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class="noprint"></div> <div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice"></div> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">History of broadcasting</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content"> <div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump"> Jump to: <a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a> </div> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">The history of broadcasting began with early radio transmissions which only carried the dots and dashes of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">wireless telegraphy</a>. The history of radio broadcasting (experimentally around 1905-1906, commercially around 1920-21) starts with audio (sound) broadcasting services which are broadcast through the air as radio waves from a transmitter to an antenna and, thus, to a receiving device. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast common programming, either in syndication or simulcast or both. <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_Broadcasting_around_the_World">1 Early Broadcasting around the World</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#United_States">1.1 United States</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Australia">1.2 Australia</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#The_Formative_Years">1.2.1 The Formative Years</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Call_Signs">1.2.2 Call Signs</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#1919-1923">1.2.3 1919-1923</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#The_Sealed_Set_system">1.2.4 The Sealed Set system</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Categories_of_Australian_Broadcasters.2C_from_1924">1.2.5 Categories of Australian Broadcasters, from 1924</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Types_of_Programs_broadcast">1.2.6 Types of Programs broadcast</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Early_experiments_with_Television">1.2.7 Early experiments with Television</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Mobile_Stations">1.2.8 Mobile Stations</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Canada">1.3 Canada</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Cuba">1.4 Cuba</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#United_Kingdom">1.5 United Kingdom</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Germany">1.6 Germany</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Japan">1.7 Japan</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Mexico">1.8 Mexico</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Philippines">1.9 Philippines</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Sri_Lanka">1.10 Sri Lanka</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#The_1950s_and_1960s">2 The 1950s and 1960s</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#United_States_2">2.1 United States</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Australia_2">2.2 Australia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#United_Kingdom_2">2.3 United Kingdom</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Germany_2">2.4 Germany</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Sri_Lanka_2">2.5 Sri Lanka</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#The_1970s.2C_1980s.2C_and_1990s">3 The 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#United_States_3">3.1 United States</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Australia_3">3.2 Australia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#United_Kingdom_3">3.3 United Kingdom</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Sri_Lanka_3">3.4 Sri Lanka</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Europe">3.5 Europe</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#The_2000s">4 The 2000s</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#See_also">5 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#References">6 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#Further_reading">7 Further reading</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Primary_Sources">7.1 Primary Sources</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> <h2>Early Broadcasting around the World[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early Broadcasting around the World">edit</a>]</h2> <h3>United States[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:211px;"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frankconrad.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150320124009im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Frankconrad.jpg" width="209" height="315" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="315"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frankconrad.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Broadcasting pioneer Frank Conrad in a 1921 portrait.</div> </div> </div> One of the first signals of significant power that carried <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_voice" title="Human voice">voice</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a> was said to have been accomplished in 1906 by <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a><a href="#cite_note-Davud_Sarnoff-1">[1]</a> when he made a <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve" title="Christmas Eve">Christmas Eve</a> broadcast to ships at sea from <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>. He played "<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O_Holy_Night" title="O Holy Night">O Holy Night</a>" on his <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">violin</a> and read passages from the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. It should be noted that recent researchers have cast doubt on this story: there is little doubt that Fessenden did ground-breaking experiments with voice and music; however the Christmas Eve broadcast may be a myth. There is considerable evidence that Fessenden demonstrated voice and music long before Christmas Eve 1906.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Despite Fessenden's successful experiments, his financial backers lost interest in the project, leaving others to take the next steps. Early on, the concept of broadcasting was new and unusual—with telegraphs, communication had been <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=One-to-one_(communication)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="One-to-one (communication) (page does not exist)">one-to-one</a>, not <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-multipoint_communication" title="Point-to-multipoint communication">one-to-many</a>. Sending out one-way messages to multiple receivers didn't seem to have much practical use. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Herrold" title="Charles Herrold">Charles Herrold</a> of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose,_California" title="San Jose, California">San Jose, California</a> sent out broadcasts as early as April 1909 from his Herrold School electronics institute in downtown San Jose, using the identification San Jose Calling, and then a variety of different <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_call_sign" title="Radio call sign" class="mw-redirect">call signs</a> as the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Commerce" title="Department of Commerce" class="mw-redirect">Department of Commerce</a> began to regulate radio.<a href="#cite_note-Charles_Herrold-3">[3]</a> His station was first called FN, then SJN (probably illegally). By 1912, the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> government began requiring radio operators to obtain licenses to send out signals. Herrold received licenses for 6XF and 6XE (a mobile transmitter) in 1916. He was on the air daily for nearly a decade when <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> interrupted operations. After the war, the Herrold operation in San Jose received the callsign KQW in 1923. Today, the lineage of that continues as <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KCBS_(AM)" title="KCBS (AM)">KCBS</a>, a <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a>-owned station in San Francisco. Herrold, the son of a farmer who patented a seed spreader, coined the terms <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrowcasting" title="Narrowcasting">narrowcasting</a>,<a href="#cite_note-broadcasting-4">[4]</a> based on the ideas of spreading crop seed far and wide, rather than only in rows. While Herrold never claimed the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_of_radio" title="Invention of radio">invention of radio</a> itself, he did claim the invention of broadcasting to a wide audience, through the use of antennas designed to radiate signals in all directions. By comparison, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Sarnoff" title="David Sarnoff">David Sarnoff</a> has been considered by some, arguably and perhaps mistakenly, as "the prescient prophet of broadcasting who predicted the medium's rise in 1915", referring to his radio music box concept.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> A few organizations were allowed to keep working on radio during the war. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation" title="Westinghouse Electric Corporation" class="mw-redirect">Westinghouse</a> was the most well-known of these. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Conrad" title="Frank Conrad">Frank Conrad</a>, a Westinghouse engineer, had been making transmissions from 8XK since 1916 that included music programming.<a href="#cite_note-Frank_Conrad-7">[7]</a> However, a team at the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a> headed by Professor <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earle_M._Terry" title="Earle M. Terry">Earle M. Terry</a> also had permission to be on the air.<a href="#cite_note-Earle_M.Terry-8">[8]</a> They operated <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHA_(AM)" title="WHA (AM)">9XM</a>, originally licensed by Professor <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Bennett_(physicist)" title="Edward Bennett (physicist)">Edward Bennett</a> in 1914, and usually sent <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> weather reports to ships on the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>, but they also experimented with voice broadcasts starting in 1917. They reportedly had difficulties with audio distortion, so the next couple of years were spent making transmissions distortion-free. Following the war, Herrold and other radio pioneers across the country resumed transmissions. The early stations gained new call signs. 8MK became WWJ.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> A 19-year-old boy named Michael DeLisle Lyons of Detroit was licensed 8MK. He built his station on the top floor of the Detroit News building with his 17-year-old brother Francis "Frank" Edward Lyons. The Scripps family, owners of the Detroit News, paid Michael Lyons to build the station. The Scripps family were concerned this new technology called: "radio" might only be a fad, and therefore did not want their name associated with the station they financed secretly. Once it was clear radio was here to stay the license for 8MK was transferred from Michael DeLisle Lyons to E. W. Scripps. Many early stations were started by newspaper families, who were worried radio might replace their newspapers. 8MK's first broadcast was on August 20, 1920 and they have been broadcasting every day since. In August 1921, the Lyons brothers also put the first radio in a police car in Toledo, Ohio with their friend, Ed Clark (who started WJR 760AM of Detroit). The police car radio was used to quickly respond and catch a prowler. RCA saw the news about the capture of the prowler in Toledo and quickly moved to put radios in police cars across the country. Michael DeLisle Lyons went on to become a Jesuit priest in India (1927 to 1945) and was brought back to the US on a secret war mission in 1945, when he supplied the final piece of the Manhattan Project, beryllium for the initiator (Google: "WWJ, a Jesuit and the Bomb" for the rest of the story). 8XK also became <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDKA_(AM)" title="KDKA (AM)">KDKA</a> in 1920. KDKA received the first federal license and began broadcasting on November 2, 1920. KDKA claims they were the first commercial broadcasting station, since they received the first federal license. However, their broadcasts were not daily when they started and they clearly began broadcasting months after 8MK/WWJ-Detroit. Herrold received a license for KQW in 1921 (later to become <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KCBS_(AM)" title="KCBS (AM)">KCBS</a>). 9XM became <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHA_(AM)" title="WHA (AM)">WHA</a> in 1922. The <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">National Broadcasting Company</a> began regular broadcasting in 1926, with telephone links between <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" title="New York">New York</a> and other Eastern cities. NBC became the dominant radio network, splitting into Red and Blue networks. The <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Broadcasting_System" title="Columbia Broadcasting System" class="mw-redirect">Columbia Broadcasting System</a> began in 1927 under the guidance of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_S._Paley" title="William S. Paley">William S. Paley</a>. Radio in education began as early as April 1922, when Medford Hillside's WGI Radio broadcast the first of an ongoing series of educational lectures from Tufts College professors. These lectures were described by the press as a sort of "wireless college."<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Soon, other colleges across the U.S. began adding radio broadcasting courses to their curricula; some, like the University of Iowa, even provided what today would be known as distance-learning credits.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curry_College" title="Curry College">Curry College</a>, first in Boston and then in Milton, Massachusetts, introduced one of the nation's first broadcasting majors in 1932 when the college teamed up with WLOE in Boston to have students broadcast programs. This success led to numerous radio courses in the curriculum which has taught thousands of radio broadcasters from the 1930s to today.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In 1934, several independent stations formed the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_Broadcasting_System" title="Mutual Broadcasting System">Mutual Broadcasting System</a> to exchange syndicated programming, including <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lone_Ranger" title="The Lone Ranger" class="mw-redirect">The Lone Ranger</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amos_%27n%27_Andy" title="Amos 'n' Andy">Amos 'n' Andy</a>. Prior to 1927, U.S. radio was supervised by the Department of Commerce. Then, the Radio Act of 1927 created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC);<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> in 1934, this agency became known as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). A Federal Communications Commission decision in 1939 required <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a> to divest itself of its <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Network" title="Blue Network">Blue Network</a>. That decision was sustained by the Supreme Court in a 1943 decision, National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, which established the framework that the "scarcity" of radio-frequency meant that broadcasting was subject to greater regulation than other media. This <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Network" title="Blue Network">Blue Network</a> network became the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">American Broadcasting Company</a> (ABC). Around 1946, ABC, NBC, and CBS began regular television broadcasts. Another TV network, the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DuMont_Television_Network" title="DuMont Television Network">DuMont Television Network</a>, was founded earlier, but was disbanded in 1956. <h3>Australia[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</h3> <h4>The Formative Years[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Formative Years">edit</a>]</h4> Australian <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_operator" title="Amateur radio operator">radio hams</a> can be traced to the early 1900s. The 1905 Wireless Telegraphy Act<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> whilst acknowledging the existence of wireless telgraphy, brought all broadcasting matters in Australia under the control of the Federal Government.<a href="#cite_note-Australia.2C_R.R._Walker_1973-15">[15]</a> In 1906, the first official <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> transmission in Australia was conducted by the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Company" title="Marconi Company">Marconi Company</a> between <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queenscliff,_Victoria" title="Queenscliff, Victoria">Queenscliff, Victoria</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonport,_Tasmania" title="Devonport, Tasmania">Devonport, Tasmania</a>. However, it must be noted that some sources claim that there were transmissions in Australia as early as 1897 - these were either conducted solely by Professor <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide_University" title="Adelaide University" class="mw-redirect">Adelaide University</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> or by Prof. Bragg in conjunction with G.W. Selby of Melbourne.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <h4>Call Signs[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Call Signs">edit</a>]</h4> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_signs" title="Call signs" class="mw-redirect">Call signs</a> were introduced in 1920 and, with minor refinements, exist in the same form today. All stations have an <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphanumeric" title="Alphanumeric">alphanumeric</a>; the defining numeral is followed by two letters to form a call sign that is unique to each station. The numeral defines the state or territory in which the station is sited. Originally, the following were used: 2 = <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a> (and originally <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Capital_Territory" title="Australian Capital Territory">Australian Capital Territory</a>); 3 = <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)" title="Victoria (Australia)">Victoria</a>; 4 = <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>; 5 = <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a> (and originally <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a>); 6 = <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>; 7 = <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>. The letters often defined the station ownership or geographic region, but in other cases the letters had no specific meaning. Over the years, the following were added: 1 = Australian Capital Territory (but earlier stations still retain their "2" call sign); 8 = Northern Territory; 9 = military stations; 0 = <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Antarctic_Territory" title="Australian Antarctic Territory">Australian Antarctic Territory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-18">[18]</a> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_Australia" title="List of radio stations in Australia">Today</a>, with minor exceptions, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM</a> stations retain the two letters after the numeral, and since 1975 <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting" title="FM broadcasting">FM</a> stations have had three letters. Over the last few decades, there has been a trend for many stations to use marketing names on air rather than their official call sign. Inter alia, examples of such on-air names are: Gold, Mix, HOTFM, Nova, and STAR FM.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-19">[19]</a> Australia's <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcodes_in_Australia" title="Postcodes in Australia">postcodes</a>, introduced in 1967, use the same introductory numeral as radio call signs. There is an <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_legend" title="Urban legend">urban myth</a> that call signs were based on Australian <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Military_District_(Australia)" title="4th Military District (Australia)">military districts</a> but this incorrect as the following list of military districts show: 1 = Queensland; 2 = New South Wales; 3 = Victoria; 4 = South Australia; 5 = Western Australia; 6 = Tasmania; 7 = Northern Territory; 8 = <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua and New Guinea</a>. <h4>1919-1923[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1919-1923">edit</a>]</h4> The first broadcast of music was made during a demonstration on 13 August 1919 by <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Fisk" title="Ernest Fisk">Ernest Fisk</a> (later Sir Ernest) of AWA - <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalgamated_Wireless_(Australasia)" title="Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia)">Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia)</a>. A number of amateurs commenced broadcasting music in 1920 and 1921. These included <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2CM,_Sydney&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2CM, Sydney (page does not exist)">2CM</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>; <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2YG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2YG (page does not exist)">2YG</a>, Sydney; <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2XY&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2XY (page does not exist)">2XY</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcastle,_New_South_Wales" title="Newcastle, New South Wales">Newcastle</a>; 3ME, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>; <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3DP,_Melbourne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3DP, Melbourne (page does not exist)">3DP</a>, Melbourne; <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=4CM&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4CM (page does not exist)">4CM</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane" title="Brisbane">Brisbane</a>; <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=4AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4AE (page does not exist)">4AE</a>, Brisbane; <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=4CH,_Brisbane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4CH, Brisbane (page does not exist)">4CH</a>, Brisbane; <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=5AC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5AC (page does not exist)">5AC</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide" title="Adelaide">Adelaide</a>; 5AD, Adelaide (not associated with 5AD which commenced in 1930); <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=5BG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5BG (page does not exist)">5BG</a>, Adelaide; <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=7AA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="7AA (page does not exist)">7AA</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobart" title="Hobart">Hobart</a>; <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=7AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="7AB (page does not exist)">7AB</a>, Hobart.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-18">[18]</a> Many other amateurs soon followed. However, the slow pace of licensing of new radio stations dismayed some government officials who wished there could be stations in other cities.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <h4>The Sealed Set system[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Sealed Set system">edit</a>]</h4> It was not until November 1923 when the government finally gave its approval for a number of officially recognised <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave</a> stations. These were (with the dates they came on air): <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2BL_(AM)" title="2BL (AM)" class="mw-redirect">2SB</a>, Sydney, Sydney Broadcasters Ltd, 13 November 1923;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2FC" title="2FC" class="mw-redirect">2FC</a>, Sydney, Farmers & Co Ltd, 8 December 1923;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3AR" title="3AR" class="mw-redirect">3AR</a>, Melbourne,Associated Radio Co, 26 January 1924;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3LO" title="3LO" class="mw-redirect">3LO</a>, Melbourne, Broadcasting Co of Australia, 13 October 1924;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6WF" title="6WF" class="mw-redirect">6WF</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth" title="Perth">Perth</a>, Westralian Farmers, 4 June 1924.</li> </ul> At the suggestion of Ernest Fisk, these five stations operated under a system possibly unique to Australia, the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sealed_unit" title="Sealed unit">Sealed Set</a> system under which listeners-in were to buy a set which was sealed to the frequency of the station nominated. Part of the price of the set went to the government via the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmaster-General%27s_Department" title="Postmaster-General's Department">Postmaster-General's Department</a> (PMG), with money also going to the broadcaster. Apart from extremely limited advertising, this was the broadcasters' only source of income. In these early days of broadcasting, the vast majority of listeners-in had a great degree of technical radio knowledge and, thus, were able to bypass the Sealed Set system by building their own sets.<a href="#cite_note-Australia.2C_R.R._Walker_1973-15">[15]</a> (It may not be unfair to compare the early days of broadcasting with the situation with computer technology some 60 or so years later.) <h4>Categories of Australian Broadcasters, from 1924[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Categories of Australian Broadcasters, from 1924">edit</a>]</h4> As quickly as July 1924, the Sealed Set system was declared to be unsuccessful and it was replaced by a system of A Class and B Class stations. There were one or two A Class stations in each major market and these were paid for by a listener's licence fee imposed on all listeners-in. The five former Sealed Set stations became A Class stations, and they were soon joined by the following stations in other State capitals: <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5CL" title="5CL" class="mw-redirect">5CL</a>, Adelaide, Central Broadcasters Ltd, 20 November 1924;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7ZL" title="7ZL" class="mw-redirect">7ZL</a>, Hobart, Associated Radio Co, 17 December 1924;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4QG" title="4QG" class="mw-redirect">4QG</a>, Brisbane, Queensland Radio Service (operated by the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a> government), 27 July 1925.<a href="#cite_note-Australia.2C_R.R._Walker_1973-15">[15]</a></li> </ul> By 1931, all A Class stations were receiving all their programs from the one source, the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Company" title="Australian Broadcasting Company">Australian Broadcasting Company</a> which was made up of the following shareholders: <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_Cinemas" title="Event Cinemas">Greater Union Theatres</a> (a <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie_theater" title="Movie theater">movie theatre</a> chain), <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fuller%27s_Theatres&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fuller's Theatres (page does not exist)">Fuller's Theatres</a> (a <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">live theatre</a> chain) and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Music" title="Albert Music">J. Albert & Sons</a> (music publishers and retailers). A number of B Class stations were also licenced. These did not receive any government monies and were expected to derive their income from advertising, sponsorship, or other sources. Within a few years B Class stations were being referred to as "commercial stations". The following were the first to be licenced: <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2BE,_Sydney&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2BE, Sydney (page does not exist)">2BE</a>, Sydney, 7 November 1924 (closed 6 November 1929);</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3SR" title="3SR" class="mw-redirect">3WR</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangaratta" title="Wangaratta">Wangaratta</a>, 1 December 1924 (closed 22 December 1925 but later re-opened);</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2UE" title="2UE">2EU</a>, Sydney, 26 January 1925, still on the air - name changed to 2UE within months of opening;<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-18">[18]</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2HD" title="2HD">2HD</a>, Newcastle, 27 January 1925, still on the air;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIIS_106.5" title="KIIS 106.5">2UW</a>, Sydney, 13 February 1925, still on the air;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_1323" title="Cruise 1323">5DN</a>, Adelaide, 24 February 1925, still on the air;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3UZ" title="3UZ">3UZ</a>, Melbourne, 8 March 1925, still on the air;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Cross_Austereo" title="Southern Cross Austereo">4GR</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toowoomba" title="Toowoomba">Toowoomba</a>, 9 August 1925, still on the air;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2KY" title="2KY">2KY</a>, Sydney, 31 October 1925, still on the air;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2GZ" title="2GZ">2MK</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathurst,_New_South_Wales" title="Bathurst, New South Wales">Bathurst</a>, 11 November 1925 (closed November 1931);</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2GB" title="2GB">2GB</a>, Sydney, 23 August 1926, still on the air.<a href="#cite_note-Australia.2C_R.R._Walker_1973-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-19">[19]</a></li> </ul> Amateur broadcasters continued to operate in the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_wave" title="Long wave" class="mw-redirect">long wave</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_wave" title="Short wave" class="mw-redirect">short wave</a> bands. In Melbourne, for some years, they were also permitted to broadcast on the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave</a> band on Sundays between 12.30 and 2.30 pm, during which time all commercial stations were required to close down. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the PMG planned to institute C Class stations which would have had their advertising limited to the station owner(s) only. When the plan was abandoned in 1931, the PMG was about to issue such a licence to the Akron Tyre Co in Melbourne; in lieu of a C Class licence, Akron was given a licence for a B Class station but with a number of limiting conditions on its licence (see <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3AK" title="3AK">3AK</a> for details). A national service, the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Australian Broadcasting Commission</a>, was formed in July 1932. It took over the assets of all A Class stations and of the Australian Broadcasting Co. It still still exists as the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. The Australian Broadcasting Co changed its name to the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIIS_106.5" title="KIIS 106.5">Commonwealth Broadcasting Company</a> and later the Australian Radio Network. It soon purchased Sydney commercial station <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIIS_106.5" title="KIIS 106.5">2UW</a> and now has an Australia-wide network of commercial stations. <h4>Types of Programs broadcast[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Types of Programs broadcast">edit</a>]</h4> As with most countries, most Australian stations originally broadcast music interspersed with such things as talks, coverage of sporting events, church broadcasts, weather, news and time signals of various types. Virtually all stations also had programes of interest to women, and children's sessions. The first radio dramas were transmitted in the mid-1920s. By the 1930s, the ABC was transmitting a number of British programs sourced from the BBC, and commercial stations were receiving a number of US programs, particularly dramas. However, in the 1940s, war-time restrictions made it difficult to access overseas programs and, therefore, the amount of Australian dramatic material increased. As well as using original ideas and scripts, there were a number of local versions of overseas programs. Initially, much of the music broadcast in Australia was from live studio concerts. However, the amount of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record" title="Gramophone record">gramophone</a> (and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano_roll" title="Piano roll">piano roll</a>) music soon increased dramatically, particularly on commercial stations. In the late 1930s, the number of big production variety shows multiplied significantly, particularly on the two major commercial networks, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Radio_Network" title="Macquarie Radio Network">Macquarie</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Radio_Network" title="Macquarie Radio Network">Major</a>. After <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> the independent Colgate-Palmolive radio production unit was formed. It poached most major radio stars from the various stations. Until the 1950s, the popular image of the whole family seated around a set in the living room was the most accepted way of listening to radio. Therefore, most stations had to be all things to all people, and specialised programming was not really thought about at this stage (it did not come in until the late 1950s). Because of this, programming on most stations was pretty much the same. In the immediate post-war period, nearly all commercial stations had a schedule that looked something like this: a breakfast session with bright music including band music, news and weather, a children's segment and, usually, an exercise segment; morning programs were aimed at women listeners, often with large blocks of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap_operas" title="Soap operas" class="mw-redirect">soap operas</a> or <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_(radio_and_television)" title="Serial (radio and television)">serials</a>, and many segments of the handy hints genre; afternoon programs were also usually geared at women but with more music and, often, a request session; after school, there was inevitably a Children's Session (often hosted by an aunt or uncle or both, and usually featuring birthday greetings; this was followed by another block of serials, often geared at children, and/or dinner music; the major news bulletin was usually at 7.00 pm, often followed by a news commentary; the peak listening hours typically consisted of a mix of variety programs (including many quizzes), dramas, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talent_show" title="Talent show">talent quests</a> and the occasional musical program, often live; late night programing mainly consisted of relaxing music, usually mellow jazz or light classical. There was usually only one station in each capital city that was licensed to broadcast through the night. <h4>Early experiments with Television[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early experiments with Television">edit</a>]</h4> As early as 1929, two Melbourne commercial radio stations, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3UZ" title="3UZ">3UZ</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIIS_101.1" title="KIIS 101.1">3DB</a> were conducting experimental mechanical <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> broadcasts - these were conducted in the early hours of the morning, after the stations had officially closed down. In 1934 Dr Val McDowall<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> at amateur station <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=4CM&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4CM (page does not exist)">4CM</a> Brisbane<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> conducted experiments in electronic <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>. <h4>Mobile Stations[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mobile Stations">edit</a>]</h4> Two of Australia's most unusual stations were mobile stations 2XT and 3YB. They both operated in eras prior to the universal establishment of rural radio stations. 2XT was designed and operated by AWA within the State of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>, from a <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_Corporation_New_South_Wales" title="Rail Corporation New South Wales">NSW Railways</a> train, between November 1925 and December 1927. 2XT, which stood for experimental train, visited over 100 rural centres. Engineers would set up a transmitting aerial and the station would then begin broadcasting. This led to the further sales of AWA products. 3YB provided a similar service in rural <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)" title="Victoria (Australia)">Victoria</a> between October 1931 and November 1935. Initially, the station operated from a <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a> car and a Ford truck, but from 17 October 1932 they operated from a converted 1899 former Royal Train carriage. Whilst the engineers were setting up the station's 50-watt transmitter in the town being visited, salesmen would sign up advertisers for the fortnight that 3YB would broadcast from that region. The station was on the air from 6.00 and 10.00 pm daily, and its 1,000-record library was divided into set four-hour programs, one for each of 14 days. In other words, the music broadcast from each town was identical. The station was operated by Vic Dinenny. On 18 January 1936, Dinenny set up <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3YB" title="3YB">3YB</a> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warnambool" title="Warnambool" class="mw-redirect">Warnambool</a>, followed on 18 May 1937 by <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3GG" title="3GG">3UL</a> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warragul" title="Warragul">Warragul</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <h3>Canada[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</h3> In 1921–1922, Canadians swept up in the radio craze bought radio sets to listen to American stations; back then, radio signals carried long distances, and a number of American stations could easily be received in parts of Canada.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> By most accounts, the first Canadian station was XWA, an experimental station from the Marconi Company in Montréal. It began its broadcasts in late 1919 and continued them during 1920. In November 1922, the station was assigned the call letters of CFCF—which stood for Canada's First.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In Toronto, the first radio station was operated by the Toronto Star newspaper. The station, CKCE, first used the transmitter and call letters of the Canadian Independent Telephone Company, and began some broadcasts in April 1922.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> These broadcasts were so well received that the Star pushed forward with its own studios and transmitting facilities, returning to the air as CFCA in late June 1922.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Meanwhile in Montreal, another newspaper, La Presse, put its own station, CKAC on the air in late September 1922. Because there were governmental limitations on radio frequencies back then, CKAC and CFCF alternated—one would broadcast one night, and the other would broadcast the night after that.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> For a time, CKAC was broadcasting some programs in French, and some in English: in 1924, for example, the station rebroadcast fifteen Boston Bruins hockey games from station WBZ in Boston.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Meanwhile, in other Canadian provinces, 1922 was also the year for their first stations, including CJCE in Vancouver, and CQCA (which soon became CHCQ) in Calgary. But while radio in Canada continued to grow in popularity during the mid-1920s, a problem arose: the U.S. stations dominated the airwaves and with a limited number of frequencies available for broadcasters to use, it was the American stations that seemed to get most of them. This was despite an agreement with the US Department of Commerce (which supervised broadcasting in the years prior to the Federal Radio Commission) that a certain number of frequencies were reserved exclusively for Canadian signals. But if a US station wanted one of those frequencies, the Department of Commerce seemed unwilling to stop it, much to the frustration of Canadian owners who wanted to put stations on the air. The Canadian government and the US government began negotiations in late 1926, in hopes of finding a satisfactory solution.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Meanwhile, in 1928, Canada got its first network, operated by the Canadian National Railways. CNR had already made itself known in radio since 1923, thanks in large part to the leadership of CNR's president, Sir Henry Thornton. The company began equipping its trains with radio receivers, and allowed passengers to hear radio stations from Canada and the US. In 1924, CN began building its own stations, and by 1928, it was able to create a network.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In 1932, the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission was formed, and in 1936, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, the country's national radio service, made its debut. <h3>Cuba[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cuba">edit</a>]</h3> There was interest in radio almost from broadcasting's earliest days, as some Cubans would try to listen to the American stations whose signals reached the island. But there was no radio station in Cuba until 1922. The arrival of the first radio station, PWX, was greeted with enthusiasm.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> PWX, owned by the Cuban Telephone Company, was located in Havana. It was a joint venture with the International Telephone and Telegraph Company of New York. PWX debuted on the air on October 10, 1922.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> PWX broadcast programs in both English and Spanish, and its signal was easily received at night in a number of American cities.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Another early station in Cuba was owned by Frank Jones, an American amateur radio operator and Chief Engineer of the Tuinucu Sugar Company. The station used amateur call letters, and went on the air as 6KW.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In late 1928, PWX began using the call letters CMC. Its slogan was "If you hear 'La Paloma,' you are in tune with CMC."<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> As with many other countries, interest in radio expanded, and by 1932, Cuba had more than thirty stations, spread out in cities all over the island.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <h3>United Kingdom[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</h3> The first experimental broadcasts, from <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi's</a> factory in <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelmsford,_England" title="Chelmsford, England" class="mw-redirect">Chelmsford</a>, began in 1920. Two years later, in October 1922, a consortium of radio manufacturers formed the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Broadcasting_Company" title="British Broadcasting Company">British Broadcasting Company</a> (BBC); they allowed some sponsored programs, although they were not what we would today consider a fully commercial station. Meanwhile, the first radio stations in England were experimental station 2MT, located near Chelmsford, and station 2LO in London: both were operated by the Marconi Company. By late 1923, there were six stations broadcasting regularly in the United Kingdom: London's 2LO, Manchester's 2ZY, and stations in Birmingham, Cardiff, Newcastle, and Glasgow.<a href="#cite_note-Now_Numbers_Many_Millions_1923.2C_p._13-38">[38]</a> As for the consortium of radio manufacturers, it dissolved in 1926, when its license expired; it then became the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="British Broadcasting Corporation" class="mw-redirect">British Broadcasting Corporation</a>, a non-commercial organization. Its governors are appointed by the British government, but they do not answer to it. Lord <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Charles_Walsham_Reith" title="John Charles Walsham Reith" class="mw-redirect">Reith</a> took a formative role in developing the BBC, especially in radio.<a href="#cite_note-Lord_Reith-39">[39]</a> Working as its first manager and Director-General, he promoted the philosophy of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_service_broadcasting" title="Public service broadcasting" class="mw-redirect">public service broadcasting</a>, firmly grounded in the moral benefits of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> and of uplifting <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a>, eschewing <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commercial</a> influence and maintaining a maximum of independence from political control. Commercial stations such as <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Normandie" title="Radio Normandie" class="mw-redirect">Radio Normandie</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Luxembourg_(English)" title="Radio Luxembourg (English)">Radio Luxembourg</a> broadcast into the UK from other European countries. This provided a very popular alternative to the rather austere BBC. These stations were closed during the War, and only Radio Luxembourg returned afterward. BBC television broadcasts in Britain began on November 2, 1936, and continued until <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">wartime</a> conditions closed the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">service</a> in 1939. <h3>Germany[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Germany">edit</a>]</h3> By most accounts, the first radio station in Germany went on the air in Berlin in late 1923, using the call letters "LP."<a href="#cite_note-Now_Numbers_Many_Millions_1923.2C_p._13-38">[38]</a> Before the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> assumption of power in 1933, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> radio broadcasting was supervised by the Post Office. A listening fee of 2 <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reichsmark" title="German reichsmark" class="mw-redirect">Reichsmark</a> per receiver paid most subsidies, and radio station frequencies were limited, which even restricted the number of amateur radio operators.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Immediately following <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitler" title="Hitler" class="mw-redirect">Hitler's</a> assumption of power, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a> became head of the Ministry for <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> and Public Enlightenment. Non-Nazis were removed from broadcasting and editorial positions. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew" title="Jew" class="mw-redirect">Jews</a> were fired from all positions. The Reichsrundfunk programming began to decline in popularity as the theme of Kampfzeit was continually played. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> was easily served by a number of European mediumwave stations, including the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> and domestic stations in <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>. It became illegal for Germans to listen to foreign broadcasts. (Foreign correspondents and key officials were exempt from this rule). During the war, German stations broadcast not only war propaganda and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a> for German forces dispersed through Europe and the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a>, but provided <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airstrike" title="Airstrike">air raid</a> alerts. Germany experimented with television broadcasting before the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War" title="Second World War" class="mw-redirect">Second World War</a>, using a 180-line raster system beginning before 1935. German propaganda claimed the system was superior to the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> mechanical scanning system, but this was subject to debate by persons who saw the broadcasts. <h3>Japan[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</h3> The first radio station in Japan was JOAK, which opened in Tokyo in March 1925. It was founded by Masajiro Kotamura, an inventor and engineer. It was unique in that at least one of its announcers was a woman, Akiko Midorikawa.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> JOAK was followed soon after by JOBK in Osaka and JOCK in Nagoya. The National Broadcasting Service, today known as NHK (Nippon Hoso Kyokai), began in August 1926. All stations were supported by licensing fees: in 1926, for example, people wishing to receive a permit to own a radio set paid a fee of one yen a month to the government.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Programming on Japanese stations of the 1920s included music, news, language instruction (lessons were offered in English, French and German) and educations talks. These early stations broadcast on average about eight hours of programs a day.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <h3>Mexico[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mexico">edit</a>]</h3> Amateur radio was very popular in Mexico; while most of the hams were male, notably Constantino de Tarnava, acknowledged in some sources as Mexico's first amateur radio operator,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> one of the early ham radio operators was female—Maria Dolores Estrada.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> But commercial radio was difficult to achieve, due to a federal regulation forbidding any broadcasts that were not for the benefit of the Mexican government. Still, in November 1923, CYL in Mexico City went on the air, featuring music (both folk songs and popular dance concerts), religious services, and news. CYL used as its slogans "El Universal" and "La Casa del Radio, and it won over the government, by giving political candidates the opportunity to use the station to campaign.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Its signal was so powerful that it was even received in Canada sometimes.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Pressure from listeners and potential station owners also contributed to the government relenting and allowing more stations to go on the air.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In 1931, the "C" call letters were all changed to "X" call letters, and by 1932, Mexico had nearly forty radio stations, ten of which were in Mexico City.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <h3>Philippines[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Philippines">edit</a>]</h3> Interest in amateur radio was noted in the Philippines in the early 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> There were radio stations operating in the Philippines, including one owned by American businessman named Henry Hermann, as early as 1922, according to some sources; not much documentation about that period of time exists. In the autumn of 1927, KZRM in Manila, owned by the Radio Corporation of the Philippines, went on the air.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The Radio Corporation of the Philippines was a subsidiary of American company RCA (Radio Corporation of America).<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> By 1932, the island had three radio stations: KZRC in Cebu, as well as KZIB (owned by a department store) and KZFM, the government-owned station in Manila. Of the stations listed by Pierre Key, KZFM was the strongest, with 50,000 watts.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Two radio networks were ultimately created: one, the Manila Broadcasting Company, began as a single station, KZRH in Manila, in July 1939, and after World War II, in 1946, the station's owners began to develop their network by buying other radio properties. As for the Philippine Broadcasting Company, it too began with one station (KZFM), and received its new name in mid-1946, after the Philippines became an independent country. At the end of 1946, the new network had six stations.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Both KZRH and KZFM also affiliated with American networks; the stations wanted to have access to certain popular American programs, and the American networks wanted to sell products in the Philippines.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <h3>Sri Lanka[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sri Lanka">edit</a>]</h3> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> has the oldest radio station in Asia (world's second oldest). The station was known as <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Ceylon" title="Radio Ceylon">Radio Ceylon</a>. It developed into one of the finest broadcasting institutions in the world. It is now known as the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation">Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation</a>. Sri Lanka created <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting</a> history in Asia when broadcasting was started in Ceylon by the Telegraph Department in 1923 on an experimental footing, just three years after the inauguration of broadcasting in Europe. Gramophone music was broadcast from a tiny room in the Central Telegraph Office with the aid of a small transmitter built by the Telegraph Department engineers from the radio equipment of a captured German submarine.<a href="#cite_note-Transmitter-56">[56]</a> This broadcasting experiment was a huge success and barely three years later, on December 16, 1925, a regular broadcasting service came to be instituted. Edward Harper who came to <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceylon" title="Ceylon" class="mw-redirect">Ceylon</a> as Chief Engineer of the Telegraph Office in 1921, was the first person to actively promote broadcasting in Ceylon. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> occupies an important place in the history of broadcasting with broadcasting services inaugurated just three years after the launch of the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> in the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Harper_(engineer)" title="Edward Harper (engineer)">Edward Harper</a> launched the first experimental broadcast as well as founding the Ceylon Wireless Club, together with British and Ceylonese radio enthusiasts on the island. Edward Harper has been dubbed ' the Father of Broadcasting in Ceylon,' because of his pioneering efforts, his skill and his determination to succeed. Edward Harper and his fellow Ceylonese radio enthusiasts, made it happen. <h2>The 1950s and 1960s[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The 1950s and 1960s">edit</a>]</h2> <h3>United States[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</h3> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">Television</a> began to replace <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> as the chief source of revenue for broadcasting networks. Although many radio programs continued through this decade, including <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunsmoke" title="Gunsmoke">Gunsmoke</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guiding_Light" title="The Guiding Light" class="mw-redirect">The Guiding Light</a>, by 1960 networks had ceased producing entertainment programs. As radio stopped producing formal fifteen-minute to hourly programs, a new format developed. "<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_40" title="Top 40">Top 40</a>" was based on a continuous rotation of short pop songs presented by a "disc jockey." Famous <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey" title="Disc jockey">disc jockeys</a> in the era included <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Freed" title="Alan Freed">Alan Freed</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Clark" title="Dick Clark">Dick Clark</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Imus" title="Don Imus">Don Imus</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfman_Jack" title="Wolfman Jack">Wolfman Jack</a>. Top 40 playlists were theoretically based on record sales; however, record companies began to <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bribe" title="Bribe" class="mw-redirect">bribe</a> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey" title="Disc jockey">disc jockeys</a> to play selected artists, in what was called <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payola" title="Payola">payola</a>. In the 1950s, American television networks introduced broadcasts in color. (The Federal Communications Commission approved the world's first monochrome-compatible color television standard in Dec., 1953. The first network colorcast followed on January 1, 1954, with NBC transmitting the annual Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, Calif. to over 20 stations across the country.) An educational television network, National Educational Television (NET), predecessor to <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" title="Public Broadcasting Service" class="mw-redirect">PBS</a>, was founded. Shortwave broadcasting played an important part of fighting the cold war with Voice of America and the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> World Service argumented with Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty transmitting through the "Iron Curtain", and Radio Moscow and others broadcasting back, as well as jamming (transmitting to cause intentional interference) the western voices. <h3>Australia[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</h3> Like most of the world, Australia experienced great changes to broadcasting during the 1950s and 1960s. This was mainly caused by two things: the introduction of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> and the gradual replacement of the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">radio valve</a> with the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>. Not including the early television experiments (see above), mainstream television transmission commenced in Sydney and Melbourne in the latter part of 1956, that is, in time for the 1956 Melbourne <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Games" title="Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a> in November/December 1956. It was then phased in in other capital cities, and then into rural markets. Many forms entertainment, particularly drama and variety, were considered more suited to television than radio, and many such programes were gradually deleted from radio schedules. The <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_radio" title="Transistor radio">transistor radio</a> first appeared on the market in 1954. In particular, it made portable radios even more transportable. All sets quicklly became smaller, cheaper and more convenient. The aim of radio manufacturers became a radio in every room, in the car, and in the pocket. The upshot of these two changes was that stations started to specialise and concentrate on specific markets. The first areas to see specialised stations were the news and current affairs market, and stations specialising in <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music" title="Pop music">pop music</a> and geared toward the younger listener who was now able to afford his/her own radio. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk_radio" title="Talk radio">Talk back</a> was to become a major radio genre by the end of the 1960s, but it was not legalised in Australia until October 1967.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-19">[19]</a> The fears of intrusion were addressed by a beep that occurred every few seconds, so that the caller knew that his/her call was being broadcast. There was also a seven-second delay so that obscene or libelous material could be monitored. By the end of the 1960s, specialisation by radio stations had increased dramatically and there were stations focusing on various kinds of music, talk back, news, sport, etc. <h3>United Kingdom[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</h3> Radio Luxembourg remained popular during the 1950s but saw its audience decline as commercial television and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirate_radio" title="Pirate radio">pirate radio</a>, combined with a switch to a less clear frequency, began to erode its influence. BBC television resumed on June 7, 1946, and commercial television began on September 22, 1955. Both used the pre-war <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/405-line" title="405-line" class="mw-redirect">405-line</a> standard. BBC2 came on the air on April 20, 1964, using the 625-line standard, and began <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAL" title="PAL">PAL</a> colour transmissions on July 1, 1967, the first in Europe. The two older networks transmitted in 625-line colour from 1969. During the 1960s there was still no UK-based commercial radio. A number of 'pirate' radio ships, located in international waters just outside the jurisdiction of English law, came on the air between 1964 and 1967. The most famous of these was <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Caroline" title="Radio Caroline">Radio Caroline</a>, which was the only station to continue broadcasting after the offshore pirates were effectively outlawed on August 14, 1967 by the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Broadcasting_Offences_Act" title="Marine Broadcasting Offences Act" class="mw-redirect">Marine Broadcasting Offences Act</a>. It was finally forced off air due to a dispute over tendering payments, but returned in 1972 and continued on and off until 1990. The station still broadcasts, nowadays using satellite carriers and internet. <h3>Germany[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Germany">edit</a>]</h3> When the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Federal Republic of Germany" class="mw-redirect">Federal Republic of Germany</a> was organized in 1949, its Enabling Act established strong state government powers. Broadcasting was organized on a state, rather than a national, basis. Nine regional radio networks were established. A technical coordinating organization, the Arbeitsgemeinschaft der offentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (ARD), came into being in 1950 to lessen technical conflicts. The Allied forces in Europe developed their own radio networks, including the U.S. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Forces_Network" title="American Forces Network">American Forces Network</a> (AFN). Inside Berlin, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_in_the_American_Sector" title="Radio in the American Sector" class="mw-redirect">Radio in the American Sector</a> (RIAS) became a key source of news in the German Democratic Republic.<a href="#cite_note-Radio_In_The_American_Sector-57">[57]</a> Germany began developing a network of VHF FM broadcast stations in 1955 because of the excessive crowding of the mediumwave and shortwave broadcast bands. <h3>Sri Lanka[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sri Lanka">edit</a>]</h3> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Ceylon" title="Radio Ceylon">Radio Ceylon</a> ruled the airwaves in the 1950s and 1960s in the Indian sub-continent.<a href="#cite_note-Radio_Ceylon-58">[58]</a> The station developed into the most popular radio network in <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>. Millions of listeners in <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> for example tuned into Radio Ceylon. Announcers like <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy_Wijemanne" title="Livy Wijemanne">Livy Wijemanne</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernon_Corea" title="Vernon Corea">Vernon Corea</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Vernon_Corea-59">[59]</a> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Ondaatje" title="Pearl Ondaatje">Pearl Ondaatje</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Horshington" title="Tim Horshington">Tim Horshington</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Roskowski" title="Greg Roskowski">Greg Roskowski</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Bharucha" title="Jimmy Bharucha">Jimmy Bharucha</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mil_Sansoni" title="Mil Sansoni">Mil Sansoni</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eardley_Peiris" title="Eardley Peiris">Eardley Peiris</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Perera" title="Shirley Perera">Shirley Perera</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Harvie" title="Bob Harvie">Bob Harvie</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Greet" title="Christopher Greet">Christopher Greet</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosper_Fernando" title="Prosper Fernando">Prosper Fernando</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameen_Sayani" title="Ameen Sayani">Ameen Sayani</a> (of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binaca_Geetmala" title="Binaca Geetmala">Binaca Geetmala</a> fame),<a href="#cite_note-Ameen_Sayani-60">[60]</a><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karunaratne_Abeysekera" title="Karunaratne Abeysekera">Karunaratne Abeysekera</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.P.Mylvaganam" title="S.P.Mylvaganam" class="mw-redirect">S.P.Mylvaganam</a> (the first Tamil Announcer on the Commercial Service) were hugely popular across South Asia. The Hindi Service also helped build Radio Ceylon's reputation as the market leader in the Indian sub-continent. Gopal Sharma, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunil_Dutt" title="Sunil Dutt">Sunil Dutt</a> <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameen_Sayani" title="Ameen Sayani">Ameen Sayani</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hamid_Sayani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hamid Sayani (page does not exist)">Hamid Sayani</a>, were among the Indian announcers of the station. The Commercial Service of Radio Ceylon was hugely successful under the leadership of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Dodd" title="Clifford Dodd">Clifford Dodd</a>, the Australian administrator and broadcasting expert who was sent to Ceylon under the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombo_Plan" title="Colombo Plan">Colombo Plan</a>. Dodd hand picked some of the most talented radio presenters in South Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Clifford_Dodd-61">[61]</a> They went on to enjoy star status in the Indian sub-continent. This was Radio Ceylon's golden era. <h2>The 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s">edit</a>]</h2> <h3>United States[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</h3> The rise of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">FM</a> changed the listening habits of younger Americans. Many stations such as WNEW-FM in New York City began to play whole sides of record albums, as opposed to the "Top 40" model of two decades earlier. In the 1980s, the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a>, under Reagan Administration and Congressional pressure, changed the rules limiting the number of radio and television stations a business entity could own in one metropolitan area. This <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">deregulation</a> led to several groups, such as <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity_Broadcasting" title="Infinity Broadcasting" class="mw-redirect">Infinity Broadcasting</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clear_Channel_Communications" title="Clear Channel Communications" class="mw-redirect">Clear Channel</a> to buy many stations in major cities. The cost of these stations' purchases led to a conservative approach to broadcasting, including limited playlists and avoiding controversial subjects to not offend listeners, and increased commercials to increase revenue. AM Radio declined throughout the 1970s and 1980s due to various reasons including: Lower cost of FM receivers, narrow AM audio bandwidth, and poor sound in the AM section of automobile receivers (to combat the crowding of stations in the AM band and a "<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudness_war" title="Loudness war">loudness war</a>" conducted by AM broadcasters), and increased radio noise in homes caused by fluorescent lighting and introduction of electronic devices in homes. AM radio's decline flattened out in the mid-1990s due to the introduction of niche formats and over commercialization of many FM stations. <h3>Australia[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</h3> After much procrastination on the part of various federal governments, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting" title="FM broadcasting">FM broadcasting</a> was eventually introduced in 1975. Only a handful of radio stations were given new licences during the 1940s, 50s & 60s but, since 1975, many hundreds of new broadcasting licences have been issued on both the FM and AM bands. In the latter case, this was made possible by having 9 kHz between stations, rather 10 kHz breaks. The installation of directional aerials also encouraged more AM stations. The type of station given FM licences reflects the policies and philosiphies of the various Australian governments. Initially, only the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">ABC</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_radio" title="Community radio">community radio</a> stations were granted FM licences. However, after a change of government, commercial stations were permitted on the band, as from 1980. At first, one or two brand new stations were permitted in each major market. However, in 1990, one or two existing AM stations in each major market were given FM licences; the stations being chosen by an auction system. Apart from an initial settling-in period, there has been no simulcasting between AM and FM stations. In major cities, a number of brand new FM licences were issued in the 1990s and 2000s. All rural regions which traditionally had only one commercial station now have at least one AM and one FM commercial station. In many cases, the owner of the original station now has at least two outlets. The number of regional transmitters for the ABC's five networks also increased dramatically during this era. <h3>United Kingdom[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</h3> A new Pirate station, Swiss-owned Radio Nordsee International, broadcast to Britain and the Netherlands from 1970 until outlawed by Dutch legislation in 1974 (which meant it could no longer be supplied from the European mainland). The English service was heavily jammed by both Labour and Conservative Governments in 1970 amid suggestions that the ship was actually being used for espionage. Radio Caroline returned in 1972 and continued until its ship sank in 1980 (the crew were rescued). A Belgian station, Radio Atlantis, operated an English service for a few months before the Dutch act came into force in 1974. Land-based commercial radio finally came on air in 1973 with London's <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LBC" title="LBC">LBC</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_Radio" title="Capital Radio" class="mw-redirect">Capital Radio</a>. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4" title="Channel 4">Channel 4</a> television started in November 1982. Britain's UHF system was originally designed to carry only four networks. Pirate radio enjoyed another brief resurgence with a literal re-launch of Radio Caroline in 1983, and the arrival of American-owned <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_558" title="Laser 558">Laser 558</a> in 1985. Both stations were harassed by the British authorities; Laser closed in 1987 and Caroline in 1989, since then it has pursued legal methods of broadcasting, such as temporary FM licences and satellite. Two rival satellite television systems came on the air at the end of the 1980s: <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_Television_plc" title="Sky Television plc">Sky Television</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Satellite_Broadcasting" title="British Satellite Broadcasting">British Satellite Broadcasting</a>. Huge losses forced a rapid merger, although in many respects it was a takeover of BSB (Britain's official, Government-sanctioned satellite company) by Sky. Radio Luxembourg launched a 24-hour English channel on satellite, but closed its AM service in 1989 and its satellite service in 1991. The <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting_Act_1990" title="Broadcasting Act 1990">Broadcasting Act 1990</a> in UK law marked the establishment of two licencing authorities - the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Authority" title="Radio Authority" class="mw-redirect">Radio Authority</a> and the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Television_Commission" title="Independent Television Commission">Independent Television Commission</a> - to facilitate the licencing of non-<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> broadcast services, especially <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restricted_Service_Licence" title="Restricted Service Licence">short-term broadcasts</a>. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_(TV)" title="Five (TV)" class="mw-redirect">Channel 5</a> went on the air on March 30, 1997, using "spare" frequencies between the existing channels. <h3>Sri Lanka[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Sri Lanka">edit</a>]</h3> The Government of Sri Lanka opened up the market in the late 1970s and 1980s allowing private companies to set up radio and television stations. Sri Lanka's public services broadcasters are the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation">Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation</a> (SLBC), Independent Television Net Work (ITN) and the affiliated radio station called Lak-handa. They had stiff competition on their hands with the private sector. Broadcasting in Sri Lanka went through a transformation resulting in private broadcasting institutions being set up on the island among them Telshan Network (Pvt) Ltd, (TNL, Maharaja Television -TV, Sirasa TV and Shakthi TV, and EAP Network (Pvt) Ltd - known as Swarnawahini - these private channels all have radio stations as well. The 1990s saw a new generation of radio stations being established in Sri Lanka among them the 'Hiru' radio station. In the 1980s public service broadcasters like the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation">Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation</a> set up their own FM arm. Sri Lanka celebrated 80 years of broadcasting in December 2005. In January 2007 the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation celebrated 40 years as a public corporation. <h3>Europe[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</h3> In 1987, stations in the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Broadcasting_Union" title="European Broadcasting Union">European Broadcasting Union</a> began offering <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Data_System" title="Radio Data System">Radio Data System (RDS)</a>, which provides written text information about programs that were being broadcast, as well as traffic alerts, accurate time, and other teletext services.<a href="#cite_note-Radio_Data_System-62">[62]</a> <h2>The 2000s[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: The 2000s">edit</a>]</h2> The 2000s saw the introduction of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">digital radio</a> and direct broadcasting by satellite (DBS) in the USA. Digital radio services, except in the United States, were allocated a new frequency band in the range of 1,400 MHz. In the United States, this band was deemed to be vital to national defense, so an alternate band in the range of 2,300 MHz was introduced for satellite broadcasting. Two American companies, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XM_Radio" title="XM Radio" class="mw-redirect">XM</a> and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Satellite_Radio" title="Sirius Satellite Radio">Sirius</a>, introduced DBS systems, which are funded by direct subscription, as in <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable television</a>. The XM and Sirius systems provide approximately 100 channels each, in exchange for monthly payments. In addition, a consortium of companies received FCC approval for In-Band On-Channel digital broadcasts in the United States, which use the existing mediumwave and FM bands to provide CD-quality sound. However, early IBOC tests showed interference problems with adjacent channels, which has slowed adoption of the system. In <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Radio-television_and_Telecommunications_Commission" title="Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission">Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission</a> plans to move all Canadian broadcasting to the digital band and close all mediumwave and FM stations.[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] European stations have begun digital broadcasting (<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Audio_Broadcasting" title="Digital Audio Broadcasting">DAB</a>). Digital radios began to be sold in the United Kingdom in 1998. In Australia, from August 2009, digital radio was phased in by geographical region. Today, the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">ABC</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Broadcasting_Service" title="Special Broadcasting Service">SBS</a>, commercial and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_radio" title="Community radio">community radio</a> stations operate on the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM</a> and FM bands. Most <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_Australia" title="List of radio stations in Australia">stations</a> are available on the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> and most also have <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">digital</a> outlets. By 2007, there were 261 commercial stations in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-19">[19]</a> The ABC currently has five AM/FM networks and is in the process of establishing a series of supplementary music stations that are only available on digital radios and <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital television</a> sets. SBS provides non-English language programs over its two networks, as do a number of community radio stations. Regular Shortwave broadcasts using Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM), a digital broadcasting scheme for short and medium wave broadcasts have begun. This system makes the normally scratchy international broadcasts clear and nearly FM quality, and much lower transmitter power. This is much better to listen to and has more languages. In <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> in 2005 when Sri Lanka celebrated 80 years in Broadcasting, the former Director-General of the <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation">Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation</a>, Eric Fernando called for the station to take full advantage of the digital age - this included looking at the archives of <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Ceylon" title="Radio Ceylon">Radio Ceylon</a>. Ivan Corea asked the President of Sri Lanka, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahinda_Rajapakse" title="Mahinda Rajapakse" class="mw-redirect">Mahinda Rajapakse</a> to invest in the future of the SLBC.<a href="#cite_note-Eighty_Years-63">[63]</a> <h2>See also[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</h2> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldest_radio_station" title="Oldest radio station" class="mw-redirect">Oldest radio station</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldest_television_station" title="Oldest television station" class="mw-redirect">Oldest television station</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_early_radio" title="Women in early radio">Women in early radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">History of radio</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_broadcasting#History" title="Radio broadcasting">Radio broadcasting#History</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">History of television</a></li> </ul> <h2>References[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Davud_Sarnoff-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Davud_Sarnoff_1-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blfessenden.htm">"Reginald Fessenden -1866-1931 (Mary Bellis) Inventors: About.Com"</a>. Retrieved 2008-10-13.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=Reginald+Fessenden+-1866-1931+%28Mary+Bellis%29+Inventors%3A+About.Com&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finventors.about.com%2Flibrary%2Finventors%2Fblfessenden.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Mike Adams, Lee de Forest, King of Radio, Television and Film. Copernicus Books, 2012, p. 100.</li> <li id="cite_note-Charles_Herrold-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Charles_Herrold_3-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.charlesherrold.org/">"Charles Herrold - America's First Broadcaster"</a>. Retrieved 2008-10-13.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=Charles+Herrold+-+America%27s+First+Broadcaster&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.charlesherrold.org%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-broadcasting-4"><a href="#cite_ref-broadcasting_4-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.dcwstore.com/console-radios-and-tv.htm">"Radio Broadcasting is Born"</a>. Retrieved 2008-10-13.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=Radio+Broadcasting+is+Born&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dcwstore.com%2Fconsole-radios-and-tv.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/S/htmlS/sarnoffdavi/sarnoffdavi.htm">"Sarnoff, David: U.S. Media Executive"</a>, The Museum of Broadcast Communications (MBC). "Learning early the value of self-promotion and publicity, Sarnoff falsely advanced himself both as the sole hero who stayed by his telegraph key for three days to receive information on the Titanic's survivors and as the prescient prophet of broadcasting who predicted the medium's rise in 1915. While later described by others as the founder of both the Radio Corporation of American (RCA) and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), Sarnoff was neither. These misconceptions were perpetuated because Sarnoff's later accomplishments were so plentiful that any myth was believable. Indeed, his foresight and corporate savvy led to many communication developments, especially television."</li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Carsey, Marcy; and Werner, Tom, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.time.com/time/time100/builder/profile/sarnoff.html">"David Sarnoff: RCA's general foresaw radio as a mass medium built around a network, then did it again for television, rearranging living rooms everywhere"</a>, <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time Magazine</a>, Monday, December 7, 1998. "Sarnoff's technical ability propelled him quickly through the ranks at Marconi, and in 1915 he submitted an idea for a 'radio music box' at a time when radio was mainly used in shipping and by amateur wireless enthusiasts. He believed his device would make radio a 'household utility' like the piano or phonograph."</li> <li id="cite_note-Frank_Conrad-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Frank_Conrad_7-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/history_center/biography/conrad.html">"Frank Conrad The Father of Commercial Broadcasting"</a>. Retrieved 2008-10-13.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=Frank+Conrad+The+Father+of+Commercial+Broadcasting&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieee.org%2Fweb%2Faboutus%2Fhistory_center%2Fbiography%2Fconrad.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Earle_M.Terry-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Earle_M.Terry_8-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nKFvnNl9vOEC&pg=PA39&lpg=PA39&dq=earle+m+terry&source=web&ots=1MH-66taWy&sig=6horP0ZrmQUBMgwEJqbYm9Kh0sQ&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA72,M">Reference to Earle M.Terry in a History of Broadcasting in the United States</a>. Retrieved 2008-10-13.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=Reference+to+Earle+M.Terry+in+a+History+of+Broadcasting+in+the+United+States&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.co.uk%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnKFvnNl9vOEC%26pg%3DPA39%26lpg%3DPA39%26dq%3Dearle%2Bm%2Bterry%26source%3Dweb%26ots%3D1MH-66taWy%26sig%3D6horP0ZrmQUBMgwEJqbYm9Kh0sQ%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26oi%3Dbook_result%26resnum%3D1%26ct%3Dresult%23PPA72%2CM&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> WWJ-The Detroit News, Detroit News Publishing, 1922, p. 7.</li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> "Tufts College to Give Radio Lecture Course." Olympia (WA) Daily Recorder, March 25, 1922, p. 5.</li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> "U of I Offers Full Credits in Air School." Rockford (IL) Daily Register, October 5, 1925, p. 4.</li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.curry.edu/">http://www.curry.edu</a></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> "The Radio Act." Central Law Journal, March 4, 1927, p. 158.</li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2004C07914">http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2004C07914</a></li> <li id="cite_note-Australia.2C_R.R._Walker_1973-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Australia.2C_R.R._Walker_1973_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Australia.2C_R.R._Walker_1973_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Australia.2C_R.R._Walker_1973_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Australia.2C_R.R._Walker_1973_15-3">d</a> The Magic Spark - 50 Years of Radio in Australia, R.R. Walker, Melbourne, 1973.</li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.wia.org.au/members/history/research/documents/WIA%20MAIN%20T-%20LINE-Nov%202013%20EXTENDED.pdf">http://www.wia.org.au/members/history/research/documents/WIA%20MAIN%20T-%20LINE-Nov%202013%20EXTENDED.pdf</a></li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Mimi Colligan, Golden Days of Radio, Australia Post, 1991</li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-3">d</a> Australian Radio History, Bruce Carty, Sydney, 2011</li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-3">d</a> Changing Stations - The Story of Australian Commercial Radio, Bridget Griffen-Foley, Sydney, 2009</li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> "Australia Behind on Radio." Omaha (NB) World Herald, March 30, 1924, p. 16.</li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/https://www.racp.edu.au/page/library/college-roll/college-roll-detail&id=496">https://www.racp.edu.au/page/library/college-roll/college-roll-detail&id=496</a></li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:212637/s00855804_1961_1962_6_4_750.pdf">https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:212637/s00855804_1961_1962_6_4_750.pdf</a>,</li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> When Radio was the Cat's Whiskers, Bernard Harte, Dural NSW, 2002 - <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/https://books.google.com.au/books?id=W6LGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138&lpg=PA138&dq=radio+2XT+mobile&source=bl&ots=EzZQ5ccacO&sig=t1XTPG8Ds3FJVXO0Z8swGAIsBmA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=s9joVJLpC4Tk8AWRqIKQAw&ved=0CDgQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=radio%202XT%20mobile&f=false">https://books.google.com.au/books?id=W6LGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138&lpg=PA138&dq=radio+2XT+mobile&source=bl&ots=EzZQ5ccacO&sig=t1XTPG8Ds3FJVXO0Z8swGAIsBmA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=s9joVJLpC4Tk8AWRqIKQAw&ved=0CDgQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=radio%202XT%20mobile&f=false</a></li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> "Radio Concerts Nightly For All." Boston Herald, December 25, 1921, p. 26.</li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Mary Vipond, Listening In: The First Decade of Canadian Broadcasting 1922-1932. McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1992.</li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> "Star's Broadcasting Bridges the Sea of Air." Toronto Star, April 5, 1922, pp. 1-2.</li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> "Broadcast Radio from New Plant in Star Office." Toronto Star, June 22, 1922, p. 1.</li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.broadcasting-history.ca/timeline/index2.php?url=/listings_and_histories/radio/histories.php?id=495&historyID=246">Canadian Communications Foundation History of CKAC Radio</a></li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> "Ryan to Announce Hockey Games." Boston Herald, November 22, 1925, p. 21.</li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> "Canada Radio Fans Fight Interference." Tampa (FL) Tribune, January 16, 1927, p. 12D.</li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.broadcasting-history.ca/timeline/index2.php?url=http://www.broadcasting-history.ca/networks/networks_CNR.html">"Canada's First Network."</a></li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> "Cuban Mill Hands Like Radio Jazz." Boston Herald, April 1, 1923, p. 12D.</li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> "Broadcasting at Havana, Cuba." Radio Magazine, February 1923 (volume 5, #2), p. 33.</li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> "The Voice from PWX." Winston-Salem (NC) Journal, September 21, 1924, p. 3.</li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> "Cuban City Enjoys Free Radio Concert." Springfield Sunday Union and Republican, March 27, 1927, p. 11C.</li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> "A Bit o' This and That." Cleveland Plain Dealer, January 6, 1929, p. 2C.</li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> "Cuban and Mexican Broadcasters." Broadcasting Magazine, January 15, 1932, p. 6.</li> <li id="cite_note-Now_Numbers_Many_Millions_1923.2C_p._13-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Now_Numbers_Many_Millions_1923.2C_p._13_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Now_Numbers_Many_Millions_1923.2C_p._13_38-1">b</a> "Radio Audience Now Numbers Many Millions." Springfield Republican, September 30, 1923, p. 13.</li> <li id="cite_note-Lord_Reith-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Lord_Reith_39-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2003/jul/07/mediatop100200361">"News article on Lord Reith in The Guardian Newspaper, London"</a>. 2003-07-07. Retrieved 2008-10-13.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=News+article+on+Lord+Reith+in+The+Guardian+Newspaper%2C+London&rft.date=2003-07-07&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guardian.co.uk%2Fmedia%2F2003%2Fjul%2F07%2Fmediatop100200361&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> "Conditions Stop Radio in Germany." Trenton (NJ) Evening Times, October 15, 1922, p. 6.</li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> "Station JOAK of Japan." Boston Herald, April 11, 1926, p. 6.</li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> "Japan Hides Radio Artists." Seattle Daily Times, September 7, 1927, p. K4.</li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Carl H. Butman, "Nippon Keeps Tight Grip on Radio." Springfield Republican, September 11, 1927, p. 6C.</li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Marvin Alinsky, International Handbook of Broadcasting Systems, Greenwood Press, 1988, p. 215</li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> "Mexican Girl Gets First Grade Commercial License." QST, January 1917, p. 49.</li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Susan Haymes. "A Junket to the Mexico City Studios of CYL." Radio Digest, November 14, 1925, pp. 7,12.</li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> "Novel Programs from CYL Mexico." Toronto Globe, December 9, 1925, p. 9.</li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Marvin Alinsky, International Handbook of Broadcasting Systems, Greenwood Press, 1988, p. 216.</li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> "Cuban and Mexican Broadcasters." Broadcasting magazine, January 15, 1932, p. 6.</li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> "Signals Heard by Island." Portland Oregonian, March 15, 1925, p. 9</li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> "Manila Goes on the Air to Entertain the Orient." New York Times, October 2, 1927, p. XX18.</li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> "To Open Manila Studio." New York Times, February 13, 1927, p. E18.</li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Pierre Key's Radio Annual, 1933 edition, pp. 269-270.</li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> "KZPI Power Will Go to 10 KW on January 1." Broadcasting Magazine, December 16, 1946, p. 30.</li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> "Advertisement for KZRH: The Voice of the Philippines." Broadcasting Magazine, December 16, 1946, p. 55.</li> <li id="cite_note-Transmitter-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Transmitter_56-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2301/stories/20060127001908700.htm">"For that Old Magic (Frontline Magazine, India)"</a>. Retrieved 2008-09-04.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=For+that+Old+Magic+%28Frontline+Magazine%2C+India%29&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flonnet.com%2Ffl2301%2Fstories%2F20060127001908700.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Radio_In_The_American_Sector-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Radio_In_The_American_Sector_57-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://kosoe.blogspot.com/2006/09/rias-berlin-radio-in-american-sector.html">"RIAS Berlin - Radio in the American sector Berlin"</a>. Retrieved 2008-10-14.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=RIAS+Berlin+-+Radio+in+the+American+sector+Berlin&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkosoe.blogspot.com%2F2006%2F09%2Frias-berlin-radio-in-american-sector.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Radio_Ceylon-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Radio_Ceylon_58-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mag/2006/01/01/stories/2006010100150400.htm">"When Ceylon ruled the airwaves"</a>. Retrieved 2008-09-04.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=When+Ceylon+ruled+the+airwaves&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hinduonnet.com%2Fthehindu%2Fmag%2F2006%2F01%2F01%2Fstories%2F2006010100150400.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vernon_Corea-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Vernon_Corea_59-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2004/07/18/fea20.html">"The Golden Voice of Radio Ceylon"</a>. Retrieved 2008-09-04.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Voice+of+Radio+Ceylon&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sundayobserver.lk%2F2004%2F07%2F18%2Ffea20.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ameen_Sayani-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Ameen_Sayani_60-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2007/01/20/stories/2007012001280100.htm">"That mesmeric voice (Metro Plus, Chennai-The Hindu, India)"</a>. Retrieved 2008-09-04.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=That+mesmeric+voice+%28Metro+Plus%2C+Chennai-The+Hindu%2C+India%29&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hinduonnet.com%2Fthehindu%2Fmp%2F2007%2F01%2F20%2Fstories%2F2007012001280100.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clifford_Dodd-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Clifford_Dodd_61-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://lakdiva.com/island/i000102/feature.htm#The%20Three%20f%E2%80%99s%20behind%20the%20radio%20Ceylon%20Microphone">"Reference to Clifford Dodd in Mervyn Jayasuriya's article: The Three f’s behind the microphone(The Island Newspaper)"</a>. Retrieved 2008-09-27.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=Reference+to+Clifford+Dodd+in+Mervyn+Jayasuriya%27s+article%3A+The+Three+f%E2%80%99s+behind+the+microphone%28The+Island+Newspaper%29&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flakdiva.com%2Fisland%2Fi000102%2Ffeature.htm%23The%2520Three%2520f%25E2%2580%2599s%2520behind%2520the%2520radio%2520Ceylon%2520Microphone&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> [<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>]</li> <li id="cite_note-Radio_Data_System-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Radio_Data_System_62-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.radioandtelly.co.uk/rds.html">"Radio Data System in the UK"</a>. Retrieved 2008-10-14.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=Radio+Data+System+in+the+UK&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radioandtelly.co.uk%2Frds.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eighty_Years-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Eighty_Years_63-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.dailynews.lk/2005/12/27/fea02.htm">"Eighty Years in Broadcasting in Sri Lanka (Daily News, Colombo)"</a>. Retrieved 2008-09-04.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+broadcasting&rft.btitle=Eighty+Years+in+Broadcasting+in+Sri+Lanka+%28Daily+News%2C+Colombo%29&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailynews.lk%2F2005%2F12%2F27%2Ffea02.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol> </div> <h2>Further reading[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</h2> <ul> <li>Aitkin Hugh G. J. The Continuous Wave: Technology and the American Radio, 1900-1932 (Princeton University Press, 1985).</li> <li>Barnouw Erik. The Golden Web (Oxford University Press, 1968); The Sponsor (1978); A Tower in Babel (1966).</li> <li>Briggs Asa. The BBC—the First Fifty Years (: Oxford University Press, 1984).</li> <li>Briggs Asa. The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom (Oxford University Press, 1961).</li> <li>Carty Bruce. Australian Radio History (self published, 2011).</li> <li>Ceylon, Radio. - Standards of Broadcasting Practice - Commercial Broadcasting Division. - <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Ceylon" title="Radio Ceylon">Radio Ceylon</a>, 1950.</li> <li>Covert Cathy, and Stevens John L. Mass Media Between the Wars (Syracuse University Press, 1984).</li> <li>Crisell, Andrew An Introductory History of British Broadcasting. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. (2002)</li> <li>Douglas B. Craig. Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920-1940 (2005)</li> <li>Crook; Tim. International Radio Journalism: History, Theory and Practice Routledge, 1998 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.questia.com/library/106345386/international-radio-journalism-history-theory-and">online</a></li> <li>Dunning, John. On The Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio, Oxford University Press, 1998. <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195076788" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-507678-8</a></li> <li>Ewbank Henry and Lawton Sherman P. Broadcasting: Radio and Television (Harper & Brothers, 1952).</li> <li>Gibson George H. Public Broadcasting; The Role of the Federal Government, 1919-1976 (Praeger Publishers, 1977).</li> <li>Griffen-Foley Bridget. Changing Stations: The Story of Australian Commercial Radio (UNSW Press, 2009).</li> <li>Maclaurin W. Rupert. Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry (The Macmillan Company, 1949).</li> <li>Robert W. McChesney; Telecommunications, Mass Media, and Democracy: The Battle for the Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928-1935 Oxford University Press, 1994</li> <li>Gwenyth L. Jackaway; Media at War: Radio's Challenge to the Newspapers, 1924-1939 Praeger Publishers, 1995</li> <li>Lazarsfeld Paul F. The People Look at Radio (University of North Carolina Press, 1946).</li> <li>McCourt; Tom. Conflicting Communication Interests in America: The Case of National Public Radio (Praeger Publishers, 1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.questia.com/read/101043308/conflicting-communication-interests-in-america-the">online</a></li> <li>Peers Frank W. The Politics of Canadian Broadcasting, 1920- 1951 (University of Toronto Press, 1969).</li> <li>Ray William B. FCC: The Ups and Downs of Radio-TV Regulation (Iowa State University Press, 1990).</li> <li>Rosen Philip T. The Modern Stentors; Radio Broadcasting and the Federal Government 1920-1934 (Greenwood Press, 1980).</li> <li>Rugh, William A. Arab Mass Media: Newspapers, Radio, and Television in Arab Politics (Praeger, 2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/http://www.questia.com/read/106715431/arab-mass-media-newspapers-radio-and-television">online</a></li> <li>Scannell, Paddy, and Cardiff, David. A Social History of British Broadcasting, Volume One, 1922-1939 (Basil Blackwell, 1991).</li> <li>Schramm Wilbur, ed. Mass Communications (University of Illinois Press, 1960).</li> <li>Schwoch James. The American Radio Industry and Its Latin American Activities, 1900-1939 (University of Illinois Press, 1990).</li> <li>Slater Robert. This . . . is CBS: A Chronicle of 60 Years (Prentice Hall, 1988).</li> <li>F. Leslie Smith, John W. Wright II, David H. Ostroff; Perspectives on Radio and Television: Telecommunication in the United States Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998</li> <li>Sterling Christopher H. Electronic Media, A Guide to Trends in Broadcasting and Newer Technologies 1920-1983 (Praeger, 1984).</li> <li>Sterling Christopher, and Kittross John M. Stay Tuned: A Concise History of American Broadcasting (Wadsworth, 1978).</li> <li>Walker R. R. The Magic Spark: 50 Years of Radio in Australia. (Hawthorn Press, 1973).</li> <li>Wavell, Stuart. - The Art of Radio - Training Manual written by the Director Training of the CBC. - <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceylon_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Ceylon Broadcasting Corporation" class="mw-redirect">Ceylon Broadcasting Corporation</a>, 1969.</li> <li>White Llewellyn. The American Radio (University of Chicago Press, 1947).</li> </ul> <h3>Primary Sources[<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_broadcasting&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Primary Sources">edit</a>]</h3> <ul> <li>Kahn Frank J., ed. Documents of American Broadcasting, fourth edition (Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1984).</li> <li>Lichty Lawrence W., and Topping Malachi C., eds. American Broadcasting: A Source Book on the History of Radio and Television (Hastings House, 1975).</li> </ul> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Template talk:Telecommunications">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Telecommunications&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication">Telecommunications</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <div class="floatright"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Telecom-icon.svg" class="image" title="Telecommunications symbol"><img alt="Telecommunications symbol" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150320124009im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/50px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" width="50" height="50" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150320124009im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/75px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150320124009im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/100px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500"/></a></div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li>Broadcasting</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaphore_line#History" title="Semaphore line">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_prepaid_mobile_phone" title="History of the prepaid mobile phone">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_communication_technology" title="Timeline of communication technology">Timeline of communication technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videoconferencing#History" title="Videoconferencing">Videoconferencing</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videophone#Early_history" title="Videophone">Videophone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Pioneers</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Papin_Tissot" title="Camille Papin Tissot">Camille Papin Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission media</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_line" title="Telephone line">Telephone lines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave#Communication" title="Microwave">Terrestrial microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_P1906.1" title="IEEE P1906.1">Molecules</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a> and switching</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">Terminal node</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> (<a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-user_MIMO#SDMA" title="Multi-user MIMO">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_division_multiple_access" title="Code division multiple access">Code-division</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Networks</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_network" title="Television network">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">By continent</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" title="Template:Africa topic">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template talk:Africa topic">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Africa_topic&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Africa</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Algeria" title="Telecommunications in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Angola" title="Telecommunications in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Benin" title="Telecommunications in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Botswana" title="Telecommunications in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Telecommunications in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burundi" title="Telecommunications in Burundi" class="mw-redirect">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cameroon" title="Telecommunications in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cape_Verde" title="Telecommunications in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chad" title="Telecommunications in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Comoros" title="Telecommunications in Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Djibouti" title="Telecommunications in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Eritrea" title="Telecommunications in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ethiopia" title="Telecommunications in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gabon" title="Telecommunications in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Gambia" title="Telecommunications in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ghana" title="Telecommunications in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Telecommunications in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Telecommunications in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kenya" title="Telecommunications in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lesotho" title="Telecommunications in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liberia" title="Telecommunications in Liberia" class="mw-redirect">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Libya" title="Telecommunications in Libya" class="mw-redirect">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madagascar" title="Telecommunications in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malawi" title="Telecommunications in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mali" title="Telecommunications in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritania" title="Telecommunications in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritius" title="Telecommunications in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Morocco" title="Telecommunications in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mozambique" title="Telecommunications in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Namibia" title="Telecommunications in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niger" title="Telecommunications in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nigeria" title="Telecommunications in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Rwanda" title="Telecommunications in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Telecommunications in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Senegal" title="Telecommunications in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Seychelles" title="Telecommunications in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Telecommunications in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somalia" title="Telecommunications in Somalia" class="mw-redirect">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Africa" title="Telecommunications in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Sudan (page does not exist)">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sudan" title="Telecommunications in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Swaziland" title="Telecommunications in Swaziland">Swaziland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tanzania" title="Telecommunications in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Togo" title="Telecommunications in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tunisia" title="Telecommunications in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uganda" title="Telecommunications in Uganda" class="mw-redirect">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zambia" title="Telecommunications in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zimbabwe" title="Telecommunications in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic" class="mw-redirect">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somaliland" title="Telecommunications in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Canary_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Canary Islands" class="mw-redirect">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ceuta" title="Telecommunications in Ceuta" class="mw-redirect">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Melilla" title="Telecommunications in Melilla" class="mw-redirect">Melilla</a> / <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Plazas_de_soberan%C3%ADa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Plazas de soberanía (page does not exist)">Plazas de soberanía</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madeira" title="Telecommunications in Madeira" class="mw-redirect">Madeira</a> (Portugal)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mayotte" title="Telecommunications in Mayotte">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_R%C3%A9union" title="Telecommunications in Réunion">Réunion</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Helena" title="Telecommunications in Saint Helena" class="mw-redirect">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ascension_Island" title="Telecommunications in Ascension Island" class="mw-redirect">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Telecommunications in Tristan da Cunha" class="mw-redirect">Tristan da Cunha</a> (United Kingdom)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Western_Sahara" title="Telecommunications in Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Asia_topic&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Asia</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Afghanistan" title="Telecommunications in Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bahrain" title="Telecommunications in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bangladesh" title="Telecommunications in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bhutan" title="Telecommunications in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brunei" title="Telecommunications in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burma" title="Telecommunications in Burma">Burma (Myanmar)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cambodia" title="Telecommunications in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_East_Timor" title="Telecommunications in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" title="Telecommunications in Indonesia" class="mw-redirect">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iran" title="Telecommunications in Iran" class="mw-redirect">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Israel" title="Telecommunications in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Japan" title="Telecommunications in Japan" class="mw-redirect">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jordan" title="Telecommunications in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_North_Korea" title="Telecommunications in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Korea" title="Telecommunications in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kuwait" title="Telecommunications in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Telecommunications in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Laos" title="Telecommunications in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lebanon" title="Telecommunications in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Maldives" title="Telecommunications in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mongolia" title="Telecommunications in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nepal" title="Telecommunications in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Oman" title="Telecommunications in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Pakistan" title="Telecommunications in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Philippines" title="Telecommunications in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Qatar" title="Telecommunications in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Telecommunications in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Singapore" title="Telecommunications in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Telecommunications in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tajikistan" title="Telecommunications in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Thailand" title="Telecommunications in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkmenistan" title="Telecommunications in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Telecommunications in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uzbekistan" title="Telecommunications in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vietnam" title="Telecommunications in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Yemen" title="Telecommunications in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic" class="mw-redirect">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus" class="mw-redirect">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Palestinian_territories" title="Telecommunications in the Palestinian territories" class="mw-redirect">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Taiwan" title="Telecommunications in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hong_Kong" title="Telecommunications in Hong Kong" class="mw-redirect">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Macau" title="Telecommunications in Macau">Macau</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe topic">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Europe_topic&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Telecommunications in Europe" class="mw-redirect">Telecommunications in Europe</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Albania" title="Telecommunications in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Andorra" title="Telecommunications in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Austria" title="Telecommunications in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belarus" title="Telecommunications in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belgium" title="Telecommunications in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Telecommunications in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bulgaria" title="Telecommunications in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Croatia" title="Telecommunications in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Denmark" title="Telecommunications in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Estonia" title="Telecommunications in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Finland" title="Telecommunications in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greece" title="Telecommunications in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hungary" title="Telecommunications in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iceland" title="Telecommunications in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Latvia" title="Telecommunications in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liechtenstein" title="Telecommunications in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lithuania" title="Telecommunications in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Luxembourg" title="Telecommunications in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Macedonia" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malta" title="Telecommunications in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Moldova" title="Telecommunications in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Monaco" title="Telecommunications in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montenegro" title="Telecommunications in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Netherlands" title="Telecommunications in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Norway" title="Telecommunications in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Poland" title="Telecommunications in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Portugal" title="Telecommunications in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Romania" title="Telecommunications in Romania" class="mw-redirect">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_San_Marino" title="Telecommunications in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Serbia" title="Telecommunications in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovakia" title="Telecommunications in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovenia" title="Telecommunications in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Spain" title="Telecommunications in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sweden" title="Telecommunications in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Switzerland" title="Telecommunications in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ukraine" title="Telecommunications in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kosovo" title="Telecommunications in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic" class="mw-redirect">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus" class="mw-redirect">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Transnistria" title="Telecommunications in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gibraltar" title="Telecommunications in Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jersey" title="Telecommunications in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Telecommunications in the Isle of Man" class="mw-redirect">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other entities</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_European_Union" title="Telecommunications in the European Union" class="mw-redirect">European Union</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template:North America topic">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Template talk:North America topic">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:North_America_topic&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in North America</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Sovereign states</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Bahamas" title="Telecommunications in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Barbados" title="Telecommunications in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belize" title="Telecommunications in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Canada" title="Telecommunications in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Costa_Rica" title="Telecommunications in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cuba" title="Telecommunications in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Dominica" title="Telecommunications in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_El_Salvador" title="Telecommunications in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Grenada" title="Telecommunications in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guatemala" title="Telecommunications in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Haiti" title="Telecommunications in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Honduras" title="Telecommunications in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jamaica" title="Telecommunications in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mexico" title="Telecommunications in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nicaragua" title="Telecommunications in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Panama" title="Telecommunications in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Telecommunications in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Telecommunications in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Telecommunications in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Telecommunications in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States" title="Telecommunications in the United States" class="mw-redirect">United States</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Dependencies and other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Anguilla" title="Telecommunications in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Aruba" title="Telecommunications in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bermuda" title="Telecommunications in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Telecommunications in Curaçao">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greenland" title="Telecommunications in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guadeloupe" title="Telecommunications in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Martinique" title="Telecommunications in Martinique">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montserrat" title="Telecommunications in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Navassa_Island" title="Telecommunications in Navassa Island" class="mw-redirect">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Telecommunications in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Telecommunications in Saint Barthélemy" class="mw-redirect">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Telecommunications in Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Saba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Saba (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Oceania_topic&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Oceania</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Australia" title="Telecommunications in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_East_Timor" title="Telecommunications in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Fiji" title="Telecommunications in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" title="Telecommunications in Indonesia" class="mw-redirect">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kiribati" title="Telecommunications in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Marshall Islands" class="mw-redirect">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Telecommunications in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nauru" title="Telecommunications in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Zealand" title="Telecommunications in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Palau" title="Telecommunications in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Papua New Guinea" class="mw-redirect">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tonga" title="Telecommunications in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tuvalu" title="Telecommunications in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vanuatu" title="Telecommunications in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">Associated states of New Zealand</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niue" title="Telecommunications in Niue" class="mw-redirect">Niue</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_American_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Polynesia" title="Telecommunications in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guam" title="Telecommunications in Guam" class="mw-redirect">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Caledonia" title="Telecommunications in New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Northern Mariana Islands (page does not exist)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Pitcairn Islands (page does not exist)">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Tokelau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Tokelau (page does not exist)">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:South_America_topic" title="Template:South America topic">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:South_America_topic" title="Template talk:South America topic">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:South_America_topic&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in South America</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Argentina" title="Telecommunications in Argentina" class="mw-redirect">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bolivia" title="Telecommunications in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brazil" title="Telecommunications in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chile" title="Telecommunications in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Colombia" title="Telecommunications in Colombia" class="mw-redirect">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ecuador" title="Telecommunications in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guyana" title="Telecommunications in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Paraguay" title="Telecommunications in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Peru" title="Telecommunications in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Suriname" title="Telecommunications in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uruguay" title="Telecommunications in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Venezuela" title="Telecommunications in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Guiana" title="Telecommunications in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150320124009/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="Telecommunications in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands" class="mw-redirect">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td 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