citation web cs1">Schneider, Russell S.; Brooks, Harold E. & Schaefer, Joseph T. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/81933.pdf">"Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/81933.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-03-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tornado+Outbreak+Day+Sequences%3A+Historic+Events+and+Climatology+%281875%E2%80%932003%29&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Russell+S.&rft.au=Brooks%2C+Harold+E.&rft.au=Schaefer%2C+Joseph+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fams.confex.com%2Fams%2Fpdfpapers%2F81933.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handy_Weather_Answer_Book_28-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyons1997" class="citation book cs1">Lyons, Walter A. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon/page/175">"Tornadoes"</a>. <i>The Handy Weather Answer Book</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit, Michigan</a>: Visible Ink press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon/page/175">175–200</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7876-1034-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7876-1034-8"><bdi>0-7876-1034-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tornadoes&rft.btitle=The+Handy+Weather+Answer+Book&rft.place=Detroit%2C+Michigan&rft.pages=175-200&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Visible+Ink+press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-7876-1034-8&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Walter+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandyweatheransw00lyon%2Fpage%2F175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wedge_tornado-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wedge_tornado_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wedge_tornado_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Edwards_(meteorologist)" title="Roger Edwards (meteorologist)">Edwards, Roger</a> (2008-07-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/binger.htm">"Wedge Tornado"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511042056/https://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/binger.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-05-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service&rft.atitle=Wedge+Tornado&rft.date=2008-07-18&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Ffaq%2Ftornado%2Fbinger.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thebible-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thebible_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thebible_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger1985" class="citation journal cs1">Singer, Oscar (May–July 1985). "27.0.0 General Laws Influencing the Creation of Bands of Strong Bands". <i>Bible of Weather Forecasting</i>. <b>1</b> (4): 57–58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bible+of+Weather+Forecasting&rft.atitle=27.0.0+General+Laws+Influencing+the+Creation+of+Bands+of+Strong+Bands&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=57-58&rft.date=1985-05%2F1985-07&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Oscar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rope_tornado-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rope_tornado_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Edwards_(meteorologist)" title="Roger Edwards (meteorologist)">Edwards, Roger</a> (2008-07-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/el_reno.htm">"Rope Tornado"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070711024223/http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/el_reno.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-07-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service&rft.atitle=Rope+Tornado&rft.date=2008-07-18&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Ffaq%2Ftornado%2Fel_reno.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/?n=events-20130531-elreno">"May 31–June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flood Event: The May 31, 2013 El Reno, OK Tornado"</a>. <i>National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office</i>. Norman, Oklahoma: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. July 28, 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150725013446/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/?n=events-20130531-elreno">Archived</a> from the original on July 25, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 25,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service+Weather+Forecast+Office&rft.atitle=May+31%E2%80%93June+1%2C+2013+Tornado+and+Flash+Flood+Event%3A+The+May+31%2C+2013+El+Reno%2C+OK+Tornado&rft.date=2014-07-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Foun%2F%3Fn%3Devents-20130531-elreno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoswell" class="citation web cs1">Doswell, Charles A. III. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070614014358/http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/ams/AMS%20VP/Storm%20Conference/NESC%20Presentations/32ndNESC_Presentation/Banquet/Doswell.ppt">"The Tri-State Tornado of 18 March 1925"</a>. Reanalysis Project. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/ams/AMS%20VP/Storm%20Conference/NESC%20Presentations/32ndNESC_Presentation/Banquet/Doswell.ppt">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Powerpoint Presentation)</span> on 2007-06-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-04-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Tri-State+Tornado+of+18+March+1925&rft.pub=Reanalysis+Project&rft.aulast=Doswell&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.+III&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapollo.lsc.vsc.edu%2Fams%2FAMS%2520VP%2FStorm%2520Conference%2FNESC%2520Presentations%2F32ndNESC_Presentation%2FBanquet%2FDoswell.ppt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PD_tornado_images-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PD_tornado_images_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PD_tornado_images_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Edwards_(meteorologist)" title="Roger Edwards (meteorologist)">Edwards, Roger</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/torscans.htm">"Public Domain Tornado Images"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060930133841/http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/torscans.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2006-09-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service&rft.atitle=Public+Domain+Tornado+Images&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Ffaq%2Ftornado%2Ftorscans.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-target_tornado-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-target_tornado_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-target_tornado_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Linda Mercer Lloyd (1996). <i>Target: Tornado</i> (Videotape). The Weather Channel.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Target%3A+Tornado&rft.pub=The+Weather+Channel&rft.date=1996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031011045434/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/stormspotting/basics.php">"The Basics of Storm Spotting"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009-01-15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/stormspotting/basics.php">the original</a> on 2003-10-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service&rft.atitle=The+Basics+of+Storm+Spotting&rft.date=2009-01-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Foun%2Fstormspotting%2Fbasics.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersonKwsselman1978" class="citation journal cs1">Peterson, Franklynn; Kwsselman, Judi R (July 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YwEAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA76">"Tornado factory – giant simulator probes killer twisters"</a>. <i>Popular Science</i>. <b>213</b> (1): 76–78.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science&rft.atitle=Tornado+factory+%E2%80%93+giant+simulator+probes+killer+twisters&rft.volume=213&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=76-78&rft.date=1978-07&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Franklynn&rft.au=Kwsselman%2C+Judi+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYwEAAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Science_News_2-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Science_News_2_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonastersky1999" class="citation web cs1">Monastersky, R. (1999-05-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/archive/oklahoma-tornado-sets-wind-record?mode=magazine&context=1921">"Oklahoma Tornado Sets Wind Record"</a>. <i>Science News</i>. pp. 308–09. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402141112/https://www.sciencenews.org/archive/oklahoma-tornado-sets-wind-record?mode=magazine&context=1921">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-04-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-10-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+News&rft.atitle=Oklahoma+Tornado+Sets+Wind+Record&rft.pages=308-09&rft.date=1999-05-15&rft.aulast=Monastersky&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.org%2Farchive%2Foklahoma-tornado-sets-wind-record%3Fmode%3Dmagazine%26context%3D1921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inside_eyewitness-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-inside_eyewitness_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustice1930" class="citation journal cs1">Justice, Alonzo A. (1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281930%2958%3C205%3ASTIOAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2">"Seeing the Inside of a Tornado"</a>. <i>Monthly Weather Review</i>. <b>58</b> (5): 205–06. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1930MWRv...58..205J">1930MWRv...58..205J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281930%2958%3C205%3ASTIOAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(1930)58<205:STIOAT>2.0.CO;2</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Weather+Review&rft.atitle=Seeing+the+Inside+of+a+Tornado&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=205-06&rft.date=1930&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%281930%2958%3C205%3ASTIOAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1930MWRv...58..205J&rft.aulast=Justice&rft.aufirst=Alonzo+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F1520-0493%25281930%252958%253C205%253ASTIOAT%253E2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2003" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Roy S. (2003). "Inside a Texas Tornado". <i>Tornadoes</i>. Greenhaven Press. pp. 59–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7377-1473-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7377-1473-5"><bdi>0-7377-1473-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Inside+a+Texas+Tornado&rft.btitle=Tornadoes&rft.pages=59-65&rft.pub=Greenhaven+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7377-1473-5&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Roy+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Origin_of_Updraft_Rotation_in_Supercells-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Origin_of_Updraft_Rotation_in_Supercells_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies-Jones1984" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Davies-Jones" title="Robert Davies-Jones">Davies-Jones, Robert</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%281984%29041%3C2991%3ASVTOOU%3E2.0.CO%3B2">"Streamwise Vorticity: The Origin of Updraft Rotation in Supercell Storms"</a>. <i>J. Atmos. Sci</i>. <b>41</b> (20): 2991–3006. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984JAtS...41.2991D">1984JAtS...41.2991D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%281984%29041%3C2991%3ASVTOOU%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<2991:SVTOOU>2.0.CO;2</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Atmos.+Sci.&rft.atitle=Streamwise+Vorticity%3A+The+Origin+of+Updraft+Rotation+in+Supercell+Storms&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=2991-3006&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0469%281984%29041%3C2991%3ASVTOOU%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984JAtS...41.2991D&rft.aulast=Davies-Jones&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F1520-0469%25281984%2529041%253C2991%253ASVTOOU%253E2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rotation_and_Propagation_of_Simulated_Supercells-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rotation_and_Propagation_of_Simulated_Supercells_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRotunnoKlemp1985" class="citation journal cs1">Rotunno, Richard; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Klemp" title="Joseph B. Klemp">Klemp, Joseph</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1234689">"On the Rotation and Propagation of Simulated Supercell Thunderstorms"</a>. <i>J. Atmos. Sci</i>. <b>42</b> (3): 271–92. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985JAtS...42..271R">1985JAtS...42..271R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%281985%29042%3C0271%3AOTRAPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0271:OTRAPO>2.0.CO;2</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190801200317/https://zenodo.org/record/1234689">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-08-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Atmos.+Sci.&rft.atitle=On+the+Rotation+and+Propagation+of+Simulated+Supercell+Thunderstorms&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=271-92&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0469%281985%29042%3C0271%3AOTRAPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985JAtS...42..271R&rft.aulast=Rotunno&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Klemp%2C+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1234689&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tornado_Development_and_Decay_within_a_Supercell-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tornado_Development_and_Decay_within_a_Supercell_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWickerWilhelmson1995" class="citation journal cs1">Wicker, Louis J.; Wilhelmson, Robert B. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%281995%29052%3C2675%3ASAAOTD%3E2.0.CO%3B2">"Simulation and Analysis of Tornado Development and Decay within a Three-Dimensional Supercell Thunderstorm"</a>. <i>J. Atmos. Sci</i>. <b>52</b> (15): 2675–703. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995JAtS...52.2675W">1995JAtS...52.2675W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%281995%29052%3C2675%3ASAAOTD%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2675:SAAOTD>2.0.CO;2</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Atmos.+Sci.&rft.atitle=Simulation+and+Analysis+of+Tornado+Development+and+Decay+within+a+Three-Dimensional+Supercell+Thunderstorm&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=2675-703&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0469%281995%29052%3C2675%3ASAAOTD%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995JAtS...52.2675W&rft.aulast=Wicker&rft.aufirst=Louis+J.&rft.au=Wilhelmson%2C+Robert+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F1520-0469%25281995%2529052%253C2675%253ASAAOTD%253E2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Recent_Example_of_an_anticyclonic_tornado_in_El_Reno,_OK-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Recent_Example_of_an_anticyclonic_tornado_in_El_Reno,_OK_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes2006" class="citation web cs1">Forbes, Greg (2006-04-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011194725/http://www.weather.com/blog/weather/8_9262.html">"anticyclonic tornado in El Reno, OK"</a>. The Weather Channel. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.weather.com/blog/weather/8_9262.html">the original</a> on 2007-10-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-12-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=anticyclonic+tornado+in+El+Reno%2C+OK&rft.pub=The+Weather+Channel&rft.date=2006-04-26&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Greg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.weather.com%2Fblog%2Fweather%2F8_9262.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sunnyvale_Tornado-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sunnyvale_Tornado_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonteverdi2003" class="citation web cs1">Monteverdi, John (2003-01-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130613194202/http://tornado.sfsu.edu/geosciences/StormChasing/cases/Sunnyvale/Sunnyvale.html">"Sunnyvale and Los Altos, CA Tornadoes 1998-05-04"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tornado.sfsu.edu/geosciences/StormChasing/Cases/Sunnyvale/Sunnyvale.html">the original</a> on 2013-06-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-10-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sunnyvale+and+Los+Altos%2C+CA+Tornadoes+1998-05-04&rft.date=2003-01-25&rft.aulast=Monteverdi&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftornado.sfsu.edu%2Fgeosciences%2FStormChasing%2FCases%2FSunnyvale%2FSunnyvale.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado_music-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tornado_music_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdullah1966" class="citation journal cs1">Abdullah, Abdul (April 1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170921230829/https://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/094/mwr-094-04-0213.pdf">"The "Musical" Sound Emitted by a Tornado"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Mon. Wea. Rev</i>. <b>94</b> (4): 213–20. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966MWRv...94..213A">1966MWRv...94..213A</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.395.3099">10.1.1.395.3099</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281966%29094%3C0213%3ATMSEBA%3E2.3.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0213:TMSEBA>2.3.CO;2</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/094/mwr-094-04-0213.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-09-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mon.+Wea.+Rev.&rft.atitle=The+%22Musical%22+Sound+Emitted+by+a+Tornado%22&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=213-20&rft.date=1966-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.395.3099%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%281966%29094%3C0213%3ATMSEBA%3E2.3.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1966MWRv...94..213A&rft.aulast=Abdullah&rft.aufirst=Abdul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocs.lib.noaa.gov%2Frescue%2Fmwr%2F094%2Fmwr-094-04-0213.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sound_obs-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sound_obs_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoadley1983" class="citation journal cs1">Hoadley, David K. (1983-03-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120619210634/http://www.stormtrack.org/archive/0636.htm">"Tornado Sound Experiences"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Storm_Track" title="Storm Track">Storm Track</a></i>. <b>6</b> (3): 5–9. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stormtrack.org/archive/0636.htm">the original</a> on 2012-06-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Storm+Track&rft.atitle=Tornado+Sound+Experiences&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=5-9&rft.date=1983-03-31&rft.aulast=Hoadley&rft.aufirst=David+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stormtrack.org%2Farchive%2F0636.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado_infrasonics-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tornado_infrasonics_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBedard2005" class="citation journal cs1">Bedard, A. J. (January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FMWR-2851.1">"Low-Frequency Atmospheric Acoustic Energy Associated with Vortices Produced by Thunderstorms"</a>. <i>Mon. Wea. Rev</i>. <b>133</b> (1): 241–63. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005MWRv..133..241B">2005MWRv..133..241B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FMWR-2851.1">10.1175/MWR-2851.1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1004978">1004978</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mon.+Wea.+Rev.&rft.atitle=Low-Frequency+Atmospheric+Acoustic+Energy+Associated+with+Vortices+Produced+by+Thunderstorms&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=241-63&rft.date=2005-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1004978%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2FMWR-2851.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005MWRv..133..241B&rft.aulast=Bedard&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252FMWR-2851.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-field_programs_history-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-field_programs_history_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-field_programs_history_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-field_programs_history_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBluestein1999" class="citation journal cs1">Bluestein, Howard (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%281999%29014%3C0558%3AAHOSSI%3E2.0.CO%3B2">"A History of Severe-Storm-Intercept Field Programs"</a>. <i>Weather Forecast</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 558–77. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999WtFor..14..558B">1999WtFor..14..558B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%281999%29014%3C0558%3AAHOSSI%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0558:AHOSSI>2.0.CO;2</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Weather+Forecast.&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Severe-Storm-Intercept+Field+Programs&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=558-77&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0434%281999%29014%3C0558%3AAHOSSI%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999WtFor..14..558B&rft.aulast=Bluestein&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F1520-0434%25281999%2529014%253C0558%253AAHOSSI%253E2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado_seismic_signal-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tornado_seismic_signal_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTatomKnuppVitto1995" class="citation journal cs1">Tatom, Frank; Knupp, Kevin R. & Vitto, Stanley J. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0450%281995%29034%3C0572%3ATDBOSS%3E2.0.CO%3B2">"Tornado Detection Based on Seismic Signal"</a>. <i>J. Appl. Meteorol</i>. <b>34</b> (2): 572–82. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995JApMe..34..572T">1995JApMe..34..572T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0450%281995%29034%3C0572%3ATDBOSS%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0572:TDBOSS>2.0.CO;2</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Appl.+Meteorol.&rft.atitle=Tornado+Detection+Based+on+Seismic+Signal&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=572-82&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0450%281995%29034%3C0572%3ATDBOSS%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995JApMe..34..572T&rft.aulast=Tatom&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft.au=Knupp%2C+Kevin+R.&rft.au=Vitto%2C+Stanley+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F1520-0450%25281995%2529034%253C0572%253ATDBOSS%253E2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeemanSchmitter2009" class="citation journal cs1">Leeman, John R.; Schmitter, E. D. (April 2009). "Electric signals generated by tornados". <i>Atmos. Res</i>. <b>92</b> (2): 277–79. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009AtmRe..92..277L">2009AtmRe..92..277L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.atmosres.2008.10.029">10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmos.+Res.&rft.atitle=Electric+signals+generated+by+tornados&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=277-79&rft.date=2009-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.atmosres.2008.10.029&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009AtmRe..92..277L&rft.aulast=Leeman&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft.au=Schmitter%2C+E.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-in_situ_history-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-in_situ_history_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamaras2004" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Samaras" title="Tim Samaras">Samaras, Timothy M.</a> (October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ams.confex.com/ams/11aram22sls/techprogram/paper_81153.htm">"A Historical Perspective of In-Situ Observations within Tornado Cores"</a>. <i>Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms</i>. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110115081005/http://ams.confex.com/ams/11aram22sls/techprogram/paper_81153.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-01-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-05-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=A+Historical+Perspective+of+In-Situ+Observations+within+Tornado+Cores&rft.btitle=Preprints+of+the+22nd+Conf.+Severe+Local+Storms&rft.place=Hyannis%2C+MA&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2004-10&rft.aulast=Samaras&rft.aufirst=Timothy+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fams.confex.com%2Fams%2F11aram22sls%2Ftechprogram%2Fpaper_81153.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CG_tor-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CG_tor_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerezWickerOrville1997" class="citation journal cs1">Perez, Antony H.; Wicker, Louis J. & Orville, Richard E. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%281997%29012%3C0428%3ACOCTGL%3E2.0.CO%3B2">"Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes"</a>. <i>Weather Forecast</i>. <b>12</b> (3): 428–37. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997WtFor..12..428P">1997WtFor..12..428P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%281997%29012%3C0428%3ACOCTGL%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Weather+Forecast&rft.atitle=Characteristics+of+Cloud-to-Ground+Lightning+Associated+with+Violent+Tornadoes&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=428-37&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0434%281997%29012%3C0428%3ACOCTGL%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997WtFor..12..428P&rft.aulast=Perez&rft.aufirst=Antony+H.&rft.au=Wicker%2C+Louis+J.&rft.au=Orville%2C+Richard+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F1520-0434%25281997%2529012%253C0428%253ACOCTGL%253E2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manchester-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manchester_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeSamarasYoung2004" class="citation conference cs1">Lee, Julian J.; Samaras, Timothy P.; Young, Carl R. (2004-10-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ams.confex.com/ams/11aram22sls/techprogram/paper_81700.htm">"Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado"</a>. <i>Preprints of the 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms</i>. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110609164901/http://ams.confex.com/ams/11aram22sls/techprogram/paper_81700.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-06-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Pressure+Measurements+at+the+ground+in+an+F-4+tornado&rft.btitle=Preprints+of+the+22nd+Conf.+Severe+Local+Storms&rft.place=Hyannis%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2004-10-07&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Julian+J.&rft.au=Samaras%2C+Timothy+P.&rft.au=Young%2C+Carl+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fams.confex.com%2Fams%2F11aram22sls%2Ftechprogram%2Fpaper_81700.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faculty.luther.edu/~bernatzr/Courses/Sci123/comet/radar/severe_signatures/print_low_level_meso.htm">"Radar Signatures for Severe Convective Weather: Low-Level Mesocyclone, Print Version"</a>. <i>www.faculty.luther.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.faculty.luther.edu&rft.atitle=Radar+Signatures+for+Severe+Convective+Weather%3A+Low-Level+Mesocyclone%2C+Print+Version&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faculty.luther.edu%2F~bernatzr%2FCourses%2FSci123%2Fcomet%2Fradar%2Fsevere_signatures%2Fprint_low_level_meso.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_Department_of_Commerce" class="citation web cs1">US Department of Commerce, NOAA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weather.gov/lmk/supercell/dynamics">"Supercell Structure and Dynamics"</a>. <i>www.weather.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220526012804/https://www.weather.gov/lmk/supercell/dynamics">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.weather.gov&rft.atitle=Supercell+Structure+and+Dynamics&rft.aulast=US+Department+of+Commerce&rft.aufirst=NOAA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weather.gov%2Flmk%2Fsupercell%2Fdynamics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward2015" class="citation web cs1">Howard, Brian Clark (May 11, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150514135021/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/05/150511-tornadoes-storms-midwest-weather-science/">"How Tornadoes Form and Why They're so Unpredictable"</a>. <i>National Geographic News</i>. National Geographic. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/05/150511-tornadoes-storms-midwest-weather-science">the original</a> on May 14, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-05-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+News&rft.atitle=How+Tornadoes+Form+and+Why+They%27re+so+Unpredictable&rft.date=2015-05-11&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Brian+Clark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2F2015%2F05%2F150511-tornadoes-storms-midwest-weather-science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/tornadoes/types/">"Tornado Types"</a>. <i>NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230327063522/https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/tornadoes/types/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NOAA+National+Severe+Storms+Laboratory&rft.atitle=Tornado+Types&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nssl.noaa.gov%2Feducation%2Fsvrwx101%2Ftornadoes%2Ftypes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/#The%20Basics">"The Online Tornado FAQ"</a>. <i>www.spa.noaa.gov</i>. Roger Edwards, Storm Prediction Center. March 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302230203/http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/#The%20Basics">Archived</a> from the original on 2 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.spa.noaa.gov&rft.atitle=The+Online+Tornado+FAQ&rft.date=2016-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Ffaq%2Ftornado%2F%23The%2520Basics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Amots2016" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ben-Amots, N. (2016). "Dynamics and thermodynamics of tornado: Rotation effects". <i>Atmospheric Research</i>. 178–179: 320–328. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016AtmRe.178..320B">2016AtmRe.178..320B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.atmosres.2016.03.025">10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.03.025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmospheric+Research&rft.atitle=Dynamics+and+thermodynamics+of+tornado%3A+Rotation+effects&rft.volume=178-179&rft.pages=320-328&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.atmosres.2016.03.025&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016AtmRe.178..320B&rft.aulast=Ben-Amots&rft.aufirst=N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaoWangYaoZou2018" class="citation journal cs1">Tao, Tianyou; Wang, Hao; Yao, Chengyuan; Zou, Zhongqin; Xu, Zidog (2018). "Performance of structures and infrastructures facilities during an EF4 tornado in Yancheng". <i>Wind and Structure</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 137–147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12989%2Fwas.2018.27.2.137">10.12989/was.2018.27.2.137</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wind+and+Structure&rft.atitle=Performance+of+structures+and+infrastructures+facilities+during+an+EF4+tornado+in+Yancheng&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=137-147&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12989%2Fwas.2018.27.2.137&rft.aulast=Tao&rft.aufirst=Tianyou&rft.au=Wang%2C+Hao&rft.au=Yao%2C+Chengyuan&rft.au=Zou%2C+Zhongqin&rft.au=Xu%2C+Zidog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornadogenesis-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tornadogenesis_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkowskiStrakaRasmussen2003" class="citation journal cs1">Markowski, Paul M.; Straka, Jerry M.; Rasmussen, Erik N. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%282003%29060%3C0795%3ATRFTTO%3E2.0.CO%3B2">"Tornadogenesis Resulting from the Transport of Circulation by a Downdraft: Idealized Numerical Simulations"</a>. <i>J. Atmos. Sci</i>. <b>60</b> (6): 795–823. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JAtS...60..795M">2003JAtS...60..795M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%282003%29060%3C0795%3ATRFTTO%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0795:TRFTTO>2.0.CO;2</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Atmos.+Sci.&rft.atitle=Tornadogenesis+Resulting+from+the+Transport+of+Circulation+by+a+Downdraft%3A+Idealized+Numerical+Simulations&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=795-823&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0469%282003%29060%3C0795%3ATRFTTO%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JAtS...60..795M&rft.aulast=Markowski&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rft.au=Straka%2C+Jerry+M.&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+Erik+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F1520-0469%25282003%2529060%253C0795%253ATRFTTO%253E2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USA_Today_1-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USA_Today_1_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZittel2000" class="citation news cs1">Zittel, Dave (2000-05-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070104170204/http://www.usatoday.com/community/chat/0504tornb.htm">"Tornado Chase 2000"</a>. <i>USA Today</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/community/chat/0504tornb.htm">the original</a> on 2007-01-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-05-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Tornado+Chase+2000&rft.date=2000-05-04&rft.aulast=Zittel&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fcommunity%2Fchat%2F0504tornb.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USA_Today_2-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USA_Today_2_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolden2007" class="citation news cs1">Golden, Joseph (2007-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/weather/wspouts.htm">"Waterspouts are tornadoes over water"</a>. <i>USA Today</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120907131453/http://www.usatoday.com/weather/wspouts.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-09-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-05-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Waterspouts+are+tornadoes+over+water&rft.date=2007-11-01&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fweather%2Fwspouts.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrazulisFlores2003" class="citation book cs1">Grazulis, Thomas P.; Flores, Dan (2003). <i>The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm</i>. Norman OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-3538-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-3538-7"><bdi>0-8061-3538-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tornado%3A+Nature%27s+Ultimate+Windstorm&rft.place=Norman+OK&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8061-3538-7&rft.aulast=Grazulis&rft.aufirst=Thomas+P.&rft.au=Flores%2C+Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mfl/?n=waterspouts">"About Waterspouts"</a>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-01-04. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090913020610/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mfl/?n=waterspouts">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+Waterspouts&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2007-01-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Fmfl%2F%3Fn%3Dwaterspouts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ESWD_definitions-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ESWD_definitions_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://essl.org/cgi-bin/eswd/eswd.cgi?action=showdefinitions&lang=en_0">"European Severe Weather Database definitions"</a>. 2012-01-02. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120708073411/http://essl.org/cgi-bin/eswd/eswd.cgi?action=showdefinitions&lang=en_0">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-07-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-06-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=European+Severe+Weather+Database+definitions&rft.date=2012-01-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fessl.org%2Fcgi-bin%2Feswd%2Feswd.cgi%3Faction%3Dshowdefinitions%26lang%3Den_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gustnado_AMS-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gustnado_AMS_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Gustnado">"Gustnado"</a>. <i>Glossary of Meteorology</i>. American Meteorological Society. June 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930181123/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=gustnado">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-09-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Glossary+of+Meteorology&rft.atitle=Gustnado&rft.date=2000-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglossary.ametsoc.org%2Fwiki%2FGustnado&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dust_devil_injury-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dust_devil_injury_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesLiles1999" class="citation web cs1">Jones, Charles H.; Liles, Charlie A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/ssd/techmemo/sr207.htm">"Severe Weather Climatology for New Mexico"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181021111504/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/ssd/techmemo/sr207.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-10-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Severe+Weather+Climatology+for+New+Mexico&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rft.au=Liles%2C+Charlie+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Fssd%2Ftechmemo%2Fsr207.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111230005516/http://www.tornadoproject.com/fscale/fscale.htm">"The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tornadoproject.com/fscale/fscale.htm">the original</a> on 2011-12-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-05-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Fujita+Scale+of+Tornado+Intensity&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tornadoproject.com%2Ffscale%2Ffscale.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100528014750/http://www.crh.noaa.gov/news/display_cmsstory.php?wfo=cys&storyid=28445&source=2">"Goshen County Tornado Given Official Rating of EF2"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crh.noaa.gov/news/display_cmsstory.php?wfo%3Dcys%26storyid%3D28445%26source%3D2">the original</a> on 2010-05-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service&rft.atitle=Goshen+County+Tornado+Given+Official+Rating+of+EF2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crh.noaa.gov%2Fnews%2Fdisplay_cmsstory.php%3Fwfo%253Dcys%2526storyid%253D28445%2526source%253D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewellenZimmerman2008" class="citation conference cs1">Lewellen, David C.; Zimmerman, M. I. (2008-10-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/141749.pdf"><i>Using Simulated Tornado Surface Marks to Decipher Near-Ground Winds</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ams.confex.com/ams/24SLS/techprogram/program_508.htm">24th Conf. Severe Local Storms</a>. American Meteorological Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/141749.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Using+Simulated+Tornado+Surface+Marks+to+Decipher+Near-Ground+Winds&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2008-10-28&rft.aulast=Lewellen&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Zimmerman%2C+M.+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fams.confex.com%2Fams%2Fpdfpapers%2F141749.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-width/length_intensity_relationship-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-width/length_intensity_relationship_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks2004" class="citation journal cs1">Brooks, Harold E. (2004-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%282004%29019%3C0310%3AOTROTP%3E2.0.CO%3B2">"On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity"</a>. <i>Weather and Forecasting</i>. <b>19</b> (2): 310–319. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004WtFor..19..310B">2004WtFor..19..310B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%282004%29019%3C0310%3AOTROTP%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0882-8156">0882-8156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Weather+and+Forecasting&rft.atitle=On+the+Relationship+of+Tornado+Path+Length+and+Width+to+Intensity&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=310-319&rft.date=2004-04-01&rft.issn=0882-8156&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0434%282004%29019%3C0310%3AOTROTP%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004WtFor..19..310B&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Harold+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F1520-0434%25282004%2529019%253C0310%253AOTROTP%253E2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Basic_Spotter_Guide-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Basic_Spotter_Guide_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Basic_Spotter_Guide_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weather.gov/media/grr/brochures/nwsbasicspottersfieldguide.pdf">"basic Spotters' Field Guide"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.weather.gov/media/grr/brochures/nwsbasicspottersfieldguide.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=basic+Spotters%27+Field+Guide&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration%2C+National+Weather+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weather.gov%2Fmedia%2Fgrr%2Fbrochures%2Fnwsbasicspottersfieldguide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBluesteinSnyderHouser2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bluestein, Howard B.; Snyder, Jeffrey C.; Houser, Jana B. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FWAF-D-14-00152.1">"A Multiscale Overview of the el Reno, Oklahoma, Tornadic Supercell of 31 May 2013"</a>. <i>Weather and Forecasting</i>. <b>30</b> (3): 525–552. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015WtFor..30..525B">2015WtFor..30..525B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FWAF-D-14-00152.1">10.1175/WAF-D-14-00152.1</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Weather+and+Forecasting&rft.atitle=A+Multiscale+Overview+of+the+el+Reno%2C+Oklahoma%2C+Tornadic+Supercell+of+31+May+2013&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=525-552&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2FWAF-D-14-00152.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015WtFor..30..525B&rft.aulast=Bluestein&rft.aufirst=Howard+B.&rft.au=Snyder%2C+Jeffrey+C.&rft.au=Houser%2C+Jana+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252FWAF-D-14-00152.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EFunderstimate-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EFunderstimate_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWurmanKosibaWhiteRobinson2021" class="citation journal cs1">Wurman, Joshua; Kosiba, Karen; White, Trevor; Robinson, Paul (6 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8040662">"Supercell tornadoes are much stronger and wider than damage-based ratings indicate"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>118</b> (14): e2021535118. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PNAS..11821535W">2021PNAS..11821535W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2021535118">10.1073/pnas.2021535118</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8040662">8040662</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33753558">33753558</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Supercell+tornadoes+are+much+stronger+and+wider+than+damage-based+ratings+indicate&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=e2021535118&rft.date=2021-04-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8040662%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33753558&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2021535118&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021PNAS..11821535W&rft.aulast=Wurman&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft.au=Kosiba%2C+Karen&rft.au=White%2C+Trevor&rft.au=Robinson%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8040662&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-intensity_distribution-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-intensity_distribution_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDotzekGrieserBrooks2003" class="citation journal cs1">Dotzek, Nikolai; Grieser, Jürgen; Brooks, Harold E. (2003-03-01). "Statistical modeling of tornado intensity distributions". <i>Atmos. Res</i>. <b>67</b>: 163–87. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003AtmRe..67..163D">2003AtmRe..67..163D</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.490.4573">10.1.1.490.4573</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-8095%2803%2900050-4">10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00050-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmos.+Res.&rft.atitle=Statistical+modeling+of+tornado+intensity+distributions&rft.volume=67&rft.pages=163-87&rft.date=2003-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.490.4573%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0169-8095%2803%2900050-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003AtmRe..67..163D&rft.aulast=Dotzek&rft.aufirst=Nikolai&rft.au=Grieser%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rft.au=Brooks%2C+Harold+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-European_tornado_climatology-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-European_tornado_climatology_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-European_tornado_climatology_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDotzek2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Dotzek, Nikolai (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe". <i>Atmos. Res</i>. 67–68: 153–161. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003AtmRe..67..153D">2003AtmRe..67..153D</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.669.2418">10.1.1.669.2418</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-8095%2803%2900049-8">10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmos.+Res.&rft.atitle=An+updated+estimate+of+tornado+occurrence+in+Europe&rft.volume=67%E2%80%9368&rft.pages=153-161&rft.date=2003-03-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.669.2418%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0169-8095%2803%2900049-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003AtmRe..67..153D&rft.aulast=Dotzek&rft.aufirst=Nikolai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuaqing_Cai2001" class="citation web cs1">Huaqing Cai (2001-09-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080120180130/http://www.atmos.ucla.edu/~caihq/pic/fig23.html">"Dryline cross section"</a>. University of California Los Angeles. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atmos.ucla.edu/~caihq/pic/fig23.html">the original</a> on 2008-01-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dryline+cross+section&rft.pub=University+of+California+Los+Angeles&rft.date=2001-09-24&rft.au=Huaqing+Cai&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atmos.ucla.edu%2F~caihq%2Fpic%2Ffig23.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Science_News_1-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Science_News_1_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2002" class="citation magazine cs1">Perkins, Sid (2002-05-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060825011156/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp">"Tornado Alley, USA"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_News" title="Science News">Science News</a></i>. pp. 296–98. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp">the original</a> on 2006-08-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+News&rft.atitle=Tornado+Alley%2C+USA&rft.pages=296-98&rft.date=2002-05-11&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Sid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.org%2Farticles%2F20020511%2Fbob9.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010309011307/http://www.pnr-rpn.ec.gc.ca/air/summersevere/ae00s02.en.html">"Tornadoes"</a>. <i>Prairie Storm Prediction Centre</i>. Environment Canada. 2007-10-07. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnr-rpn.ec.gc.ca/air/summersevere/ae00s02.en.html">the original</a> on 2001-03-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Prairie+Storm+Prediction+Centre&rft.atitle=Tornadoes&rft.date=2007-10-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnr-rpn.ec.gc.ca%2Fair%2Fsummersevere%2Fae00s02.en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Canada62-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Canada62_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVettese" class="citation web cs1">Vettese, Dayna. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/tornadoes-in-canada-everything-you-need-to-know/25876/">"Tornadoes in Canada: Everything you need to know"</a>. <i>The Weather Network</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161127152429/https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/tornadoes-in-canada-everything-you-need-to-know/25876/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Weather+Network&rft.atitle=Tornadoes+in+Canada%3A+Everything+you+need+to+know&rft.aulast=Vettese&rft.aufirst=Dayna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theweathernetwork.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2Ftornadoes-in-canada-everything-you-need-to-know%2F25876%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Canada100-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Canada100_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/climate-information/extreme-events/us-tornado-climatology/trends">"U.S. Tornado Climatology"</a>. <i>NOAA</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161209095334/https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/climate-information/extreme-events/us-tornado-climatology/trends">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NOAA&rft.atitle=U.S.+Tornado+Climatology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdc.noaa.gov%2Fclimate-information%2Fextreme-events%2Fus-tornado-climatology%2Ftrends&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoldenWright2003" class="citation journal cs1">Holden, J.; Wright, A. (2003-03-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070824151103/http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/people/j.holden/paper80.pdf">"UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc</i>. <b>130</b> (598): 1009–21. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004QJRMS.130.1009H">2004QJRMS.130.1009H</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.147.4293">10.1.1.147.4293</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1256%2Fqj.03.45">10.1256/qj.03.45</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18365306">18365306</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/people/j.holden/paper80.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2007-08-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Q.+J.+R.+Meteorol.+Soc.&rft.atitle=UK+tornado+climatology+and+the+development+of+simple+prediction+tools&rft.volume=130&rft.issue=598&rft.pages=1009-21&rft.date=2003-03-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.147.4293%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18365306%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1256%2Fqj.03.45&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004QJRMS.130.1009H&rft.aulast=Holden&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Wright%2C+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geog.leeds.ac.uk%2Fpeople%2Fj.holden%2Fpaper80.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021014233047/http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/hottopics/naturaldisasters/hurricanes.shtml">"Natural Disasters: Tornadoes"</a>. <i>BBC Science and Nature</i>. BBC. 2002-03-28. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/hottopics/naturaldisasters/hurricanes.shtml">the original</a> on 2002-10-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Science+and+Nature&rft.atitle=Natural+Disasters%3A+Tornadoes&rft.date=2002-03-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fscience%2Fhottopics%2Fnaturaldisasters%2Fhurricanes.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bangladesh_tornado-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bangladesh_tornado_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bangladesh_tornado_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bangladesh_tornado_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBimal_Kanti_PaulRejuan_Hossain_Bhuiyan2005" class="citation web cs1">Bimal Kanti Paul; Rejuan Hossain Bhuiyan (2005-01-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100606181213/http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/research/qr/qr169/qr169.pdf">"The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/research/qr/qr169/qr169.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2010-06-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+April+2004+Tornado+in+North-Central+Bangladesh%3A+A+Case+for+Introducing+Tornado+Forecasting+and+Warning+Systems&rft.date=2005-01-18&rft.au=Bimal+Kanti+Paul&rft.au=Rejuan+Hossain+Bhuiyan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorado.edu%2Fhazards%2Fresearch%2Fqr%2Fqr169%2Fqr169.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinch2008" class="citation web cs1">Finch, Jonathan (2008-04-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bangladeshtornadoes.org/bengaltornadoes.html">"Bangladesh and East India Tornadoes Background Information"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090901203558/http://bangladeshtornadoes.org/bengaltornadoes.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-09-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bangladesh+and+East+India+Tornadoes+Background+Information&rft.date=2008-04-02&rft.aulast=Finch&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbangladeshtornadoes.org%2Fbengaltornadoes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraf2008" class="citation web cs1">Graf, Michael (2008-06-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195103/http://www.extremwetter.ch/thesis.pdf">"Synoptical and mesoscale weather situations associated with tornadoes in Europe"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.extremwetter.ch/thesis.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Synoptical+and+mesoscale+weather+situations+associated+with+tornadoes+in+Europe&rft.date=2008-06-28&rft.aulast=Graf&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.extremwetter.ch%2Fthesis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LouieLouie-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LouieLouie_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LouieLouie_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LouieLouie_89-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/?n=supercell/dynamics">"Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008-08-28. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091117152717/http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/?n=supercell/dynamics">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-11-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service&rft.atitle=Structure+and+Dynamics+of+Supercell+Thunderstorms&rft.date=2008-08-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crh.noaa.gov%2Flmk%2F%3Fn%3Dsupercell%2Fdynamics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AOML_FAQ_L6-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AOML_FAQ_L6_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090914103006/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/L6.html">"Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanographic_and_Meteorological_Laboratory" title="Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory</a>, Hurricane Research Division</i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006-10-04. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/L6.html">the original</a> on 2009-09-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Atlantic+Oceanographic+and+Meteorological+Laboratory%2C+Hurricane+Research+Division&rft.atitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+Are+TC+tornadoes+weaker+than+midlatitude+tornadoes%3F&rft.date=2006-10-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoml.noaa.gov%2Fhrd%2Ftcfaq%2FL6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado_time_of_day-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tornado_time_of_day_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellySchaeferMcNultyDoswell1978" class="citation journal cs1">Kelly; et al. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281978%29106%3C1172%3AAATC%3E2.0.CO%3B2">"An Augmented Tornado Climatology"</a>. <i>Mon. Wea. Rev</i>. <b>106</b> (8): 1172–1183. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978MWRv..106.1172K">1978MWRv..106.1172K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%281978%29106%3C1172%3AAATC%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<1172:AATC>2.0.CO;2</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mon.+Wea.+Rev.&rft.atitle=An+Augmented+Tornado+Climatology&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1172-1183&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%281978%29106%3C1172%3AAATC%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978MWRv..106.1172K&rft.au=Kelly&rft.au=Schaefer&rft.au=McNulty&rft.au=Doswell&rft.au=Abbey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F1520-0493%25281978%2529106%253C1172%253AAATC%253E2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-218362/tornado">"Tornado: Diurnal patterns"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica Online</i>. 2007. p. G.6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080502195232/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-218362/tornado">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-05-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tornado%3A+Diurnal+patterns&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.pages=G.6&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-218362%2Ftornado&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolzer2000" class="citation journal cs1">Holzer, A. M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070219045706/http://tordach.org/at/Tornado_climatology_of_Austria.html">"Tornado Climatology of Austria"</a>. <i>Atmos. Res</i>. <b>56</b> (1–4): 203–11. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001AtmRe..56..203H">2001AtmRe..56..203H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-8095%2800%2900073-9">10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00073-9</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tordach.org/at/Tornado_climatology_of_Austria.html">the original</a> on 2007-02-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmos.+Res.&rft.atitle=Tornado+Climatology+of+Austria&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=203-11&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0169-8095%2800%2900073-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001AtmRe..56..203H&rft.aulast=Holzer&rft.aufirst=A.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftordach.org%2Fat%2FTornado_climatology_of_Austria.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDotzek2000" class="citation journal cs1">Dotzek, Nikolai (2000-05-16). "Tornadoes in Germany". <i>Atmos. Res</i>. <b>56</b> (1): 233–51. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001AtmRe..56..233D">2001AtmRe..56..233D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-8095%2800%2900075-2">10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00075-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmos.+Res.&rft.atitle=Tornadoes+in+Germany&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=233-51&rft.date=2000-05-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0169-8095%2800%2900075-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001AtmRe..56..233D&rft.aulast=Dotzek&rft.aufirst=Nikolai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070526105238/http://www.weathersa.co.za/References/Tornado.jsp">"South African Tornadoes"</a>. <a href="/wiki/South_African_Weather_Service" title="South African Weather Service">South African Weather Service</a>. 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.weathersa.co.za/References/Tornado.jsp">the original</a> on 2007-05-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=South+African+Tornadoes&rft.pub=South+African+Weather+Service&rft.date=2003&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.weathersa.co.za%2FReferences%2FTornado.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinchDewan2007" class="citation web cs1">Finch, Jonathan D.; Dewan, Ashraf M. (2007-05-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bangladeshtornadoes.org/climo/btorcli0.htm">"Bangladesh Tornado Climatology"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110725035701/http://www.bangladeshtornadoes.org/climo/btorcli0.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-07-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bangladesh+Tornado+Climatology&rft.date=2007-05-23&rft.aulast=Finch&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rft.au=Dewan%2C+Ashraf+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbangladeshtornadoes.org%2Fclimo%2Fbtorcli0.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.torro.org.uk/research/tornadoes/background">"TORRO | Research ~ Tornadoes ~ Background"</a>. <i>www.torro.org.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220120123040/https://www.torro.org.uk/research/tornadoes/background">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.torro.org.uk&rft.atitle=TORRO+%7C+Research+~+Tornadoes+~+Background&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.torro.org.uk%2Fresearch%2Ftornadoes%2Fbackground&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170313124451/http://www.torro.org.uk/tfaq.php#faq4">"Tornado FAQ's"</a>. <i>www.torro.org.uk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torro.org.uk/tfaq.php#faq4">the original</a> on 2017-03-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.torro.org.uk&rft.atitle=Tornado+FAQ%27s&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torro.org.uk%2Ftfaq.php%23faq4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoughlan2015" class="citation news cs1">Coughlan, Sean (15 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-33136737">"UK's 'tornado alley' identified"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181222133510/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-33136737">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=UK%27s+%27tornado+alley%27+identified&rft.date=2015-06-15&rft.aulast=Coughlan&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Feducation-33136737&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edwards_GoM-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_GoM_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsWeiss1996" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Edwards_(meteorologist)" title="Roger Edwards (meteorologist)">Edwards, Roger</a>; Weiss, Steven J. (1996-02-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/publications/edwards/sstsvr.htm">"Comparisons between Gulf of Mexico Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies and Southern U.S. Severe Thunderstorm Frequency in the Cool Season"</a>. <i>18th Conf. Severe Local Storms</i>. American Meteorological Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080503230451/http://www.spc.noaa.gov/publications/edwards/sstsvr.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-05-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Comparisons+between+Gulf+of+Mexico+Sea+Surface+Temperature+Anomalies+and+Southern+U.S.+Severe+Thunderstorm+Frequency+in+the+Cool+Season&rft.btitle=18th+Conf.+Severe+Local+Storms&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=1996-02-23&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Weiss%2C+Steven+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Fpublications%2Fedwards%2Fsstsvr.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AGU_ENSO_tor-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AGU_ENSO_tor_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCookSchaefer2008" class="citation conference cs1">Cook, Ashton Robinson; Schaefer, Joseph T. (2008-01-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ams.confex.com/ams/88Annual/techprogram/paper_134378.htm">"The Relation of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks"</a>. <i>19th Conf. Probability and Statistics</i>. American Meteorological Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081206065655/http://ams.confex.com/ams/88Annual/techprogram/paper_134378.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-12-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=The+Relation+of+El+Nino+Southern+Oscillation+%28ENSO%29+to+Winter+Tornado+Outbreaks&rft.btitle=19th+Conf.+Probability+and+Statistics&rft.pub=American+Meteorological+Society&rft.date=2008-01-22&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Ashton+Robinson&rft.au=Schaefer%2C+Joseph+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fams.confex.com%2Fams%2F88Annual%2Ftechprogram%2Fpaper_134378.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nature.com/">"El Niño brings fewer tornados"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>519</b>. 26 March 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160719125259/http://www.nature.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=El+Ni%C3%B1o+brings+fewer+tornados&rft.volume=519&rft.date=2015-03-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnature.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-agw_tstm-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-agw_tstm_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrappDiffenbaughBrooksBaldwin2007" class="citation journal cs1">Trapp, Robert J.; Diffenbaugh, NS; Brooks, H. E.; Baldwin, M. E.; Robinson, E. D. & Pal, J. S. (2007-12-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2148364">"Changes in severe thunderstorm environment frequency during the 21st century caused by anthropogenically enhanced global radiative forcing"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A</i>. <b>104</b> (50): 19719–23. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..10419719T">2007PNAS..10419719T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0705494104">10.1073/pnas.0705494104</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2148364">2148364</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Changes+in+severe+thunderstorm+environment+frequency+during+the+21st+century+caused+by+anthropogenically+enhanced+global+radiative+forcing&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=50&rft.pages=19719-23&rft.date=2007-12-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2148364%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0705494104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PNAS..10419719T&rft.aulast=Trapp&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Diffenbaugh%2C+NS&rft.au=Brooks%2C+H.+E.&rft.au=Baldwin%2C+M.+E.&rft.au=Robinson%2C+E.+D.&rft.au=Pal%2C+J.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2148364&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPCC4-WGI-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IPCC4-WGI_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomon2007" class="citation book cs1">Solomon, Susan; et al. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070501031449/http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1-report.html"><i>Climate Change 2007 – The Physical Science Basis</i></a>. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York: Cambridge University Press for the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88009-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88009-1"><bdi>978-0-521-88009-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1-report.html">the original</a> on 2007-05-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+2007+%E2%80%93+The+Physical+Science+Basis&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK+and+New+York&rft.series=Contribution+of+Working+Group+I+to+the+Fourth+Assessment+Report+of+the+Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press+for+the+Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88009-1&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fipcc-wg1.ucar.edu%2Fwg1%2Fwg1-report.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chill.colostate.edu/w/CHILL_history#The_First_Tornadic_Hook_Echo_Weather_Radar_Observations">"The First Tornadic Hook Echo Weather Radar Observations"</a>. Colorado State University. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080820093538/http://www.chill.colostate.edu/w/CHILL_history#The_First_Tornadic_Hook_Echo_Weather_Radar_Observations">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-08-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+First+Tornadic+Hook+Echo+Weather+Radar+Observations&rft.pub=Colorado+State+University&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chill.colostate.edu%2Fw%2FCHILL_history%23The_First_Tornadic_Hook_Echo_Weather_Radar_Observations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hook_echoes-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hook_echoes_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkowski2002" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Markowski" title="Paul Markowski">Markowski, Paul M.</a> (April 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%282002%29130%3C0852%3AHEARFD%3E2.0.CO%3B2">"Hook Echoes and Rear-Flank Downdrafts: A Review"</a>. <i>Mon. Wea. Rev</i>. <b>130</b> (4): 852–76. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002MWRv..130..852M">2002MWRv..130..852M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0493%282002%29130%3C0852%3AHEARFD%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<0852:HEARFD>2.0.CO;2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54785955">54785955</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mon.+Wea.+Rev.&rft.atitle=Hook+Echoes+and+Rear-Flank+Downdrafts%3A+A+Review&rft.volume=130&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=852-76&rft.date=2002-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54785955%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0493%282002%29130%3C0852%3AHEARFD%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002MWRv..130..852M&rft.aulast=Markowski&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252F1520-0493%25282002%2529130%253C0852%253AHEARFD%253E2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-airbusradar-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-airbusradar_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-airbusradar_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAirbus2007" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Airbus" title="Airbus">Airbus</a> (2007-03-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/163.pdf">"Flight Briefing Notes: Adverse Weather Operations Optimum Use of Weather Radar"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. SKYbrary. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/163.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flight+Briefing+Notes%3A+Adverse+Weather+Operations+Optimum+Use+of+Weather+Radar&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=SKYbrary&rft.date=2007-03-14&rft.au=Airbus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skybrary.aero%2Fbookshelf%2Fbooks%2F163.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161014053017/http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/tools/radar/">"Research tools: Radar"</a>. <i>www.nssl.noaa.gov</i>. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/tools/radar/">the original</a> on 2016-10-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 14,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nssl.noaa.gov&rft.atitle=Research+tools%3A+Radar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nssl.noaa.gov%2Ftools%2Fradar%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-spotter_history-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-spotter_history_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoswellMollerBrooks1999" class="citation journal cs1">Doswell, Charles A. III; Moller, Alan R.; Brooks, Harold E. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flame.org/~cdoswell/publications/stormspotting_99.pdf">"Storm Spotting and Public Awareness since the First Tornado Forecasts of 1948"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Weather Forecast</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 544–57. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999WtFor..14..544D">1999WtFor..14..544D</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.583.5732">10.1.1.583.5732</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%281999%29014%3C0544%3ASSAPAS%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0434(1999)014<0544:SSAPAS>2.0.CO;2</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.flame.org/~cdoswell/publications/stormspotting_99.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Weather+Forecast.&rft.atitle=Storm+Spotting+and+Public+Awareness+since+the+First+Tornado+Forecasts+of+1948&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=544-57&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.583.5732%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0434%281999%29014%3C0544%3ASSAPAS%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999WtFor..14..544D&rft.aulast=Doswell&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.+III&rft.au=Moller%2C+Alan+R.&rft.au=Brooks%2C+Harold+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flame.org%2F~cdoswell%2Fpublications%2Fstormspotting_99.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NWS_SKYWARN-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NWS_SKYWARN_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Weather_Service2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a> (2009-02-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weather.gov/skywarn/">"What is SKYWARN?"</a>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091210075145/http://www.weather.gov/skywarn/">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-12-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+SKYWARN%3F&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2009-02-06&rft.au=National+Weather+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.weather.gov%2Fskywarn%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-environment_Canada_detection-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-environment_Canada_detection_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100407123441/http://www.mb.ec.gc.ca/air/summersevere/ae00s10.en.html">"Tornado Detection at Environment Canada"</a>. Environment Canada. 2004-06-02. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mb.ec.gc.ca/air/summersevere/ae00s10.en.html">the original</a> on 2010-04-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tornado+Detection+at+Environment+Canada&rft.pub=Environment+Canada&rft.date=2004-06-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mb.ec.gc.ca%2Fair%2Fsummersevere%2Fae00s10.en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEuropean_Union2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (2009-05-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090917011719/http://www.skywarn.eu/">"Skywarn Europe"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skywarn.eu/">the original</a> on 2009-09-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Skywarn+Europe&rft.date=2009-05-31&rft.au=European+Union&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skywarn.eu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeaden1985" class="citation web cs1">Meaden, Terence (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150626221845/http://www.torro.org.uk/site/history.php">"A Brief History"</a>. Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torro.org.uk/site/history.php">the original</a> on 2015-06-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History&rft.pub=Tornado+and+Storm+Research+Organisation&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Meaden&rft.aufirst=Terence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torro.org.uk%2Fsite%2Fhistory.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NSSLsearch-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NSSLsearch_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NSSLsearch_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Severe_Storms_Laboratory2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Severe_Storms_Laboratory" title="National Severe Storms Laboratory">National Severe Storms Laboratory</a> (2006-11-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120523170026/http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/tornado/tor_detecting.html">"Detecting Tornadoes: What Does a Tornado Look Like?"</a>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/tornado/tor_detecting.html">the original</a> on 2012-05-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Detecting+Tornadoes%3A+What+Does+a+Tornado+Look+Like%3F&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2006-11-15&rft.au=National+Severe+Storms+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nssl.noaa.gov%2Fprimer%2Ftornado%2Ftor_detecting.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsEdwards2003" class="citation web cs1">Edwards, Roger; Edwards, Elke (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stormeyes.org/tornado/verf/">"Proposals For Changes in Severe Local Storm Warnings, Warning Criteria and Verification"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090628132309/http://www.stormeyes.org/tornado/verf/">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-06-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Proposals+For+Changes+in+Severe+Local+Storm+Warnings%2C+Warning+Criteria+and+Verification&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Edwards%2C+Elke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stormeyes.org%2Ftornado%2Fverf%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NSSL_tornadoes-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NSSL_tornadoes_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120809070939/http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/tornado/tor_basics.html">"Questions and Answers about Tornadoes"</a>. <i>A Severe Weather Primer</i>. National Severe Storms Laboratory. 2006-11-15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/tornado/tor_basics.html">the original</a> on 2012-08-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+Severe+Weather+Primer&rft.atitle=Questions+and+Answers+about+Tornadoes&rft.date=2006-11-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nssl.noaa.gov%2Fprimer%2Ftornado%2Ftor_basics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado_damage_cost-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tornado_damage_cost_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooksDoswell2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Brooks" title="Harold E. Brooks">Brooks, Harold E.</a>; Doswell, Charles A. III (2000-10-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/users/brooks/public_html/damage/tdam1.html">"Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999"</a>. <i>Weather Forecast</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 168–176. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001WtFor..16..168B">2001WtFor..16..168B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0434%282001%29016%3C0168%3Andfmti%3E2.0.co%3B2">10.1175/1520-0434(2001)016<0168:ndfmti>2.0.co;2</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070208202421/http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/users/brooks/public_html/damage/tdam1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-02-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Weather+Forecast.&rft.atitle=Normalized+Damage+from+Major+Tornadoes+in+the+United+States%3A+1890%E2%80%931999&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=168-176&rft.date=2000-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0434%282001%29016%3C0168%3Andfmti%3E2.0.co%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001WtFor..16..168B&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Harold+E.&rft.au=Doswell%2C+Charles+A.+III&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nssl.noaa.gov%2Fusers%2Fbrooks%2Fpublic_html%2Fdamage%2Ftdam1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-super_outbreak-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-super_outbreak_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoxitChappell1975" class="citation web cs1">Hoxit, Lee R.; Chappell, Charles F. (1975-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/18850">"Tornado Outbreak of April 3–4, 1974; Synoptic Analysis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200930030334/https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/18850">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-09-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tornado+Outbreak+of+April+3%E2%80%934%2C+1974%3B+Synoptic+Analysis&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=1975-11-01&rft.aulast=Hoxit&rft.aufirst=Lee+R.&rft.au=Chappell%2C+Charles+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.library.noaa.gov%2Fview%2Fnoaa%2F18850&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsok.com/anatomy-of-may-3s-f5-tornado/article/3365909">Anatomy of May 3's F5 tornado</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100523054215/http://newsok.com/anatomy-of-may-3s-f5-tornado/article/3365909">Archived</a> 2010-05-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Oklahoman Newspaper, May 1, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado_project_oddities-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tornado_project_oddities_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrazulis2005" class="citation web cs1">Grazulis, Thomas P. (2005-09-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090507004425/http://www.tornadoproject.com/oddities/oddities.htm">"Tornado Oddities"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tornadoproject.com/oddities/oddities.htm">the original</a> on 2009-05-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tornado+Oddities&rft.date=2005-09-20&rft.aulast=Grazulis&rft.aufirst=Thomas+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tornadoproject.com%2Foddities%2Foddities.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYahr2006" class="citation news cs1">Yahr, Emily (2006-02-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/askjack/archives-tornado-history.htm">"Q: You've probably heard the expression, "it's raining cats and dogs." Has it ever rained animals?"</a>. <i>USA Today</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100524040429/http://www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/askjack/archives-tornado-history.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-05-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Q%3A+You%27ve+probably+heard+the+expression%2C+%22it%27s+raining+cats+and+dogs.%22+Has+it+ever+rained+animals%3F&rft.date=2006-02-21&rft.aulast=Yahr&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fweather%2Fresources%2Faskjack%2Farchives-tornado-history.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado_safety-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tornado_safety_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Edwards_(meteorologist)" title="Roger Edwards (meteorologist)">Edwards, Roger</a> (2008-07-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/safety.html">"Tornado Safety"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090825014040/http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/safety.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-08-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service&rft.atitle=Tornado+Safety&rft.date=2008-07-16&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spc.noaa.gov%2Ffaq%2Ftornado%2Fsafety.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060223072127/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/hun/preparedness/brochures/storm_shelter.pdf">"Storm Shelters"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2002-08-26. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/hun/preparedness/brochures/storm_shelter.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2006-02-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service&rft.atitle=Storm+Shelters&rft.date=2002-08-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Fhun%2Fpreparedness%2Fbrochures%2Fstorm_shelter.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-highway_overpasses-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-highway_overpasses_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-highway_overpasses_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000616093920/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/papers/overpass.html">"Highway Overpasses as Tornado Shelters"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a></i>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/?n=safety-overpass">the original</a> on 2000-06-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Weather+Service&rft.atitle=Highway+Overpasses+as+Tornado+Shelters&rft.date=2000-03-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Foun%2F%3Fn%3Dsafety-overpass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2011" class="citation journal cs1">Knight, Meredith (2011-04-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fact-or-fiction-if-sky-is-green-run-for-cover-tornado-is-coming">"Fact or Fiction?: If the Sky Is Green, Run for Cover – A Tornado Is Coming"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121014160521/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fact-or-fiction-if-sky-is-green-run-for-cover-tornado-is-coming">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-10-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-09-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Fact+or+Fiction%3F%3A+If+the+Sky+Is+Green%2C+Run+for+Cover+%E2%80%93+A+Tornado+Is+Coming&rft.date=2011-04-18&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Meredith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dfact-or-fiction-if-sky-is-green-run-for-cover-tornado-is-coming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado_project_myths-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tornado_project_myths_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tornado_project_myths_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tornado_project_myths_126-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tornado_project_myths_126-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall2005" class="citation web cs1">Marshall, Tim (2005-03-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tornadoproject.com/safety/myths.htm">"Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes"</a>. The Tornado Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130608030946/http://www.tornadoproject.com/safety/myths.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-06-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Myths+and+Misconceptions+about+Tornadoes&rft.pub=The+Tornado+Project&rft.date=2005-03-15&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tornadoproject.com%2Fsafety%2Fmyths.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado_myths-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tornado_myths_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tornado_myths_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tornado_myths_127-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrazulis2001" class="citation book cs1">Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tornadonaturesul0000graz">"Tornado Myths"</a></span>. <i>The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm</i>. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-3258-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-3258-2"><bdi>0-8061-3258-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tornado+Myths&rft.btitle=The+Tornado%3A+Nature%27s+Ultimate+Windstorm&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8061-3258-2&rft.aulast=Grazulis&rft.aufirst=Thomas+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftornadonaturesul0000graz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-noaa-overpass-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-noaa-overpass_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-noaa-overpass_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Weather_Service_Forecast_Office" class="citation web cs1">National Weather Service Forecast Office. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120107153850/http://www.crh.noaa.gov/ddc/?n=over">"Overpasses and Tornado Safety: Not a Good Mix"</a>. <i>Tornado Overpass Information</i>. Dodge City, Kansas: NOAA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crh.noaa.gov/ddc/?n=over">the original</a> on 7 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tornado+Overpass+Information&rft.atitle=Overpasses+and+Tornado+Safety%3A+Not+a+Good+Mix&rft.au=National+Weather+Service+Forecast+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crh.noaa.gov%2Fddc%2F%3Fn%3Dover&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClimate_Services_and_Monitoring_Division2006" class="citation web cs1">Climate Services and Monitoring Division (2006-08-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120314063308/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/severeweather/tornadosafety.html">"Tornado Myths, Facts, and Safety"</a>. National Climatic Data Center. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/severeweather/tornadosafety.html">the original</a> on 2012-03-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tornado+Myths%2C+Facts%2C+and+Safety&rft.pub=National+Climatic+Data+Center&rft.date=2006-08-17&rft.au=Climate+Services+and+Monitoring+Division&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdc.noaa.gov%2Foa%2Fclimate%2Fsevereweather%2Ftornadosafety.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-highway_overpass_danger-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-highway_overpass_danger_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCappella2005" class="citation news cs1">Cappella, Chris (2005-05-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050408091759/http://www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/basics/tornado-underpass.htm">"Overpasses are tornado death traps"</a>. <i>USA Today</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/basics/tornado-underpass.htm">the original</a> on 2005-04-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Overpasses+are+tornado+death+traps&rft.date=2005-05-17&rft.aulast=Cappella&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fweather%2Fresources%2Fbasics%2Ftornado-underpass.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDewey2002" class="citation web cs1">Dewey, Kenneth F. (2002-07-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080611013128/http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/nebraska/tornado-myths.html">"Tornado Myths & Tornado Reality"</a>. High Plains Regional Climate Center and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska%E2%80%93Lincoln" title="University of Nebraska–Lincoln">University of Nebraska–Lincoln</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/nebraska/tornado-myths.html">the original</a> on June 11, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tornado+Myths+%26+Tornado+Reality&rft.pub=High+Plains+Regional+Climate+Center+and+University+of+Nebraska%E2%80%93Lincoln&rft.date=2002-07-11&rft.aulast=Dewey&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hprcc.unl.edu%2Fnebraska%2Ftornado-myths.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tornadoes_in_mountains-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tornadoes_in_mountains_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonteverdiEdwardsStumpfGudgel2006" class="citation web cs1">Monteverdi, John; Edwards, Roger; Stumpf, Greg; Gudgel, Daniel (2006-09-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150819041516/http://tornado.sfsu.edu/RockwellPassTornado/index.html">"Tornado, Rockwell Pass, Sequoia National Park, 2004-07-07"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tornado.sfsu.edu/RockwellPassTornado/index.html">the original</a> on 2015-08-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tornado%2C+Rockwell+Pass%2C+Sequoia+National+Park%2C+2004-07-07&rft.date=2006-09-13&rft.aulast=Monteverdi&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Edwards%2C+Roger&rft.au=Stumpf%2C+Greg&rft.au=Gudgel%2C+Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftornado.sfsu.edu%2FRockwellPassTornado%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VORTEX_book-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VORTEX_book_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Severe_Storms_Laboratory2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Severe_Storms_Laboratory" title="National Severe Storms Laboratory">National Severe Storms Laboratory</a> (2006-10-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121103055533/http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/">"VORTEX: Unraveling the Secrets"</a>. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/noaastory/book.html">the original</a> on 2012-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=VORTEX%3A+Unraveling+the+Secrets&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2006-10-30&rft.au=National+Severe+Storms+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nssl.noaa.gov%2Fnoaastory%2Fbook.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Extreme_Weather-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Extreme_Weather_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMogil2007" class="citation book cs1">Mogil, Michael H. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/extremeweatherun0000mogi/page/210"><i>Extreme Weather</i></a>. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/extremeweatherun0000mogi/page/210">210–11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57912-743-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57912-743-5"><bdi>978-1-57912-743-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extreme+Weather&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=210-11&rft.pub=Black+Dog+%26+Leventhal+Publisher&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-57912-743-5&rft.aulast=Mogil&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fextremeweatherun0000mogi%2Fpage%2F210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath1998" class="citation web cs1">McGrath, Kevin (1998-11-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100709035137/https://mesocyclone.ou.edu/">"Mesocyclone Climatology Project"</a>. University of Oklahoma. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mesocyclone.ou.edu/">the original</a> on 2010-07-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mesocyclone+Climatology+Project&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma&rft.date=1998-11-05&rft.aulast=McGrath&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmesocyclone.ou.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seymour_2001_32-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Seymour_2001_32_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeymour2001" class="citation book cs1">Seymour, Simon (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tornadoes00seym/page/32"><i>Tornadoes</i></a>. New York City: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tornadoes00seym/page/32">32</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-443791-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-443791-4"><bdi>0-06-443791-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tornadoes&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-06-443791-4&rft.aulast=Seymour&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftornadoes00seym%2Fpage%2F32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrazulis2001" class="citation book cs1">Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tornadonaturesul0000graz"><i>The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm</i></a></span>. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tornadonaturesul0000graz/page/63">63</a>–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-3258-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-3258-2"><bdi>0-8061-3258-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-20</span></span>. <q>intense tornadoes without a mesocyclone.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+tornado%3A+nature%27s+ultimate+windstorm&rft.pages=63-65&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8061-3258-2&rft.aulast=Grazulis&rft.aufirst=Thomas+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftornadonaturesul0000graz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tornado_forecasting-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tornado_forecasting_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRasmussen2000" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Erik_N._Rasmussen" title="Erik N. Rasmussen">Rasmussen, Erik</a> (2000-12-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070407031255/http://cimms.ou.edu/~erik/Tornadoes/Forecasting/Detailed/Detailed.htm">"Severe Storms Research: Tornado Forecasting"</a>. Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cimms.ou.edu/~erik/Tornadoes/Forecasting/Detailed/Detailed.htm">the original</a> on April 7, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-03-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Severe+Storms+Research%3A+Tornado+Forecasting&rft.pub=Cooperative+Institute+for+Mesoscale+Meteorological+Studies&rft.date=2000-12-31&rft.aulast=Rasmussen&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcimms.ou.edu%2F~erik%2FTornadoes%2FForecasting%2FDetailed%2FDetailed.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency2009" class="citation web cs1">United States Environmental Protection Agency (2009-09-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/naturalevents/tornadoes.html">"Tornadoes"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120512005833/http://www.epa.gov/naturalevents/tornadoes.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-05-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tornadoes&rft.date=2009-09-30&rft.au=United+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fnaturalevents%2Ftornadoes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrazulis2001" class="citation book cs1">Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tornadonaturesul0000graz"><i>The tornado: nature's ultimate windstorm</i></a></span>. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tornadonaturesul0000graz/page/65">65</a>–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3258-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3258-7"><bdi>978-0-8061-3258-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-20</span></span>. <q>intense tornadoes without a mesocyclone.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+tornado%3A+nature%27s+ultimate+windstorm&rft.pages=65-69&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3258-7&rft.aulast=Grazulis&rft.aufirst=Thomas+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftornadonaturesul0000graz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research" title="National Center for Atmospheric Research">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100423151801/http://www.ncar.ucar.edu/research/meteorology/storms/tornadoes.php">"Tornadoes"</a>. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncar.ucar.edu/research/meteorology/storms/tornadoes.php">the original</a> on 2010-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tornadoes&rft.pub=University+Corporation+for+Atmospheric+Research&rft.date=2008&rft.au=National+Center+for+Atmospheric+Research&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncar.ucar.edu%2Fresearch%2Fmeteorology%2Fstorms%2Ftornadoes.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=125767948">"Scientists Chase Tornadoes to Solve Mysteries"</a>. <i>NPR.org</i>. 2010-04-09. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140426215245/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=125767948">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-04-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-04-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR.org&rft.atitle=Scientists+Chase+Tornadoes+to+Solve+Mysteries&rft.date=2010-04-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D125767948&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/news/2012-03-huge-tornadoes-sun.html">"Huge tornadoes discovered on the Sun"</a>. Physorg.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240604063415/https://phys.org/news/2012-03-huge-tornadoes-sun.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-09-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Huge+tornadoes+discovered+on+the+Sun&rft.pub=Physorg.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physorg.com%2Fnews%2F2012-03-huge-tornadoes-sun.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBluestein1999" class="citation book cs1">Bluestein, Howard B. (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tornadoalleymons0000blue"><i>Tornado Alley: Monster Storms of the Great Plains</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-510552-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-510552-4"><bdi>0-19-510552-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tornado+Alley%3A+Monster+Storms+of+the+Great+Plains&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-19-510552-4&rft.aulast=Bluestein&rft.aufirst=Howard+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftornadoalleymons0000blue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradford2001" class="citation book cs1">Bradford, Marlene (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scanningskieshis0000brad"><i>Scanning the Skies: A History of Tornado Forecasting</i></a>. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-3302-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-3302-3"><bdi>0-8061-3302-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scanning+the+Skies%3A+A+History+of+Tornado+Forecasting&rft.place=Norman%2C+OK&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8061-3302-3&rft.aulast=Bradford&rft.aufirst=Marlene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscanningskieshis0000brad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrazulis1997" class="citation book cs1">Grazulis, Thomas P. (January 1997). <i>Significant Tornadoes Update, 1992–1995</i>. St. Johnsbury, VT: Environmental Films. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-879362-04-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-879362-04-X"><bdi>1-879362-04-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Significant+Tornadoes+Update%2C+1992%E2%80%931995&rft.place=St.+Johnsbury%2C+VT&rft.pub=Environmental+Films&rft.date=1997-01&rft.isbn=1-879362-04-X&rft.aulast=Grazulis&rft.aufirst=Thomas+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPybus2016" class="citation journal cs1">Pybus, Nani (Spring 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gateway.okhistory.org/ark:/67531/metadc1725816/m1/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Cyclone' Jones: Dr. Herbert L. Jones and the Origins of Tornado Research in Oklahoma"</a>. <i>Chronicles of Oklahoma</i>. <b>94</b>: 4–31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 5,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chronicles+of+Oklahoma&rft.atitle=%27Cyclone%27+Jones%3A+Dr.+Herbert+L.+Jones+and+the+Origins+of+Tornado+Research+in+Oklahoma&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=94&rft.pages=4-31&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Pybus&rft.aufirst=Nani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgateway.okhistory.org%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc1725816%2Fm1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATornado" class="Z3988"></span> Heavily illustrated.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Tornado</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Tornado" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Tornado">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tornado" class="extiw" title="c:Tornado">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Tornadoes" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Tornadoes">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Tornado" class="extiw" title="q:Tornado">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Tornado" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Tornado">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Meteorology/Tornadoes" class="extiw" title="b:Meteorology/Tornadoes">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Tornado" class="extiw" title="v:Tornado">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Tornado_safety" class="extiw" title="voy:Tornado safety">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/">NOAA Storm Events Database 1950–present</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.essl.org/ESWD">European Severe Weather Database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/breakthroughs/tornadowarnings/welcome.html">Tornado Detection and Warnings</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejssm.org/">Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080624204058/http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/edu/safety/tornadoguide.html">NOAA Tornado Preparedness Guide</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tornadohistoryproject.com/">Tornado History Project – Maps and statistics from 1950 to present</a></li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/magazine/physicstoday/article/67/9/10.1063/PT.3.2514">What we know and don’t know about tornado formation</a>", <i>Physics Today</i>, September 2014</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions">U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cyclones_and_anticyclones_of_the_world_(Centers_of_action)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cyclones" title="Template:Cyclones"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cyclones" title="Template talk:Cyclones"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cyclones" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cyclones"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cyclones_and_anticyclones_of_the_world_(Centers_of_action)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anticyclone" title="Anticyclone">anticyclones</a> of the world (<a href="/wiki/Centers_of_action" title="Centers of action">Centers of action</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anticyclonic_storm" title="Anticyclonic storm">Anticyclonic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">Storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-pressure_area" title="High-pressure area">High-pressure area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-pressure_area" title="Low-pressure area">Low-pressure area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_intensification" title="Rapid intensification">Rapid intensification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dense_overcast" title="Central dense overcast">Central dense overcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annular_tropical_cyclone" title="Annular tropical cyclone">Annular tropical cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(tropical_cyclone)" title="Bar (tropical cyclone)">Bar (tropical cyclone)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstorm" class="mw-redirect" title="Superstorm">Superstorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anticyclone" title="Anticyclone">Anticyclone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern Hemisphere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polar_high" title="Polar high">North Polar High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_High" title="Siberian High">Siberian High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azores_High" title="Azores High">Azores High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_High" title="North American High">North American High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_High" title="North Pacific High">North Pacific High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridiculously_Resilient_Ridge" title="Ridiculously Resilient Ridge">Ridiculously Resilient Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtropical_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical ridge">Subtropical ridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Hemisphere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polar_high" title="Polar high">South Polar High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_High" title="South Atlantic High">South Atlantic High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_High" title="South Pacific High">South Pacific High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalahari_High" title="Kalahari High">Kalahari High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_High" title="Australian High">Australian High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtropical_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical ridge">Subtropical ridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Synoptic_scale_meteorology" title="Synoptic scale meteorology">Synoptic scale</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="wrap">Surface-based</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Polar" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polar_low" title="Polar low">Polar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polar_low" title="Polar low">North Polar low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_low" title="Polar low">South Polar low</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Extratropical_cyclones" title="Template:Extratropical cyclones"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Extratropical_cyclones" title="Template talk:Extratropical cyclones"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Extratropical_cyclones" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Extratropical cyclones"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extratropical_cyclones" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone" title="Extratropical cyclone">Extratropical cyclones</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anticyclonic_storm" title="Anticyclonic storm">Anticyclonic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">Storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-tropical_cyclone" title="Post-tropical cyclone">Post-tropical cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-pressure_area" title="Low-pressure area">Low-pressure area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Weather bomb">Weather bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sting_jet" title="Sting jet">Sting jet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sting_jet_cyclones" title="List of sting jet cyclones">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainband" title="Rainband">Rainband</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="wrap">Northern Hemisphere</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="wrap">North America</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Continental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lee Cyclone</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Alberta_clipper" title="Alberta clipper">Alberta clipper</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Colorado_low" title="Colorado low">Colorado low</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_basin_low&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Great basin low (page does not exist)">Great basin low</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bighorn_Low&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bighorn Low (page does not exist)">Bighorn Low</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Panhandle_hook" title="Panhandle hook">Panhandle hook</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/November_gale" title="November gale">November gale</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Low" title="Aleutian Low">Aleutian Low</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hatteras_low&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hatteras low (page does not exist)">Hatteras low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nor%27easter" title="Nor'easter">Nor'easter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_low" title="Gulf low">Gulf low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_windstorm" title="Pacific Northwest windstorm">Pacific Northwest windstorm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_windstorms" title="Template:European windstorms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_windstorms" title="Template talk:European windstorms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_windstorms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European windstorms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_windstorms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/European_windstorm" title="European windstorm">European windstorms</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th-18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Marcellus%27s_flood" title="Saint Marcellus's flood">Grote Mandrenke</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Burchardi_flood" title="Burchardi flood">Burchardi flood</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Great_Storm_of_1703" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Storm of 1703">Great Storm of 1703</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Flood_of_1717" title="Christmas Flood of 1717">Christmas Flood of 1717</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Windstorm_Thomas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Windstorm_Thomas.jpg/90px-Windstorm_Thomas.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Windstorm_Thomas.jpg/135px-Windstorm_Thomas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Windstorm_Thomas.jpg/180px-Windstorm_Thomas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="632" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Great_Storm_of_1824" title="Great Storm of 1824">Great Storm of 1824</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Big_Wind" title="Night of the Big Wind">Night of the Big Wind</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Moray_Firth_fishing_disaster" title="Moray Firth fishing disaster">Moray Firth fishing disaster</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Tay_Bridge_disaster" title="Tay Bridge disaster">Tay Bridge disaster</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Eyemouth_disaster" title="Eyemouth disaster">Eyemouth disaster</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Ulysses" title="Storm Ulysses">Ulysses 1903</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_windstorms#1900–1974" title="List of European windstorms">Iberia 1941</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_flood_of_1953" title="North Sea flood of 1953">North Sea flood of 1953</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Debbie_(1961)" title="Hurricane Debbie (1961)">Debbie 1961</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Great_Sheffield_Gale" title="Great Sheffield Gale">Great Sheffield Gale of 1962</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/1968_Scotland_storm" title="1968 Scotland storm">1968 Scotland storm</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Quimburga" title="Cyclone Quimburga">Quimburga 1972</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Gale_of_January_1976" title="Gale of January 1976">Gale of January 1976</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/December_1981_windstorm" title="December 1981 windstorm">December 1981 windstorm</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Charley_(1986)" title="Hurricane Charley (1986)">Charley 1986</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Great_storm_of_1987" title="Great storm of 1987">Great storm of 1987</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Burns%27_Day_Storm" title="Burns' Day Storm">Burns' Day storm 1990</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/1992_New_Year%27s_Day_Storm" title="1992 New Year's Day Storm">1992 New Year's Day Storm</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Braer_Storm" title="Braer Storm">Braer Storm 1993</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Lili_(1996)" title="Hurricane Lili (1996)">Lili 1996</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_windstorms#1975–1999" title="List of European windstorms">Christmas Eve storm 1997</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Boxing_Day_Storm_of_1998" title="Boxing Day Storm of 1998">Boxing Day Storm of 1998</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Anatol" title="Cyclone Anatol">Anatol 1999</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Lothar" title="Cyclone Lothar">Lothar 1999</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Martin_(1999)" title="Cyclone Martin (1999)">Martin 1999</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Oratia" title="Cyclone Oratia">Oratia 2000</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Jeanett" title="Cyclone Jeanett">Jeanett 2002</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Gudrun" title="Cyclone Gudrun">Gudrun 2005</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Per" title="Cyclone Per">Per 2007</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Kyrill" title="Cyclone Kyrill">Kyrill 2007</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Emma_(2008)" title="Cyclone Emma (2008)">Emma 2008</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Klaus" title="Cyclone Klaus">Klaus 2009</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Xynthia" title="Cyclone Xynthia">Xynthia 2010</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Berit" title="Cyclone Berit">Berit 2011</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Bawbag" title="Hurricane Bawbag">Friedhelm/Bawbag 2011</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Joachim" title="Cyclone Joachim">Joachim 2011</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Dagmar" title="Cyclone Dagmar">Dagmar 2011</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Andrea" title="Cyclone Andrea">Andrea 2012</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/St._Jude_storm" title="St. Jude storm">St Jude 2013</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Xaver" title="Cyclone Xaver">Xaver 2013</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Dirk" title="Cyclone Dirk">Dirk 2013</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Anne_(2014)" title="Cyclone Anne (2014)">Anne 2014</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Christina" title="Cyclone Christina">Christina 2014</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Tini" title="Cyclone Tini">Tini 2014</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Niklas" title="Cyclone Niklas">Niklas 2015</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Egon" title="Cyclone Egon">Egon 2017</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_UK_and_Ireland_windstorm_season#Storm_Doris" title="2016–17 UK and Ireland windstorm season">Thomas (Doris) 2017</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Zeus" title="Cyclone Zeus">Zeus 2017</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Xavier_(2017)" title="Cyclone Xavier (2017)">Xavier 2017</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Ophelia_(2017)" title="Hurricane Ophelia (2017)">Ophelia 2017</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_Herwart" title="Cyclone Herwart">Herwart 2017</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Eleanor_(2018)" title="Storm Eleanor (2018)">Eleanor (Burglind) 2018</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_David" title="Storm David">Friederike (David) 2018</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Adrian" title="Storm Adrian">Adrian 2018</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Ciara" title="Storm Ciara">Ciara 2020</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Dennis" title="Storm Dennis">Dennis 2020</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Aurore" title="Storm Aurore">Aurore 2021</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Malik" title="Storm Malik">Malik 2022</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Eunice" title="Storm Eunice">Eunice 2022</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Larisa" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm Larisa">Larisa 2023</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Babet" title="Storm Babet">Babet 2023</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Storm_Ciar%C3%A1n" title="Storm Ciarán">Ciarán 2023</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_windstorms" title="List of European windstorms">List of European windstorms</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/List_of_atmospheric_pressure_records_in_Europe" title="List of atmospheric pressure records in Europe">List of atmospheric pressure records in Europe</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Sea_storms&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Sea storms (page does not exist)">Black Sea storms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Low" title="Icelandic Low">Icelandic Low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoa_low" title="Genoa low">Genoa low</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Low" title="Asiatic Low">Asiatic Low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Disturbance" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Disturbance">Western Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Continental_North_Asian_storms&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Continental North Asian storms (page does not exist)">Continental North Asian storms</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=East_Asian-northwest_Pacific_storms&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Asian-northwest Pacific storms (page does not exist)">East Asian-northwest Pacific storms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Arctic_Cyclone_of_2012" title="Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kona_storm" title="Kona storm">Kona storm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="wrap">Southern Hemisphere</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Australia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_east_coast_low" title="Australian east coast low">Australian east coast low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nor%27easter" title="Black nor'easter">Black nor'easter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_2022_Southern_Ocean_cyclone" title="October 2022 Southern Ocean cyclone">Southern Ocean cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudestada" title="Sudestada">Sudestada</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subtropical_cyclone" title="Subtropical cyclone">Subtropical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kona_storm" title="Kona storm">Kona storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_east_coast_low" title="Australian east coast low">Australian east coast Low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Lake_Huron_cyclone" title="1996 Lake Huron cyclone">Lake Huron cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_tropical-like_cyclone" title="Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone">Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_low" title="Thermal low">Thermal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_tropical_cyclones" title="Outline of tropical cyclones">Outline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="wrap">Northern Hemisphere</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane" title="Atlantic hurricane">Atlantic hurricane</a></span> <ul><li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde_hurricane" title="Cape Verde hurricane">Cape Verde hurricane</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_hurricane" title="Pacific hurricane">Pacific hurricane</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">Typhoon</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/North_Indian_Ocean_tropical_cyclone" title="North Indian Ocean tropical cyclone">North Indian Ocean tropical cyclone</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_tropical-like_cyclone" title="Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone">Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_tropical-like_cyclone" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Sea tropical-like cyclone">Black Sea tropical-like cyclone</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="wrap">Southern Hemisphere</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/South-West_Indian_Ocean_tropical_cyclone" title="South-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone">South-West Indian Ocean tropical cyclone</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Australian_region_tropical_cyclone" title="Australian region tropical cyclone">Australian region tropical cyclone</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_tropical_cyclone" title="South Pacific tropical cyclone">South Pacific tropical cyclone</a></span></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_tropical_cyclone" title="South Atlantic tropical cyclone">South Atlantic tropical cyclone</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Upper level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-core_low" title="Cold-core low">Cold-core low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut-off_low" title="Cut-off low">Cut-off low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_vortex" title="Polar vortex">Polar vortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_tropospheric_cyclonic_vortex" title="Upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex">Upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesoscale_meteorology" title="Mesoscale meteorology">Mesoscale</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesoscale_ocean_eddies" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoscale ocean eddies">Mesoscale ocean eddies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalina_eddy" title="Catalina eddy">Catalina eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_Eddies" title="Haida Eddies">Haida Eddies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesoscale_convective_system" title="Mesoscale convective system">Mesoscale convective system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wake_low" title="Wake low">Wake Low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesohigh" title="Mesohigh">Mesohigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoscale_convective_vortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoscale convective vortex">Mesoscale convective vortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Line_echo_wave_pattern" title="Line echo wave pattern">Line echo wave pattern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Whirlwind" title="Whirlwind">Whirlwind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesocyclone" title="Mesocyclone">Mesocyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supercell" title="Supercell">Supercell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini-supercell" class="mw-redirect" title="Mini-supercell">Low-topped supercell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_cloud" title="Wall cloud">Wall cloud</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funnel_cloud" title="Funnel cloud">Funnel cloud</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tornado</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple-vortex_tornado" title="Multiple-vortex tornado">Multiple-vortex tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_tornado" title="Satellite tornado">Satellite tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticyclonic_tornado" title="Anticyclonic tornado">Anticyclonic tornado</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landspout" title="Landspout">Landspout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterspout" title="Waterspout">Waterspout</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustnado" title="Gustnado">Gustnado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_devil" title="Dust devil">Dust devil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_devil" title="Steam devil">Steam devil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_whirl" title="Fire whirl">Fire whirl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/32px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/48px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG/64px-Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2004" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Tropical_cyclones" title="Portal:Tropical cyclones">Tropical cyclones portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png/32px-EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png/48px-EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png/64px-EF4DaltonMNtornadoJuly2020.png 2x" data-file-width="1085" data-file-height="726" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Tornadoes" title="Portal:Tornadoes">Tornadoes portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Elements_of_nature" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nature" title="Template:Nature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nature" title="Template talk:Nature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Elements_of_nature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Elements of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">geological</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis" title="Gaia hypothesis">Gaia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere <span style="font-size:85%;">(Earth)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Clouds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin <span style="font-size:85%;">(abiogenesis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">astrobiology</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protista</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nature" title="Category:Nature">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8081#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4185727-6">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85136123">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00572733">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="tornáda"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph173800&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007541461605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tornado&oldid=1258576939">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tornado&oldid=1258576939</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tornado" title="Category:Tornado">Tornado</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Weather_hazards" title="Category:Weather hazards">Weather hazards</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Severe_weather_and_convection" title="Category:Severe weather and convection">Severe weather and convection</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Types_of_cyclone" title="Category:Types of cyclone">Types of cyclone</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wind" title="Category:Wind">Wind</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Storm" title="Category:Storm">Storm</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spanish_words_and_phrases" title="Category:Spanish words and phrases">Spanish words and phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_disasters" title="Category:Natural disasters">Natural disasters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hazards_of_outdoor_recreation" title="Category:Hazards of outdoor recreation">Hazards of outdoor recreation</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Source_attribution" title="Category:Source attribution">Source attribution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_locally_defined" title="Category:Commons category link is locally defined">Commons category link is locally defined</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Spanish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Spanish-language text">Articles containing Spanish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_Spanish_IPA" title="Category:Pages with Spanish IPA">Pages with Spanish IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_default_search" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with default search">Pages using Sister project links with default search</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips" title="Category:Articles containing video clips">Articles containing video clips</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 November 2024, at 13:32<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tornado&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-542sp","wgBackendResponseTime":181,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.606","walltime":"2.980","ppvisitednodes":{"value":11730,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":640445,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":11043,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":22,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":32,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":608552,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2475.835 1 -total"," 42.74% 1058.216 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.12% 498.170 17 Template:Navbox"," 20.10% 497.606 78 Template:Cite_web"," 9.35% 231.500 35 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.55% 162.093 1 Template:Weather"," 6.45% 159.790 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 5.72% 141.527 1 Template:Lang"," 5.15% 127.448 1 Template:Cyclones"," 4.67% 115.650 18 Template:Cite_book"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.609","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20486105,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","460","28.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","380","23.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","6.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","80","4.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","4.9"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","80","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","3.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","40","2.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","40","2.4"],["internal_link_id \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Identifiers:118\u003E","40","2.4"],["[others]","280","17.1"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-sbtsb","timestamp":"20241122140620","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Tornado","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tornado","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8081","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8081","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-02-03T18:55:34Z","dateModified":"2024-11-20T13:32:26Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/98\/F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg","headline":"violently rotating column of air that is in contact with both the earth's surface and a cumulonimbus cloud in the air"}</script> </body> </html>