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Noirism - Wikipedia
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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Haitian political and cultural movement</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Noirism</b> (Haitian Creole: Noirisme) is one of the main political and cultural movements which developed in Haiti after the end of U.S occupation. It built off of the movement which called for greater incorporation of local, Haitian culture into social and political life. Advocates of Noirisme, otherwise known as the Noiristes, believed that the most basic problem in Haiti is the rule of a minority, mulatto ruling class that uses the state to oppress the black majority and to maintain power. The Noiristes played a prominent role in shaping Haitian politics following the left-wing overthrow of President <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Lescot" title="Élie Lescot">Élie Lescot</a>. Their influence ultimately culminated into the election of <a href="/wiki/Dumarsais_Estim%C3%A9" title="Dumarsais Estimé">Dumarsais Estimé</a> as president in 1946, and the election of <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Duvalier" title="François Duvalier">François Duvalier</a> as president in 1957. Noirisme was then used during the Duvalier era to maintain support and legitimacy during an era of heavy repression. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Noirism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In response to the occupation which lasted twenty years, intellectuals began to call for a return to local Haitian culture. Individuals such <a href="/wiki/Jean_Price-Mars" title="Jean Price-Mars">Jean Price-Mars</a> criticized the elite for their embrace of French and European cultural practices, instead of facets of local culture such as <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Haitian Vodou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a>. The repudiation of Western culture and interest in the country's historical and symbolic relationship with the African continent provided the Noiristes with a great influence.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three young men who were members of the emerging black middle-class, <a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Diaquoi" class="extiw" title="ht:Louis Diaquoi">Louis Diaquoi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorimer_Denis" title="Lorimer Denis">Lorimer Denis</a>, and Francois Duvalier who were students under Price-Mars formed a small group called the Griots in 1932. After many discussions and gatherings, a quarterly magazine titled <i>Les Griots</i> was published in 1938 with the explicit aim of expanding the movement for the incorporation of local culture. The Noiristes believed that the mulatto elite were opposed to the interest of the black majority since they held and acted upon European cultural values which could not apply to Haiti. As a result, the Noiristes declared that they were unfit to govern. They also sought to ground the differences in culture in concepts and ideas of a specific African biology and psychology shared by the black diaspora.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of this focus on culture and race above all else, the Noiristes frequently found themselves in conflict with left-wing groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Communist_Party" title="Haitian Communist Party">Haitian Communist Party</a>, which lead the opposition against then president, <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9nio_Vincent" title="Sténio Vincent">Sténio Vincent</a>. The Communist Party, adhering to the slogan "Color is nothing, Class is everything", criticised the Noriste's emphasis on race as an attempt to obscure class and to manufacture further division in the country. In response, the Noiristes criticised the Communists in two ways: for their attempt to apply a European ideology which they believed was contrary to the African nature of Haitian society, and for their materialist outlooks which they believed to be contrary to the spiritual nature of Haitian society. </p><p>The government's repression of Haitian Communist and Socialist gave the Noiristes an opportunity to grow and expand out of the intellectual sphere. Events such as the Catholic Church's anti-superstition campaign against Voudou, and the brutal <a href="/wiki/Parsley_massacre" title="Parsley massacre">Parsley Massacre</a> carried out by the Dominican government against the Haitians at the border had shaped the national consciousness along racial lines. Public discussions which argued the tenets of Noirisme became common, bringing high-profile individuals such as <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Fignol%C3%A9" title="Daniel Fignolé">Daniel Fignolé</a> into the movement. Also, a new appreciation for Haiti and folk culture by individuals of the black diaspora such as <a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_C%C3%A9saire" title="Aimé Césaire">Aimé Césaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Zora Neale Hurston</a>, and <a href="/wiki/C._L._R._James" title="C. L. R. James">C. L. R. James</a> served to bolster and legitimize the Noiristes' perspective in the eyes of many. Although Noirisme was on its way to becoming mainstream, the ideology was not able to completely dominate the political sphere until the overthrow of President <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Lescot" title="Élie Lescot">Élie Lescot</a> in 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mid-Twentieth_Century_Haitian_Politics">Mid-Twentieth Century Haitian Politics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Noirism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Mid-Twentieth Century Haitian Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The overthrow of Lescot led by left-wing Haitian students allowed for the growth of new political parties such as the Parti Populaire National formed by the Noiristes. For a time, the Parti Populaire joined the left-wing groups which they had once opposed to form Front Revolutionnaire Haiten. However, this coalition to ensure the election of a radical government in the interest of all Haitians quickly fell apart. Tensions between groups continued to fester, with the Noiristes labelling the left-wing groups as defenders of mulatto rule while being labelled as a movement for the emerging black elite. </p><p>Nevertheless, the 1946 elections resulted in the election of moderate Noiriste, <a href="/wiki/Dumarsais_Estim%C3%A9" title="Dumarsais Estimé">Dumarsais Estimé</a> who wasted no time putting Norisime into practice. All major political offices such as the ambassador to Washington, were headed by educated black men, as opposed to the previous mulatto elite. Francois Duvalier was appointed as Director General of the National Public Health Service. Duvalier and Denis revived <i>Les Griots</i> magazine to celebrate the Estime government as the realization of Noirisme in the political sphere, later publishing <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Le_probleme_des_classes_a_travers_l%27historie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le probleme des classes a travers l'historie (page does not exist)">Le probleme des classes a travers l'historie</a></i> in 1948, which is considered a landmark work in Noiriste thought.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Art and music such as vodou-jazz began to explode in popularity, celebrating the new government which was seen as representative of the country's black majority. </p><p>But despite his popularity among the Haitian masses, Estime and the new government could not endure the pressure from the mulatto elite which still held considerable influence over the country's affairs. Neither could it endure the looming pressure from the United States Government which continued to watch the country's development in relation to its own interest. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Magloire" title="Paul Magloire">Paul Magloire</a> became president after staging a military coup in 1950, marking a quick end to the first black government in Haiti. As a result, the attacks on Voudou religion and culture by the Catholic Church continued, both unhindered and unrestricted. Repression of the left resumed, as Magoloire believed that stability could only be achieved through crushing and silencing dissent. In 1956, Magolorie was forced to flee the country due to popular discontent, and the presidential seat was left vacant once again. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duvalier_Era_(1957-1986)"><span id="Duvalier_Era_.281957-1986.29"></span>Duvalier Era (1957-1986)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Noirism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Duvalier Era (1957-1986)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As it did in 1946, Noirisme played a crucial part in the <a href="/wiki/1957_Haitian_general_election" title="1957 Haitian general election">1957 Haitian general election</a>. Duvalier and Fignole, although both Noiristes, waged virulent campaigns against each other. Fignole was called accused of being a Communist while Duvalier was accused of aiming to create a dictatorship. Another candidate, <a href="/wiki/Louis_D%C3%A9joie" title="Louis Déjoie">Louis Déjoie</a>, a member of the mulatto elite, was called a <i>colon moderne</i>, or a modern colonizer, while accusing the Noirstes of wanting to exterminate mulattos. Violence and unrest came to mark the election in 1957, continuing for a year until through methods of manipulation, terror, and appealing to the popular Estime presidency of the past, it became clear that François Duvalier would be the Haiti's next president.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At first, it seemed as if Duvalier's presidency would result in material gains for the black majority. The 1957 Constitution was the first to refer to Kreyol as a language, and provided it with basic protection under the law.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Duvalier also made sure to maintain communication with the Haitian peasantry, demonstrated support among the <span title="Haitian Creole-language text"><i lang="ht">hougans</i></span>, or the Voudou priests who were always in conflict with the Catholic Church. However, it was soon apparent that the promises of Noirisme, of a society in the interest of Haiti's black majority, would go unfulfilled. Culturally, European traditions and customs continued to dominate society and one's position was always linked to how well they accommodated to such a culture. Economically, concessions continued to be made to American businesses, and the life of the average Haitian in rural and urban areas remained relatively unchanged. Instead of being an era of social mobility for the Haitian masses as was the case during Estime's presidency, Duvalier's tenure became an era known for the violent repression of dissent and high pay and prestige for the new black elite.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Francois Duvalier passed and his son <a href="/wiki/Jean-Claude_Duvalier" title="Jean-Claude Duvalier">Jean-Claude Duvalier</a> was placed in power, this trend of favoring the elite at the expense of the masses only continued. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Noirism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNicholls1974" class="citation journal cs1">Nicholls, David (October 1974). "Ideology and Political Protest in Haiti, 1930-1946". <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i>. <b>9</b> (8): 3–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200947400900401">10.1177/002200947400900401</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Ideology+and+Political+Protest+in+Haiti%2C+1930-1946&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=3-26&rft.date=1974-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200947400900401&rft.aulast=Nicholls&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANoirism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Matthew J. <i>Red and Black in Haiti: Radicalism, Conflict, and Political Change, 1934-1957</i>. University of North Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+and+Black+in+Haiti%3A+Radicalism%2C+Conflict%2C+and+Political+Change%2C+1934-1957&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANoirism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2004" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Matthew J. (2004). "Vive 1804!: The Haitian Revolution and the Revolutionary Generation of 1946". <i>Caribbean Quarterly</i>. <b>50</b> (4): 25–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00086495.2004.11672248">10.1080/00086495.2004.11672248</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Caribbean+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Vive+1804%21%3A+The+Haitian+Revolution+and+the+Revolutionary+Generation+of+1946&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=25-41&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00086495.2004.11672248&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANoirism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertshaw2019" class="citation journal cs1">Robertshaw, Matthew (Dec 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/nwig/93/3-4/article-p231_2.xml?language=en">"Kreyòl anba Duvalier, 1957–1986 A Circuitous Solution to the Creole Problem?"</a>. <i>New West Indian Guide</i>. <b>93</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134360-09303054">10.1163/22134360-09303054</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+West+Indian+Guide&rft.atitle=Krey%C3%B2l+anba+Duvalier%2C+1957%E2%80%931986+A+Circuitous+Solution+to+the+Creole+Problem%3F&rft.volume=93&rft.date=2019-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22134360-09303054&rft.aulast=Robertshaw&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fnwig%2F93%2F3-4%2Farticle-p231_2.xml%3Flanguage%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANoirism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRemy1974" class="citation journal cs1">Remy, Anselme (July 1974). "The Duvalier Phenomenon". <i>Caribbean Studies</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 38–64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Caribbean+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Duvalier+Phenomenon&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=38-64&rft.date=1974-07&rft.aulast=Remy&rft.aufirst=Anselme&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANoirism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pan-Africanism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">Anti-Western sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankarism" title="Sankarism">Sankarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uhuru_Movement" title="Uhuru Movement">Uhuru Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zikism" title="Zikism">Zikism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_century" title="African century">African century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Ubuntu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ujamaa" title="Ujamaa">Ujamaa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanists" title="Category:Pan-Africanists">Proponents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Akumu" title="Dennis Akumu">Dennis Akumu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nnamdi_Azikiwe" title="Nnamdi Azikiwe">Nnamdi Azikiwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Amílcar Cabral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Comissiong" title="David Comissiong">David Comissiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines" title="Jean-Jacques Dessalines">Jean-Jacques Dessalines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%A9nor_Firmin" title="Anténor Firmin">Anténor Firmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alieu_Ebrima_Cham_Joof" title="Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof">Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kenneth Kaunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modibo_Ke%C3%AFta" title="Modibo Keïta">Modibo Keïta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture" title="Toussaint Louverture">Toussaint Louverture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ochola_Ogaye_Mak%27Anyengo" title="Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo">Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Thabo Mbeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mboya" title="Tom Mboya">Tom Mboya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe">Robert Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdias_do_Nascimento" title="Abdias do Nascimento">Abdias do Nascimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nyathi_Pokela" title="John Nyathi Pokela">John Nyathi Pokela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Thomas Sankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_S%C3%A9kou_Tour%C3%A9" title="Ahmed Sékou Touré">Ahmed Sékou Touré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sobukwe" title="Robert Sobukwe">Robert Sobukwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._T._A._Wallace-Johnson" title="I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson">I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marimba_Ani" title="Marimba Ani">Marimba Ani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wilmot_Blyden" title="Edward Wilmot Blyden">Edward Wilmot Blyden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_C%C3%A9saire" title="Aimé Césaire">Aimé Césaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henrik_Clarke" title="John Henrik Clarke">John Henrik Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Delany" title="Martin Delany">Martin R. Delany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop" title="Cheikh Anta Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Ashwood_Garvey" title="Amy Ashwood Garvey">Amy Ashwood Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_G._Jackson_(writer)" title="John G. Jackson (writer)">John G. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Jeffries" title="Leonard Jeffries">Leonard Jeffries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yosef_Ben-Jochannan" title="Yosef Ben-Jochannan">Yosef Ben-Jochannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Maulana Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Kinloch" title="Alice Kinloch">Alice Kinloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fela_Kuti" title="Fela Kuti">Fela Kuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Mafeje" title="Archie Mafeje">Archie Mafeje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Mazrui" title="Ali Mazrui">Ali Mazrui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zephania_Mothopeng" title="Zephania Mothopeng">Zephania Mothopeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Padmore" title="George Padmore">George Padmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motsoko_Pheko" title="Motsoko Pheko">Motsoko Pheko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoko_Rashidi" title="Runoko Rashidi">Runoko Rashidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Robinson" title="Randall Robinson">Randall Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_Spear" title="Burning Spear">Burning Spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_Laye_Thiaw" title="Issa Laye Thiaw">Issa Laye Thiaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Cress_Welsing" title="Frances Cress Welsing">Frances Cress Welsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sylvester_Williams" title="Henry Sylvester Williams">Henry Sylvester Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_N._Wilson" title="Amos N. Wilson">Amos N. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omali_Yeshitela" title="Omali Yeshitela">Omali Yeshitela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanist_organizations" title="Category:Pan-Africanist organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Educational</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Leadership_Academy" title="African Leadership Academy">African Leadership Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Leadership_University" title="African Leadership University">African Leadership University</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Unification_Front" title="African Unification Front">African Unification Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="All-African People's Revolutionary Party">All-African People's Revolutionary Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_Trade_Union_Federation" title="All-African Trade Union Federation">All-African Trade Union Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conseil_de_l%27Entente" title="Conseil de l'Entente">Conseil de l'Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_People%27s_Party" title="Convention People's Party">Convention People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Community" title="East African Community">East African Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Freedom_Fighters" title="Economic Freedom Fighters">Economic Freedom Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Pan-African_Conference" title="First Pan-African Conference">First Pan-African Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_African_Service_Bureau" title="International African Service Bureau">International African Service Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Trade_Union_Unity" title="Organisation of African Trade Union Unity">Organisation of African Trade Union Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_African_Association" title="Pan African Association">Pan African Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Freedom_Movement_for_East_and_Central_Africa" title="Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa">Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Congress" title="Pan-African Congress">Pan-African Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress of Azania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_and_Social_League_of_the_Great_Sahara_Tribes" title="Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes">Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rassemblement_D%C3%A9mocratique_Africain" title="Rassemblement Démocratique Africain">Rassemblement Démocratique Africain</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Star_of_Africa" title="Black Star of Africa">Black Star of Africa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_Marron_Inconnu" title="Le Marron Inconnu">Le Marron Inconnu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Judah" title="Lion of Judah">Lion of Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_colours" title="Pan-African colours">Pan-African colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_flag" title="Pan-African flag">Pan-African flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion in Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">Conflicts in Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">African-American leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africanization" title="Africanization">Africanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_Peoples%27_Conference" title="All-African Peoples' Conference">All-African Peoples' Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Federation" title="East African Federation">East African Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_African_States" title="Union of African States">Union of African States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Latin_Africa" title="United States of Latin Africa">United States of Latin Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_Africa" title="Year of Africa">Year of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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